9 Environmental management

In terms of its biological heritage, South is is a signatory to the CBD, which recognised as one of the richest nations in the world. provides the framework, norms and standards for The Department of Environmental Affairs and the conservation, sustainable use and equitable Tourism’s mission is to lead the sustainable benefit-sharing of South Africa’s biological development of South Africa’s environment by: resources. • conserving the country’s natural resources The Act facilitated the transformation of the • protecting and improving the quality and safety National Botanical Institute (NBI) into Sanbi. of the environment The National Environmental Management: • promoting a global sustainable-development Protected Areas Act, 2003 (Act 57 of 2003), agenda. provides for the protection and conservation of The provincial conservation agencies are major role- ecologically viable areas that are representative of players, and independent statutory organisations South Africa’s biological diversity, its natural such as South African National Parks (SANParks) and landscapes and seascapes, and the management the South African National Biodiversity Institute thereof. The Act envisages a national register of (Sanbi) are valuable partners in the country’s total protected areas, with a simplified classification conservation effort. system of special nature reserves, national parks, nature reserves and protected environments. Policy and legislation It also introduces the concept of biological- The National Environmental Management: diversity protection and ecosystem management. Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act 10 of 2004), provides a Biodiversity, conservation and ecosystem regulatory framework to protect South Africa’s management are noted as important aims in policy valuable species, ecosystems and its biological and legislation that govern marine and coastal wealth. It implements the White Paper on the resources, freshwater and natural forests. Conservation and Sustainable Use of South Africa’s The Act also proposes a new system of protected Biological Diversity, and multilateral agreements areas, linking various kinds of protected environments such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). to replace the existing fragmented system.

217 In addition, the Act enables the Minister of Regulations in terms of the National Environ- Environmental Affairs and Tourism to acquire private mental Management: Protected Areas Amendment land by purchasing land rights for the creation of Act, 2004 (Act 31 of 2004), provide for the proper protected areas. administration of specific nature reserves, national Based on experience with biosphere reserves, parks and world heritage sites. and informed by the new bioregional approach to South Africa is one of only two countries in the conservation (linking the protected-area network world to have promulgated legislation specifically along mountains, rivers, wetlands, the coastline related to the World Heritage Convention (the other and other areas of natural vegetation), the Act will being Australia). The country’s World Heritage result in an interlocking system of protected areas Convention Act, 1999 (Act 49 of 1999), stipulates that explicitly encourages the inclusion of private that all world heritage sites must have an land. integrated management plan in place to ensure It recognises that people are the custodians of cultural and environmental protection and sustain- the land, that they need to be involved in the able development of the site. management of the protected land, and that they should benefit from it. State of the environment The Act caters for concurrent competence in the The greatest challenge for South Africa and the rest management of protected land. For example, an of the world is to improve the quality of human life area with national-park status can now be for both present and future generations, without managed by another agency, for example, a depleting its natural resources. This can only be provincial parks authority. Steps have been taken achieved through a healthy natural environment that to ensure that standards are upheld. supplies raw material; absorbs and treats waste It further addresses issues of co-operative products; and maintains water, soil and air quality. governance with provincial and local governments. Food security, water provision and climatic It empowers the department to conclude fair stability depend on having properly functioning negotiations with communities and private ecosystems, stable levels of biodiversity, landowners for the inclusion of some of their land in sustainable rates of resource extraction and South Africa’s protected areas. minimal production of waste and pollution.

218 To this end, the United Nations (UN) General Targets set at the summit will have an enormous Assembly Conference on Environment and Develop- impact, including: ment adopted Agenda 21 in 1992 as the global • the number of people without basic sanitation strategy for sustainable development. and access to safe drinking water will be halved South Africa has taken several steps to by 2015 implement Agenda 21 at national and local level, • biodiversity loss is to be reversed by 2010, and including reforming environmental policies, ratifying collapsed fish stocks restored by 2015 international agreements, and participating in many • chemicals with a detrimental health impact will global and regional sustainable-development be phased out by 2020 initiatives. • energy services will be extended to 35% of African households over the next 10 years. World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) National Strategy for Sustainable Development Johannesburg hosted the WSSD in September 2002. (NSSD) The agreements reached in Johannesburg are a guide South Africa is committed to meeting the agreements to action that will take forward the UN Millennium reached at the WSSD, including the development of Summit Declaration’s goal of halving world poverty by the NSSD. 2015, and incorporate decisions taken by world The Department of Environmental Affairs and bodies since the Rio Earth Summit in 1992. Tourism was expected to publish its NSSD in 2006 Among the victories of the WSSD was the launch of for public comment. It is intended to be a powerful over 300 partnerships, including 32 energy initiatives, tool for addressing important issues such as water 21 water programmes and 32 programmes for quality and quantity, climate change, waste biodiversity and ecosystem management. management, soil loss and pollution, food production The biggest success was getting the world to and strategic biodiversity management, while turn the UN Millennium Declaration into a concrete attending to development priorities associated with set of programmes and to mobilise funds for these tackling poverty and basic human needs. programmes. The WSSD focused on the most marginalised sectors of society, including women, Biological diversity the youth, indigenous people and people with South Africa enjoys the third-highest level of bio- disabilities. diversity in the world. The country’s rich natural The Implementation Plan includes programmes to heritage is vast and staggering in its proportions. deliver water, energy, healthcare, agricultural Although the country covers only 2% of the development and a better environment for the world’s world’s land area, nearly 10% of the world’s plants poor. It also incorporates targets for the reduction of and 7% of its reptiles, birds and mammals are poverty and the protection of the environment. found here. The three internationally recognised biodiversity hotspots in South Africa are the Cape Floral Region in the south, the that the country World Wetlands Day: 2 February shares with Namibia, and that of Maputoland- National Water Week: 19 to 25 March Pondoland in the east, which extends into Swaziland Earth Day: 20 March and Mozambique. World Water Day: 22 March World Meteorological Day: 23 March South Africa’s marine life is similarly diverse, partly World Environment Day: 5 June as a result of the extreme contrast between the water World Oceans Day: 8 June masses on the east and west coasts. Three water World Desertification Day: 17 June masses – the cold Benguela current, the warm National Arbour Week: 1 to 7 September Agulhas current, and oceanic water – make the International Day for the Protection of the Ozone Layer: 16 September region one of the most oceanographically hetero- World Tourism Day: 27 September geneous in the world. According to the White Paper World Habitat Day: 4 October on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of South National Marine Day: 20 October Africa’s Biological Diversity, over 10 000 plant and animal species – almost 15% of the coastal species

219 known worldwide – are found in South African waters, The larger mammals include lion, leopard, Environmental management with about 12% of these occurring nowhere else. cheetah, elephant, buffalo, zebra, rhinoceros, The country’s natural heritage is best described giraffe, kudu, oryx, waterbuck, hippopotamus and according to a systematic classification of regions, many others. or . A is a broad ecological unit About 8,5% of the biome is protected. The representing a major life zone, which extends over a , Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, large area, and contains relatively uniform plant and Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park, Greater St Lucia Wetlands animal life closely connected with environmental Park (GSLWP) and other reserves are located in the conditions, especially climate. biome. The White Paper states that South Africa is one of six countries in the world with an entire plant kingdom within its national confines. Known as the Celebrating the Age of Hope by Protecting Our Cape Floral Kingdom, this area has the highest- Environment was the theme to commemorate recorded species diversity for any similar-sized National Environment Week from 5 to 11 June temperate or tropical region in the world. 2006. Other biomes in the country are also of global conservation significance. For example, one-third National Environment Week has become an of the world’s succulent plant species is found in annual feature on the South African calendar, with South Africa. a range of important activities scheduled There are eight major terrestrial biomes, or countrywide. On World Environment Day on habitat types, in South Africa, which can, in turn, be 5 June 2006, the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Mr Marthinus van Schalkwyk, divided into 70 veld types. launched South Africa’s National Environmental The degree to which each of these biomes is Awareness Campaign – Indalo Yethu. This threatened varies, depending on the fertility of the campaign is a legacy project of the World Summit soil, the economic value derived from use of the on Sustainable Development, which was hosted in area, human population pressures and the extent to Johannesburg during 2002. Indalo Yethu intends which the biome is conserved in protected areas. to reinforce the role of environmental protection within the context of the country’s economic and Savanna biome social-development programmes. This biome is an area of mixed and trees, and is generally known as . By June 2006, the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism had created over 16 800 job In the Northern Cape and Kalahari sections of opportunities, 254 permanent jobs and almost this biome, the most distinctive trees are the camel 103 000 training days in the preceding year with thorn (Acacia erioloba) and the camphor bush its social-responsibility projects and programmes. (Tarchonanthus camphoratus). In Limpopo, the portly baobab (Adansonia digitata) and It planned to launch a social impact study in 2006 the candelabra tree (Euphorbia ingens) dominate. to evaluate these programmes, and aimed to The central bushveld is home to species such as create 12 500 more job opportunities, 300 more the knob thorn (Acacia nigrescens), bushwillow permanent jobs and over 130 000 training days. (Combretum spp.), monkey thorn (Acacia galpinii), mopani (Colophospermum mopane) and wild fig The Thubaleth’ Elihle (our good community) community craft group, involving 80 rural women, (Ficus spp.) In the valley bushveld of the south, is one of the initiatives launched to help local euphorbias and spekboom trees (Portulacaria afra) communities who are under increasing social dominate. and economic pressure to make sustainable use Abundant wild fruit trees provide food for many of the environmental resources available to birds and animals in the savanna biome. them. The women of Thubaleth’ Elihle produce Grey loeries, hornbills, shrikes, flycatchers and goods made from fabric woven from an rollers are birds typical of the northern regions. The indigenous water-loving sedge called ‘ikhwane’, subtropical and coastal areas are home to Knysna which is the most abundant plant in the 400- loeries, purple-crested loeries and green pigeons. hectare Mbongolwane wetland. Raptors occur throughout the biome.

