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GRINDING IT OUT: NEOCONSERVATIVES, STRATEGIC ARMS, AND PROTECTING AMERICA, 1968-1980 By ROGER E. CAREY A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2014 1 © 2014 Roger E. Carey 2 This dissertation is dedicated to Coralyn, with great love. 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To paraphrase some PBS programs, this dissertation was made possible by the contributions of many people over the past several years. The work here is mine, and mine alone, along with any errors of fact or judgment. To the extent that this study represents an original contribution to historical knowledge, several individuals and groups supported me during my research and writing. I want to begin by thanking my dissertation advisor, Matthew F. Jacobs. He has been a constant source of encouragement and advice, putting up with my slow pace and challenging me to think more closely and more deeply about what I was trying to argue. At each step of the process, his sage advice and direction have guided my efforts to write the best work I could generate. I also am grateful for the contributions of my committee, William A. Link, Frederick Gregory, Ido Oren, and Norman J.W. Goda, and my original advisor, Robert McMahon (now at Ohio State University). Finally, I owe a debt to Joseph “Andy” Fry, my M.A. advisor at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, who started me on the road of historical inquiry. My research for this project was greatly facilitated by two grants: a Moody Grant from the LBJ Foundation at the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum in Austin, TX, and a Milbauer Grant-in-Aid from the Milbauer Program in Southern History at the University of Florida. The staff and librarians at several institutions gave me invaluable assistance as I waded through thousands of feet of documents at the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum, the Nixon Presidential Materials at National Archives II (the collection has since moved to the Nixon Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, CA), the Gerald R. Ford Library, the Jimmy Carter Library and Museum, and Special Collections at the University of Washington Library. 4 Several friends and colleagues provided support, encouragement, and advice during this project. In particular I want to thank David Tegeder of Santa Fe College for his support and the opportunity to adjunct while writing. I also greatly appreciate the friendship of fellow graduate students Sean P. Cunningham (now at Texas Tech University) and Anthony Moffett. Many friends here in Gainesville helped me persevere to the end, in particular Joel Fick, Steve Reeves, Bill Montgomery, and the people of Redemption OPC. Finally, my best friend from my days in Las Vegas, Brian Etheridge, also has been a steady source of encouragement. The most important people in my life are my family, and it is to them that I owe the greatest debt. My daughter Becca was born while I was editing what would become a chapter of my M.A. thesis; she has never known a time when I was not a graduate student, and I look forward to showing her a new side to her father. She is a constant source of joy. My son Nick attended the University of Florida during my time in graduate school, and it was great fun to eat lunch with him between our classes. He finished before I did, and I could not be prouder of him and his job as a police officer in Jacksonville. Finally, my wife Coralyn has sacrificed a great deal for me to get through graduate school, and her patience and resolve are beyond measure. She is the single most important person on earth to me, and words fail me to describe the depth of my love for her. She is an amazing individual, and I am blessed beyond measure that she is in my life. This work is dedicated to her. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ 8 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................. 9 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 12 2 PART I GENESIS ............................................................................................ 37 3 OUT OF THE SHAKER: STARTING TO LIMIT STRATEGIC ARMS ............... 42 Beginning from Strength ................................................................................... 43 Whither Neoconservatives? .............................................................................. 61 4 IMPROVING THE MIX: SALT I AND MOVING TOWARD SALT II ................. 72 The Road to SALT ............................................................................................ 73 Contesting SALT .............................................................................................. 95 5 PART II - EMERGENCE ................................................................................ 114 6 SWITCHING BRANDS I: THE CARTER ADMINISTRATION ........................ 118 The Nature of Carter’s Foreign Policy ............................................................ 119 The Administration’s Domestic Plans for SALT .............................................. 132 7 SWITCHING BRANDS II: THE COMMITTEE ON THE PRESENT DANGER ....................................................................................................... 149 8 PART III - OPPOSITION ................................................................................ 169 9 A TIME OF SEASONING: DEBATE OVER SALT II ..................................... 173 The Warnke Nomination ................................................................................. 173 Ongoing Discussion ....................................................................................... 191 10 AT THE PEAK OF FLAVOR: A TREATY AND HEARINGS .......................... 231 Agreement at Last? ........................................................................................ 232 The Senate Hearings ..................................................................................... 254 11 PART IV - TRANSFORMATION .................................................................... 270 6 12 LOSING SAVOR: THE END OF SALT .......................................................... 274 Ongoing Opposition ........................................................................................ 278 Post-Afghanistan Priorities ............................................................................. 288 13 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................... 301 LIST OF REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 309 Archival and Manuscript Sources ......................................................................... 309 Oral History Sources ............................................................................................. 310 Databases and Websites ...................................................................................... 310 Printed Primary Sources ....................................................................................... 311 Secondary Sources .............................................................................................. 315 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .......................................................................................... 323 7 LIST OF TABLES Table page Table 4-1 SALT I Interim Agreement .................................................................... 113 Table 4-2 Vladivostok Framework ........................................................................ 113 Table 9-1 Deep Cuts Proposal .............................................................................. 230 Table 10-1 Memorandum of Understanding for the SALT II Treaty ........................ 269 Table 10-2 Compilation of Nitze SALT II Comparison Data .................................... 269 8 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ABM Anti-Ballistic Missile ACDA Arms Control and Disarmament Agency CDM Coalition for a Democratic Majority CPD Committee on the Present Danger ICBM Intercontinental Ballistic Missile MIRV Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicles NPT Nonproliferation Treaty SALT Strategic Arms Limitations Talks SLBM Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile 9 Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy GRINDING IT OUT: NEOCONSERVATIVES, STRATEGIC ARMS, AND PROTECTING AMERICA, 1968-1980 By Roger E. Carey August 2014 Chair: Matthew F. Jacobs Major: History This study argues that neoconservatives provided the intellectual leadership for the domestic opposition to U.S. strategic arms limitations policy during the 1970s. Neocons saw approaches rooted in détente and human rights as threatening to America. This danger required individuals who supported the idea of strategic arms control to work against official U.S. policy in order to protect the nation. The organizations and networks utilized to accomplish this task coordinated an opposition effort focused on the primacy of peace through strength as the necessary bedrock assumption