Household Economy Survey 2012 Khargone, Khandwa, Panna and Dewas District F a C T - S H E E T

Household Economy Survey 2012 Khargone, Khandwa, Panna and Dewas District F A C T - S H E E T

Author: Katharina Schmidt

Partner organisation: Jan Sahas

July 2012

Table of Contents List of Tables ...... iv List of Figures ...... v Abbreviations & Acronyms ...... ix Executive Summary ...... 1 1 Introduction ...... 3 2 Methodology ...... 4 3 Background of the districts ...... 7 3.1 Background of the Blocks ...... 11

3.2 Characteristics of the Livelihood zones ...... 14

4 Livelihood Zone 1: Tribal dry agricultural zone ...... 21 4.1 Background to the Food Economy Zone ...... 21

4.1.1 Price and markets ...... 22 4.1.2 Seasonal calendar ...... 23 4.1.3 Wealth breakdown ...... 25 4.2 Income and expenditures ...... 26

4.2.1 Income ...... 26 4.2.2 Expenditures ...... 27 4.3 Production ...... 28

4.3.1 Landholding...... 28 4.3.2 Crop production ...... 29 4.3.3 Livestock and animal products ...... 30 4.3.4 Hunting, Fishing and NTFP ...... 30 4.4 Food ...... 30

4.4.1 Food sources ...... 30 4.4.2 Hunger time ...... 31 4.4.3 Food patterns ...... 32 4.4.4 Calorie intake ...... 33 4.5 Implementation of government programmes ...... 35

4.5.1 NREGA ...... 35 4.5.2 PDS ...... 37 4.5.3 ICDS ...... 37 4.6 Shocks ...... 38

5 Food Economy zone 2: Non-irrigated hilly zone ...... 39 5.1 Background to the Food Economy Zone ...... 39

5.1.1 Seasonal calendar ...... 40 5.1.2 Wealth breakdown ...... 42

5.2 Income and expenditures ...... 43

5.2.1 Income ...... 43 5.2.2 Expenditures ...... 44 5.3 Production ...... 45

5.3.1 Landholding...... 45 5.3.2 Crop production ...... 46 5.3.3 Livestock and animal products ...... 47 5.3.4 Hunting, Fishing and NTFP ...... 47 5.4 Food ...... 47

5.4.1 Food sources ...... 47 5.4.2 Hunger time ...... 48 5.4.3 Food patterns ...... 49 5.4.4 Calorie intake ...... 50 5.5 Implementation of government programmes ...... 52

5.5.1 NREGA ...... 52 5.5.2 PDS ...... 53 5.5.3 ICDS ...... 53 5.6 Shocks ...... 54

6 Food Economy Zone 3: Irrigated valley zone ...... 55 6.1 Background to the Food Economy Zone ...... 55

6.1.1 Seasonal calendar ...... 57 6.1.2 Wealth breakdown ...... 59 6.2 Income and expenditures ...... 60

6.2.1 Income ...... 60 6.2.2 Expenditures ...... 61 6.3 Production ...... 62

6.3.1 Landholding...... 62 6.3.2 Crop production ...... 62 6.3.3 Livestock and animal products ...... 63 6.3.4 Hunting, Fishing and NTFP ...... 63 6.4 Food ...... 63

6.4.1 Food sources ...... 63 6.4.2 Hunger time ...... 64 6.4.3 Food patterns ...... 64 6.4.4 Calories intake ...... 65 6.5 Implementation of government programmes ...... 67

6.5.1 NREGA ...... 67 6.5.2 PDS ...... 68 6.5.3 ICDS ...... 68 6.6 Shocks ...... 69

7 Food Economy Zone 4: Agricultural mixed communities zone ...... 70 7.1 Background to the Food Economy Zone ...... 70

7.1.1 Seasonal calendar ...... 71 7.1.2 Wealth breakdown ...... 73 7.2 Income and expenditures ...... 74

7.2.1 Income ...... 74 7.2.2 Expenditures ...... 75 7.3 Production ...... 76

7.3.1 Landholding...... 76 7.3.2 Crop production ...... 76 7.3.3 Livestock and animal products ...... 77 7.3.4 Hunting, Fishing and NTFP ...... 77 7.4 Food ...... 78

7.4.1 Food sources ...... 78 7.4.2 Hunger time ...... 78 7.4.3 Food patterns ...... 79 7.4.4 Calories intake ...... 80 7.5 Implementation of government programmes ...... 82

7.5.1 NREGA ...... 82 7.5.2 PDS ...... 83 7.5.3 ICDS ...... 84 7.6 Shocks ...... 84

8 Comparison of Livelihood Zones ...... 86 8.1 Income and expenditures ...... 86 8.2 Landholding and crops production ...... 87 8.3 Daily calorie intake ...... 88 8.4 Implementation of government programmes ...... 89 8.5 Shocks ...... 90 9 Emerging Issues that need focus in the Districts Khargone, Khandwa, Panna and Dewas...... 91

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List of Tables

Table 1: Population data of Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District ...... 8 Table 2: Data on working population of Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District ...... 8 Table 3: Agro-climatic data of Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District ...... 8 Table 4: Net and Gross District Domestic Product of Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District 9 Table 5: Poverty in Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District ...... 9 Table 6: Health facilities and schools in Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District ...... 10 Table 7: Characteristics of the HHs in Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District ...... 10 Table 8: Agro-climatic indicators of Pandhana and Jhirniya Block ...... 11 Table 9: Land pattern in Jhiriniya and Pandhana Block ...... 12 Table 10: Crop production in Pandhana and Jhirniya Block ...... 12 Table 11: Land use pattern and land cover in Pawai Block/Panna District (area in hectare) ...... 13 Table 12: Population data of Sonkatch Block/Dewas District ...... 13 Table 13: Land use pattern and land cover in Sonkatch Block/Dewas District (area in hectare) ...... 14 Table 14: Crop production in Sonkatch Block/Dewas District ...... 14 Table 15: Characteristics of the tribal dry agricultural zone ...... 15 Table 16: Sample villages – tribal dry agricultural zone ...... 16 Table 17: Crop production in the irrigated valley and non-irrigated hilly zone ...... 18 Table 18: Characteristics of the non-irrigated hilly and the irrigated valley zone ...... 18 Table 19: Sample villages – irrigated valley zone ...... 19 Table 20: Sample villages – non-irrigated hilly zone ...... 19 Table 21: Characteristics of the agricultural mixed communities zone ...... 20 Table 22: Sample villages – agricultural mixed communities zone ...... 20 Table 23: Seasonal calendar – Tribal dry agricultural zone ...... 24 Table 24: Criteria of the Wealth Breakdowns (WBs) according to local standards (tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 26 Table 25: Distribution of average land type (in acres) according to wealth group (tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 29 Table 26: Average food consumption (in kg) per day in Normal Time (main commodities; tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 32 Table 27: Average food consumption (in kg) per day in Hunger Time (main commodities; tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 33 Table 28: Summary MGNREGA (group-wise, tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 35 Table 29: Seasonal calendar – Non-irrigated hilly zone ...... 41 Table 30: Criteria of the WBs according to local standards (non-irrigated hilly zone)...... 43 Table 31: Distribution of average land type (in acres) according to wealth group (non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 46

Table 32: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Normal Time (main commodities;non- irrig. hilly zone) ...... 49 Table 33: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Hunger Time (main commodities;non- irrig. hilly zone) ...... 49 Table 34: Summary MGNREGA (non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 52 Table 35: General characteristics of the HHs (median, group-wise; irrigated valley zone) ...... 56 Table 36: Seasonal calendar – Irrigated valley zone ...... 58 Table 37: Criteria of the Wealth Breakdowns (WBs) according to local standards (irrigated valley zone) ...... 59 Table 38: Distribution of average land type (in acres) according to wealth group ...... 62 Table 39: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Normal Time (main commodities; irrig. valley zone) ...... 65 Table 40: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Hunger Time (main commodities; irrig. valley zone) ...... 65 Table 41: Summary MGNREGA (group-wise; irrigated valley zone) ...... 67 Table 42: General characteristics of the HHs (median, group-wise; agircultural mixed communities zone) ...... 70 Table 43: Seasonal calendar – Agricultural mixed communities zone...... 72 Table 44: Criteria of the Wealth Breakdowns according to local standards (agricultural mixed comm. zone) ...... 74 Table 45: Distribution of land type (in acres) according to wealth group (agricultural mixed communities zone) ...... 76 Table 46: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Normal Time (agricultural mixed communities zone) ...... 79 Table 47: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Hunger Time (agricultural mixed communities zone) ...... 80 Table 48: Summary MGNREGA (group-wise, agricultural mixed communities zone) ...... 82 Table 49: Comparison of the annual average income (all livelihood zones, group-wise)...... 86 Table 50: Average landholding per HH (in acres) and average total quantity of crops produced per year per HH (all livelihood zones, grou-wise) ...... 87 Table 51: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs, all livelihood zones) ...... 88 Table 52: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs, all livelihood zones) ...... 88 Table 53: Summary MGNREGA (all livelihood zones) ...... 89 List of Figures

Figure 1: Location of FHFI working area, district level (above), block level (below) ...... 4

Figure 2: Khandwa and Khargone - Forest Density Map ...... 12 Figure 3: Livelihood Zone Map – Tribal dry agricultural zone ...... 15 Figure 4: Sample villages in Jhiranya Block/Khargone District ...... 17 Figure 5: Sample villages in Pandhana Block/Khandwa District...... 17 Figure 6: Livelihood Zone Map – irrigated agricultural and non-irrigated hilly zone ...... 19 Figure 7: Livelihood Zone Map – agricultural mixed communities zone ...... 20 Figure 8: Population of the tribal dry agricultural zone (caste-wise) ...... 21 Figure 9: Wealth breakdown according to national standard ...... 25 Figure 10: Proportional distribution of the wealth groups according to local standards (tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 25 Figure 11: Graphical distribution of income (tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 27 Figure 12: Average annual expenditures (tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 28 Figure 13: Comparison annual income and expenditures (tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 28 Figure 14: Relationship between landholding and agricultural income (tribal dry agricultural zone) .. 29 Figure 15: Dominating crops (tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 30 Figure 16: Food sources (tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 31 Figure 17: Graphical distribution of Hunger Times (all HHs and group-wise; tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 32 Figure 18: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs; tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 33 Figure 19: Average daily calorie intak per person during Normal Time (group-wise; tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 34 Figure 20: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (all HHs; tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 34 Figure 21: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 35 Figure 22: Histogram - Total working days under MGNREGA (tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 36 Figure 23: Wealth breakdown according to national standard and under the condition of a working MGNREGA scheme (tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 36 Figure 24: Distribution of ration cards (tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 37 Figure 25: Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres (tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 38 Figure 26: Coping mechanisms in case of external shocks (tribal dry agricultural zone) ...... 38 Figure 27: Average education level of women and men (non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 40 Figure 28: Wealth breakdown according to national standard ...... 42 Figure 29: Proportional distribution of the wealth groups according to local standards (non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 42 Figure 30: Main income sources (non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 44

Figure 31: Average annual expenditures (non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 45 Figure 32: Dominating crops (non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 46 Figure 33: Main NTFPs collected in non-irrigated hilly zone ...... 47 Figure 34: Food sources (non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 48 Figure 35: Hunger Time (all HHs and group-wise, non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 49 Figure 36: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs; non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 50 Figure 37: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (group-wiese; non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 50 Figure 38: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (all HHs; non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 51 Figure 39: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 51 Figure 40: Histogram - Total working days under MGNREGA (non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 52 Figure 41: Wealth breakdown according to national standard and under the condition of a working MGNREGA scheme (non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 53 Figure 42: Distribution of ration cards (non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 53 Figure 43: Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres (non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 54 Figure 44: Shocks experienced (non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 54 Figure 45: Coping mechanisms in case of external shocks (non-irrigated hilly zone) ...... 55 Figure 46: Population of the irrigated valley zone (caste-wise) ...... 55 Figure 47: Average education level of women and men (irrigated valley zone) ...... 56 Figure 48: Wealth breakdown according to national standard (irrigated valley zone) ...... 59 Figure 49: Proportional distribution of the wealth groups according to local standards (irrigated valley zone) ...... 59 Figure 50: Average annual income (irrigated valley zone)...... 60 Figure 51: Average annual expenditures (irrigated valley zone) ...... 61 Figure 52: Dominating crops (irrigated valley zone) ...... 62 Figure 53: Food sources (irrigated valley zone) ...... 64 Figure 54: Graphical distribution of Hunger Times (all HHs and poor wealth group; irrigated valley zone) ...... 64 Figure 55: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs; irrigated valley zone) ...... 65 Figure 56: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; irrigated valley zone) ...... 66 Figure 57: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (all HHs; irrigated valley zone) ...... 66

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Figure 58: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; irrigated valley zone) ...... 67 Figure 59: Histogram – Total working day under MGNREGA (irrigated valley zone) ...... 67 Figure 60: Distribution of ration cards (irrigated valley zone) ...... 68 Figure 61: Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres (irrigated valley zone) ...... 68 Figure 62: Causes of shocks (irrigated valley zone) ...... 69 Figure 63: Coping mechanisms of external shocks (irrigated valley zone) ...... 69 Figure 64: Population of the agricultural mixed communities zone ...... 70 Figure 65: Average education level of men and women (group-wise, agircultural mixed communities zone) ...... 71 Figure 66: Wealth breakdown according to national standard (agricultural mixed communities zone) 73 Figure 67: Proportional distribution of the wealth groups according to local standards ...... 73 Figure 68: Average annual income (agricultural mixed communities zone) ...... 75 Figure 69: Average annual expenditures (agricultural mixed communities zone) ...... 75 Figure 70: Dominating crops (agricultural mixed communities zone) ...... 77 Figure 71: Food souces (agricultural mixed communities zone) ...... 78 Figure 72: Graphical distribution of Hunger Times (all HHs and group-wise; agricultural mixed communites zone) ...... 79 Figure 73: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs; agricultural mixed comm. zone) ...... 80 Figure 74: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (group-wise; agricultural mixed comm. Zone) ...... 81 Figure 75: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (all HHs; agricultural mixed comm. zone) ...... 81 Figure 76: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; agricultural mixed comm. Zone) ...... 82 Figure 77: Histogram - Total working days under MGNREGA (agricultural mixed communities zone) ...... 83 Figure 78: Wealth Breakdown according to national standard and under the condition of a working MGNREGA scheme (agricultural mixed communities zone) ...... 83 Figure 79: Distribution of ration cards (agricultural mixed communities zone) ...... 84 Figure 80: Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres (agricultural mixed communities zone) ...... 84 Figure 81: Reasons of shocks affecting money (agricultural mixed communities zone) ...... 85 Figure 82: Coping mechanisms in case of external shocks (agricultural mixed communities zone) ..... 85

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Abbreviations & Acronyms (MG)NREGA (Mahatma Gandhi) National Rural Employment Guarantee Act

AAY Antodya

APL Above Poverty Line

BPL Below Poverty Line

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

FHFI Fight Hunger First Initiative

HEA Household Economy Approach

HH(s) Household(s)

HoH Head of household

HT Hunger Time

ICDS Integrated Child Development Services

INR Indian Rupees

Kcal Kilocalories

LHZ Livelihood zone

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

NT Normal Time

NTFP(s) Non-Timber Forest Product(s)

OBC Other Backward Class

PDS Public Distribution Services

PL Poverty Line

SC(s) Scheduled Caste(s)

SHG Self-Help Group(s)

ST(s) Scheduled Tribe(s)

WB Wealth Breakdown

Executive Summary This report summarizes the results of a Household Food Economy Survey conducted in four different blocks in Madhya Pradesh, India. The Survey was carried out from February till April 2012 by Jan Sahas staff members and an external consultant.

Jan Sahas has partnered with the German non-governmental organization (NGO) Welthungerhilfe to implement a project, called the Fight Hunger First Initiative (FHFI). The focus of the project is to improve food security through improving the nutritional status of families living in rural areas, promoting livelihoods and encouraging education. The Household Food Economy Survey was conducted to receive baseline data on the project area. The FHFI working area of Jan Sahas is situated in Pawai Block (Panna District), Jhiranya/Zirniya Block (Khargone District), Pandhana Block (Khandwa District), Sonkatch Block (Dewas District).