220 Nama-Karoo biome This is a winter-rainfall area with extremely dry This biome includes the Namaland area of Namibia, and hot summers. Succulents with thick, fleshy and the Karoo area of South Africa. leaves are plentiful. Most trees have white trunks to Because of low rainfall, rivers are non-perennial. reflect the heat. Cold and frost in winter and high temperatures in The quiver tree (Aloe dichotoma) and the human- summer demand special adaptations from plants. The like elephant’s trunk (Pachypodium namaquanum) vegetation of this biome is mainly low shrubland and are prominent in the Richtersveld. Grass is scarce. grass, with trees limited to water courses. The bat- The animal life is similar to that of neighbouring eared fox, black-backed jackal, ostrich, suricate and biomes ( and Nama-Karoo). ground squirrel are typical of the area. The Richtersveld, Tankwa Karoo and Namaqua Only 1% of the Nama-Karoo biome falls within national parks have improved the conservation officially protected areas, of which the Karoo and status of this biome considerably. Augrabies national parks are the largest. Overgrazing and easily eroded soil surfaces are Fynbos biome causing this semi-desert to creep slowly in on the The fynbos biome is one of the six accepted floral neighbouring savanna and grassland biomes. kingdoms of the world. This region covers only 0,04% of the land surface of the globe. Grassland biome Fynbos is found mainly in the Western Cape. This This biome is a summer-rainfall area with heavy is a winter-rainfall area and the fynbos vegetation is thunderstorms and hail in summer, and frost in similar to that of mediterranean regions. winter. A number of perennial rivers such as the Fynbos is the name given to a group of Orange, Vaal, Pongola, Kei and Umzimvubu evergreen plants with small, hard leaves (such as originate in, and flow through, the area. Trees are those in the Erica family). It is made up mainly of scarce and are found mainly on hills and along the protea, heathers and restio, and incorporates a riverbeds. Karee (Rhus lancea), wild currant (Rhus diversity of plant species (more than 8 500 kinds, pyroides), white stinkwood (Celtis africana) and over 6 000 of which are endemic). several acacia species are the most common. The fynbos biome is famous for the protea, for The grassland biome has the third-largest which South Africa is renowned. The biome also number of indigenous plant species in the country. contains flowering plants, now regarded as garden Eight mammal species endemic to South Africa plants, such as freesia, tritonia, sparaxis and many occur in a wild state in this biome. Two of these, others. namely the black wildebeest and the blesbok, occur Protected areas cover 13,6% of the fynbos mainly in the grassland biome. biome and include the Table Mountain and Agulhas The area is internationally recognised as an area national parks. of high species endemicity as far as birds are This biome is not very rich in bird and mammal concerned. Birds commonly found in the area life, but does include the endemic Cape grysbok, include the black korhaan, blue crane, guinea-fowl the geometric tortoise, Cape sugarbird and the and other grassland birds. protea seed-eater. The mountains are the habitat of Only 1,1% of the grassland biome is officially the leopard, baboon, honey-badger, caracal, protected. The wilderness areas of the KwaZulu- rhebuck and several types of eagle and dassies. Natal are the most significant. Forest biome Succulent Karoo biome South Africa’s only significant forests are those of One of the natural wonders of South Africa is the Knysna and Tsitsikamma in the Western and annual blossoming of the Namaqualand wild Eastern Cape, respectively. flowers (mainly of the family Asteraceae), which Other reasonably large forest patches that are transforms the semi-desert of the Northern Cape officially protected are in the high-rainfall areas of the into a fairyland. After rain, the drab landscape is eastern escarpment, and on the eastern seaboard. suddenly covered from horizon to horizon with a Forest giants such as yellowwood (Podocarpus spp.), multicoloured carpet (from August to October, ironwood (Olea capensis) and lemonwood (Xymalos depending on the rainfall). monospora) dominate.

221 The indigenous forests are a magical world of changes to the legislative, policy and institutional Environmental management , lichens, and colourful forest birds such as the framework for natural resource management have Knysna loerie, the endangered Cape parrot and the resulted in a shift in focus from an elitist conservation rameron pigeon. Mammals include the endangered approach to a management approach based on samango monkey, bushpig, bushbuck and the South Africa’s recognition of the contribution of delicate blue duiker. biological resources to food security, science, economy, cultural integrity and well-being. Thicket biome The country’s conservation areas contribute to Subtropical thicket ranges from closed shrubland to job creation and socio-economic upliftment, and low forest, dominated by evergreen succulent continue to serve as a foundation of the tourism trees, shrubs and vines. industry. It is often impenetrable and has little herbaceous South Africa is a very popular tourist destination. cover. Roughly 20% of the species in the thicket The main attractions are nature-based tourism biome are endemic to it. facilities such as national parks and private game reserves. There are some 9 000 privately owned Desert biome game ranches in South Africa, covering about 13% True desert is found under very harsh environ- of the country’s total land area. The contribution of mental conditions, which are even more extreme these areas in maintaining South Africa’s unique than those found in the succulent Karoo and the biodiversity is incalculable. Nama-Karoo biomes. The climate is characterised The publication in 2006 of the National Spatial by summer rainfall, but also by high levels of Biodiversity Assessment by the Department of summer aridity. Rainfall is highly variable from year Environmental Affairs and Tourism and Sanbi to year. Desert is found mostly in Namibia, although revealed that 34% of South Africa’s ecosystems are it does occur in South Africa in the lower Orange threatened, with 5% critically endangered; while River Valley. 82% of the 120 main rivers are threatened and The vegetation of the desert biome is characterised 44% critically endangered. Of the 13 groups of by the dominance of annual plants (often annual estuarine biodiversity, three are in critical danger grasses). This means that after a rare season of and 12% of marine biozones are under serious abundant rain, the desert plains can be covered threat. with a sea of short annual grass, whereas in drier Because of the geographic spread and diversity years, the plains appear bare with the annual plants of South Africa’s plant and animal species – up to persisting in the form of seeds. 80% of significant biodiversity lies outside existing Perennial plants are usually encountered in protected areas – a traditional approach to specialised habitats associated with local conservation is inadequate. Biodiversity priorities concentrations of water. Common examples of have to be integrated with all citizens’ policies, such habitats are broad drainage lines or washes. plans and programmes. Nearer the coast, the role of coastal fog also The Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, governs the distribution of certain species Mr Marthinus van Schalkwyk, launched South Africa’s commonly associated with the desert. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) The desert biome incorporates an abundant in June 2006. It aims to guide conservation and the insect fauna, which includes many tenebrionid management of biodiversity to ensure sustainable and beetles, some of which can use fog water. There equitable benefits for all communities. are also various vertebrates including reptiles, The NBSAP highlights five strategic objectives, springbok, ostrich, gemsbok, snakes and geckos. such as the need for a network of protected areas Some areas in the desert biome are formally that conserve a sample of all South Africa’s bio- protected in the Richtersveld National Park. diversity, specifies how these are to be realised, and sets five- and 15-year targets for each. Preserving biodiversity The NBSAP also provides for the entrenchment Biodiversity plays a crucial role in sustainable of biodiversity concerns in production sectors such development and poverty eradication. Fundamental as mining and forestry, by focusing on the inclusion

222 of biodiversity priorities in guidelines and codes of and Dassen Island in the Western Cape, and the best practice, and on measures to encourage Baviaanskloof Wilderness Area in the Eastern Cape. sustainable production practices. The NBSAP informs the creation, in law, of the Marine protected areas (MPAs) National Biodiversity Framework to ensure an The department promulgated four new MPAs in integrated, co-ordinated and consistent approach to 2004, bringing the total of MPAs to 23, which cover biodiversity management by organs of state in all almost 19% of the coastline. spheres of government, non-governmental The promulgation of the MPAs follows South organisations (NGOs), the private sector, local Africa’s commitment (at the World Parks Congress in communities, other stakeholders and the public. 2003) to expand the country’s MPAs. The congress recommended that by 2012 a global system of Conservation areas effectively managed MPAs be implemented. The South Africa is committed to meeting the World accepted target is to protect 20% of each habitat. Conservation Union (IUCN) target of 10% of land MPAs conserve natural environments and assist area under protection. in the management of fisheries by protecting and There are a number of management categories rebuilding economically important stocks. Many of of protected areas in South Africa, which conform the new MPAs will be used to further develop and to the accepted categories of the IUCN. regulate coastal ecotourism opportunities.

