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Neoconservatism: Origins and Evolution, 1945 – 1980 Neoconservatism: Origins and Evolution, 1945 – 1980 Robert L. Richardson, Jr. A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History. Chapel Hill 2009 Approved by, Michael H. Hunt, Chair Richard Kohn Timothy McKeown Nancy Mitchell Roger Lotchin Abstract Robert L. Richardson, Jr. Neoconservatism: Origins and Evolution, 1945 – 1985 (Under the direction of Michael H. Hunt) This dissertation examines the origins and evolution of neoconservatism as a philosophical and political movement in America from 1945 to 1980. I maintain that as the exigencies and anxieties of the Cold War fostered new intellectual and professional connections between academia, government and business, three disparate intellectual currents were brought into contact: the German philosophical tradition of anti-modernism, the strategic-analytical tradition associated with the RAND Corporation, and the early Cold War anti-Communist tradition identified with figures such as Reinhold Niebuhr. Driven by similar aims and concerns, these three intellectual currents eventually coalesced into neoconservatism. As a political movement, neoconservatism sought, from the 1950s on, to re-orient American policy away from containment and coexistence and toward confrontation and rollback through activism in academia, bureaucratic and electoral politics. Although the neoconservatives were only partially successful in promoting their transformative project, their accomplishments are historically significant. More specifically, they managed to interject their views and ideas into American political and strategic thought, discredit détente and arms control, and shift U.S. foreign policy toward a more confrontational stance vis-à-vis the Soviet Union. Simultaneously, the neoconservatives institutionalized nuclear war- ii fighting (the idea that it is possible to fight and win a nuclear war) in U.S. strategic doctrine. In re-orienting U.S. policy in the 1970s, the neoconservatives also laid the foundations for the policies of the first Reagan Administration. This dissertation challenges the prevailing conceptions about neoconservatism in three ways. First, it demonstrates that neoconservatism was not primarily a sociological and literary phenomenon centered on the work of the so-called “New York intellectuals.” Second, it demonstrates that the philosophical foundation of neoconservatism was not socialism, but German philosophy. Third, that neoconservatism’s primary policy focus was not Israeli interests and security, but the political and strategic competition between the United States and the Soviet Union. iii To Beth Nobody knows Nobody sees ‘til the light of life stops burning ‘til another soul goes free iv Acknowledgements Although it is impossible for me to ever repay in full everyone who helped me bring this project to fruition, I would always live in fear of severe karmic retribution if I did not express my sincere gratitude to Michael H. Hunt for his wisdom, humor and infinite patience. The power and elegance of his groundbreaking Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy had a profound effect on me many years ago and helped set me on this path. Since then, it has been my good fortune to learn something of the historian’s craft under his tutelage. Thanks to Nancy Mitchell, Robin Dorff and Tony LaVopa for believing in me early on—and for teaching me about the power of ideas and how easily threats and enemies can be created. During my career at UNC, I have benefited immensely from the wisdom, friendship and examples of Dick Kohn, Tim McKeown, Bill Barney, Peter Filene, Don Raleigh, Roger Lotchin, Michael Allsep and Nick Ganson. I also acknowledge a special debt to the late Don Higginbotham for teaching me to never lose sight of the fact that there are real people behind even the grandest historical narratives. Finally, I would like to thank Jeff, Mike, Tommy, Sarah, Bobby and Cody for their love, patience, support and hugs. The biggest thanks of all I reserve for Dawn who, by her presence, reminds me daily that I am the most fortunate man alive. v Table of Contents Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 1. Confronting Modernity: Leo Strauss and the Origins and Effects of Anti- Modernist Philosophy ................................................................................ 11 Beginnings: The Making of an Anti-modernist ......................................... 13 The Break with Judaism and the Ongoing Development of Anti-Modernism ......................................................................................... 24 Strauss in America: The Evolution of Anti-Modernism and the Critique of Liberalism .............................................................................................. 35 Chicago: The Cold War and Anti-modernism’s Aristotelian Turn ........... 42 Chapter 2. A War of Ideas: Anti-Modernism, the Cold War and the Transformation of the American Regime ............................................................................ 52 Anti-Modernism, Empiricism and the Politicization of Philosophy .......... 55 Enemies on the Right: The New Conservatives and the Problem of an American Ideology ..................................................................................... 61 Enemies on the Left – Again: Anti-Modernism and the Emergence the New Left … ................................................................................................ 71 The End of Anti-Modernism and the Thucydidean Turn .......................... 78 Chapter 3. Neoconservatism as Strategy: Albert Wohlstetter and the Transformation of American Nuclear Doctrine ................................................................... 92 Early Life and Education: Logic, Lenin and Anti-modernism .................. 94 In On the Ground Floor: Wohlstetter and the First Window of Vulnerability .............................................................................................. 100 vi Closing the Window of Vulnerability: Wohlstetter, Limited War and Counterforce .............................................................................................. 112 The Strategic Guru: Wohlstetter and His Nuclear Family ......................... 125 Chicago: Thucydides and Nuclear Strategy ............................................... 133 Chapter 4. Neoconservatism as Policy: Dorothy Fosdick and the Transformation of U.S. National Security Policy ................................................................ 138 Beginnings: An Education in Theology, Politics and Anti-Modernism ... 140 Going to Washington: Pacifism, the War Effort and the Post-War Order . 145 Introducing the Neoconservative View: Scoop Jackson ............................ 160 Chief of Staff: Fosdick and the Advent of Counterforce ........................... 172 Chapter 5. Coalescence: Neoconservatism, Détente and the Soviet Strategic Buildup ........................................................................................................ 181 The Soviet Strategic Buildup: 1965-1967 .................................................. 183 Closing the Window of Vulnerability Together: The Partnership for Safeguard ................................................................................................... 189 The Partnership Strained: Realistic Deterrence ......................................... 199 At Odds: The Bunker Versus the White House ......................................... 203 Outcomes ................................................................................................... 216 Chapter 6. The Attack: The Neoconservative Assault on Détente and Arms Control ............................................................................................. 220 Purge: The Neoconservative Assault on Intelligence and Arms Control .. 222 Schlesinger and the Institutionalization of Nuclear War-Fighting Doctrine ...................................................................................................... 236 Into the Attack: Wohlstetter and the Myth of the Arms Race ................... 242 The Attack Pressed: The Birth of Team B ................................................. 249 The Battle Joined: Team B and the Alternate View .................................. 254 vii Chapter 7. The Public Face of the Movement: Creating a Narrative, 1972-1980 ....... 261 Moral Minority: The 1972 Campaign and The Coalition for a Democratic Majority .................................................................................. 263 The Narrative Refined: Jackson-Yanik and the Yom Kippur War ............ 280 Last Chance: The Vietnam Syndrome, and the 1976 Campaign ............... 290 The Narrative Co-Opted: The Committee on the Present Danger and the Reagan Resolution ............................................................................... 295 Conclusion: The (Temporary) End of Transformation ................................................... 302 Bibliography .................................................................................................................. 316 viii Table of Illustrations 1.1 Leo Strauss ............................................................................................................. 19 1.2 Weimar anti-modernists ......................................................................................... 20 1.3 The
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