The survey is based on the Household Economy Approach (HEA), a livelihoods-based framework which was developed by Save the Children UK. First step is the identification of livelihood zones, an area within which people share broadly the same patterns of livelihood. In this survey four livelihood zones are presented: The tribal dry agricultural zone (which lies in Jhiranya and Pandhana Block), the non-irrigated hilly zone (situated in Pawai Block), the irrigated valley zone (also situated in Pawai Block), and the agricultural mixed communities zone (which lies in Sonkatch Block). Main component of the HEA is the conduction of household (HH) interviews. With the help of these interviews details about income and expenditure patterns, production, nutritional status, implementation of government programmes (NREGA, PDS and ICDS) and coping mechanisms after external shocks can be collected and afterwards analyzed. Interviewees are grouped together in three wealth groups (poor, medium, better-off) according to local definitions of wealth.

Results of the four identified livelihood zones are the following:

All in all, the situation of the HHs in the tribal dry agricultural zone is the most alarming compared to the other three livelihood zones presented in this report. The highest share of people living below the national PL was found here, even most of the relatively better-off HHs in the zone fall under the national BPL-category. The education level is very low – for both: men and women - and more than half of the children do not attend school. It is precarious that the HHs averagely own only small fields of land and a high share of families of the local poor group is landless. Also the food situation is alarming. In almost 60% of the HHs family members face undernutrition because throughout the year their average daily calorie intake lies under 2100kcal. 2100 kcal is the minimum food energy requirement to avoid undernutrition in the long-term. Additionally, most of the HHs experience a period of food scarcity in which the situation even worsens - three quarters of the HHs do not achieve the 2100kcal-threshold during Hunger Time. In the tribal dry agricultural zone Hunger Time lasts very long, for poor HHs averagely 6 months. Furthermore, there seem to be problems concerning the public distribution system, one third of the HHs did not even own a ration card.

In the non-irrigated hilly zone, the share of HHs living below the national PL is very high (90%), averagely a 6-person HH earns only INR 33779 per year. All HHs are extremely dependent on labour income which has something to do with the fact that the agricultural output is lower than in the other zones. The education level is low; elementary school is finished only by few HH members. Almost one third of the children at the age of 5-10years do not go to school. Though the food situation is not as precarious as in the tribal dry agricultural zone, it is still alarming - 43% of the HHs do not reach the 2100kcal-threshold, even during Normal Time, and during Hunger Time the daily calorie intake per person lies in two-thirds of the HHs under 2100kcal. The MGNREGA scheme is not functioning properly: Only one third of the HHs worked under the scheme last year, in average no more than 12 days.

In the irrigated valley zone the majority (71%) of HHs lives below the national PL. Important to note is that there are wide deviations of the HH’s income between the wealth groups in this zone. Poor families generate only one quarter of the income better-off families and half of the income medium HHs make. The nutritional status, especially of the poor and medium wealth group, is worrying: The average daily calorie intake of 44% of the poor and 50% of the medium HHs lies under the 2100kcal-threshold during Normal Time. During Hunger Time the share increases to 57% in the poor wealth group; 50% of the medium HHs do not even achieve a daily calorie intake of 1800kcal (FAO standard). In addition, there are problems in the education sector: The gap between male and female education level is large and one third of the 5-10 year-old children do not attend school. Furthermore, there is a large share of HHs affected by shocks (due to serious diseases as well as natural hazards). Coping with them is difficult for the HHs: only few emergency assets are available (if at all), money can in most of the cases only be borrowed by money lenders who demand high interest, extra work is hard to find and the expenditures (especially of the poor HHs) are already at a low level and can hardly be cut down further. Last but not least, the MGNREGA scheme is not functioning properly: Only one quarter of the HHs worked under the scheme last year, in average no more than 9 days.

Though there are less HHs that live under the national PL compared to the other zones, there are also problematic issues in the agricultural mixed communities zone: It is alarming that there were five bonded labour cases already in the sample. And there were poor HHs which complained that better-off HHs keep their job card and therefore they cannot work under the NREGA scheme. Consequently, the NREGA scheme is not working properly. Though 82% of all HHs own actually a job card, only 29% of all HHs worked under the scheme last year, in average no more than 11 days. There is in fact a need of construction labour because the infrastructure is in a bad condition. Furthermore, the dropout rate is high, it is 44% in the age group 5-10years. Moreover, the nutritional status, especially for the HHs in the poor wealth group, is also in the agricultural mixed communities zone worrying. Even during Normal Time 77% of the poor HHs do not achieve the 2100kcal-threshold; during Hunger Time, which lasts averagely 2 months, the average calorie intake in 92% of the poor HHs lies under 1800kcal.

1 Introduction

According to the India State Hunger Index (2008), Madhya Pradesh has the most severe level of hunger in India. Madhya Pradesh’s high score (30.9%) is driven by undernourishment resulting from calorie deficient diets and high levels of child malnutrition. 60.3% of children under three years are underweight. Causes of hunger are manifold: high vulnerability due to low productive, small-scale farming systems, or low wages/income, respectively, and a complex network of social discrimination, particularly against tribal communities and low castes.

This report summarizes the results of a Household Food Economy Survey conducted in four different blocks in Madhya Pradesh, India. The Survey was carried out from February till April 2012 by Jan Sahas staff members and an external consultant.

Jan Sahas has partnered with Welthungerhilfe to implement a project, called the Fight Hunger First Initiative (FHFI). The focus of the project is to improve food security through improving the nutritional status of families living in rural areas, promoting livelihoods and encouraging education. The Household Food Economy Survey was conducted to receive baseline data on the project area.

The FHFI working area of Jan Sahas is situated in four different districts in Madhya Pradesh, namely Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas. In each of the districts Jan Sahas is working in one block:

 Pawai Block (Panna District)

 Jhiranya/Zirniya Block (Khargone District)

 Pandhana Block (Khandwa District)

 Sonkatch Block (Dewas District)

In the following maps of Madhya Pradesh the working areas are highlighted in black.

Figure 1: Location of FHFI working area, district level (above), block level (below)

This report is structured as follows: In the introductory part the methodology of the survey is described and background on the survey area is given. The following four sections (4.-7.) will analyse the four different identified livelihood zones in detail. In the last sections (8. and 9.) findings of the different livelihood zones will be compared and concluded.

2 Methodology

The survey is based on the Household Economy Approach (HEA) which was developed in the early 1990s by the British non-governmental organization (NGO) Save the Children. The

HEA is a livelihoods-based framework to analyze the way people get access to the things they need to survive and prosper. It helps to identify people’s food and non-food needs and find appropriate emergency assistance or longer term development programs or policy changes. The HEA focuses on measuring absolute and relative poverty quantitatively across wealth lines. This means, it provides absolute data about income and expenditure of households (HHs) and also examines the relative poverty among groups of HHs.

Methodological steps

The basic steps of this Household Economy Survey were the following: 1. Livelihood Zoning: Definition of livelihood zones, an area within which people share broadly the same patterns of livelihood, through discussion among Jan Sahas staff members and collection of secondary data from Block offices and internet sources. 2. Baseline Assessment: a) Village Sampling Identification of representative villages for the previously defined food economy zones. b) Village interviews Village interviews were carried out in each sample village as preparatory step for the HH interviews. c) Wealth Breakdown During the wealth breakdown the people within a village are grouped together using local definitions of wealth and the quantification of their assets. Wealth breakdown interviews were carried out in each surveyed village after the village interview and the listing of all HHs with the help of Participatory Rural Approaches (most commonly used was the card allocation). The villagers were divided into three wealth groups: poor, medium, better-off. d) Data Collection Conduction of HH interviews. 3. Auxiliary steps: e) Seasonal calendar Designing of a seasonal calendar for each livelihood zone, showing all key times of the year related to food, cash and expenditure activities of the HHs. f) Market inteviews Visit of key markets for the sample villages and conduction of trader interviews. 4. Data Analysis: Processing of the data and final analysis.

Sample size The assessment was based on a sample of eleven villages of which four are from the tribal dry agricultural zone, two from the irrigated valley zone, two from the non-irrigated valley zone, and three from the agricultural mixed communities zone. In each of the sample villages, one village and one wealth breakdown interview took place. Simple random sampling was used for the selection of the HHs with which interviews were conducted. An at least 10%

5 population coverage was achieved in all sample villages, except for Tighra (irrigated valley zone). All the interviews provided the required and sufficient data to describe the four food economies in the four Blocks of Madhya Pradesh.

Definitions and Assumptions

In this section important definitions and assumption underlying the survey are presented.

Household: People eating from the same pot.

Hunger Time: Times in which HH members eat less than two square meals.

Food energy is measured in terms of kilocalories (kcal). In this survey, we consider 2100kcal per person per day as minimum requirement:

Every human being requieres in the average at least 2100 kcal in order to cover the energy requirement. Everything which is below leads at the long-term to undernutrition (Handbook for Worldnutrition, p. 19).

The 2,100kcal-threshold is based on global population profiles rather than on specific age groups or sexes:

The average population minimum requierements for population groups incorporate the requirements for all age groups and both sexes. They are therefore not specific for any single age or sex group and should not be used as requirements for an individual. Secondly, nutritional requierements are based on population profile (The Sphere project: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response, p. 227).

Age group Sphere average global population (%) Indian Population (%) 0-14 31 31.1 15-64 64. 2 63.6 ≥65 4.8 5.3

Additionally, it is checked in every wealth group whether persons achieve 1800kcal/day, the threshold suggested by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). It follows from this that the following categories of food energy apply:

<1800kcal: alarming situation, person does not get the minimum calorie requirements 1800-2100kcal: matches minimum calorie requirement according to FAO ≥2100kcal: matches calorie requirements to avoid undernutrition

Additional aspects

Starting point of the interviews in Sonkatch Bock (Dewas District) was Dewas (location of Jan Sahas’ head office). For the interviews in Jhiranya Block (Khargone District) and

Pandhana Block (Khandwa District), the survey team was placed in Bhikangaon, for the interviews in Pawai Block in Pawai Town. The survey team consisted of 10 persons.

3 Background of the districts

This section will give background information on the administrative divisions relevant for this Household Food Economy suvey; first on District level, second on Block level.

Geographical location of the districts and physical conditions

Dewas, Khargone and Khandwa are located in the South-West of Madhya Pradesh, Panna in the North-East (see Figure 1).

 Panna District

The geographical area of Panna is mostly hilly and undulated with steep slopes. The highest topographic elevation in Panna district is 537m above sea level in tehsil Panna and the lowest is 341m above sea level in tehsil Ajaygarh. The most important river is the Ken river. Other important rivers with its tributaries are the Runjg and Midashan river.

 Khargone District

Khargone lies in the Narmada valley. Generally the height of this valley is around 300m above sea level. The Narmada, the Son and their tributaries drain this region. The geographical area of Khargone can be described as moderately undulating.

 Khandwa District

Khandwa lies in the Narmada valley, too. The highest topographic elevation in Khandwa is 906m and the lowest is 180m. In total, the geographical area is gently to moderately undulating.

 Dewas District

Dewas District lies partly in Narmada valley, partly in the Malwa Plateau. Generally the Malwa Plateau is 350-450m high with few peaks over 800 m high. There are three main rivers in Dewas District: Narmada, Kali Sindh and Shipra.

Population data of the districts

Out of the four districts, the most populous district is Khargone. It has also the highest population density. The least populous district is Panna, also the lowest population density is found here. The share of the rural population is higher in Panna (87.4%) and in Khargone (84.6%) in comparison to Khandwa (73.1%) and Dewas (72.6%). Panna (20%) and Dewas (18.3) have a higher share of Scheduled Castes (SC) population than Khargone and Khandwa. In contrast, a higher share of Scheduled Tribes (ST) population is found in Khargone (35.5%) and Khandwa (29.7%) (see Table 1).

Table 1: Population data of Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District Rural SC ST Area Population Population Population District population population population (km²) (2011) Density (2011) (2001) (%, 2001) (%, 2001) (%, 2001)

Panna 7135 1016028 142persons/km² 857000 87.4 20 15.4

8030 1872413 233persons/km² 1530000 84.6 11.4 35.5 Khargone

Khandwa 6206 1309443 178persons/km² 1713000 73.1 11.1 29.7

Dewas 7020 1563107 223persons/km² 1308000 72.6 18.3 16.4 There are only marginal differences in the working participation rate between the four districts (range 43.6 – 46.1%). The share of farmers and agricultural labour in the population ranges from 33.1 – 37.6%. The share of the main working population ranges from 30.5% in Panna to 38.5% in Khargone. In Khargone (7.5%) and Khandwa (7.3%) the share of the marginal working population is smaller than in Dewas (11.6%) and Panna (13.1%).

Table 2: Data on working population of Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District Main working Marginal working Farmers and agricultural Working District population (%, population (%, labour in population (%, participation rate 2001) 2001) 2001) (%, 2001)

Panna 30.5 13.1 34.4 43.6 Khargone 38.5 7.5 37.6 46.1 Khandwa 36.7 7.3 33.1 43.9

Dewas 32.8 11.6 34.1 44.4

Agro-climatic profile of the districts

Table 3: Agro-climatic data of Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District Non- Area forest Agro Rainfall Forest sown Crop Soil waste District Climate climatic range area irrigated zone type land region (m.m.) (%) (%, 2006- (hectare, 07) 2002-03,) Kymore mixed dry sub- Plateau wheat, red & 1100- Panna 38.23 1100-1400 33.6 humid Satpura rice black 1400 Hills soil deep semi- Nimar cotton, medium 800- Khargone 13.56 800-1000 46.9 arid Plains jowar black 1000 soil deep semi- Nimar cotton, medium 800- Khandwa 33.22 800-1000 40.6 arid Plains jowar black 1000 soil deep semi- Malwa cotton, medium 1000- Dewas 25.68 1000-1200 45.0 arid Plateau jowar black 1200 soil

According to the Department of Farmer Welfare and Agriculture Development, Madhya Pradesh can be divided into 11 Agro-climatic regions and 5 crop zones. Panna is situated in the agro-climatic zone “Kymore Plateau Satpura Hills” and the “wheat and rice crop zone”. The rainfall ranges averagely from 1100-1400mm. Khargone and Khandwa are both located in the Nimar Plains and the “cotton and jowar crop zone”. The rainfall ranges here from 800- 1000mm. Dewas is also part of the “cotton and jowar crop zone”, but situated in the Malwa Plateau where rainfall ranges from 1000-1200mm. In Dewas, Khandwa and Khargone the climate is mainly semi-arid and you find predominantly deep medium black soil. The climate in Panna can be described as dry sub-humid, you find mixed red and black soil here. The share of forest land is the highest in Panna (38.23%). In Khargone only 13.56% of the total area is forest land. In contrast, the share of irrigated sown area is clearly higher in Khargone (46.9%) than in Panna (33.6%).

Economic data of the districts

Table 4: Net and Gross District Domestic Product of Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District District Net District Domestic Product at constant Gross District Domestic Product at constant (1990-2000) prices (2007-08, in Lakhs) (1990-2000) prices (2007-08, in Lakhs) Panna 87,997 97,866 Khargone 1,80,899 2,03,907 Khandwa 2,48,033 2,76,828

Dewas 1,76,842 2,01,817

Clear differences can be found between the Net and Gross District Domestic Product with Panna bringing up the rear. Khandwa has the highest Net and Gross District Domestic Product, followed by Khargone, Dewas and the last Panna. The Net District Domestric Product of Khandwa is 2.8times higher than the one of Panna.

Table 5: Poverty in Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District District Percentage of rural population below poverty line (2004-05)

Panna 78.68 Khargone 62.22 Khandwa 58.98

Dewas 31.73

According to estimations of the State Planning Commission in Madhya Pradesh, averagely 53.59% of the rural population lives below poverty line (PL) in Madhya Pradesh. Except for Dewas District, the share of the rural population living below PL lies in all Districts relevant for this survey above the state average. The highest share can be found in Panna (78.68%).

Information about health facilities and education

The share of villages with any government health facility differs widely between the districts. It is only 18.2% in Panna, 27% in Dewas, 31% in Khargone and 40.5% in Khandwa. In contrast, in 9.1% of the Panna villages you can find a doctor, in 8.1% of the villages in Dewas, in 7.1% of the villages in Khargone and only in 5.4% of the villages in Khandwa. The share of villages with ASHA services ranges from 78.4% (Khandwa and Dewas) to 88.1% (Khargone), the share of villages with Anganwadi workers from 89.2% (Dewas) to 97.6% (Khargone). In Dewas all villages are provided with primary or middle school. The smallest share of villages with school you can find in Khargone (92.9%). The share of literate persons (age 7+) differs only slightly between the four districts; it is 61.6% in Panna, 63.4% in Khargone, 61.7% in Khandwa, and 61% in Dewas.