Scientific reserves National parks and equivalent reserves Scientific reserves are sensitive and undisturbed areas SANParks manages several national parks throughout managed for research, monitoring and maintenance of South Africa’s provinces, excluding Gauteng and genetic sources. Access is limited to researchers and KwaZulu-Natal. The system of national parks is staff. Examples of such areas are Marion Island and representative of the country’s important ecosystems the Prince Edward islands near Antarctica. and unique natural features. Commercial and tourism-conservation develop- Wilderness areas ment and the involvement of local communities are These areas are extensive in size, uninhabited regarded as performance indicators. These areas and underdeveloped, and access is strictly include national parks proclaimed in terms of the controlled with no vehicles allowed. The highest National Parks Act, 1976 (Act 57 of 1976), management priority is the maintenance of the provincial parks, nature reserves and indigenous intrinsic wilderness character. Examples of state forests. wilderness areas are the Cedarberg Wilderness Area Some of these natural and scenic areas are extensive and include large representative areas of at least one of the country’s biomes. Since 1994, five new national parks have been established and The Department of Environmental Affairs and 379 000 ha have been added to the parks system. Tourism hosted the first-ever Environmental The national parks are: Enforcement Conference in in February 2006. • Addo Elephant National Park • Role-players from the various spheres of • Augrabies Falls National Park government and the international arena met • under the theme of Stepping Up Environmental Enforcement: New Powers, Tools and Networks. • • Golden Gate Highlands National Park The conference aimed to provide a platform for • Kalahari Gemsbok National Park (part of the participants to showcase success stories, Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park) obstacles and innovations in environmental enforcement. The Enforcement Work Programme • with the Environmental Agency of England and • Knysna National Lake Area Wales was launched during the conference. • Kruger National Park •

223 • natural-resource management areas to hunting- Environmental management • Mountain Zebra National Park concession areas. Although fences, highways, • railway lines or other barriers separate the • Richtersveld National Park constituent areas, they are managed jointly for • Table Mountain National Park (TMNP) (which long-term sustainable use of natural resources. incorporates the Cape of Good Hope, Table Unlike in transfrontier parks, free movement of Mountain and Silvermine nature reserves) animals between the components of a TFCA is not • Tankwa Karoo National Park always possible. • Tsitsikamma National Park TFCAs aim to facilitate and promote regional • Vaalbos National Park peace, co-operation and socio-economic • development. The success of TFCAs depends on • . community involvement. In turn, TFCAs are likely to In June 2006, Minister van Schalkwyk announced provide local communities with opportunities to that in terms of priorities identified in the NBSAP, generate revenue. another 230 000 ha would be added to the national TFCAs are expected to allow tourists easy parks to ensure the inclusion of underrepresented movement across international boundaries into biomes, such as . Among others, the adjoining conservation areas. Knysna forests and Soetkraal would become part of The six identified TFCAs are the: Tsitsikamma National Park and the QwaQwa Nature • Ais-Ais/Richtersveld Transfrontier Conservation Reserve would be added to the Golden Gate Park Highlands National Park. • Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park The Department of Environmental Affairs and • Limpopo-Sashe TFCA Tourism has invested about R120 million in social • Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park responsibility-funding for infrastructure development • Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation and Resource in Mapungubwe National Park, and a further Area R30 million has been spent on land acquisition. • Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Conservation During 2006/07, portions of the new Wild Coast and Development Area. National Park, located in a globally recognised with more than 1 500 plant species alone, were declared. It is expected to draw more than 245 000 tourists by 2008 and 270 000 by 2013, creating some 3 260 direct and indirect On 5 April 2006, over 120 biodiversity new jobs. scientists from across the globe, including The new Blyde River National Park was declared academics, experts and students met in Cape on Heritage Day, 24 September 2006. It lies in an Town for a two-day science symposium. The area with over 2 000 plant species (of which Department of Science and Technology, in conjunction with the Copenhagen-based Global 163 are Red Data plants), which is more than in the Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), organised entire Kruger National Park. The park is in the Blyde the event. River Canyon, which has one of the richest troves of plants and animals in southern Africa. Some South Africa is the first African country to host this symposium since its inception four years ago. R18 million has been allocated for infrastructure for This pays tribute to the country’s vast biodiversity the park over the next three years, starting with a wealth and its technological research R10-million luxury hiking trail. The park is expected contributions towards the globally sustainable to boost the local economy by R500 million over the use of natural resources. next decade. The annual science symposium forms part of the GBIF’s ongoing global efforts to find ways Transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs) of slowing down and eventually curbing the loss of A TFCA is a cross-border region. The conservation biodiversity through long-term conservation and the sustainable use of biological biodiversity. status of the areas within it ranges from national parks, private game reserves and communal

224 In June 2006, a memorandum of understanding In May 1997, South Africa ratified the World (MoU) between South Africa, Botswana and Heritage Convention. The South Africa World Zimbabwe was signed for the establishment of the Heritage Convention Committee is responsible for Limpopo/Shashe TFCA. the identification of possible sites in South Africa The proposed Limpopo/Shashe TFCA is 1 950 km2 and the co-ordination of the convention. in extent, 270 km2 in South Africa, 720 km2 in The World Heritage Convention Act, 1999 (Act 49 Botswana and 960 km2 in Zimbabwe. of 1999), allows for cultural and natural sites in South Africa to be granted world heritage status. The Biosphere reserves convention obliges the South African Government to The National Environmental Management: Protected guarantee its implementation, ensure legal Areas Amendment Act, 2004 protects South Africa’s protection, and develop management plans and biosphere reserves, which are generally formed institutional structures for periodic monitoring. around existing core conservation areas. The Act makes the principles of the convention Biosphere reserves include outstanding natural applicable to South Africa’s world heritage sites, beauty and biological diversity, exist in partnership and further provides for the adequate protection with a range of interested landowners, and can and conservation of these sites to promote tourism incorporate development, as long as it is in a culturally and environmentally responsible way. sustainable, while still protecting terrestrial or South Africa has seven world heritage sites coastal ecosystems. proclaimed by Unesco, namely Robben Island; the South Africa’s four biospheres are the: GSWLP; the hominid sites at Swartkrans, • Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve, which was Sterkfontein and Kromdraai (known as the Cradle registered with the United Nations Educational, of Humankind); the Ukhahlamba-Drakensberg Park Scientific and Cultural Organisation (Unesco) in (a mixed natural and cultural site); the Mapungubwe 1998. Heritage Site; the Cape Floral Kingdom; and the • Cape West Coast Biosphere Reserve, which was Vredefort Dome. listed in 2000. It covers 376 900 ha that include The Vredefort Dome is an ancient extraterrestrial a number of threatened vegetation types and impact site spanning the Free State and North West important bird-breeding sites. provinces. Formed two billion years ago, it is the • Reserve in Limpopo, which world’s most ancient meteorite impact site and the was listed in 2001. It covers 1,4 million ha that third-largest, measuring 140 km wide. It was declared include the Marakele National Park and the a world heritage site at the 29th World Heritage Nylsvlei Ramsar Site. Committee meeting held in Durban in July 2005. • Kruger-to-Canyons Biosphere Reserve, which Achieving world heritage site status has added was also listed in 2001, and covers more than to Vredefort’s economic and tourism potential. 3,3 million ha that span the boundary between Consequently, the Department of Environmental Limpopo and Mpumalanga. The core areas Affairs and Tourism has allocated R18 million comprise 13 declared protected areas, with a from its poverty-relief programme for tourism and major portion of the Kruger National Park as the infrastructural development at the Vredefort largest core area. Dome site. The world heritage status of Sterkfontein’s fossil National and cultural monuments hominid sites was extended in July 2005 to include These are natural or cultural features, or both, and the Taung skull fossil site in North West and the may include botanical gardens, zoological gardens, Mokopane Valley in Limpopo. natural heritage sites and sites of conservation The Cradle of Humankind has one of the world's significance. richest concentrations of hominid fossils, evidence of human evolution over the last 3,5 million years. World heritage sites Found in Gauteng and North West, the fossil sites By June 2005, there were 788 world heritage cover an area of 47 000 ha. The remains of ancient sites in 134 countries. Africa had 63 sites. A total of forms of animals, plants and hominids are captured 154 were natural sites, 611 were cultural sites and in a bed of dolomite deposited around 2,5 billion 23 were mixed sites. years ago.

225 Although other sites in south and east Africa have midland marshes, swamp forests and estuaries, Environmental management similar remains, the cradle has produced more than linked by green corridors of streambank wetlands. 950 hominid fossil specimens. South Africa became a contracting party to the The R347-million Cradle of Humankind develop- Ramsar Convention in 1975. The country’s Ramsar ment, initiated by the Gauteng Government, is the sites include Nylsvlei Nature Reserve, Blesbokspruit, first public-private partnership of its kind in South Barberspan, Seekoeivlei, Ukhahlamba-Drakensberg Africa. The aim is to develop and manage the World Park, Ndumo Game Reserve, the Kosi Bay System, Heritage Site as a premier tourist destination. Other Lake Sibaya, the turtle beaches and coral reefs of partners include the University of the Witwatersrand, Tongaland, the St Lucia System, Wilderness lakes, which owns the Sterkfontein caves and is the major De Hoop Vlei, De Mond State Forest, Langebaan, excavator of the cradle site. Verlorenvlei and the Orange River Mouth Wetland. On 7 December 2005, President Thabo Mbeki The Directorate: Biodiversity Management of the launched a state-of-the-art visitors’ facility named Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism is Maropeng, Setswana for ‘the place where we once responsible for the South African Wetlands lived’, at the cradle. The centre is designed to help Conservation Programme. The programme ensures tourists, schoolchildren and others explore the that South Africa’s obligations in terms of the history of humankind. Ramsar Convention are met. The programme aims to protect wetlands in Habitat- and wildlife-management areas South Africa against degradation and destruction, These areas are subject to human intervention, while striving for the ideal of wise and sustainable based on research into the requirements of specific use of resources, to ensure that the ecological and species for survival. They include conservancies; socio-economic functions of wetlands are sustained provincial, regional or private reserves created for for the future. the conservation of species habitats or biotic South Africa is a member of Wetlands International, communities; marshes; lakes; and nesting and an international body dedicated to conserving the feeding areas. world’s wetlands. The Working for Wetlands Programme focuses on Protected land and seascapes wetland restoration, while maximising employment These areas are products of the harmonious creation; support for small, medium and micro interaction of people and nature, and include enterprises (SMMEs); and transfer of skills to the natural environments protected in terms of the beneficiaries of the programme’s projects. Environment Conservation Act, 1989 (Act 73 of The programme contributes directly to the 1989), scenic landscapes and historical urban objectives of the Expanded Public Works Programme landscapes. (EPWP) and is a partnership between the departments of environmental affairs and tourism, of Sustainable-use areas water affairs and forestry, and of agriculture. These areas emphasise the sustainable use of World Wetlands Day marks the date of the signing protected areas such as the Kosi Bay Lake System of the Convention of Wetlands on 2 February 1971 in in KwaZulu-Natal. Nature areas in private the Iranian city of Ramsar. ownership are proclaimed and are managed to curtail undesirable development in areas with high Botanical gardens aesthetic or conservation potential. Sanbi was established on 1 September 2004 with Conservancies are formed to involve the ordinary the renaming of the NBI in terms of the National landowner in conservation. Landowners can Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, establish a conservancy where conservation 2004. Sanbi, with its head office at Kirstenbosch principles are integrated with normal farming National in Cape Town, is an activities. autonomous state-aided institute whose vision is to be the leading institution in biodiversity science in Wetlands Africa, facilitating conservation and the sustainable Wetlands include a wide range of inland and development of living resources and human well- coastal habitats – from mountain bogs and fens to being. In addition to new biodiversity-related