Table 6: Health facilities and schools in Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District Villages with Villages with Villages with any Villages with Villages with Anganwadi primary or District government health ASHA (%, doctor (%, workers (%, middle school facility1 (%, 2007/08) 2007/08) 2007/08) 2007/08) (%, 2007/08) Panna 18.2 86.4 90.9 9.1 95.5 Khargone 31 88.1 97.6 7.1 92.9 Khandwa 40.5 78.4 97.3 5.4 97.3

Dewas 27 78.4 89.2 8.1 100

Additional information

Table 7: Characteristics of the HHs in Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District HH with HH with HH with toilet HH living in HH with BPL District electricity (%, drinking water facility (%, pucca house (%, Card (%, 2007-08) (%, 2007/08) 2007/08) 2007/08) 2007/08) Panna 58 68.8 10.6 9.2 55.6 Khargone 91.1 89.8 18.6 16.4 38.1 Khandwa 82.3 85.7 23.2 22.5 30.1

Dewas 89.6 90.3 37.7 18.9 30.3

A District Level Household and Facility Survey was conducted in Madhya Pradesh in 2007- 08 by the International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai. Several characteristics of households were described, a selection you can find in the table above. In the four categories HH with electricity, with drinking water, with toilet facility and living in pucca2 house, you

1 That is, sub-Centre, Primary Health Centre (including Block PHC), Community Health Centre, referral hospital, government hospital, or government dispensary within the village.

2 There are the following housing categories: Pucca House: A pucca house is one, which has walls made of burnt bricks, stones (packed with lime or cement), cement or concrete and a roof made of tiles, Galvanised Corrugated Iron sheets, asbestos cement sheet, etc. Kaccha House: The walls and/or roof are made of un-burnt

10 always find the smallest share in Panna whereas the share of HH with BPL Card is here the highest (55.6%).

3.1 Background of the Blocks Jhiranya Block (Khargone District) and Pandhana Block (Khandwa District)

A) General profile of the blocks

Jhirniya Block covers an area of about 67980 hectare. It consists of 76 Grampanchayats, 129 villages. Around 27904 families live in the block. The total population (Census, 2011) is 151498. The share of the male population is 51%. The population density in Jhiranya block is 226persons/ km². The block is predominantly characterized by rural population. The share of the ST population is very high (80%). Mostly they are members of the Bhil, Barela or Bhilala tribe. Only 4% of the population belong to SCs. The male literacy rate is 54%, the female literacy rate 47%.

The area of Pandhana Block is about 69219 hectare. There are 84 Grampanchayats and 128 villages. The total population (Census, 2001) of Pandhana block is 184608. 53% of the population is male. The population density is slightly higher than in Jhirniya; it is 294. The share of the SC population is also small (9.34%), the share of the ST population relatively high (44,68%). The area is also predominantly characterized by rural population. The gap between male and female literacy rate is higher than in Jhirniya: 68% of the males are literate, but only 37% of the females.

B) Agro-climatic conditions

The whole area lies between 300 and 600m above sea level. The dominating soil types are black and red, the consistency of the soil is clay or sandy.

Table 8: Agro-climatic indicators of Pandhana and Jhirniya Block Indicators Pandhana Jhirniya

Max. temperature summer 46°C 44-46°C

Min. temperature summer 30°C 28°C

Max. temperature winter 30°C 31-32°C

Min. temperature winter 3-5°C 5°C

Rainfall (2011) 780mm 795mm

Most Rainfall (in months) July, August July, August

Topography Dry midlands Dry midlands

bricks, bamboos, mud, grass, reeds, thatch, loosely packed stones, etc. Semi-Pucca house: A house that has fixed walls made up of pucca material but roof is made up of the material other than those used for pucca house.

C) Information about agriculture

9% of the total area of Jhiriniya is covered with forest (equals 6409 hectare), 69% is net sown area (47030 hectare), 7% non-agricultural land (4999 hectare), 1% barren land (876 hectare), 4% untapped cultivable land (2446 hectare), and 9% of Jhirniya’s total area is other uncultivable land (6155 hectare). The land pattern is similar in Pandhana (see Table below). Figure 2 shows that there is only open or moderately dense forest in the livelihood zone.

Table 9: Land pattern in Jhiriniya and Pandhana Block Non- Other Untapped Forest Net sown Barren Block Total Area agricultur uncultivab cultivable Land area land al land le land land

Pandhana 51032 747 (1%) 69219 5446 (8%) 5112 (7%) 4221 (6%) 2661 (4%) (74%) 47030 Jhirniya 67980 6409 (9%) 4999 (7%) 876 (1%) 6155 (9%) 2446 (4%) (69%)

Figure 2: Khandwa and Khargone - Forest Density Map

Major crops in Pandhana and Jhiranya are Maize, Wheat, Jowar, Soya beans and Cotton.

Table 10: Crop production in Pandhana and Jhirniya Block Pandhana Jhiranya Name of the crop Production (in kg/ha) Production (in kg/ha) Maize 2500 2982 Wheat 4000 2776 Jowar 2000 2107 Soya beans 1200 1834 Cotton 1000 1403

There are differences between the levels of the agricultural outputs: in Jhiranya Block crop yields are generally higher than in Pandhana; except for the wheat yields. A relatively high difference exists in the Soya bean and Cotton production, but still there is no deviation higher than 153%.

Pawai Block (Panna District)

A) General profile of the block

Pawai Block covers an area of 147000 hectare. The block consists of 82 grampanchayats. There are 179 villages and 43101 households. The total population of the block is 165983 (2011). The region is characterized by low population density (113persons/km²). 53% of the population is male. Compared to Jhiranya Block the share of ST population is low (15%). The SC population share is 22%, the share of Other Backward Class (OBC) population is 63%. There is a high gap between the male (62.5%) and female (40.1%) literacy rate.

B) Climatic conditions

In summer it is very hot, up to 40-45°C. In winter generally the temperature lies under 25°C. Maximum rainfall is received in July, August. In 2011 rainfall was 854mm.

C) Information about agriculture

The following table shows the land use pattern and land cover in Pawai (area in hectare).

Table 11: Land use pattern and land cover in Pawai Block/Panna District (area in hectare) Total Forest Waste- Net sown Double Block Area Land land area cropped 59773 58494 Pawai 147000 5234 (4%) 7783 (5%) (41%) (40%)

Out of the 58494 hectare net sown area, 17162 hectare (which equals 30%) are fully irrigated. From the working population (47% of the total population) a major part is engaged in agriculture, working either on their own field or as agricultural labourers. Thus the productivity from agriculture is a major determinant of the livelihood of the rural families.

Sonkatch Block (Dewas District)

A) General profile of the block

Sonkatch Block covers an area of about 52000 hectare. It consists of 65 Grampanchayats.

Table 12: Population data of Sonkatch Block/Dewas District Total Population (Census, 2001) SC ST Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total 77670 72480 150150 20652 19422 40074 1791 1687 3478

The total population (Census, 2001) is 150150. The share of the male population is 52%. The population density in Sonkatch block is 289 persons/km². The share of the ST population is very low (2.3%), whereas the share of SC population is relatively high (27%).

B) Climatic conditions

Averagely the rainfall is 1000mm per year. The wettest months are July and August. In summer the temperature ranges between 30°C and 45°C.

C) Information about agriculture

Table 13: Land use pattern and land cover in Sonkatch Block/Dewas District (area in hectare) Block Total Area Forest Land Barren land Cultivable land Sonkatch 52000 7000 (13%) 3000 (6%) 42000 (81%)

13% of Sonkatch’s total area is forest land, 6% is barren land and the rest, 81% is cultivable land.

In Sonkatch you find red, black, yellowish and grey soil. The main crops in Sonkatch are Wheat, Jowar and Maize.

Table 14: Crop production in Sonkatch Block/Dewas District Name of the crop Production (in kg/ha) Soya beans 1200 Arhar Dal 900 Maize 3200 Jowar 3500 Wheat 5000 Mustard 800 Red gram 1100

3.2 Characteristics of the Livelihood zones Overall, four livelihood zones were identified. This section gives details about the different zones. Tribal dry agricultural zone

In Jhiranya and Pandhana Block one livelihood zone, the tribal dry agricultural zone was identified (see Livelihood zone map below).

Figure 3: Livelihood Zone Map – Tribal dry agricultural zone

The following table summarizes the characteristics of the zone:

Table 15: Characteristics of the tribal dry agricultural zone Indicators Zone: tribal dry agricultural zone Rainfall Less than 800mm Soil type Black, red Irrigation Mostly rain-fed Dominating economic activity Agriculture Markets Dependence on weekly small local markets, small grocery shops Culture Mostly tribal communities (Bhil, Barela, Bhilala) Migration Seasonal migration (e.g. to Indore)

Predominantely, people living in the tribal dry agricultural zone are (small-scale) farmers. There is one rainy season in the region from mid-June till mid-October. The rainfall of the year is concentrated on this season, in the rest of the year it hardly rains. Farm land is mostly only rain-fed. That is the reason why especially Kharif crops (monsoon crops), e.g. Maize and Jowar (Sorghum), are very important as food source. Kharif crops are sown in June, July and harvested in October, November. The second major growing season is Rabi, crops which are sown in winter (November, December) and harvested in spring (February, March). An important Rabi crops in the zone is Wheat.

In each of the sample villages, village interviews were conducted as preparation of the household interviews. Summarized the results are:

- In each village is an elementary school (Standard 1 – Standard 5); because of its size and its highly scattered structure there are 4 elementary schools in Bedchha - Mid Day Meals are provided in the schools - But: Interview partners complained about the quality of the education in the school (not all teachers come regularly) - Anganwadi centres are also located in the villages (mostly in the school building) - Villagers seemed to be satisfied with the quality of the Anganwadi centres

- Partly PDS shops are situated far away from the villages (distance: up to 10km) - Not all HHs have a ration card - Some villages are hard accessible (e.g. Avliyamal, see picture on the right), pucca roads are lacking - Next hospital is located in Bhikangaon (up to 20km away from the villages) - There is no or only scarce forest coverage close to the villages - Farm land is mostly non-irrigated - Access to drinking water and electricity was often described as main problem in the village interviews.

A list of the sample villages in the tribal dry agricultural zone is provided in Table 16. In total 54 HH interviews were conducted in this livelihood zone. This equals 11% of the total population of the sample villages.

Table 16: Sample villages – tribal dry agricultural zone ZONE: tribal dry agricultural zone

Total no. of HHs (according Sample no. of No. Village Panchayat Block to WB) HHs 1 Avliyamal Saka Jhiranya 117 12 (10%) Bedchha Bedchha 2 (Semliyamal, Jhiranya 66+76=142 16 (11%)

Dhatapura)3 3 Sapatiya Sapatiya Jhiranya 146 16 (11%) Rajgarh 4 Rajgarh Pandhana 90 10 (11%) vangram TOTAL 4 4 2 495 54 (11%)

The following maps show the location of the sample villages within Jhiranya and Pandhana Block.

3 Bedchha consists of 6 faliyes (small settlements within a village), the Household Economy survey was conducted in two of them: Dhatapura and Semliyamal.

Figure 4: Sample villages in Jhiranya Block/Khargone District

Figure 5: Sample villages in Pandhana Block/Khandwa District

Irrigated valley zone and non-irrigated hilly zone

Within Pawai Block two livelihood zones could be identified.

These two livelihood zones are:

a) the irrigated valley zone. b) the non-irrigated hilly zone.

Generally, the agricultural output in the irrigated agricultural zone is higher than in the non- irrigated hilly zone. In the irrigated zone three times as much paddy can be produced per hectare compared to the non-irrigated zone. Still, in the whole Panna district the level of agricultural output is low.

Table 17: Crop production in the irrigated valley and non-irrigated hilly zone irrigated valley zone non-irrigated hilly zone

Paddy (2100kg/ha) Paddy (705kg/ha) Wheat (1600kg/ha) Maize (502kg/ha) Jowar (1067kg/ha) Jowar (600kg/ha) Soya beans (1000kg/ha) Soya beans (1000kg/ha)

Table 18: Characteristics of the non-irrigated hilly and the irrigated valley zone Indicators Zone: non-irrigated hilly zone Zone: irrigated valley zone Soil type Red, drained, stony Black, drained, sandy Irrigation Rain fed Rain fed and irrigated (Ken river) Agricultural output Very low Low Dominating economic Agriculture Agriculture activity Topography hilly plain Communities characterized by Communities characterized by Culture casteism casteism Population density Very low population density Low population density

Table 18 summarizes the features of the non-irrigated hilly and the irrigated valley zone. Like in the tribal dry agricultural zone the main economic activity lies in the agricultural sector. In the non-irrigated hilly zone the soil is mainly red and stony. Farm land is mostly only rain-fed. The non-irrigated hilly zone is compared to the irrigated valley zone less populated.

The soil is black and sandy in the irrigated valley zone. The Ken river is important for the livelihood there; farm land can be irrigated, also outside rainy season.

Results of the village interviews in the non-irrigated hilly zone were:

- Drinking water comes from tube well. - Schools are in the villages (up to 8th standard). - There is no facility of electricity. - There is forest coverage close to the villages, people collect Mahua, Charwa and Tendu leaves from the forest. - Majority of labourers involved in mining /stone-related work. - Many poor people have to migrate for work. - “Untouchability” is a big issue (it is assumed as sin for other castes to touch a person of a SC; development of SCs is seen as prohibited, so caste system is strong in the region)

Key points of the village interviews in the irrigated valley zone were:

- Land is irrigated; sources of water are bore wells or directly the Ken river. - Drinking water comes from hand pumps and bore wells. - Villages have schools. - There is an unequal distribution of irrigated land between dalits and non-dalits.

The following map shows Pawai block. It is divided into the two livelihood zones. The sample villages are highlighted.

Figure 6: Livelihood Zone Map – irrigated agricultural and non-irrigated hilly zone

The sample villages for the irrigated valley and non-irrigated hilly zone are listed in Table 19 and 20 respectively.

Table 19: Sample villages – irrigated valley zone ZONE: irrigated valley zone

No. Village Panchayat Block Total no. of HHs (according to WB) Sample no. of HHs

1 Tighra Tighra Pawai 359 16 (5%)

2 Katia Chhirraha Pawai 61 8 (13%)

TOTAL 2 2 1 420 24 (6%)

Table 20: Sample villages – non-irrigated hilly zone ZONE: non-irrigated hilly zone

No. Village Panchayat Block Total no. of HHs (according to WB) Sample no. of HHs

1 Jaitupura Sagra Pawai 110 12 (11%)

2 Adhradi Kothi Pawai 78 9 (12%)

TOTAL 2 1 188 21 (11%)

Agricultural mixed communities zone

In Sonkatch Block one livelihood zone, the agricultural mixed communities zone, was identified.

Table 21: Characteristics of the agricultural mixed communities zone Indicators Zone: Rainfall around 1000mm Soil types Red, black, yellowish, grey Irrigation Rain-fed and irrigated Dominating economic activity Agriculture, construction labour Agricultural output Higher compared to the other zones Mixed communities (tribals, castes), Culture (high discrimination against lower castes) Infrastructure Partly no proper roads available

The average rainfall per year is around 1000mm. Rainfall is concentrated in the rainy season which lasts from mid-June to mid-October. Important kharif crops are: Soya beans, Maize, Black gram and Arhar Dhal; main rabi crops are: Wheat, Bengal gram, and Onions. There are different soil types to be found in the zone: red, black, yellowish and grey. Farm land is predominantly rain-fed, but can also be irrigated. Agriculture and construction labour count as dominating economic activities. In comparison to the other zones, the agricultural output is higher (see Table 14). The communities are mixed, castes and tribals live together. Caste system is enshrined in the culture. The infrastructure is partly in poor condition which hampers the access to markets of the people living in the villages.

Figure 7: Livelihood Zone Map – agricultural mixed communities zone

Table 22: Sample villages – agricultural mixed communities zone ZONE: agricultural mixed communities zone Households (according to Sample no. of Village Panchayat Block WB) houses Chobara 1 Dehri Sonkatch 87 9 (10%) Jagir 2 Chandakhedi Mudla ana Sonkatch 129 12 (9%)

3 Jamli Mudla ana Sonkatch 127 13 (10%)

TOTAL 3 2 1 343 34 (10%)

Overall, 34 HH interviews were conducted in the agricultural mixed communities zone. Dehri, Chandakhei and Jamli were chosen as representative villages (for details see Table above).

4 Livelihood Zone 1: Tribal dry agricultural zone

This section and the following three will present the results of the HH interviews.

4.1 Background to the Food Economy Zone The characteristics of the tribal dry agricultural zone are described in section 3.2. In this section general information about the sample HHs are given. Of total 54 surveyed HHs, 53 of the HHs belong to ST and only one to OBC category.

Figure 8: Population of the tribal dry agricultural zone (caste-wise)

Population (caste-wise)

ST OBC

98%

Average household size: 6.3 persons, with following variation among the wealth groups

- Poor: 6.1 - Medium: 7.0 - Better-off: 5.8

Housing: Kaccha house (median for all HHs)

- Poor: Kaccha house - Medium: Kaccha house - Better-off: semi-pucca house

Kaccha house in Semliyamal

Agricultural implements4: none (median for all HHs)

- Poor: none - Medium/Better-off: Simple

Transport5, Power Connection6, Electronic devices7, Sanitary facilities8: 0 (median for all HHs, no difference between the three wealth groups).

Regarding education the following data was collected:

Overall, the education level is very low. The average education level of men is 1.01 (averagely men only complete Standard 1), for women it is 0.60 (in average women go only 0.6 years to school). This low average education level is driven by many adults and children who did/do not attend school at all.

Interestingly, people in the medium wealth group have the highest average education level, the lowest education level was found in the better-off group. The average education level of female HH members is in all wealth groups lower than the average education level of male HH members. The highest difference between male and female education level was found in the poor wealth group.

All in all, the dropout rate can be described as very high. 54% of all children at the age of 5- 10 years do not attend school. The share is even higher for children at the age of 11-15 (60%). There does not seem to be a trend that better-off families send their children more regular to school. The dropout rates in that wealth group are even higher than the average: 73% for children under 10 and 80% for children between 11 and 15 years old.

In 15 out of the 54 sample HHs child labour occurred. 11% of all children were working or earning.

4.1.1 Price and markets

The biggest market to this livelihood zone is the one found in Bhikangaon town. People from about 20km distance come to this market with different commodities to sell and purchase. This well-organized market takes place once in a week on Tuesday. The market is separated in two market places.

At one market place, which has a size of approximately 4 acre, food products like Rice, Wheat, Millets, different types of Dhal, Potatoes, different vegetables, fruits, spices etc. are

4 Range for Agricultural implements: 0 = none; 1 = simple; 2 = better 5 Range for Transport: 0 = none 1 = bicycle 2 = motorbike 3 = better 6 Range for Power Connection: 0 = none 1 = BPL connection 2 = private connection 7 Range for Electronic devices: 0 = none or 1 mobile; 1 = several; 2 = TV or better 8 Range for Sanitary facilities: 0 = none; 1 = potable water; 2 = and toilet

22 commodities available at this market. Also clothes and shoes are sold there.

At the other market place, fish, chicken, mutton and other meat can be bought. Also other animal products like eggs and ghee is available there.

The commodities are coming from different directions, for example from Bhikangaon itself, but also for instance from Khandwa or Indore. Traders have to pay a fee of INR 10 per week.

Additionally, there are several small-scale markets and many small grocery shops in the region. Villagers are mostly dependent on these markets and shops. The majority walks, or uses bullet carts to come to the market.

Prices are subjects to seasonal fluctuations. Tomatoes for instance cost more than double as much if their harvest season is over.

4.1.2 Seasonal calendar

The tribal dry agricultural zone has one rainy season, which lasts from mid-June till mid- October. The months of May and June are the hottest months of the year. The main land preparation work starts in the months before the rainy reason and most crops are planted with the start of the rains.

Like already described in section 3.2, there are two crop seasons: Kharif and Rabi. Sowing and harvesting periods can be read from the seasonal calendar (page 21). Demand for agricultural labour occurs during the two harvest seasons. MGNREGA labour takes mostly place in the summer months March, April and May. Migration for work occurs throughout the year except for the time of land preparation, sowing and harvesting time of Kharif crops. Most people migrate during the months February and March.

The hunger season peaks in June till September.

Main holiday periods and therefore periods in which the people spend a lot of their money are in the months of March, April, August, September and December.

Malaria occurs throughout the year, but the highest risk of infection is during rainy season.

Month January February March April May June July August September October November December

Season Winter winter/summer summer summer summer summer/rainy rainy rainy rainy rainy/winter winter winter

Sowing/ Kharif

Maize

Jowar

Soya beans

Cotton

Sowing / Rabi

Wheat

Harvest/ Kharif

Maize

Jowar

Soya beans

Cotton

Harvest/ Rabi

Wheat

Agricultural Labour

MGNREGA Labour

Hunger time

Migration

Festivals

Malaria Table 23: Seasonal calendar – Tribal dry agricultural zone

4.1.3 Wealth breakdown

For rural areas in India the poverty line is placed at INR 26 per day per capita. According to this national standard the sample HHs can be categorized in HHs living below poverty line (BPL) and HHs living above poverty line (APL). Figure 9 shows that the majority, 93% of the sample HHs, lives below the national PL.

Figure 9: Wealth breakdown according to national standard Wealth breakdown according to national standard

APL 7%

BPL 93%

Like already described above, during the wealth breakdown interviews the people within a village are grouped together using local definitions of wealth and the quantification of their assets. According to these local criteria (details see Table 24) the people divided themselves in a ‘poor’, a ‘medium’ and a relatively ‘better-off’ group. The proportional distribution of these three wealth groups in the sample villages are shown in Figure 10. The wealth breakdown interviews show how the villagers see themselves relatively to each other, but still, considering the Indian PL, 93% of them live clearly in poverty (see Figure 9).

Figure 10: Proportional distribution of the wealth groups according to local standards (tribal dry agricultural zone) Proportional distribution of the wealth groups (according to WB interviews)

Better-off 12%

Poor Medium 36% 52%

Table 24: Criteria of the Wealth Breakdowns (WBs) according to local standards (tribal dry agricultural zone) Criteria Poor Medium Better-off

Land size 0-2 acres >2-5 acres >5 acres

No. of cattle & oxen 0-2 3-4 >4 owned

Hunger Time 4 or more months >1.5-3 months 0-1.5 months

Kaccha or semi-pucca Semi-pucca or pucca Housing Kaccha house house house

Less migration compared No dependence on Migration Seasonal migration to poor group migration

Irrigation of farm land Mostly non-irrigated land Partly irrigated land Partly irrigated land

Dependence on labour No dependence on labour Labour work work work

4.2 Income and expenditures

4.2.1 Income

Average annual income9:

Poor: INR 22,235

Medium: INR 32,011

Better-off: INR 41,461

All HHs: INR 31,902

Main income sources are: agriculture, labour, livestock and migration. Also other income sources were addressed during the survey, but those do not seem to be relevant for this zone.

If one compares the income sources between the three wealth groups clear differences can be noticed. Better-off HHs earn with their crop sales more money than poor HHs earn overall. Agriculture is the main income source for medium as well as for better-off HHs (for the better-off group 71%, for the medium group 57% of the total income comes from crop sales). Poor HHs are apparently dependent on migration (42% of their total income comes from migration). Second most important income source for all wealth groups is labour income. 39% of the total income is generated through labour/employment (including MGNREGA) in poor HHs. In HHs of the medium group that share is 20%, for better-off it is 21%. Income generated by selling animal products or livestock plays a minor role (the share is 4% in all groups).

9 Six interviews (3 per wealth group) are not included in the calculations of section 4.2 due to extreme high disproportionateness between income and expenditures.

Figure 11: Graphical distribution of income (tribal dry agricultural zone) Main income sources (group-wise, in INR) 45000 40000 35000 30000 Migration 25000 Livestock 20000 Labour 15000 Agriculture 10000 5000 0 Poor Medium Better-off

4.2.2 Expenditures

Average expenditures per annum

Poor: INR 22,893

Medium: INR 31,165

Better-off: INR 40,586

All HHs: INR 31,548

Poor HHs spent 48% of their total income on food, medium HHs 27%, better-off HHs 26%. Figure 12 shows that HHs in the better-off group spent clearly more money on agricultural inputs, services10 and other items11 than the rest. Interestingly, families in the medium wealth group spent slightly more money on HH items than better-off HHs. This is caused by their higher expenditures on clothes.

10 “Services” include education, health and insurance expenditures as well as interest payments. 11 “Other” include expenditures for alcohol, tobacco, transport, festivals and village contribution/taxes.

Figure 12: Average annual expenditures (tribal dry agricultural zone) Average annual expenditures (group-wise, in INR) 45000 40000 35000 30000 Other 25000 Services 20000 Inputs 15000 HH items 10000 Food 5000 0 Poor Medium Better-off

In Figure 13 the annual average income and expenditures are directly compared. Roughly spoken all HHs spent all money they earn. Though, the trend seems to be that the better the wealth group the higher the probability that a HH can save money because the ratio between annual average income and expenditures is slightly positive for the medium and the better-off group.

Figure 13: Comparison annual income and expenditures (tribal dry agricultural zone) Comparison Annual Income - Expenditures (group-wise, in INR)

Better-off

Medium Expenditures Income Poor

0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000

4.3 Production

4.3.1 Landholding

Average landholding per HH (cultivable land only)

Poor: 0.92acres (50% of the poor HHs are landless)

Medium: 4.28acres

Better-off: 6.50acres

All HHs: 3.9acres

Table 25: Distribution of average land type (in acres) according to wealth group (tribal dry agricultural zone) Irrigated Encroached Cultivable

Poor 0.08 0.00 0.92

Medium 0.19 0.00 4.28

Better Off 0.42 0.00 6.5

None of the surveyed HHs owned homestead land. Irrigated land is very rare. 6 (1 poor, 2 medium, 3 better-off families) out of the 54 surveyed HHs possess irrigated farm land (in other words: only 6% of the total cultivated farm land is irrigated).

Like in the wealth breakdown interviews discussed land holding seems to be a wealth criterion, also keeping in mind that agriculture determines the livelihood in the villages to a large extent.

Figure 14: Relationship between landholding and agricultural income (tribal dry agricultural zone) Relationship between landholding and agricultural income 60000 50000 40000 R² = 0.4869 30000 20000 10000 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 averageannual agricultural income average landholding (in acs)

4.3.2 Crop production

Average total quantity of crops produced

Poor: 299kg

Medium: 1430kg

Better-off: 1840kg

All HHs: 1190kg

All HHs possessing land are also cultivating at least one crop. Main crops produced are: Soya beans, Maize, Jowar (Sorghum), Cotton and Wheat. Out of those soya beans and cotton are cash crops. Soya beans are later used for oil, biscuits or cattle feed.

Figure 15: Dominating crops (tribal dry agricultural zone) Main crops produced on farm land

10% soya maize 17% 44% sorghum cotton wheat 27%

The better the wealth group, the more crops are sold. Poor HHs sell averagely 35%, medium HHs 46% and better-off HHs 59% of their total crop production.

4.3.3 Livestock and animal products

Average no. of animals owned per HH

Poor: 2

Medium: 8

Better-off: 7

All HHs: 6

Typical animals owned are: chickens, goats, cattle and oxen. The meat and eggs of chickens and the milk of cattle and goats are used for own consumption (only one medium HH sold eggs). Cow dung is used as fertilizer. Oxen are used for agricultural work (ox-cart). 24% of all HHs sold goats last year, 11% sold chickens.

4.3.4 Hunting, Fishing and NTFP

Like already mentioned, NTFPs play a very marginal role in the tribal dry agricultural zone. Only 13% of all HHs (with the following variation among the wealth groups: poor – 17%, medium – 11%, better-off – 8%) collect one or two NTFPs (mostly Mahua and Char) and/or go fishing.

4.4 Food

4.4.1 Food sources

Figure 16 shows the sources where the HHs get their food from. As you can see there are sharp differences between the wealth groups. Poor HHs have to purchase the majority of their food items whereas HHs in the medium and better-off group produce much of their food on

30 their own. Food with subsidized prices from the PDS (Public Distribution services) shop plays a more important role for poor HHs than for medium and better-off HHs. All HHs receive food from agricultural work and mainly consume this (in exceptional cases HHs sell the received food).

Figure 16: Food sources (tribal dry agricultural zone)

4.4.2 Hunger time

Like in the wealth breakdown interviews discussed, the duration of Hunger Time is clearly longer for poor HHs than for HHs in the medium and better-off group (see also Figure 17). Only 2 better-off families stated to experience a time of food scarcity. According to the HH interviews Hunger Time lasts averagely 6.2 months (poor group), 1.9 months (medium group), 0.3 months (better-off group). Peak of Hunger Time is the rainy season (mid-June till October). In August 67% of all HHs suffer from hunger.

The intensity of Hunger Time also differs: In average poor HHs eat 35% less in Hunger Time compared to Normal Time, medium HHs eat 25% less.

Figure 17: Graphical distribution of Hunger Times (all HHs and group-wise; tribal dry agricultural zone) Hunger Time (all HHs) 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40%

30% Share of HHs Shareof 20% 10% 0% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Months (Jan-Dec)

Hunger Time Hunger Time Hunger Time (poor group) (medium group) (better-off group) 100% 100% 100% 90% 90% 90% 80% 80% 80% 70% 70% 70% 60% 60% 60% 50% 50% 50% 40% 40% 40%

30% ShareHHs of 30%

Share of HHs Shareof 30% Share of HHs Shareof 20% 20% 20% 10% 10% 10% 0% 0% 0% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Months (Jan - Dec) Months (Jan - Dec) Months (Jan - Dec)

4.4.3 Food patterns

The diet is dominated by Maize (mostly consumed in winter), Wheat (mostly consumed in summer) and Jowar. Rice only plays a minor role. The following tables show which commodities the HHs averagely consume per day (Table 26: Normal Time; Table 27: Hunger Time).

Table 26: Average food consumption (in kg) per day in Normal Time (main commodities; tribal dry agricultural zone) Wheat Maize Jowar Rice Pulses Vegetables Potatoes Others12 Sum

Poor 0.907 0.991 1.077 0.031 0.163 0.136 0.091 0.055 3.451

Medium 0.350 1.890 1.398 0.037 0.131 0.158 0.175 0.120 4.259

Better-off 0.511 1.492 1.290 0.139 0.363 0.225 0.225 0.131 4.375

All HHs 0.589 1.458 1.255 0.069 0.219 0.173 0.164 0.102 4.028

12 Including Oil, Milk, Fruits, Chili, Sugar, Salt.

Table 27: Average food consumption (in kg) per day in Hunger Time (main commodities; tribal dry agricultural zone) Wheat Maize Jowar Rice Pulses Vegetables Potatoes Others Sum

Poor 0.685 0.868 0.519 0.016 0.106 0.081 0.047 0.037 2.323

Medium 0.286 1.753 1.028 0.033 0.115 0.078 0.076 0.064 3.358

Better-off13 0.488 1.448 1.241 0.139 0.325 0.242 0.246 0.127 4.106

All HHs 0.486 1.356 0.929 0.063 0.182 0.250 0.123 0.076 3.263

4.4.4 Calorie intake

Normal Time

During Normal Time, on the one hand 40.74% of all HHs achieve a satisfactory daily calorie intake per person of more than 2100kcal. On the other hand, in 40.74% of all HHs persons do not even get 1800kcal/day during Normal Time. This is an alarming situation. In 18.52% of all HHs, member achieve averagely between 1800kcal-2100kcal. Without change, this will also lead in the long-run to undernutrition.

Figure 18: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs; tribal dry agricultural zone) Average daily calorie intake per person (Normal Time)

>2100 kcal 40.74% 40.74% 1800 - 2100 kcal <1800 kcal

18.52%

If one takes a look at the differences between the three wealth groups, one can see: Overall, the nutrition status of poor HHs seems to be more severe than the situation of better- off group. Only 33% of the poor HHs achieve the 2100kcal-threshold. In other words: 67% of all poor HHs cannot – even in Normal Time – cover their daily calorific requirement. All HHs in the better-off group achieve at least the 1800kcal-threshold during Normal Time. The situation of the HHs in the medium wealth group is similar to the situation of the HHs in the poor wealth group. In the medium wealth group 28% of the HHs can cover their energy requirements (this share is a bit less than the one in the poor wealth group). 50% of the medium HHs are in the worst situation, they do not achieve the 1800kcal-threshold, 22% lie in the situation in between.

13 Note: Only two better-off HHs stated to experience a HT.

Figure 19: Average daily calorie intak per person during Normal Time (group-wise; tribal dry agricultural zone) Average daily calorie intake per person (Normal Time, group-wise)

Better-off

>2100 kcal Medium 1800 - 2100 kcal <1800 kcal

Poor

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Hunger Time Like Figure 20 shows, the situation during Hunger Time is even worse: Two thirds of all HHs fall in the category in which the daily calorie intake per person is less than 1800kcal. Only roughly one quarter of the HHs is able during Hunger Time to cover its calorific requirements of 2100kcal.