226 initiatives linked to the Act, traditional activities The other gardens in the national network are undertaken by Sanbi include: the Karoo Desert in Worcester, Harold Porter in • collecting, displaying and cultivating plants Betty’s Bay, Free State in Bloemfontein, KwaZulu- indigenous to South Africa Natal in Pietermaritzburg, Lowveld in Nelspruit, • undertaking and promoting research into Walter Sisulu (formerly Witwatersrand) in indigenous plants and related matters Roodepoort/Mogale City, and the Pretoria National • studying, researching and cultivating threatened Botanical Garden. plant species The Pretoria National Botanical Garden houses • promoting the utilisation of the economic the National Herbarium of South Africa, the largest potential of indigenous plants in the southern hemisphere. The evolution, • running environmental-education programmes. diversity, distribution and relationships of southern Sanbi manages eight national botanical gardens in Africa’s 24 000 species of plants, based on the five of South Africa’s nine provinces. The gardens Sanbi collection of over 1,8 million specimens in its collectively attract over a million visitors a year, are three herbaria, are researched. There are also signatories to the International Agenda for Botanic regional herbaria in Durban (KwaZulu-Natal Gardens in Conservation, and are founding Herbarium) and at the Kirstenbosch Research members of the African Botanic Gardens Network. Centre (Compton Herbarium). The largest garden is Kirstenbosch, situated on the The Harold Porter National Botanical Garden eastern slopes of Table Mountain in Cape Town. It boasts Disa uniflora in its natural habitat (flowering displays 5 300 indigenous plant species, and was from mid-December to the end of January), as well voted one of the top seven botanical gardens in the as South Africa’s national flower, the king protea world at the International Botanical Congress held (Protea cynaroides). in Missouri Botanical Garden, United States of The Walter Sisulu National Botanical Garden America (USA), in 1999. Kirstenbosch National accommodates more than 600 naturally occurring Botanical Garden, as part of the TMNP, was plant species, over 230 bird species, and a included in the Cape Floral Region World Heritage number of reptiles and small mammals. These Site in 2004, the first botanical garden in the world include jackal and antelope, which occur in the to be included within a natural world heritage site. natural areas of the garden. This garden receives Kirstenbosch gets more than 750 000 visitors some 180 000 visitors annually and is the annually. The Kirstenbosch National Botanical fastest-growing of the Sanbi-managed gardens. Garden houses the Kirstenbosch Research Centre, It covers over 275 ha and consists of landscaped the Centre for Biodiversity Conservation, Gold Fields and natural areas. All the garden’s plants are Environmental Education Centre, the Botanical indigenous to southern Africa. Society Conservatory, two restaurants, a During 2005, Sanbi completed new environmental- conference venue, gift shops, a coffee bar, concert education, restaurant and visitor facilities at the venues, sculpture exhibits and the Centre for Home Lowveld, Pretoria, Walter Sisulu and Free State Gardening, which includes an indigenous plant national botanical gardens. Many of these capital retail nursery. projects were co-financed by the EPWP within the department. Sanbi now operates environmental- education programmes within its national botanical gardens, and outreach greening programmes focused on promoting indigenous gardening in The Kirstenbosch-South Africa exhibit at the disadvantaged schools in surrounding areas. 2006 Chelsea Flower Show in the United The Greening of the Nation Project, managed by Kingdom won a gold medal – the 28th out of Sanbi, is a new government-funded programme 31 annual entries by South Africa to the show. that has been initiated in various provinces of South Co-ordinated by the South African National Africa for community and school greening projects. Biodiversity Institute, the exhibit featured Its activities include the greening of towns (road 2 500 kg semi-precious stones and flowers, and islands and entrances), schools, crèches, day-care had a waterwise theme. It was sponsored by centres, community parks, cemeteries, police First National Bank. stations, and cultural villages, and the development of community nurseries.

227 Many projects include the development of Seed Bank facility of the Royal Botanic Gardens in Environmental management indigenous gardens and vegetable gardens. The Kew by 2010. Sanbi joined the Millennium Seed programme works closely with Food and Trees for Bank International Programme in 2000. The South Africa, the first national non-governmental, non- African collaboration aims to contribute by profit, greening organisation in South Africa, collecting the seed of about 2 500 plant species established in 1990. indigenous to the region for storage in this long- Sanbi is the management agency for the US$20- term ex situ conservation facility. million Cape Action Plan for People and the Some municipalities have botanical gardens that Environment Project, which aims to conserve are not controlled by Sanbi. These include the Wilds biological diversity within the Cape Floral Kingdom. and Melville Koppies in Johannesburg, the From 1996 to 2005, Sanbi served as the Johannesburg Botanic Garden, the Grahamstown implementing agency for the US$5-million Southern Botanical Garden (managed by Rhodes University) African Botanical Diversity Network Project that and the municipal Durban Botanic Gardens. aimed to upgrade facilities and strengthen the level Other botanical gardens in South Africa not of botanical expertise throughout the subcontinent. controlled by Sanbi include the Manie van der The project, which was funded by the Global Schijff Botanical Garden (University of Pretoria), Environmental Facility (GEF), United Nations University of Stellenbosch Botanical Garden, North Development Programme, United States Agency for West University Botanical Garden (Potchefstroom International Development, and the IUCN regional Campus), University of KwaZulu-Natal Botanical office for southern Africa was completed in 2005. Garden (Pietermaritzburg Campus), the Lost City Sanbi also manages the Working for Wetlands Gardens (near Sun City, North West) and the Garden Programme, with its offices based at the Pretoria Route Botanical Garden in the southern Cape. National Botanical Garden. In addition to herbarium and taxonomic research, Zoological gardens the Kirstenbosch Research Centre in Cape Town is a Founded in 1899, the National Zoological Gardens centre of excellence for biodiversity research. The (NZG) of South Africa in Pretoria is the only zoo in research programme focuses on the impact of South Africa with national status and membership climate change, invasive alien species and land-use of the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums; on biodiversity, as well as the development of the Pan-African Association of Zoological Gardens, conservation plans for threatened ecosystems and Aquaria and Botanical Gardens; the International species. The centre has developed a new vegetation Union of Zooculturists; and the International map for South Africa and maintains the Protea Atlas Association of Zoo Educators. Database, one of the most comprehensive plant The NZG, considered one of the 10 best in the databases in the world. world, extends over an area of about 80 ha. In The Leslie Hill Molecular Systematics Laboratory is 2005, the zoo attracted more than 600 000 visitors. one of the facilities at the Kirstenbosch Research On 1 April 2006, the zoo’s collection included Centre. A DNA-bank has been established at the 2 889 specimens of 213 mammal species, laboratory, in collaboration with the Royal Botanic 1 418 specimens of 221 bird species, 4 639 speci- Gardens, Kew, in the United Kingdom (UK). The mens of 217 fish species, 118 specimens of objectives of the bank, which is funded by the UK- 12 invertebrate species, 529 specimens of 113 reptile based Darwin Initiative, are to archive the DNA of at species, and 90 specimens of seven amphibian least one species of all 2 200 genera of South Africa’s species. flowering plants, to train South African researchers These figures comprise the animals housed at and students in high-profile biotechnologies, and to the NZG in Pretoria, the two game-breeding centres produce a tree of life of South African plants. in Lichtenburg and Mokopane, and the satellite zoo The Millennium Seed Bank Project in South and animal park at the Emerald Animal World in Africa is part of a 10-year (2000 to 2010) Vanderbijlpark. international programme that aims to collect and In April 2004, the NZG was declared a national conserve 10% of the world’s seed-bearing plant research facility, subject to the provisions of the species (some 24 000 species) in the Millennium National Research Foundation (NRF).