Figure 20: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (all HHs; tribal dry agricultural zone) Average daily calorie intake per person (Hunger Time)

24.07% >2100 kcal 1800 - 2100 kcal 9.26% 66.67% <1800 kcal

Once more a look at the differences between the wealth groups: 96% of the poor HHs do not achieve the necessary 2100kcal/day/capita during Hunger Time. And just to repeat: Hunger Time lasts averagely half a year for the poor wealth group (see section 4.4.2)! And the peak of Hunger Time coincides with the time during which most of the agricultural work has to be done. People would actually need to take more calories in. Only one HH, out of the 24 poor surveyed HHs, achieves the 2100kcal-threshold during Hunger Time. Also in the medium

34 wealth group, the majority (78% of the medium HHs) takes less than 1800kcal/day in. Even in the better-off group, one third of the HHs do not achieve the 2100kcal-threshold during Hunger Time.

Figure 21: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; tribal dry agricultural zone) Average daily calorie intake per person (Hunger Time, group-wise)

Better-off

>2100 kcal Medium 1800 - 2100 kcal <1800 kcal

Poor

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

4.5 Implementation of government programmes

4.5.1 NREGA

The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) shall guarantee every rural household, whose members volunteer to do unskilled manual work, 100 days of wage employment in a financial year.

The situation of the NREGA scheme in the tribal dry agricultural zone is the following:

Table 28: Summary MGNREGA (group-wise, tribal dry agricultural zone) Poor Medium Better-off All HHs

No. of HHs with 19 (out of 16 (out of 8 (out of 43 (out of MGNREGA job card 24) 18) 12) 54)

No. of HHs actually 16 10 7 33 working under MGNREGA

Days worked under 39 28 35 34 MGNREGA (average for job-cardholders)

Out of 54 sample HHs, 43 HHs own a job card, but only 33 of the 43 HHs with job card really worked under the NREGA scheme; averagely 34 days. If one takes a closer look at the working days, one can say that 12 HHs worked more than 50 days under NREGA last year,

35 only 2 HHs worked 100 days. 10 HHs did not work under NREGA, although they own a job card (see figure 22).

All HHs working under NREGA received a payment of 100 INR/day.

Figure 22: Histogram - Total working days under MGNREGA (tribal dry agricultural zone)

Frequency 4

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Days worked under MGNREGA

If all HHs had a job card and worked 100days per year under the MGNREGA scheme, the HHs would generate an additional income of INR 10,000. Considering this, the BPL/APL- distribution (according to national standard) would improve: 17% instead of 7% of the HHs would fall under the APL-category. Though, this makes clear that a perfectly working MGNREGA programme alone would also not be sufficient to get all HHs out of poverty.

Figure 23: Wealth breakdown according to national standard and under the condition of a working MGNREGA scheme (tribal dry agricultural zone) Wealth breakdown under the condition of working MGNREGA scheme

APL 17%

BPL 83%

4.5.2 PDS

Figure 24 shows that there are no big differences between the shares of BPL-, APL- and AAY-cardholders in the tribal dry agricultural zone. One third of all HHs surveyed did not own a ration card (this problem was already mentioned in the village interviews). The share of HHs without ration card is clearly higher in the better-off and poor group (for both 42%) than in the medium group (17%). The majority of card-holding HHs did not mention any problems with their ration card. Four HHs complained about irregular availability of the goods at the PDS shop.

Figure 24: Distribution of ration cards (tribal dry agricultural zone)

No card APL AAY BPL

24% 33%

21% 22%

4.5.3 ICDS

The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) is a governmental programme which aims to tackle malnutrition and health problems of children below 6 years and their mothers. Anganwadi Centres are community-based institutions integrated in ICDS.

Overall, 56% of all HHs14 take their children to Anganwadi Centres in their village. All HHs sending their children to Anganwadi Centres stated that their children get nutrition supplements there. Clearly less homogenous were the answers concerning the other services children below 6 years of age shall get in the Anganwadi Centres.

14 Notice: No differentiation is made between HHs with and HHs without children below 6.

Figure 25: Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres (tribal dry agricultural zone)

Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres

nutrition education

health services

pre-school education yes no growth monitoring

nutrition supplements

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

4.6 Shocks 19% of all HHs surveyed stated that they have experienced external shocks in the past. In most of the cases, one of the HH members, the head of household or his wife, got ill for a longer period of time. This often means a double burden: The HH has to face the cost of treatment and the ill person cannot earn money, consequently the HH experiences an expenditure-increasing and an income-decreasing shock at the same time.

Figure 13 shows the different coping mechanisms used in case of external shocks. The most common reaction was doing extra work; in case of a disease the other HH members – not suffering from the illness – do this.

Figure 26: Coping mechanisms in case of external shocks (tribal dry agricultural zone)

12% 24%

29%

35%

Using emergency stocks/assets Cutting down expenditures Doing extra work Borrowing money

5 Food Economy zone 2: Non-irrigated hilly zone

5.1 Background to the Food Economy Zone The description of the non-irrigated hilly zone can be found in section 3.2. Out of 21 surveyed HHs, 18 HHs were members of STs, 3 of SCs. Average HH size: 5.8 persons, with following variation among the wealth groups

- Poor: 5.1 - Medium: 7.8 - Better-off: 5.5

Housing (median)

- Poor: Kaccha house - Medium: Kaccha house - Better-off: semi-pucca house

Means of transport (median):

- Poor/Medium: none - Better-off: advanced means of transport (motorbike)

Agricultural implements: simple (median for all HHs, no difference between the three wealth groups).

Power Connection, Electronic devices, Sanitary facilities: 0 (median for all HHs, no difference between the three wealth groups; explantion see Footnotes 6-8).

Regarding education the following data was collected: Overall, the education level is higher compared to the tribal dry agricultural zone, but still it is low. The average education level of men is 4.7 (averagely men do not even complete elementary school), for women it is 3.9.

In Figure 27 it is shown that women have clearly a lower education level than men in the poor and medium wealth group. Interestingly, the female education level in the better-off group is higher than the male education level. All in all the education level increases according to the wealth group.

Figure 27: Average education level of women and men (non-irrigated hilly zone) Av. male and female education level (group-wise)

Better-off

Medium female male Poor

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 class

There seems to be a trend that the children’s generation enjoys a higher education level than the parent’s generation. In 76% of all HHs the maximum education level is higher than the HoH’s education level. The trend is observed in all three wealth groups. Though, not all children are included in that trend: The dropout rate of all children at the age of 5-10 years is 29%. The rate is similar in the poor and medium wealth group (31% and 33% respectively), whereas in the better-off group it is 0% according to the HH surveyed. The share of the 11- 15-years-old children not attending school is surprisingly lower; it is 23%.

In 10 out of the 21 sample HHs child labour occurred. 19% of all children were working or earning.

5.1.1 Seasonal calendar

Like in the tribal dry agricultural zone, there is one rainy season in the non-irrigated hilly zone. It takes place from mid-June till mid-October. The two crop seasons are also Kharif and Rabi. Important Kharif crops in the zone are Paddy, Maize and different types of pulses; important Rabi crops are Wheat and Mustard seeds. Demand for agricultural labour occurs during all sowing and harvest seasons. Non-timber forest products (NTFP), Mahua and Tendu leaves, are collected in March-April. MGNREGA work takes mostly place in January; migration for work during December- February.

Several important festivals take place throughout the year. Most marriages take place in May/June.

Most loans are taken in May or June and interest has to be paid back in March.

Peak of the Hunger time period is in July/August.

Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Season Winter winter/summer summer summer summer summer/rain rain rain rain rain/winter winter winter Sowing/ Kharif Paddy Maize kodu (pulses) kutki (pulses) Sowing / Rabi Wheat Mustard seeds Harvest/ Kharif Paddy Maize kodu (pulses) kutki (pulses) Harvest/ Rabi Wheat Mustard seeds Agricultural Labour NTFP collection Mahua Mahua Tendu, Charwa

MGNREGA Labour Hunger time Migration Festivals Makar sankranti Holi Marriages Marriages Raksha bandhan Daserra Diwali Loan time Interest payment time Table 29: Seasonal calendar – Non-irrigated hilly zone

5.1.2 Wealth breakdown

90% of the sample HHs in the non-irrigated hilly zone live under the national PL, 10% above it.

Figure 28: Wealth breakdown according to national standard Wealth breakdown according to national standard

APL 10%

BPL 90%

According to local criteria of wealth (see Table 30), 57% of the population of the sample villages fall into the poor category, 24% into the medium and 19% into the relatively better- off group.

Figure 29: Proportional distribution of the wealth groups according to local standards (non-irrigated hilly zone) Proportional distribution of the wealth groups (according to WB)

Better-off 19%

Medium Poor 24% 57%

Table 30: Criteria of the WBs according to local standards (non-irrigated hilly zone) Criteria Poor Medium Better-off

Land size <4 acres 4-7 acres >7 acres

Less dependence on Dependence on seasonal Less dependence on Labour seasonal work; permanent work seasonal work employment

Bigger Kaccha or semi- Semi-pucca or Pucca Housing Kaccha house pucca house house

Transport No means of transport Own means of transport

Only takes sometimes Borrowing money Loan-taker Takes no loan loan

A special criterion mentioned was that all orphans and disabled persons belong to the poor wealth group.

5.2 Income and expenditures

5.2.1 Income

Average annual income:

Poor: INR 18,076

Medium: INR 23,826

Better-off: INR 59,436

All HHs: INR 33,779

The difference between poor and medium wealth group on the one hand and better-off group on the other hand is much clearer in the non-irrigated hilly zone than in the tribal dry agricultural zone. The average income of a better-off family is more than three times higher than the average income of a poor family in the non-irrigated hilly zone.

Figure 30: Main income sources (non-irrigated hilly zone) Main income sources (group-wise, in INR) 70000

60000

50000 Migration 40000 Livestock

30000 Labour NTFP 20000 Agriculture 10000

0 Poor Medium Better-off

Figure 30 shows the main income sources of the different wealth groups: Migration, Livestock, Labour, NTFP and Agriculture. In the non-irrigated hilly zone the distribution of the income sources is totally different compared to the tribal dry agricultural zone. Labour is clearly the main income source for all three wealth groups (in all wealth groups at least 70% of the total income comes from daily wages/labour/employment). Income which comes from crop sales plays generally a less important role than in Jhiranya and Pandhana. For better-off families only 12% of the total average income comes from agriculture, for HHs in the poor and medium group the share is even less (6% and 8% respectively). Migration also does not seem to be crucial. For poor and better-off HHs 8% of the total income comes from migration, for families in the medium group the share is 3%. Selling of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is more import for poor and medium HHs (the share of the total income is 8%) than for better-off HHs. Income generated by selling livestock or animal products plays a similar minor role like in the tribal dry agricultural zone; the share is up to 5% only.

5.2.2 Expenditures

Average expenditures per annum

Poor: INR 18,788

Medium: INR 24,053

Better-off: INR 36,168

All HHs: INR 26,336

Figure 31: Average annual expenditures (non-irrigated hilly zone) Average annual expenditures (group-wise, in INR) 40000 35000 30000 Other 25000 Services 20000 Inputs 15000 HH items 10000 Food 5000 0 Poor Medium Better-off

There are clear differences between the level of food expenditures of the poor and medium group on the one hand and the better-off group on the other. Poor families spent 45%, medium HHs 47% of their total income on food; better-off families only 13%. Better-off HHs spent most of their money on services (25% of their total income). The corresponding share for poor HHs is 22%, for medium HHs 17%. 18% of the total income of poor HHs is spent on HH items. Families in the medium group spend 17%, better-off families 13% of their total income on HH items. Also 18% of the poor HHs’ total income is spent on other items (e.g. tobacco). HHs in the medium group spend 15%, better-off families 8% on other items. Since income generated by selling agricultural and animal products plays a minor role, the expenditures for inputs are also relatively low (up to 5% of the total expenditures in all wealth groups).

5.3 Production

5.3.1 Landholding

Average landholding per HH (cultivable land only, homestead land included)

Poor: 2.35acres (no landless HH)

Medium: 6.00acres

Better-off: 9.38acres

All HHs: 5.91acres

57% of the surveyed HHs own homestead land. Average size of the homestead land is 0.78acre (group-wise average: poor - 0.67acr, medium - 0.83acr, better-off - 0.83acr; average only for HHs owning homestead land). On average the HHs cultivate 3 crops on their homestead land, mostly maize, mustard seeds and potatoes. Mustard seeds are processed into oil by the HHs for their own consumption.

Irrigated land is very rare. Only 3 (1 poor, 1 medium, 1 better-off family) out of the 21 surveyed HHs possess irrigated farm land. The soil is red.

Table 31: Distribution of average land type (in acres) according to wealth group (non-irrigated hilly zone) Irrigated Encroached Cultivable

Poor 0.25 0.23 2.12

Medium 0.40 0 6.00

Better Off 0.38 1 8.38

5.3.2 Crop production

Average total quantity of crops produced:

Poor: 558kg

Medium: 1211kg

Better-off: 2666kg

All HHs: 1478kg

Poor HHs cultivate averagely 2.6, medium HHs 3.8, better-off HHs 5.5 crops on their farm land. Main crops produced are: Paddy, wheat, maize and millets (see figure 32).

Figure 32: Dominating crops (non-irrigated hilly zone) Main crops produced on farm land

20% paddy 37% wheat millets maize 11% pulses

26%

In total, HHs in the non-irrigated hilly zone mainly produce crops for their own consumption. In average only 13% of the total crop production are sold by poor HHs. HHs of the medium wealth group sell averagely 29%, better-off 31% of their total crop production.

5.3.3 Livestock and animal products

No. of animals owned per HH (median)

Poor: 4

Medium: 6

Better-off: 5

All HHs: 5

HHs own typically goats, oxen and cattle. As already seen income generated by livestock and livestock products plays a very minor role in the non-irrigated hilly zone. The milk of cattle and goats is used for own consumption. Two of the surveyed HHs sold goats last year.

5.3.4 Hunting, Fishing and NTFP

95% of all HHs collect NTFPs, averagely 2.35 products and mostly Tendu leaves as well as Mahua. The majority (96%) of the collected NTFPs are sold.

Figure 33: Main NTFPs collected in non-irrigated hilly zone

Main NTFPs

fish 9% char 9% tendu leaves 41%

mahua 41%

5.4 Food

5.4.1 Food sources

Figure 34 shows the sources where the HHs get their food from. The distribution of food sources is similar in the poor and medium wealth group. Around half of the food is own produced food. 45% of the consumed food is purchased at local markets or at the PDS shop. The share of food items bought in the PDS shop is slightly higher in the poor wealth group (18% of the total food consumed by the poor HHs) than in the medium wealth group (15% of the total food consumed by the medium HHs). Marginal roles play food for work (~5%) and NTFP (1% or even less). In sharp contrast, there are only three sources of food in the better-

47 off group. Better-off families produce approximately two-third of their food on their own, 16% of the food is purchased in the market, and 6% comes from the PDS shop.

Figure 34: Food sources (non-irrigated hilly zone)

5.4.2 Hunger time

Like in the tribal dry agricultural zone the duration of Hunger Time is longer for poor HHs than for HHs in the medium and better-off group (see Figure 35), but altogether the average duration of the Hunger Time is shorter and the difference of the intensity between Hunger Time and Normal Time is smaller.

According to the HH interviews Hunger Time lasts averagely 3 months for poor HHs, 1.4 months for HHs in the medium group and 0.5 months for better-off HHs. Peak of HT is the rainy season (mid-June till October). In July and August 57% of all HHs suffer from food scarcity. In average poor HHs eat 25% less in HT compared to Normal Time, medium HHs eat 17% less.

Figure 35: Hunger Time (all HHs and group-wise, non-irrigated hilly zone) Hunger Time (all HHs) 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30%

ShareHHs of 20% 10% 0%

Hunger Time Hunger Time Hunger Time (poor group) (medium group) (better-off group) 80% 80% 80% 70% 70% 70% 60% 60% 60% 50% 50% 50% 40% 40% 40%

30% 30% 30% ShareHHs of 20% ShareHHs of 20% 20% 10% 10% 10% 0% 0% 0%

5.4.3 Food patterns

The diet is dominated by Wheat and Rice. The following tables show which commodities and how much the HHs averagely consume per day (Table 32: Normal Time; Table 33: Hunger Time).

Table 32: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Normal Time (main commodities;non-irrig. hilly zone) Wheat Rice Maize Vegetables Potatoes Pulses Others15 Sum

Poor 1.633 0.746 0.317 0.090 0.163 0.113 0.118 3.179

Medium 2.357 1.273 1.009 0.088 0.276 0.253 0.165 5.420

Better-off 2.550 1.275 0.075 0.196 0.196 0.275 0.551 5.117

All HHs 2.180 1.098 0.467 0.125 0.211 0.214 0.278 4.601

Table 33: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Hunger Time (main commodities;non-irrig. hilly zone) Wheat Rice Maize Vegetables Potatoes Pulses Others16 Sum

Poor 1.505 0.668 0.140 0.021 0.017 0.083 0.074 2.509

Medium 2.113 1.231 0.381 0.126 0.174 0.228 0.363 4.617

Better-off 2.475 1.200 0.075 0.113 0.189 0.263 0.551 4.865

All HHs 2.031 1.033 0.199 0.086 0.126 0.191 0.330 3.997

15 Including Milk, Oil, Fruits, Fish, Chili, Sugar, Salt 16 Including Milk, Oil, Fruits, Fish, Chili, Sugar, Salt

5.4.4 Calorie intake

Normal Time During Normal Time, 57% of all HHs achieve a daily calorie intake per person of 2100kcal or more. But the average daily calorie intake of the remaining 43% of the HHs lies under this threshold. Most alarming is that in 29% of the HHs the HH members do not even get 1800kcal/day during Normal Time.

Figure 36: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs; non-irrigated hilly zone) Average daily calorie intake per person (Normal Time)

>2100 kcal 29% 1800 - 2100 kcal <1800 kcal 57% 14%

As figure 37 shows there are clear differences between the three wealth groups. Members of poor HHs are in the most severe situation: Only half of the poor HHs achieves a satisfactory daily calorie intake per capita of 2100kcal (or more) during Normal Time. In 42% of the poor HHs the daily calorie intake per person lies under 1800kcal. In the medium wealth group 40% of the HHs do not cover their caloric needs of 2100kcal/day. All HHs in the better-off group achieve at least the 1800kcal-threshold during Normal Time.

Figure 37: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (group-wiese; non-irrigated hilly zone) Average daily calorie intake per person (Normal Time, group-wise)

Better-off

>2100 kcal Medium 1800 - 2100 kcal <1800 kcal

Poor

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

Hunger Time The situation is clearly worse during Hunger Time. 57% of all HHs cannot cover their calorific requirements of 1800kcal/day/person. Only one third of the HHs achieves a satisfactory daily calorie intake of 2100kcal during Hunger Time.

Figure 38: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (all HHs; non-irrigated hilly zone) Average daily calorie intake per person (Hunger Time)

>2100 kcal 33% 1800 - 2100 kcal <1800 kcal 57%

10%

If one takes a look at the differences between the wealth groups, the following statement can be made: Again: Poor HHs have to face the most severe situation. The average daily calorie intake per person lies under 1800kcal in two-thirds of the poor HHs during Hunger Time. Only 17% of the poor HHs achieve the 2100kcal-threshold; in the medium group this share is 40%, in the better-off group 75%. Even in the medium and better-off group the share of HHs in which the daily calorie intake lies under 1800kcal, is 60% and 25% respectively.

Figure 39: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; non-irrigated hilly zone) Average daily calorie intake per person (Hunger Time, group-wise)

Better-off

>2100 kcal Medium 1800 - 2100 kcal <1800 kcal

Poor

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

5.5 Implementation of government programmes

5.5.1 NREGA

Out of 21 sample HHs 17 own definitely a job card. Though, only 7 HHs really worked under the MGNREGA scheme; namely only 12 days in average.

Table 34: Summary MGNREGA (non-irrigated hilly zone) Poor Medium Better-off All HHs

No. of HHs with 10 (out of 4 (out of 3 (out of 1717 (out MGNREGA job card 12) 5) 4) of 21)

No. of HHs actually 5 1 1 7 working under MGNREGA

Days worked under 28 3 5 12 MGNREGA (average for job-cardholders)

Only three of the 17 cardholding HHs worked more than 50 days under the MGNREGA scheme. None of them got 100days to work (for details see Figure 40). Figure 40: Histogram - Total working days under MGNREGA (non-irrigated hilly zone)

Frequency 4

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Days worked under MGNREGA

Under the condition of a perfectly working MGNREGA scheme, HHs would gain additionally INR 10,000 and the BPL-/APL-distribution (according to national standard) would improve: 24% of the HHs (instead of 10%) would fall under the APL-category. Possibly incurring opportunity costs are not included in this calculation.

17 Four HHs did not give an answer.

Figure 41: Wealth breakdown according to national standard and under the condition of a working MGNREGA scheme (non-irrigated hilly zone) Wealth breakdown under the condition of working MGNREGA scheme

APL 24%

BPL 76%

5.5.2 PDS

Figure 42 shows that the majority of the HHs owns a BPL card (86%). 9% of all HHs are AAY-cardholders, 5% of the HHs own an APL-card. Most of the interview partners did not mention any problems with their ration card. Though, two HHs complained about irregular availability of the goods at the PDS shop, one HH complained that the amounts the HH receives from the PDS shop are not sufficient and two HHs said they own a wrong card.

Figure 42: Distribution of ration cards (non-irrigated hilly zone)

AAY BPL APL

5% 9%

86%

5.5.3 ICDS

In total, 38% of all HHs send their children to the Anganwadi Centre of their village. All HHs taking their children to an Anganwadi Centre stated that their children get nutrition supplements there. According to the HHs surveyed growth monitoring and pre-school education does not take place in the Anganwadi Centres. Heterogeneous answers were given concerning nutrition education and health services.

Figure 43: Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres (non-irrigated hilly zone)

Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres

nutrition education

health services

pre-school education yes no growth monotoring

nutrition supplements

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

5.6 Shocks 62% of the sample HHs had to face a shock affecting money or food. Most common shocks experienced are expenditure-increasing shocks (either due to diseases of a HH member or death of a HH member). Second most common are crop losses. Income losses (due to diseases or crop loss) were also experienced.

Figure 44: Shocks experienced (non-irrigated hilly zone) Shocks experienced

Crop loss 33% Expenditure- increasing shock 45% Income loss 22%

The most common coping mechanism is doing extra work, but also cutting down expenditures, borrowing money and using emergency stocks/assets were mentioned as reaction to the experienced shock(s). The majority uses a mix of these coping mechanisms.

Figure 45: Coping mechanisms in case of external shocks (non-irrigated hilly zone)

22% 21%

30% 27%

Using emergency stocks/assets Cutting down expenditures Doing extra work Borrowing money

6 Food Economy Zone 3: Irrigated valley zone

6.1 Background to the Food Economy Zone Please refer to section 3.2 for the general discription of the irrigatd valley zone. In the following general characteristics of the HHs are described.

Of total 24 surveyed HHs, 14 HHs belong to SCs, 6 to the general class and 4 to OBCs.

Figure 46: Population of the irrigated valley zone (caste-wise) Population (caste-wise)

General 25%

OBC SC 17% 58%

Average household (HH) size: 6.2 persons, with following variation among the wealth groups

- Poor: 5.4 - Medium: 6.8 - Better-off: 6.5

Table 35: General characteristics of the HHs (median, group-wise; irrigated valley zone) Wealth Housing Agricultural Transport Power Electronic Sanitary group implements connection devices facilities Poor Kaccha None None None None or 1 None house mobile Medium Pucca house Simple Bicycle BPL Several None connection devices Better-off Pucca house Better Better BPL Several Potable water connection devices

Regarding education the following data was collected:

Overall, the education level of men is higher compared to the zones described before. The average education level of men is 7.1 (averagely men complete class 7). For women it is only 3.8, the gap is consequently even higher than in the non-irrigated hilly zone.

Figure 47: Average education level of women and men (irrigated valley zone) Av. male and female education level (group-wise)

Better-off

Medium female male Poor

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 class

In Figure 47 it is shown that women have clearly a lower education level than men in the medium and better-off group. Interestingly, the female education level in the poor wealth group is slightly higher than the male education level. All in all the education level increases according to the wealth group.

There seems to be a trend that the children’s generation enjoys a higher education level than the parent’s generation. In all three wealth groups the average maximum education level is higher than the average HoH’s education level. Though, not all children are included in that trend: The dropout rate of all children at the age of 5-10 years is 32%. In the medium and better-off HHs surveyed all children under 11 go to school, but the dropout rate is 43% in the poor wealth group. The share of the 11-15-years-old children not attending school is 22% (average for all wealth groups).

In 7 out of the 24 sample HHs child labour occurred. 13% of all children were working or earning money.

6.1.1 Seasonal calendar

Also the irrigated valley zone has one rainy season, which lasts from mid-June till mid- October. The main land preparation work starts in the months before the rainy reason and most crops are planted with the start of the rains.

Demand for agricultural labour occurs during the sowing and harvest seasons of the Kharif and Rabi crops. MGNREGA labour takes mostly place just before rainy season, in May and June. Migration for work is rare, it occurs mostly in July.

The hunger season peaks in December and January.

Main festivals and therefore periods in which the people spend a lot of their money are in the months of January, March, May, June, August, October and November.

Most loans are taken in June/ July and interest has to be paid back in April/May.

Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Season winter winter/summer summer summer summer summer/rain rain rain rain rain/winter winter winter Sowing/ Kharif Paddy Soya beans Sesame Pigeon pea Black gram Sowing / Rabi Wheat Bengal gram Mustard seeds Harvest/ Kharif Paddy Soya beans Sesame Pigeon pea Black gram Harvest/ Rabi Wheat Bengal gram Mustard seeds Agricultural Labour MGNREGA Labour Hunger time Migration Major Festivals Makar sankranti Holi Marriage Marriage Raksha bandan Daserra Diwali Loan time Interest payment time Table 36: Seasonal calendar – Irrigated valley zone

6.1.2 Wealth breakdown

71% of the HHs in the irrigated valley zone live under the poverty line set by the Indian government. The results of the wealth breakdown interviews in the sample villages are shown in Figure 49 and Table 37.

Figure 48: Wealth breakdown according to national standard (irrigated valley zone) Wealth breakdown according to national standard

APL 29%

BPL 71%

Figure 49: Proportional distribution of the wealth groups according to local standards (irrigated valley zone)

Proportional distribution of the wealth groups (according to WB)

Better-off 15%

Medium 21% Poor 64%

Table 37: Criteria of the Wealth Breakdowns (WBs) according to local standards (irrigated valley zone) Criteria Poor Medium Better-off

Land size 0-3 acres >3-7 acres >7 acres

Less dependence on Dependence on seasonal Less dependence on Labour seasonal work; permanent work seasonal work employment

Semi-pucca or pucca Semi-pucca or Pucca Housing Kaccha house house house

Less migration compared Migration Migration is common No migration to poor group

Owns advanced means of Owns several means of Transport Owns max. one cycle transport (e.g. transport motorcycle)

Only takes sometimes Borrowing money Loan-taker Takes no loan loan

6.2 Income and expenditures

6.2.1 Income

Average annual income18

Poor: INR 28,360

Medium: INR 62,400

Better-off: INR 111,117

All HHs: INR 67,292

In average the annual income of all HHs in the irrigated valley zone is evidently higher than in the zones described above. There are clear differences between the three wealth groups: Averagely a medium HH earns more than double as much than a poor HH. The average annual income of a better-off family is almost four times higher than the average income of a poor family in the irrigated valley zone.

Figure 50: Average annual income (irrigated valley zone) Average annual income (group-wise, in INR) 120000

100000 Other 80000 Migration 60000 Pension Self-Employment 40000 Labour 20000 Agriculture

0 Poor Medium Better-off

Figure 50 shows how the income is composed in the different wealth groups. For the poor HHs migration and labour are the main income sources: 56% of the income comes from migration, 37% from (occasional) labour. The medium as well as the better-off group earn more money with crop sales than the poor group in total. Besides agriculture (46% of the

18 Five interviews (4 poor HHs, 1 better-off HH) are not included in the calculations of section 4 and 5 due to extreme high disproportionateness between income and expenditures.

60 average annual income of a medium HH), different types of self-employment (e.g. shop owning, carpentry) seem to play an important role for medium families. Also some members of medium HHs migrate, the share of income generated by migration is 9%. For the better-off group the two main income sources are labour (48% of the total annual income comes from permanent employment) and agriculture (40% of the total annual income). ”Other income” comes from selling livestock (products).

6.2.2 Expenditures

Average expenditures per annum

Poor: INR 27,658

Medium: INR 54,080

Better-off: INR 82,100

All HHs: INR 54,613

The level of the average expenditures is considerably smaller than the average annual income of all HHs. Some HHs, especially those in the better-off group, seem to be able to save money.

Figure 51: Average annual expenditures (irrigated valley zone) Average annual expenditures (group-wise, in INR) 90000 80000 70000 60000 Other 50000 Services 40000 Inputs 30000 HH items 20000 Food 10000 0 Poor Medium Better-off

The absolute value of food expenditures is very similar in all wealth groups. But the relative amount varies. The poor group spends most of their money on food (54% of the total expenditures). For the medium group the share is 30%, for the better-off HHs it is 18%. Families in the poor group spent 11%, medium HHs 9% and better-off families 6% of their total income on HH items. Since agricultural income is of little importance for poor HHs, they almost spent no money on agricultural inputs; whereas medium and better-off families spent around INR 8,000 on agricultural inputs. Differences in the absolute and relative amount of expenditures on services are clearly visible. Medium HHs spent three times as much for services in comparison to poor HHs, better-off HHs nine times as much. 48% of the total

61 expenditures of better-off HHs are expenditures on services. For poor HHs this share is 16%, for medium families 25%. Better-off HHs spent more money on other items (e.g. tobacco) than the other two wealth groups. 6.3 Production

6.3.1 Landholding

Average land holding per HH (cultivated land only, homestead land included)

Poor: 1.59acres (38% of the poor HHs are landless)

Medium: 3.80acres

Better-off: 13.00acres

All HHs: 6.13acres

21% of the HHs own homestead land. Average size of the homestead land is 0.59acre (group- wise average: poor - 0.00acr, medium - 0.6acr, better-off - 1.17acr; average only for HHs owning homestead land). Irrigated farm land is not as rare as in the other zones. 58% of the total cultivated land is irrigated.

Table 38: Distribution of average land type (in acres) according to wealth group Irrigated Encroached Cultivable

Poor 0.41 0.03 1.59

Medium 2.88 0 3.80

Better Off 7.38 2 13.00

6.3.2 Crop production Average total quantity of crops produced

Poor: 363kg

Medium: 2675kg

Better-off: 6194kg

All HHs: 3077kg

All HHs owning land are also cultivating at least one crop. Poor HHs cultivate averagely 2.3 (landless excluded), medium HHs 4, better-off HHs 6 crops on their farm land. Main crops produced are: wheat, pulses and soya beans (see figure 52).

Figure 52: Dominating crops (irrigated valley zone)

Main crops produced on farm land

3% 3%

pulses 27% soya beans potatoes wheat 49% paddy 15% onions

In average 32% of the total crop production are sold by land-owning HHs of the poor wealth group. HHs of the medium wealth group sell averagely 60%, better-off 61% of their total crop production.

6.3.3 Livestock and animal products

Average no. of animals owned per HH

Poor: 1

Medium: 5

Better-off: 3

All HHs: 3

The HHs own mostly oxen or cattle; they use the milk for own consumption and cow dung as fertilizer. All in all, livestock and animal products do not play an important role in the livelihood zone.

6.3.4 Hunting, Fishing and NTFP

Also NTFPs and fishing do not seem to be relevant for the livelihood. Only one poor HH stated to go fishing.

6.4 Food

6.4.1 Food sources

Like already seen in the other two livelihood zones, food sources differ sharply between the three wealth groups. In the irrigated valley zone better-off HHs produce almost three-quarters of their food on their own, the rest they purchase. Also the HHs of the medium wealth group produce the majority of their food (57%) on their own land, 37% they purchase at markets and the remaining 6% they get from the PDS shop. Poor HHs have to buy most of their food,

63 namely 55% they purchase. Averagely 19% of their food they produce on their own, 10% they buy in the PDS shop and 10% come from work for food.

Figure 53: Food sources (irrigated valley zone)

6.4.2 Hunger time

Overall the Hunger time lasts averagely 1.5 months. Poor HHs have to face a longer period of food scarcity than the medium and better-off group, averagely 3 months. Only few medium and better-off HHs experience a Hunger Time (therefore they are not included in Figure 54). Peak of Hunger Time is in winter (December and January): 54% of all HHs have to face a Hunger Time in those two months.

Figure 54: Graphical distribution of Hunger Times (all HHs and poor wealth group; irrigated valley zone)

Hunger Time (all HHs) 80% 70% Hunger Time (poor group) 60% 80% 50% 70% 40% 60% 30% 50% 40% ShareHHs of 20% 30% 10% 20% 0% 10% 0%

6.4.3 Food patterns

The two tables below show in detail which food commodities and how much (in kg) an average HH consumes daily.