228 The NRF is a government agency responsible for 4 500 ha, and the Game-Breeding Centre in supporting and promoting research, and providing Mokopane, covering an area of 1 334 ha. The two research facilities to facilitate the creation of centres supplement the zoo’s breeding programme knowledge, innovation and development in all fields for various endangered animals, and the zoo’s own of science and technology. (See Chapter 18: animal collection. Science and technology.) The Lichtenburg Game-Breeding Centre houses, In 2001, the NZG established the 203-ha among other animals, Père David’s deer, pygmy Emerald Animal World housed at the Emerald Safari hippopotamus, white rhinoceros, the endangered Resort and Casino in Vanderbijlpark. The facility addax, and scimitar-horned and Arabian oryx. Large comprises a 189-ha game park and a 14-ha zoo. herds of impala, springbok, zebra, blesbok and red The Emerald Animal World facility houses more hartebeest also roam the area. than 760 animals representing 127 species of About 32 ha of the wetland area at the centre mammals, birds and reptiles. Animals that can be have been developed into a system of dams and viewed there include white rhinoceros, hippopotamus, pans, which serves as a natural haven for lion, cheetah, various antelope and reptile species, waterbirds such as spoonbills, kingfishers, ibises and even bats. All the animals were provided by the and herons. national zoo’s satellite facilities in Lichtenburg and The Mokopane Game-Breeding Centre is home Mokopane. to an abundance of exotic and indigenous fauna The Johannesburg Zoological Gardens, or such as lemur, the rare tsessebe, roan antelope and Johannesburg Zoo, which houses more than black rhino. 10 000 animals, celebrated its centenary in 2004. De Wildt Cheetah-Breeding and Research The core business of Johannesburg Zoo, which Centre, situated near Pretoria, is best known for its is registered as a non-profit company, is the highly successful captive-breeding programme that accommodation, enrichment, husbandry and medical contributed to the cheetah being removed from the care of wild animals. endangered list of the South African Red Data Book It is also renowned for its successful breeding – Terrestrial Mammals in 1986. programmes involving several endangered South De Wildt also breeds a number of rare and African bird species such as the wattled crane and endangered African species. The most spectacular of ground hornbill. these is the magnificent king cheetah, which is a The zoo covers 54 ha and houses 2 070 animals true cheetah, but with a variation of coat patterns of 365 species. and colouring. De Wildt also plays a major role in the breeding and release of wild dogs. It has donated Breeding centres breeding nucleuses of the highly endangered riverine There are a number of game-breeding centres in rabbit and suni antelope to the Kruger National Park. South Africa. The NZG of South Africa is responsible The De Wildt Vulture Unit is a rehabilitation and for the management of the Lichtenburg Game- holding facility for injured, poisoned and disabled Breeding Centre, which covers an area of some vultures. The Hoedspruit Endangered Species Centre in Mpumalanga was initially established as a breeding programme for the then endangered cheetah. February 2006 marked the first anniversary of Following the success of the cheetah-breeding South Africa’s implementation of the Kyoto Protocol. programme, it has evolved into a breeding programme for other endangered African animal species. The South Africa is one of the signatories to the centre caters for, among other things, five species of protocol, an amendment to the United Nations vulture: Cape griffins, and whitebacked, hooded, Framework Convention on Climate Change according to which countries commit to reducing whiteheaded and lappetfaced vultures. their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other The Hoedspruit Centre is also known for its wild greenhouse gases, or engaging in emission trading dog-breeding programme. if they maintain or increase emissions. The Hoedspruit Research and Breeding Programme also includes the rare black-footed cat,

229 Environmental management the vulnerable African wild cat, ground hornbills (in The Fitzsimons Snake Park in Durban houses co-operation with the NZG in Pretoria), bald ibis about 250 snakes, including the world’s longest and the endangered blue crane. Elephant, white (reticulated python), most venomous (boomslang, rhino, buffalo, caracal, sable antelope, bushbuck puff adder and black mamba) and rarest (long-nose and tsessebe have also been cared for and tree snake and Madagascar tree boa) snakes. Up to rehabilitated there. 500 snakes hatch at the park each year. The Adventure Walk enables visitors to view a large Aquaria variety of snakes that are kept in secure glass-viewing There are well-known aquaria in Pretoria, Port enclosures.The park also offers educational, interactive Elizabeth, Cape Town and Durban. snake demonstrations, and junior and advanced The Aquarium and Reptile Park of the Pretoria herpetology (study of reptiles) classes. Zoo is the largest inland aquarium in Africa, with The Port Elizabeth Snake Park at Bayworld has a the largest collection of freshwater fish. It is also wide variety of South African and foreign reptiles, the only aquarium in South Africa that exhibits a including tortoises, boa constrictors, pythons, large variety of marine fish in artificial sea water. crocodiles, lizards and deadly venomous snakes The Port Elizabeth Oceanarium is one of the such as cobras, mambas and rattlers. Rare and city’s major attractions. Exhibits include an threatened species, including the Madagascar underwater observation area, a dolphin-research ground boa, are housed safely in realistically centre, various smaller tanks of 40 different species landscaped glass enclosures. of bony fish, as well as two larger tanks that display The Aquarium and Reptile Park situated at the sharks and stingrays. NZG in Pretoria houses 80 reptile species from all East London has a smaller aquarium, which is over the world. also well worth visiting. The Hartbeespoort Dam Snake and Animal Park At the Two Oceans Aquarium situated at the near Pretoria features one of the finest reptile Victoria and Alfred Waterfront, Cape Town, more collections in southern Africa. It offers seal shows than 3 000 specimens represent some 300 species and snake-handling demonstrations. of fish, invertebrates, mammals, birds and plants supported by the waters in and around the Cape Marine resources coast. The South African coastline covers more than UShaka Marine World in Durban incorporates 3 200 km, linking the east and west coasts of both fresh and sea water, and is the fifth-largest Africa. South Africa’s shores are particularly rich in aquarium in the world by water volume. It biodiversity with some 10 000 species of marine comprises Sea World, Dolphin World, Beach World, plants and animals having been recorded. and Wet and Wild World. The productive waters of the west coast support Sea World incorporates a unique shipwreck- a variety of commercially exploited marine life, themed aquarium, a penguin rookery and a 1 200- including hake, anchovy, sardine, horse mackerel, seater dolphin stadium (the largest dolphinarium in tuna, snoek, rock lobster and abalone. On the east Africa). It also offers edutainment tours and special coast, squid, linefish and a wide range of intertidal interactive activities such as snorkelling and scuba resources provide an important source of food and diving. In addition, it features a rocky touch-pool, livelihood for coastal communities. Marine life that where visitors can touch a starfish or sea cucumber is not harvested, such as whales, dolphins and with the help of specially trained guides. seabirds, is increasingly recognised as a valuable resource for nature-based tourism. Snake parks The South African fishing industry, which was The Transvaal Snake Park at Midrand, between once concentrated in the hands of a few, largely Pretoria and Johannesburg, houses up to white-owned companies, has undergone intensive 150 species of snakes and other reptiles and transformation over the past 10 years. amphibians from southern Africa and elsewhere. The emphasis is on the development of breeding New fisheries programmes for animals in captivity. The department is committed to job creation and

230 economic growth, and to exploring new economic intensive fisheries. Cluster B comprises those opportunities within the fishing sector. fisheries that, although fairly well organised, are The termination of South Africa’s 25-year-old significantly less capital-intensive. Cluster C fisheries agreements with Japan and Taiwan has comprises large numbers of fishers who are poorly paved the way for the development of a South organised, but who have access to valuable fish African fishery for large pelagic fish, such as tuna and stocks. Cluster D comprises those fishers who are swordfish. The first long-term 10-year commercial not only poorly organised, but are also involved in fishing rights have been issued in this sector as well very marginal fisheries. as the abalone sector. The four clusters are as follows: In addition, the department is developing nine Cluster A new fisheries over the next five years, including • hake deep-sea trawl Eastern Cape abalone, limpets, ornamental fish, • hake inshore trawl East Coast rock lobster, sand soldier and Indian • horse mackerel Ocean squid in KwaZulu-Natal. Two experimental • small pelagics fisheries have been opened for the KwaZulu-Natal • patagonian tooth fish deepwater rock lobster and octopus fisheries to • south coast rock lobster determine the feasibility of developing both sectors • KwaZulu-Natal prawn trawl. into full-scale commercial fisheries. Cluster B Through regular scientific research, the • West Coast rock lobster (WCRL) (off shore) department establishes what the optimal use of • hake long line each fish species should be. This is done annually • squid and ensures that fish stocks are managed • tuna pole sustainably. • seaweed • demersal shark. Long-term rights allocations Cluster C In March 2005, the Minister of Environmental Affairs • hand-line hake and Tourism announced 19 draft fishing policies for • WCRL (near shore). the allocation of long-term fishing rights in South Cluster D Africa. A draft line-fish policy was also published • oysters following a series of fishing izimbizo held along the • white mussels coastline of South Africa, which allowed for input • net fishing (small nets/gillnets and beach from the public and stakeholders. The policies will seine/trek-nets) guide the process by which the department will • KwaZulu-Natal beach seine. allocate fishing rights for periods of between eight This process followed the allocations of medium- and 15 years. This will create more stability and term rights in 2001, when the department moved sustainable jobs, while providing an enabling away from allocating annual permits to the environment for entrepreneurs. allocation of four-year rights. For the first time ever, policy considerations have By June 2006, 8 028 long-term fishing-rights been codified in significant detail. South Africa is allocations had been received, about twice the one of only a handful of countries that has codified number expected. Rights were awarded to 1 516 its fisheries policies, and is perhaps the only successful applicants to catch about 600 000 tons country to have done so in such detail. of fish. In allocating these rights,the Department of The allocation of fishing rights is managed in Environmental Affairs and Tourism achieved real terms of the clustered approach to fisheries empowerment, in that 29% of the deep-sea hake management. The 19 different fishing sectors trawl (14% in 2001), 66% of the pilchard catch remain grouped into four clusters. This was done in (64% in 2001), and 61% of the offshore WCRL response to the call to simplify and streamline the catch (51% in 2001) is now black-controlled. allocation process. In June 2006, Minister van Schalkwyk The clusters allow for the design of processes announced the allocation of 392 additional long- that suit the different fishers involved. Cluster A term fishing rights in the WCRL near-shore fishery comprises the most organised and capital- sector, nearly doubling the total number of

231 allocations from 418 to 812. These rights will be coastline, and aligns South African legislation with Environmental management valid for a period of 10 years. international laws and conventions. The area where WCRL rights are allocated During 2004/05, a number of initiatives were stretches from Port Nolloth to Gansbaai. strengthened and implemented under the Coastcare banner. These included the formulation of interpretive Aquaculture signage for the coast, the Adopt-a-Beach Programme Aquaculture production in South Africa is in the and the Coastcare Induction Programme. region of 4 000 t a year, of which much is attributable to abalone and mussel production. Mariculture Since 2002, abalone farms on the south coast Research geared at mariculture development have collectively produced more abalone products resulted in the development of scallop shellfish, kob for export than wild abalone fishery has. and white stumpnose finfish mariculture projects These farms are creating a substantial demand and a three-year exploratory tuna-farming project. for fresh kelp fronds, which are fed to cultured Another successful mariculture project is the abalone. The department is undertaking research culturing of sea urchins by closing the life cycle into seaweed cultivation to establish whether the and rearing larvae to market size within 12 months. nutrient-rich wastewater from abalone farms can be effectively used to cultivate seaweeds for 4x4 regulations abalone feed. If this proves to be feasible, it would Following the successful implementation of the have the added benefit of purifying the wastewater 4x4 regulations that provide for the controlled use that is pumped out of abalone farms into the sea. The success of the abalone farming industry has prompted new interest in the culture of fin fish in South Africa. One of the most exciting local In February 2006, the Minister of Environmental species for the aquaculture industry is the dusky Affairs and Tourism, Mr Marthinus van kob. Research carried out in land-based tanks and Schalkwyk, announced interventions aimed at alleviating the suffering of poverty-stricken cages at Rhodes University showed that this species coastal communities. is easily kept in captivity, growing from fingerlings to over one kilogram in less than a year. Subsequently, Government had spent more than R270 million a number of fishing companies and other interested over the past two years on repairing and parties have taken up the challenge of farming upgrading fishing harbours, and aimed to spend dusky kob and are following their own paths to the another R127 million in 2006/07 to create local jobs while developing infrastructure that should commercialisation of the species. result in improved economic activities. Shark- cage diving, boat-based whale watching and The coast other non-consumptive tourism activities have The White Paper for Sustainable Coastal been prioritised as means to address Development in South Africa recognises that the communities’ social and economic needs. A draft co-ordination between the lead department in each policy on aquaculture was expected to be finalised and released for public comment in province, and other departments and role-players 2006. whose work forms part of the overall coastal- management effort, is essential. In accordance with In addressing the plight of bona fide small-scale the White Paper, a coastal committee was fishers from coastal fishing communities, who established in each of the four coastal provinces. use low-technology fishing gear to catch fish Progress has been made towards the establishment primarily for local sale or barter, fishers who of a national coastal committee. demonstrate both great need and a historic dependency on fishing will be given access to It was envisaged that the Coastal Management fish and marine resources in inshore areas. Bill, which was drafted in 2002, would be tabled in Parliament in 2006. The Bill provides for important Fishers could be accommodated within the interventions that will regulate, enhance, preserve or framework of subsistence fishing. A policy for rehabilitate sensitive or overexploited coastal areas. subsistence fishing was expected to be released It also ensures equitable access to South Africa’s in 2006.

232 of off-road vehicles in coastal zones, monitoring of encourage groups of people to adopt or help look stretches of coast has indicated that the banning after a piece of coast in their region and link with of off-road vehicles has enabled several shore- others as part of a national project. Adopt-a-Beach is breeding birds, especially Damara tern and African part of the overall Coastcare Programme and black oystercatcher, to breed successfully on contributes towards the implementation of the beaches again. awareness, education and training goals of the White According to conservationists from Ezemvelo Paper for Sustainable Coastal Development in South KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife, the number of loggerhead Africa. More than 250 groups have been registered and leatherback turtles hatching successfully on and are being supported by the department. the beaches of northern KwaZulu-Natal has also increased since the ban was enforced. Blue Flag Programme In 2004, the Department of Environmental Affairs Blue Flag is an international annual award given to and Tourism amended the Regulations for the beaches that meet excellence in the areas of Control of Use of Vehicles in the Coastal Zone, safety, amenities, cleanliness and environmental and developed a guideline document for these standards. South Africa is the first country outside regulations. A socio-economic study was com- Europe to win Blue Flag accreditation for its missioned to determine the effects of these beaches. Since the inception of the programme in regulations in the St Lucia region. The study was South Africa, a 75% growth rate in full status and expected to be completed in 2006. pilot Blue Flag beaches has been achieved. The Blue Flag beaches for 2006/07 were: Interpretive and Informative Marine and • Addington Beach, Durban Coastal Signage Programme • Anstey’s Beach on the Bluff, Durban As part of its education and training programme, the • Bay of Plenty, Durban department seeks to raise awareness in coastal • South Beach, Durban areas. Following extensive consultation, more than • Umhlanga Rocks Main Beach 90 different themed interpretive and informative • Kelly’s Beach, Port Alfred boards were developed and erected at beaches all • Well’s Estate, north of Port Elizabeth along the coastline after the reproduction of more • Humewood, Port Elizabeth than 1 000 copies. These are valuable tools for • Dolphin Beach, Jeffrey’s Bay increasing coastal and marine-environment • Lappiesbaai Beach, Stilbaai awareness among beach visitors. • Grotto Beach, Hermanus • Bikini Beach, Gordon’s Bay Adopt-a-Beach • Mnandi Beach, Strandfontein The Adopt-a-Beach Programme was initiated to • Clifton 4th Beach, Cape Town • Lucien Beach, south coast • Marina/San Lameer Beach, south coast By June 2006, Operation Orca had resulted in • Ramsgate Main Beach, south coast the seizure of marine products worth almost R38 million, as well as 35 vehicles, three • King’s Beach, Port Elizabeth vessels and other assets. There had been • Hawston Beach, near Hermanus 78 convictions, breakthroughs into four • Kleinmond Beach, near Hermanus. syndicate operations and the first-ever long- term imprisonment of seven years for the possession and transportation of perlemoen. Illegal cottages The Department of Environmental Affairs and The environmental protection fleet inspected Tourism has embarked on a programme to halt 714 vessels, undertook 13 rescue operations, illegal developments along coastal areas that secured 25 arrests and issued 50 fines in 510 sea days in 2005. The department aimed to increase compromise orderly developments and degrade the the number of sea days to 700 with at least one environment. Creating an environment conducive to Southern African Development Community the promotion of appropriate development, improving patrol per quarter. law enforcement and environmental quality, and ensuring that local communities benefit from orderly

233 development along the coast are key objectives of poor air quality and planning. It will contribute to Environmental management this programme. economic growth by assisting cities to develop The department took action against illegal energy strategies and integrated development plans. developers along the Eastern Cape coastline after The professional development of environmental aerial and ground surveys were done, resulting in health officers will also receive special attention. more than 40 criminal cases and about 60 civil National and provincial departments will receive cases against individuals. After court orders and R68 million to spread the lessons learnt and models interdicts, 15 houses were demolished. The developed that could lead to improvements in all department is currently expanding legal action municipalities. against developments in KwaZulu-Natal and the Northern Cape. Climatic and atmospheric change In South Africa, climate change is evident and Conservation challenges will continue, even if greenhouse gas (GHG) South Africa faces many of the problems concentrations are stabilised. As such, it will experienced by developing countries, in which continue to undermine sustainable development. rapid industrialisation, population growth and Expanded desertification in the semi-arid areas of urbanisation pose a threat to the quality of the the country is already a feature of the South African environment. landscape. Climate-change modelling suggests a The department is reforming environmental law reduction of the area covered by the current biomes to introduce reform in biodiversity conservation, in South Africa by 35% to 55% in the next 50 years. pollution, waste management and environmental The Energy Research Centre at the University of planning. Cape Town has estimated that the yearly cost to South Africa of not acting to adapt to the effects of climate Urban environmental management change now will be about 1,5% of gross domestic South Africa is an urbanised economy with 58% of product (GDP) by 2050. the population living in cities and towns. By 2015, it Achieving the 2013 additional renewable energy is expected that 68% of the population will live in target of 10 000 giga watt hours could have a urban areas due to continued migration from rural positive impact on GDP of more than R1 billion, lead areas mainly to the larger cities, which will lead to to additional government revenue of almost many environmental challenges in South Africa’s R300 million, provide additional income to low- cities. income households of R128 million, and produce The launch of the five-year Urban Environmental water savings of up to 16,5 million kilolitres per Management Programme (UEMP) in June 2006 year, while creating just over 20 000 new jobs marked a milestone in environmental co-operation simultaneously. between Denmark and South Africa. With their latest donation of R275 million, Denmark passed the National Climate-Change Response Strategy R1-billion mark in donations towards improving The strategy provides a comprehensive framework environmental quality in South Africa. for dealing with climate-change issues in South Five key municipalities have been chosen as Africa. The approach used in developing this pilots for this programme, namely Cape Town, strategy was to ensure, as far as possible, that Durban, Ekurhuleni, Johannesburg and Sedibeng climate-change response actions in South Africa (Vaal Triangle). Some R85 million has been facilitate sustainable development. earmarked for direct support to these cities with a Government approved accession to the Kyoto reserve for other ‘hotspots’ in future. People living in Protocol of the UN Framework Convention on Climate air-pollution hotspots such as the Vaal Triangle and Change (UNFCCC) in March 2002, demonstrating South Durban can expect noticeable improvements South Africa’s commitment to further enhancing the over the next five years. effectiveness of environmental legislation. It is expected that the UEMP will lead to an The Kyoto Protocol, which entered into force on improvement in the quality of life of nearly two million 16 February 2005, is a legally binding instrument poor households in these five municipalities, whose whereby developed countries undertake to reduce health is affected by inadequate waste removal, and GHG emissions by at least 5% of their 1990 levels.