Table 39: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Normal Time (main commodities; irrig. valley zone) Wheat Rice Vegetables Potatoes Pulses Milk Others19 Sum

Poor 2.561 0.672 0.118 0.088 0.196 0.078 0.009 3.722

Medium 2.997 0.961 0.246 0.067 0.354 0.320 0.005 4.950

Better-off 2.917 1.042 1.000 0.225 0.175 1.625 0.184 7.168

All HHs 2.825 0.892 0.454 0.126 0.242 0.674 0.066 5.280

Table 40: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Hunger Time (main commodities; irrig. valley zone) Wheat Rice Vegetables Potatoes Pulses Milk Others20 Sum

Poor 2.375 0.570 0.057 0.106 0.146 0.016 0.007 3.277

Medium 2.747 0.836 0.196 0.067 0.304 0.320 0.054 4.523

Better-off 2.667 0.979 0.696 0.225 0.125 1.250 0.270 6.211

All HHs 2.596 0.795 0.316 0.133 0.192 0.528 0.110 4.671

6.4.4 Calories intake

Normal Time

More than one third (37%) of all HHs in the irrigated valley zone do not achieve the 2100kcal-threshold during Normal Time and therefore they are facing malnutrition (in the long-term).

Figure 55: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs; irrigated valley zone) Average daily calorie intake per person (Normal Time)

>2100 kcal 29% 1800 - 2100 kcal <1800 kcal

63% 8%

19 Including Fruits, Chili, Ghee, Oil, Sugar, Salt 20 Including Fruits, Chili, Ghee, Oil, Sugar, Salt

The differences between the three wealth groups are shown in Figure 56. All better-off HHs achieve a daily calorie intake of (more than) 2100kcal per person during Normal Time. The highest share of HHs that do not achieve the 1800kcal-threshold is found in the poor wealth group, though the share of HHs in which HH members do not achieve a satisfactory daily calorie intake of 2100 is higher in the medium wealth group than in the poor group.

Figure 56: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; irrigated valley zone) Average daily calorie intake per person (Normal Time, group-wise)

better-off

>2100 kcal medium 1800 - 2100 kcal <1800 kcal

poor

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Hunger Time

The situation of the daily calorie intake worsens during Hunger Time: Less than half (46%) of the HHs can reach the 2100kcal-threshold during Hunger Time. 42% of the HHs do not even reach the 1800kcal-threshold.

Figure 57: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (all HHs; irrigated valley zone) Average daily calorie intake per person (Hunger Time)

>2100 kcal 1800 - 2100 kcal 42% 46% <1800 kcal

12%

The situation worsens in all three wealth groups. 50% of the better-off HHs do not achieve the 2100kcal-threshold during Hunger Time and half of the medium HHs take less than 1800kcal. On the one hand in 44% of the poor HHs family members reach the 2100kcal-threshold, on the other hand 44% of the HHs do not even achieve the 1800kcal-threshold.

Figure 58: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; irrigated valley zone) Average daily calorie intake per person (Hunger Time, group-wise)

better-off

>2100 kcal medium 1800 - 2100 kcal <1800 kcal

poor

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

6.5 Implementation of government programmes

6.5.1 NREGA

Table 41: Summary MGNREGA (group-wise; irrigated valley zone) Poor Medium Better-off All HHs

No. of HHs with 11 (out of 2 (out of 1 (out of 14 (out of MGNREGA job card 16) 4) 4) 24)

No. of HHs actually 4 2 0 6 working under MGNREGA

Days worked under 10 16 0 9 MGNREGA (average for job-cardholders)

Out of 24 sample HHs, 14 own a job card, but only 6 out of the 14 card-holding HHs really worked under the NREGA scheme last year; in average 9 days. No HH worked more than 50 days under NREGA last year, only one poor HH received 50 working days.

Figure 59: Histogram – Total working day under MGNREGA (irrigated valley zone) 9 8 7 6 5 4

Frequency 3 2 1

4 0 8

16 28 32 40 44 52 56 64 68 76 80 88 92 12 20 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 100 Days worked under MGNREGA

6.5.2 PDS Figure 60 shows that 67% of the HHs have a BPL-card, 25% an APL-card and 8% an AAY- card. 13% of all HHs criticized that the amount they can buy at the PDS shop is not sufficient, 21% of all HHs complained about irregularities of the availability of the rations, and 4% stated to get harassed.

Figure 60: Distribution of ration cards (irrigated valley zone)

BPL APL AAY

25%

67%

6.5.3 ICDS

Overall, 23% of all HHs take their children to Anganwadi Centres in their village. All HHs sending their children to Anganwadi Centres stated that their children get nutrition supplements there. Only one HH mentioned pre-school education.

Figure 61: Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres (irrigated valley zone) Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres

nutrition education

health services

pre-school education yes no growth monotoring

nutrition supplements

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

6.6 Shocks

83% of all HHs surveyed stated that they have experienced external shocks in the past. Often the shock was triggered by a mixture of reasons. Most common shock affecting money was cased by a severe disease of a HH member. Land loss and crop loss were common causes of shocks affecting food. Tighra has been affected twice by floods recently.

Figure 62: Causes of shocks (irrigated valley zone)

Shocks affecting money Shocks affecting food

Disease Death Crop loss (due to flood) Land loss Crop loss Death, sickness Money shortage

15% 29% 33%

15%

5% 70% 33%

Mostly the HHs have used a mix of several mechanisms to cope with the shock(s) they have experienced. Borrowing money and doing extra work are the two most common coping mechanisms.

Figure 63: Coping mechanisms of external shocks (irrigated valley zone)

16%

31%

24%

29%

Using emergency stocks/assets Cutting down expenditures Doing extra work Borrowing money

7 Food Economy Zone 4: Agricultural mixed communities zone

7.1 Background to the Food Economy Zone Out of total 34 surveyed HHs, 17 HHs belong to SCs, 3 to SCs, 5 to OBCs and 9 to the general class.

Figure 64: Population of the agricultural mixed communities zone

Population (caste-wise)

General 15%

SC 50% OBC 26%

ST 9%

Average HH size: 6.1 persons, with following variation among the wealth groups

Poor: 5.5

Medium: 5.7

Better-off: 7.1

Table 42: General characteristics of the HHs (median, group-wise; agircultural mixed communities zone)

Wealth Housing Agricultural Transport Power Electronic Sanitary group implements connection devices facilities Poor Kaccha None None None None or 1 Potable water house mobile Medium Semi-pucca Simple None None Several Potable water house devices Better-off Semi-pucca Simple Better Private TV or better Potable water house connection

Regarding education the following data was collected: The average education level of men is 5.7 (averagely a man finishes almost class 6), for women it is lower (3.1). The education level increases according to the wealth group. In each wealth group the education level of men is higher than the one of women (see Figure below).

Figure 65: Average education level of men and women (group-wise, agircultural mixed communities zone) Av. male and female education level (group-wise)

Better-off

Medium Female Male Poor

0 2 4 6 8 10 class

There seems to be a trend that the children’s generation eonjoys a higher education level than the partent’s generation. In 68% of all HHs the maxiumum education level of the whole HH is higher than the HoH’s education level. The trend is stronger the better the wealth group. 44% of all children at the age of 5-10 years do not attend school (the dropout rate in the poor group is the highest – 59%). The share of the 11-15-years-old children not attending school is 33% (average for all wealth groups).

In 5 out of 34 sample HHs child labour occured. 9% of all children under 18 are working or earning money according to the HH interviews.

7.1.1 Seasonal calendar

Rainy season takes place from mid-June till mid-October. The two crop seasons are also Kharif and Rabi. Important Kharif crops in the zone are Soya beans, Jowar, Maize and different types of pulses; important Rabi crops are Wheat, Onions, Garlic and Bengal gram. Demand for agricultural labour occurs during all sowing and harvest seasons.

MGNREGA work takes mostly place in May; migration for work during May-June.

Several important festivals take place throughout the year. Most marriages are celebrated in summer.

Peak of the Hunger time period is in July/August.

Hunger time Migration Marriage Major Festivals Table 43: Seasonal calendar – Agricultural mixed communities zone

7.1.2 Wealth breakdown

In the agricultural mixed communities zone respectively 50% fall into the BPL- and APL- category.

Figure 66: Wealth breakdown according to national standard (agricultural mixed communities zone) Wealth breakdown according to national standard

BPL APL 50% 50%

Figure 67 shows the results of the wealth breakdown interviews - how the villagers see themselves relatively to each other: 43% of the population of the sample villages are grouped together in the poor, 34% in the medium and 23% in the better-off category. The wealth criteria are summarized in Table 44.

Figure 67: Proportional distribution of the wealth groups according to local standards (agricultural mixed communities zone)

Proportional distribution of the wealth groups (according to WB)

Better-off 23% Poor 43%

Medium 34%

Table 44: Criteria of the Wealth Breakdowns according to local standards (agricultural mixed comm. zone) Criteria Poor Medium Better-off

Land size (cultivated) 0-1 acres >1-4 acres >4 acres

No. of cattle and oxen 0 1-2 >2 owned

Housing Hut or Kaccha house Bigger Kaccha or semi- Semi-pucca or Pucca house pucca house

Transport No means of transport More likely to own simple Owns advanced means of means of transport than poor transport (e.g. motorcycle) group

Dependence on (occasional) Dependence on wage labour Less dependent on wage No dependence on wage wage labour labour compared to poor labour group

Additional characteristics Trapped in Bonded labour Doing services (e.g. Permanent employment carpentry) Old-age HHs

7.2 Income and expenditures

7.2.1 Income

Average annual income:

Poor: INR 32,091

Medium: INR 50.086

Better-off: INR 90,544

All HHs: INR 57,574

The average annual income of a medium HH is roughly 1.5 times higher than the average annual income of a poor HH; the income of a better-off family is almost three times higher. In average a HH earns yearly INR 57,574 in the agricultural mixed communities zone.

For better-off HHs clearly the majority (70%) of the income comes from selling crops. These earnings generated by agricultural activities are higher than the total income of an average medium HH. For medium HHs 30%, for poor HHs only 6% of the total income comes from crop sales. Labour is more important for the medium and especially for the poor wealth group – more than half (54%) of the total income of a poor HH and 40% of the total income of a medium HH comes from labour. A minor role play NTFPs in the livelihood zone: Only 3% of the total income of a poor HH is generated by selling collected NTFPs. Also migration does not count to the main income sources. A poor HH earns averagely INR 5933, a medium HH INR 2711 and a better-off HH INR 9222 by selling livestock (products). Most of all, medium HHs seem to be self-employed: 20% of the total income of an average medium HH comes

74 from self-employment. ‘Other income’ includes in the agricultural mixed communities zone primarily “income” from bonded labour. Five bonded labour cases were in the sample.

Figure 68: Average annual income (agricultural mixed communities zone) Income sources (group-wise, in INR) 100000 90000 80000 Other 70000 Migration 60000 Self-Employment 50000 Livestock 40000 Labour 30000 NTFP 20000 10000 Agriculture 0 Poor Medium Better-off

7.2.2 Expenditures

Average expenditures per annum

Poor: INR 33,992

Medium: INR 52,740

Better-off: INR 90,821

All HHs: INR 59,184

Figure 69: Average annual expenditures (agricultural mixed communities zone) Average annual expenditures (group-wise, in INR) 100000 90000 80000 70000 Other 60000 Services 50000 Inputs 40000 30000 HH items 20000 Food 10000 0 Poor Medium Better-off

Poor and medium HHs spent most of their income on food (43% and 33% respectively). Better-off HHs spent 23% of their total income on food, a bit more, namely 29% of their total income they spent on services. Expenditures on services are also relative high for the poor and medium wealth group: 31% of the average income of a poor HH is spent on services, for medium HHs the corresponding share is 30%. Around 20% of their income HHs of all wealth groups spent on other items. Poor and better-off HHs spent 11% of their income on HH items, medium HHs 15%. As described above, income generated by agricultural activities is most relevant for better-off HHs, consequently the differences of the expenditures on agricultural inputs between the three wealth groups are clear: Better-off HHs spent 17% of their income on agricultural inputs, medium HHs 6% and poor HHs only 1%.

7.3 Production

7.3.1 Landholding

Average landholding (cultivable land only; per HH)

Poor: 0.27 acres (69% of poor HHs are landless)

Medium: 2.10 acres

Better-off: 12.6421 acres

Table 45: Distribution of land type (in acres) according to wealth group (agricultural mixed communities zone) Irrigated Encroached Cultivated

Poor 0.15 0.00 0.27

Medium 1.3 0.25 2.10

Better-off 10.86 0.00 12.64 None of the surveyed HHs owns homestead land. A bit more than half of the land owned by an average poor and medium HH is irrigated, the share for an average better-off HH is 86%.

7.3.2 Crop production

Average total quantity of crops produced per HH

Poor: 192kg

Medium: 1821kg

Better-off: 11373kg

All HHs: 4462kg

21 Average is influenced by extreme values (1 HH owns 60acres of land); median is 7 acres.

Figure 70: Dominating crops (agricultural mixed communities zone) Main crops produced on farm land

onions pulses 4% 7%

wheat 42%

soya beans 47%

In average poor HHs cultivate 2 (landless HHs excluded from that calculation), medium HHs 2.3, and better-off HHs 4.9 crops on their farm land. Dominating crops are: Soya beans, wheat, different types of pulses and onions.

A relatively large share of the crop production is not used for the own consumption: 44% of the crops produced are sold by poor HHs. This share is 64% for medium HHs, and 75% for better-off HHs

7.3.3 Livestock and animal products

Average no. of animals owned per HH

Poor: 4

Medium: 3

Better-off: 4

All HHs: 4

The HHs in the livelihood zone own typically cattle, oxen, goats and chickens. It is more common that poor HHs own goats and chickens than medium and better-off HHs. Poor HHs generate income with livestock by selling animals (mostly goats), medium and better-off HHs sell milk of the cattle they own.

7.3.4 Hunting, Fishing and NTFP

32% of the HHs collect one or two NTFPs (predominantly Mahua and Tendu leaves), above all poor families do this to make some extra money (see 7.2.1).

7.4 Food

7.4.1 Food sources

Figure 71 shows that the food sources differ evidently between the three wealth groups. Better-off families produce the majority of their food (83%) on their own, 17% of their food they purchase. Whereas poor HHs purchase the majority of their food (63%), only 16% of their food they produce on their own, 10% they receive from the PDS shop and 11% they get directly from work. The situation of the food sources of the medium wealth group lies in between: Medium HHs produce half of their food they consume on their own, 44% they purchase on markets, 2% they get from the PDS shop, 3% they receive directly from work.

Figure 71: Food souces (agricultural mixed communities zone)

7.4.2 Hunger time In average Hunger Time lasts 2 months. 44% of the sample HHs stated to have a Hunger Time. Since none of the better-off families stated to experience a period of food scarcity, Figure 72 shows below the average for all HHs only the graphical distribution of the Hunger Times of the medium and poor HHs. The distribution of the Hunger Time is not as clear as in the other livelihood zones, but most of the HH experience a period of food scarcity during July and August.

Figure 72: Graphical distribution of Hunger Times (all HHs and group-wise; agricultural mixed communites zone)

Hunger Time (all HHs) 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% Share of HHs Shareof 20% 10% 0% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Months (Jan-Dec)

Hunger Time Hunger Time (poor group) (medium group) 80% 80% 70% 70% 60% 60% 50% 50% 40% 40%

30% 30% Share of HHs Shareof Share of HHs Shareof 20% 20% 10% 10% 0% 0% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Months (Jan - Dec) Months (Jan - Dec)

7.4.3 Food patterns

Wheat is the main good consumed. The following tables show in more detail which commodities and how much (in kg) the HHs averagely consume per day (Table 46: Normal Time; Table 47: Hunger Time).

Table 46: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Normal Time (agricultural mixed communities zone) Wheat Rice Maize Vegetables Potatoes Pulses Others22 Sum

Poor 2.080 0.029 0.022 0.055 0.124 0.097 0.256 2.664

Medium 2.634 0 0.041 0.128 0.118 0.269 0.885 4.075

Better-off 4.275 0.058 0.186 0.387 0.073 0.334 1.349 6.663

All HHs 2.996 0.029 0.083 0.190 0.105 0.233 0.830 4.467

22 Including Milk, Ghee, Eggs, Oil, Chili, Salt, Sugar, other Spices

Table 47: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Hunger Time (agricultural mixed communities zone) Wheat Rice Maize Vegetables Potatoes Pulses Others23 Sum

Poor 1.733 0.022 0.016 0.065 0.096 0.049 0.209 2.190

Medium 2.353 0 0.034 0.122 0.108 0.251 0.798 3.665

Better-off 4.275 0.058 0.186 0.387 0.073 0.334 1.349 6.663

All HHs 2.787 0.027 0.079 0.191 0.092 0.211 0.785 4.173

7.4.4 Calories intake

Normal Time

During Normal Time, on the one hand 38% of all HHs achieve a satisfactory daily calorie intake per person of more than 2100 kcal. On the other hand, in 38% of all HHs persons do not even get 1800kcal/day during Normal Time. In 24% of all HHs, members achieve averagely between 1800-2100kcal.