234 One of the protocol’s features is the incorporation of Erosion and desertification market-based mechanisms designed to allow Most South African soil is unstable. The country developed countries to achieve their required loses an estimated 500 mt of topsoil annually emission reductions at the lowest possible cost. through erosion caused by water and wind. The South African National Conference on About 81% of the total land area of South Africa Climate Change was held in October 2005 in is farmed. However, only 70% of this area is Midrand near Johannesburg to address the growing suitable for grazing. challenge of climate change and to prepare for its Overgrazing and erosion diminish the carrying implications. This was South Africa’s first national capacity of the veld and lead to land degradation. conference on the topic. Attended by more than This process has already claimed more than 600 representatives from government, the business 250 000 ha of land in South Africa. sector, scientific and academic communities and The Department of Agriculture administers the civil society, the conference reflected South Africa’s Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act, 1983 commitment and determination to act on climate (Act 43 of 1983), in terms of which various change and to shape policy informed by the best measures are being implemented to prevent or available scientific knowledge. contain soil erosion. In December 2005, envoys from more than In January 1995, South Africa signed the 180 countries, including South Africa, attended the Convention to Combat Desertification, which was UNFCCC, held in Montreal, Canada, to discuss the ratified on 30 September 1997.The main objectives of Kyoto Protocol. More than 40 decisions that would the convention include co-operation between strengthen global efforts to fight climate change governments, organisations and communities were taken. to accomplish sustainable development, especially In December 2005, at the fourth Municipal where water resources are scarce. The convention Leaders Summit in Montreal, more than 190 aims to support member countries in Africa to prevent mayors agreed to reduce emissions of GHGs by desertification and its consequences. These countries 20% before 2020, and by 80% by 2050, in support support one another at technical and scientific level, of the Kyoto Protocol. as they share similar climatic conditions. South Africa is introducing the first carbon- South Africa also acts as co-ordinator for the development mechanism projects that use cleaner Valdivia Group for Desertification. The group development to generate revenue from developed consists of countries in the southern hemisphere, nations, to support the country’s actions in response to namely Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Chile, climate change. Government also intends implement- Uruguay, South Africa and Brazil, whose aim it is, ing the agreement it has with Business Unity South among other things, to foster scientific and Africa on emissions, and using the National technological co-operation. Environment Management: Air Quality Act, 2004 (Act 39 of 2004), to regulate the reporting of GHG gas Waste management emissions, and encourage cleaner production. The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism has prioritised four projects within the framework of the National Waste Management Strategy. They are: • recycling In June 2006, ministers and heads of delegations from 22 countries met at Kapama Lodge, South • a waste information system Africa, for the Ministerial Indaba on Climate • healthcare waste Action. The indaba provided ministers with the • capacity-building. opportunity to consider key issues for the Central to these are pilot projects that are being set climate-change agenda for the long term, as well as for the next round of talks under the up countrywide. The department welcomes United Nations Framework Convention on partnerships with business to ensure that these Climate Change and its Kyoto Protocol projects are successful and become a core of better scheduled in Nairobi, Kenya, in 2006. waste management in South Africa.

235 In 2006, the new National Integrated Waste The compliance and enforcement of the Environmental management Management Bill, which ensures that waste is dealt regulations have been assigned to the South with according to agreed norms and standards, African Bureau of Standards. was published for comment. The Radioactive Waste Management Policy, Government aims to reduce the amount of ‘big which assures citizens that there is a nuclear five’ waste – plastics, cans, paper, glass and tyres waste-management plan and strategy, is being – that reaches landfills by 70% by 2022, and has implemented, starting with the creation of the plans for minimising and treating the remaining National Committee on Radioactive Waste 30%. National initiatives embarked on to realise the Management. goal of zero waste, include agreements signed by government and members of priority waste-stream Water-quality management sectors such as the manufacturers of plastic bags The Directorate: Water-Quality Management of the and the waste-glass industry, and an MoU with the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry is waste-tyre sector. responsible for the quality management of national An agreement containing regulations governing water resources in South Africa. plastic shopping bags was signed in September Water-quality management involves maintaining 2002 by the Minister of Environmental Affairs and water resources for use on a sustained basis, by Tourism and representatives from various labour achieving a balance between socio-economic and business organisations. development and environmental protection. From a The agreement, which came into effect on regulatory point of view, water-quality management 9 May 2003, stipulates that the thickness of plastic entails the ongoing process of planning, bags be 30 microns. However, manufacturers will development, implementation and administration of be allowed to continue using their existing water-quality management policy; the authorisation machinery to make bags of 24-micron thickness of water-uses that have, or potentially have, an for the next five years before having to comply with impact on water quality; as well as the monitoring the 30-micron standard. and auditing of the aforementioned. The agreement states that printing will only be The National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998), allowed on 25% of the surface area of plastic bags if further enables the Department of Water Affairs and the ink is not environmentally friendly. In situations Forestry to manage water quality through source- where the ink is acceptable, this area can be directed and resource-directed measures. increased to 50%. The department has a toll-free line to deal with queries about plastic bags. The plastic bags agreement and supporting regulations have dramatically decreased the environmental impact of this highly visible waste Following the Department of Justice’s closure of stream, with a 50% reduction in the consumption of all specialised courts in July 2006, all plastic bags since the introduction of the environmental cases now have to be heard in regulations. their own districts. As part of the implementation of the plastic bag The departments of environmental affairs and regulations, Buyisa-e-Bag, a non-profit-making tourism and of justice and constitutional company was set up to promote waste development established a dedicated unit as from minimisation and awareness initiatives in the 1 August 2006 to deal with all cases in the Western Cape. The Department of Environmental plastics industry. The company is expected to Affairs and Tourism seconded officials to a unit expand collector networks and to create jobs, as that would prosecute cases in district and regional well as to kick-start rural collection SMMEs and courts, and in the High Court. create additional capacity in NGOs. By the end of 2006, over 100 prosecutors had Work is in progress to follow this success with completed specialised training in prosecuting targeted and customised agreements in respect of marine-, wildlife- and pollution-related environ- other problem waste streams, including tyres and mental crimes. glass.

236 Source directed measures include the issuing of traffic passes South Africa’s coast. The department licences to water users with a potential impact on developed the National Contingency Plan for the the resource. Prevention and Combating of Pollution from Ships, in The Act requires that all significant water consultation with the South African Maritime Safety resources be classified in accordance with the Authority and the Department of Transport. This prescribed classification system. (See Chapter 23: includes disposal, recovery or stabilisation of the spilt Water affairs and forestry.) oil and the rehabilitation of the environment. The department is introducing a comprehensive The department successfully responded to several drinking-water management programme to help pollution incidents, which included, among others, municipalities ensure that the quality of drinking the Sea Elegance, Sealander Express, Cape Africa, water is managed appropriately. Municipalities and BBC China. The department established the submit monthly reports on the quality of their National Ballast Water-Management Task Group to drinking water to the department to enable it to lend develop measures aimed at regulating discharges of speedy assistance when necessary. ballast water in South Africa's marine and coastal waters. Air pollution The National Environment Management: Air Quality Sustainable Coastal Livelihoods Programme (SCLP) Act, 2004 was promulgated in 2005. The Act, which The SCLP seeks alternative livelihood options for repealed the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act, communities along the South African coast to 1965 (Act 45 of 1965), gives effect to the integrated minimise pressure on marine resources. By mid- pollution and waste-management policy to ensure 2006, 14 SCLP coastal-development projects that all South Africans have access to clean air. were being implemented with a total budget of In 2006, government introduced the first-ever R13,4 million. South African National Standards for Ambient Air Quality. These are specifically aimed at protecting Subsistence fishing peoples’ right to air that is not harmful to health and The implementation of the Marine Living Resources well-being, and at defining specific levels of air Act, 1998 (Act 18 of 1998), has facilitated the pollution like benzene, sulphur dioxide and allocation of formal rights to fishers in this sector for particulate matter that are considered harmful. The the first time. It is an important part of the overall department also hosted the first annual National Air transformation of fisheries in South Africa. A primary Quality Governance Lekgotla in October 2006 to goal is to allow subsistence fishers to obtain their address air-quality issues and to help ensure cleaner food, or food security, through the harvesting of local air in all communities. resources. Consequently, the need to ensure that exploitation is sustainable is vital. Marine pollution, poaching and sustainability Identifying and working with fisher communities South Africa has one of world’s busiest shipping to promote orderly access has been emphasised. routes and has experienced many oil spills over the Implementation involves co-operation between all years. It is estimated that 80% of the world’s tanker spheres of government and civil society. A policy for subsistence fishing was expected to be released in 2006.