Figure 73: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs; agricultural mixed comm. zone) Average daily calorie intake per person (Normal Time)

>2100 kcal 38% 38% 1800 - 2100 kcal <1800 kcal

24%

Figure 66 shows the differences between the three wealth groups: All better-off HHs achieve at least the 1800kcal-threshold throughout the year. In the medium wealth group the share of HHs achieving the 1800kcal-threshold is 60%. Members of poor HHs have to face the most severe situation: The food 77% of the poor HHs take in contains less than 2100kcal.

23 Including Milk, Ghee, Eggs, Oil, Chili, Salt, Sugar, other Spices

Figure 74: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (group-wise; agricultural mixed comm. Zone) Average daily calorie intake per person (Normal Time; group-wise)

Better-off

>2100 kcal Medium 1800 - 2100 kcal <1800 kcal

Poor

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Hunger Time

In comparison to the Normal time the situation of the calorie intake during Hunger Time is of course worse: 53% of all HHs do not achieve their calorific requirement of 2100kcal. Only one third of all HHs achieve this threshold during Hunger Time.

Figure 75: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (all HHs; agricultural mixed comm. zone) Average daily calorie intake per person (Hunger Time)

32% >2100 kcal 1800 - 2100 kcal

53% <1800 kcal

15%

Since no better-off HH faces Hunger Time, the situation of this wealth group does not change during the year. For the other wealth groups the situation worsens during Hunger Time. 40% of the medium HHs achieve the 1800kcal-threshold (instead of 60% during Normal Time). Except for one poor HH, all poor families take less than 1800kcal in during Hunger Time.

Figure 76: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; agricultural mixed comm. Zone) Average daily calorie intake per person (Hunger Time; group-wise)

Better-off

>2100 kcal Medium 1800 - 2100 kcal <1800 kcal

Poor

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

7.5 Implementation of government programmes

7.5.1 NREGA

Table 48: Summary MGNREGA (group-wise, agricultural mixed communities zone) Poor Medium Better-off All HHs

No. of HHs with 8 (out of 9 (out of 11 (out of 28 (out of MGNREGA job card 13) 10) 11) 34)

No. of HHs actually 3 5 2 10 working under MGNREGA

Days worked under 3 13 18 11 MGNREGA (average for job-cardholders)

Out of 34 sample HHs, 28 HHs own a job card, but only 10 out of the 28 HHs possessing job card really worked under the NREGA scheme last year. Those HHs that worked under the scheme received averagely only 11 days of work. But the distribution of working days received is scattered which is shown in Figure 77. Only the two better-off HHs working under the scheme last year got 100 working days.

Figure 77: Histogram - Total working days under MGNREGA (agricultural mixed communities zone)

10 Frequency 5

0 4 8

12 24 28 32 44 48 52 56 68 72 76 92 96 16 20 36 40 60 64 80 84 88 100 Days worked under MGNREGA

Would each HH work 100days, earning INR 100/day, the HHs would generate additionally INR 10000 yearly. This would change the wealth breakdown according to national standard in the following way: 62% (instead of 50%) of the HHs would live above PL.

Figure 78: Wealth Breakdown according to national standard and under the condition of a working MGNREGA scheme (agricultural mixed communities zone)

Wealth breakdown under the condition of working MGNREGA scheme

BPL 38%

APL 62%

7.5.2 PDS

73% of the sample HHs own an APL-, 12% a BPL-, and 6% an AAY-card. The remaining 9% do not possess a ration card (see Figure 79). Only few HHs mentioned problems of the PDS: Respectively 6% complained about the amount of rations and about irregularity availability of the rations. Also criticized was the quality of the food and the limited time in which a HH can receive the monthly ration.

Figure 79: Distribution of ration cards (agricultural mixed communities zone)

AAY BPL APL No card

9% 6% 12%

73%

7.5.3 ICDS

Overall, 41% of the HHs send their children to the Anganwadi Centre of their village. All HHs taking their children to the Centres stated that their children get nutrition supplements there. The majority also said that the Anganwadi Centres supply health services. 40% of the HHs sending children to ICDS mentioned pre-school education. Only few stated that the Anganwadi workers do growth monitoring and nutrition education with the children.

Figure 80: Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres (agricultural mixed communities zone)

Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres

nutrition education

health services

pre-school education yes no growth monitoring

nutrition supplements

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

7.6 Shocks 38% of the HHs have experienced an external shock. Most of them had to cope with shocks affecting money, most commonly with a serious disease of a HH member. But also other reasons were mentioned (see Figure 81). Three sample HHs also had to face shocks affecting food (due to crop loss, money shortage, sickness of the HoH).

Figure 81: Reasons of shocks affecting money (agricultural mixed communities zone) Shocks affecting money

Disease Death Marriage Crop loss Loss of livestock

7% 7% 6%

13% 67%

Roughly all coping mechanisms (using emergency stocks/assets, cutting down expenditures, doing extra work, borrowing money) have been equally common used.

Figure 82: Coping mechanisms in case of external shocks (agricultural mixed communities zone)

22% 27%

27% 24%

using emergency stocks/assets cutting down expenditures doing extra work borrowing money

8 Comparison of Livelihood Zones

In this section key data of the previously presented Livelihood Zones will be compared to each other.

8.1 Income and expenditures

The Table below shows the annual average income of each livelihood zone according to the three wealth groups. It becomes clear that the level of income varies.

The highest average annual income for all wealth groups together was found in the irrigated valley zone, the second highest was found in the agricultural mixed communities zone. The level of the average annual income of the tribal dry agricultural and non-irrigated hilly zone is very similar.

Table 49: Comparison of the average annual income (all livelihood zones, group-wise) Tribal dry Non-irrigated hilly Irrigated valley Agricultural mixed agricultural zone zone (LHZ 2) zone (LHZ 3) communities zone (LHZ4) (LHZ 1) Poor INR 22,235 INR 18,076 INR 28,360 INR 32,091

Medium INR 32,011 INR 23,826 INR 62,400 INR 50.086

Better- INR 41,461 INR 59,436 INR 111,117 INR 90,544 off All HHs INR 31,902 INR 33,779 INR 67,292 INR 57,574

The deviations between the wealth groups are the smallest in LHZ 1. Also the annual average income of the medium group fits best to the average of all wealth groups. There is only a relatively small difference of the annual income between the poor and medium group in LHZ 2, but the better-off families earn more than three times as much as the poor group (in LHZ 1 it is not even double as much). The most heterogeneous results were found in LHZ 3. Poor families generate only a quarter of the income better-off families make.

The poor group with the smallest average annual income was found in LHZ 2, the poor group with the highest income in LHZ 4. The poor group in LHZ 4 earns roughly the same like the medium group of LHZ 1, and earns even more money than the medium group of LHZ 2. The relatively richest medium group was found in LHZ 3: An average medium family earns more money than a better-off family in LHZ 1 and LHZ 2. Better-off families in LHZ 3 generate the highest income compared to the better-off families of the other livelihood zones, better-off families in LHZ 1 earn less than the better-off HHs in the other zones.

In all livelihood zones, except for LHZ 2, income generated by selling own produced crops is the main income source for all better-off HHs since they own more farm land than the other HHs. This income source is also very important for families of the medium group. Additionally, labour is crucial for medium HHs and especially for poor HHs in all zones. Migration for work is for poor families in almost all livelihood zones the second important source of income. In LHZ 2 labour is the main income source for HHs of all wealth groups. Migration does not seem to be crucial there.

The expenditures relative to the income are similar in all livelihood zones: Poor HHs of all zones spent most of their income on food. Medium HHs spent in the majority of the cases most of their income on food and services. Better-off HHs spent often most of their income on services and more money on agricultural inputs and other items than the other two wealth groups.

8.2 Landholding and crops production

In average, HHs in LHZ 1 own less land than HHs of the other livelihood zones, also the agricultural output (quantity produced (in kg)/acre) is lower compared to the other zones. The highest agricultural output was found in LHZ 4 (see also 3.2). Poor families in LHZ 4 own averagely less land than all other HHs. Poor HHs in LHZ 2 own averagely more land than families in the medium group of LHZ 4. Better-off families in LHZ 3 own averagely more land than all other HHs.

Table 50: Average landholding per HH (in acres) and average total quantity of crops produced per year per HH (all livelihood zones, grou-wise) Tribal dry Non-irrigated hilly Irrigated valley Agricultural mixed agricultural zone zone (LHZ 2) zone (LHZ 3) communities zone (LHZ 4) (LHZ 1) Poor 0.92acres 2.35acres 1.59acres 0.27acres 299kg 558kg 363kg 192kg Medium 4.28acres 6.00acres 3.80acres 2.10acres 1430kg 1211kg 2675kg 1821kg

Better- 6.50acres 9.38acres 13.00 12.64acres off 1840kg 2666kg 6194kg 11373kg

All HHs 3.9acres 5.91acres 6.13acres 5.00 1190kg 1478kg 3077kg 4462kg

8.3 Daily calorie intake

Normal Time

All in all the situation of the average daily calorie intake per capita is similar in LHZ 1 and LHZ 4. The shares of HHs which do not achieve the 1800kcal-threshold during Normal Time are around 40% in LHZ 4 and LHZ 1. The corresponding share is 29% in LHZ 2 and LHZ 3 respectively. The nutrition situation of LHZ 2 and LHZ 3 during Normal Time are also similar. In all zones there is throughout the year an alarming high share of HHs which cannot cover their calorific needs and therefore face undernutrition (at least in the long-term)! Actually those families face food scarcity 12 months a year.

Table 51: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs, all livelihood zones) Tribal dry agricultural Non-irrigated hilly Irrigated valley Agricultural mixed zone (LHZ 1) zone (LHZ 2) zone (LHZ 3) communities zone (LHZ 4)

≤1800kcal 40.74% 29% 29% 38%

1800- 18.52% 14% 8% 24% 2100kcal

≥2100kcal 40.74% 57% 63% 38%

Hunger Time

Concerning the length of the Hunger Time, clearly poor HHs of LHZ 1 have to face the longest period of food scarcity (averagely half a year). In LHZ 2 and LHZ 3 poor HHs experience averagely 3 months of Hunger Time and in LHZ 4 Hunger Time lasts 2 months in average.

Table 52: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs, all livelihood zones) Tribal dry agricultural Non-irrigated hilly Irrigated valley Agricultural mixed zone (LHZ 1) zone (LHZ 2) zone (LHZ 3) communities zone (LHZ 4)

≤1800kcal 66.67% 57% 42% 53%

1800- 9.26% 10% 12% 15% 2100kcal

≥2100kcal 24.07% 33% 46% 32%

The situation during Hunger Time seems to be worst in LHZ 1 (only one quarter of the HHs achieves a satisfactory daily calorie intake of 2100kcal). The situations in LHZ 2 and LHZ 4 are similar: in about one third of the HHs family members get averagely 2100kcal/daily through their food. The highest share of HHs which can achieve the 2100kcal-threshold during Hunger Time is found in LHZ 3. Nevertheless, also here 42% of the HHs do not achieve the FAO minimum standard of 1800kcal. And as already seen, Hunger Time coincides mostly with the time of land preparation and field work and therefore people would actually need more food energy as usual to work properly.

8.4 Implementation of government programmes

MGNREGA

Table 53 summarizes the results received by the HH interviews regarding the national MGNREGA scheme. In all livelihood zones the majority of the HHs owns a job card: in LHZ 1, LHZ 2 and LHZ 3 around 80%, in LHZ 3 58% of the HHs are job card-holders. But, except for LHZ 1, only one third or less of the HHs worked under the NREGA scheme last year; averagely not more than 12 days. In LHZ 1 the scheme seems to work better than in the other livelihood zones. 61% of all HHs worked under the NREGA scheme, in average 34 days.

In all zones it was seen that the distribution of working days was very scattered.

Table 53: Summary MGNREGA (all livelihood zones) Tribal dry Non-irrigated Agricultural mixed Irrigated valley agricultural zone hilly zone (LHZ communities zone (LHZ zone (LHZ 3) (LHZ 1) 2) 4)

Share of HHs owning a job card (%) 81% 81% 58% 82%

Share of HHs which worked under NREGA 61% 33% 25% 29% last year (%) Days worked under NREGA (average for job 34 12 9 11 card-holders)

PDS

Above all, there seem to be problems with the PDS in the tribal dry agricultural zone. One third of the HHs there had no ration card. 22% of the HHs owned an APL-card, but actually only 7% of the HHs had more than INR 26 per day per HH member at its disposal. In the agricultural mixed communities zone 9% of the HHs were without ration card; 73% of the HHS owned an APL-card, but actually 50% live above the national PL according to the HH interviews.

Some of the interviewees mentioned problems with their PDS card or/and PDS shop. The most stated problem was the irregular availability of the rations. In the irrigated valley zone one fifth of the HHs complained about irregularities of the availability of the rations. Other problems mentioned in the HH interviews concerning the PDS were: Getting harassed, owning a wrong card, insufficient amount of the rations, concerns about the quality of the food, limited time in which a HH can receive the monthly ration.

ICDS

In all zones the HHs which send their children to an Anganwadi Centre stated that their children get nutrition supplements there. Other services, like health services, growth monitoring, etc. were only mentioned by few HHs or not at all.

8.5 Shocks

The share of HHs affected by external shocks varied between the zones. In the tribal dry agricultural zone, only 19% of HHs experienced a shock, in the agricultural mixed communities zone the corresponding share is 38%, in the non-irrigated hilly zone 62%, and in the irrigated valley zone 83% had to face shock. In all zones the most common cause of a shock was a severe disease of a family member. But also other types of shocks were mentioned, e.g. death of a family member, or crop loss (in the irrigated valley zone because of floods).

All HHs use a mix of different coping mechanisms. Most common reaction was doing extra work, but also borrowing money and cutting down expenditures were common coping mechanisms. Using emergency assets seem to be of secondary importance since the majority of the HHs do not have such assets on their disposal.

9 Emerging Issues that need focus in the Districts Khargone, Khandwa, Panna and Dewas

Khargone and Khandwa (tribal dry agricultural zone)

All in all, the situation of the HHs in the tribal dry agricultural zone is the most alarming in comparison to the other three livelihood zones presented in this report. The highest share of people living below the national PL was found here, even most of the relatively better-off HHs in the zone fall under the national BPL-category. The education level is very low – for both: men and women - and more than half of the children do not attend school. It is precarious that the HHs averagely own only small fields of land and a high share of families of the local poor group is landless. Also the food situation is alarming. In almost 60% of the HHs family members face undernutrition because throughout the year their average daily calorie intake lies under 2100kcal. And as already said, 2100 kcal is the minimum food energy requirement to avoid undernutrition in the long-term. Additionally, most of the HHs experience a period of food scarcity in which the situation even worsens - three quarters of the HHs do not achieve the 2100kcal-threshold during Hunger Time. In the tribal dry agricultural zone Hunger Time lasts very long, for poor HHs averagely 6 months. Furthermore, there seem to be problems concerning the public distribution system, one third of the HHs did not even own a ration card.

Panna (non-irrigated hilly zone)

Panna (irrigated valley zone)

The majority (71%) of HHs lives below the national PL in the irrigated valley zone. Important to note is that there are wide deviations of the HH’s income between the wealth groups in this zone. Poor families generate only one quarter of the income better-off families and half of the income medium HHs make. The nutritional status, especially of the poor and medium wealth group, is worrying: The average daily calorie intake of 44% of the poor and 50% of the medium HHs lies under the 2100kcal-threshold during Normal Time. During Hunger Time the share increases to 57% in the poor wealth group; 50% of the medium HHs do not even achieve a daily calorie intake of 1800kcal. In addition, there are problems in the education sector: The gap between male and female education level is large and one third of the 5-10 year-old children do not attend school. Furthermore, there is a large share of HHs affected by shocks (due to serious diseases as well as natural hazards). Coping with them is difficult for the HHs: only few emergency assets are available (if at all), money can in most of the cases only be borrowed by money lenders who demand high interest, extra work is hard to find and the expenditures of (especially the poor HHs) are already at a low level and can hardly be cut down further. Last but not least, the MGNREGA scheme is not functioning properly: Only one quarter of the HHs worked under the scheme last year, in average no more than 9 days.

Dewas (agricultural mixed communities zone)