At the Reduce, Reuse and Recycle Ministerial Conference in 2005, South Africa agreed to Protecting South Africa’s seas manage waste in a holistic manner, and became To counter illegal activities along the 3 000-km one of seven countries to sign a grant coastline, as well as the country’s 1 155 000 km2 agreement on the African Stockpile Programme Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), the Department of with the World Bank worth US$1,7 million. The country is also developing guidelines for the Environmental Affairs and Tourism has boosted its implementation of the Globally Harmonised compliance unit with the appointment of more than System of Classification and Labelling of 80 fishery control officers (FCOs) and 100 honorary Chemicals. FCOs, after the implementation of the Honorary Fishery Control Officers Policy. The department has

237 also taken delivery of four new environmental- The department launched the Preventative Environmental management protection vessels as part of measures to protect Enforcement Strategy in November 2005. marine and coastal resources. In the Eastern Cape alone, the number of abalone Three of the four new protection vessels, Lillian confiscated declined dramatically during the period Ngoyi, Ruth First and Victoria Mxenge, have been from October 2005 to January 2006. In October built to patrol up to the 200 nautical mile limit from 2005, 52 336 abalone were confiscated and at the the shore. A fourth vessel, Sarah Baartman, patrols end of November 2005 this figure had dropped to the most remote reaches of the EEZ and around the 6 926, representing a decrease of about 600%. Prince Edward islands in the Southern Ocean The figure for December 2005 and January 2006 regions. The vessels also conduct multilateral combined was 3 216, representing a further 100% patrols in the Southern African Development decrease. A total of 1 200 alleged poachers were Community (SADC) coastal states. prevented from diving. Lilian Ngoyi was launched in November 2004, Inspections were also carried out at restaurants, followed by Sarah Baartman on 10 January 2005, fish factories and shops, and commercial fishing Ruth First on 18 May 2005 and Victoria Mxenge on boats at landing sites. 23 September 2005. In addition to performing fishery-protection International co-operation duties, the vessels are equipped to conduct oil-spill International alliances are essential for encouraging countermeasure operations. The vessels are further regional and international compliance with marine equipped for search-and-rescue work, fire-fighting fisheries legislation. South Africa has played a and limited towing duties. positive role in responding to international requests They monitor a wide variety of resources, to help when dealing with alleged illegal, including rock lobster, abalone, line fish and squid, unreported and unregulated vessels. The request at and carry out inspections of the demersal and the end of 2003, from Australia, to assist in the pelagic fleets. pursuit of the Viarsa I is the most prominent Three of the vessels are 47 m long and 8 m wide example of this kind. The vessel was alleged to and can reach a top speed of about 25 knots (about have been involved with illegal harvesting of 40 km per hour), which is roughly twice the speed Patagonian toothfish in Australia before she fled to necessary to catch most poachers. the high seas in the direction of South Africa. The much-larger Sarah Baartman carries 18 crew members, four cadets and seven fishery Vessel monitoring inspectors. The department is making it obligatory for fishing Her top speed exceeds 20 knots. Equipped with a vessels to have satellite technology on board so helicopter deck and refuelling facilities, Sarah that it can monitor their movements. Five coastal Baartman can accommodate a fully laden Super nations in the SADC have taken the innovative step Puma or Oryx helicopter. It also has hospital of linking their vessel-monitoring systems. South facilities and capacity for six 20-foot containers, Africa, Namibia, Angola, Mozambique and Tanzania which can be loaded and discharged by the vessel’s own crane. The patrol vessels are named after women who, through their courage, dedication and commitment, made a significant contribution to South Africa’s In March 2006, the Deputy Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Ms Rejoice liberation. Mabudafhasi, launched the International Year of The Florence Mkhize speed-vessel was Deserts and Desertification. She announced that introduced in June 2006 to assist in combating the Madibaneng Soil Conservation Project (MSCP) poaching. The vessel is extremely fast (with speeds would receive R5 million in funding. The MSCP is an innovative project that aims to rehabilitate in excess of 60 knots) and consists of twin agricultural land while introducing measures for 820 kilowatt engines. It is certified as less than controlling soil erosion and improving the 25 ton and is 14 metres in length. The total cost of management of grazing. the vessel was R3,8 million.

238 have signed an MoU that will allow them to share Transboundary research collaborations information about the movement of licensed boats The department has launched a project (as part of a in southern Africa. regional initiative) to investigate the feasibility of an EAFM in the Benguela Current Large Marine Partnerships Ecosystem (BCLME) region, by examining the To further counter illegal fishing and corruption, the existing issues, problems and needs related to department entered into partnerships with a broad EAFM, and developing different management and spectrum of agencies, including national, provincial options to achieve sustainable management of and local government, as well as NGOs. Co- resources at an ecosystem level. The BCLME operation ensures that resources are used more Programme is a management-orientated programme effectively, resulting in a number of high-profile aimed at boosting the infrastructure necessary to prosecutions and convictions. address cross-boundary problems associated with Other important partnerships have been forged fishing, mining, oil exploration, coastal development, with specialised units of the South African Police biodiversity and pollution. Service. In addition, SANParks and a number of Another programme implemented by the depart- provincial nature-conservation agencies conduct ment is the scientific arm of BCLME, the Benguela monitoring, control and surveillance activities Fisheries Interaction Training (Benefit) Programme. within the MPAs. Benefit is a joint initiative between South Africa, Namibia and Angola to address fisheries and other Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management marine scientific investigations of important living- (EAFM) marine resources and their interactions with the In line with the Johannesburg Plan of Imple- environment. Training staff to undertake research and mentation, the department has begun to explore to achieve the levels of expertise necessary to implementation of the EAFM. The purpose of an EAFM provide advice to fisheries’ management is also an is to plan, develop and manage fisheries in a manner important objective of Benefit. Both the BCLME and that addresses the multiplicity of societal needs and the Benefit programmes are seen as New Partnership desires, without jeopardising the options for future for Africa’s Development (Nepad) initiatives, and are generations to benefit from the full range of goods supported by SADC as regional projects. and services (including fisheries and recreational opportunities) provided by marine ecosystems. West Indian Ocean Land-Based Activities Project Good progress has been made through national (WIO-LaB) and regional initiatives in implementing practical WIO-LaB was launched at Robben Island on measures to mitigate against the negative effects 5 November 2004. The WIO-LaB Project deals with of fisheries on the ecosystem. the protection, prevention and management of marine pollution from land-based activities. The commitment given to this project by the main donors, the United Nations Environmental Programme At the end of 2005, marine scientists from the (UNEP) and the GEF, resulted in the appointment of a Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism regional project manager in February 2000. were among a group of international scientists The department is assessing the effect that litter following a great white shark crossing the Indian from rivers has on the oceans, is raising awareness Ocean from South Africa to Australia (within 99 days) and back. A device was temporarily of and educating communities about the importance attached to the shark that communicated of protecting the marine environment from pollution information to a satellite. This research resulting from land-based activities, and has created demonstrates the first link between two of the task teams to deal with municipal water and the most important and widely separated populations of great white sharks. It also highlights the first- physical alteration and destruction of habitats. known round trip by an individual shark, and the fastest return trip across an ocean by any marine National Policy for Seals and Seabirds organism. The National Policy for Seals and Seabirds in South Africa, and the National Plan of Action for Seabirds,

239 for reducing the incidental catch of seabirds in management of chemicals in South Africa. This Environmental management longline fisheries, have been finalised. government-level initiative, funded by the UN This follows growing concern over the numbers Institute for Training and Research, will involve a of seabirds, especially albatrosses, being killed by multistakeholder forum, including labour longline vessels in southern Africa. The plan sets representatives, aimed at integrating legislation. out the required mitigation measures to reduce South Africa has signed the Stockholm Con- mortality of seabirds to below an interim target vention on Persistent Organic Pollutants and the level of 0,05 birds/thousand hooks by South Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent Africa's longline fisheries for hake, tuna, swordfish, Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Patagonian toothfish and sharks. Pesticides in International Trade. It also played a South Africa ratified the Agreement on the part in the process of developing guidelines for the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP) in implementation of the Globally Harmonised System November 2003. It is a multilateral agreement that of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals. seeks to conserve albatrosses and petrels by co- ordinating international activity to mitigate known Recycling threats to albatross and petrel populations. South Almost every type of paper produced in South Africa played a key role in negotiating the ACAP, and Africa has a recycled content. Each ton of waste is home to many important populations of these paper that is recycled saves about 17 pine trees, seabirds, including those on the sub-Antarctic Prince and a ton of recycled paper saves 3 m3 of landfill Edward islands. space. South Africa saves 10 million trees annually. Collect-a-Can celebrated its 13th birthday in Research observer scheme April 2006. Thanks to its efforts, the recycling of The department introduced a formal research colddrink cans increased from 18% in 1993 to 66% observer scheme for the following fisheries: deep sea in 2003. This is higher than the recycling rate in the hake trawl; inshore hake trawl; hake longline; pelagic USA and the European Union. purse seine; South Coast rock lobster; KwaZulu-Natal According to a survey conducted by Collect-a- prawn trawl; large pelagics (experimental); horse Can, more than 37 000 people earn a living by mackerel midwater trawl; and deep sea experimental picking up cans for recycling. fisheries. This observer scheme provides valuable The glass industry in South Africa has taken a research data on, among other things, these proactive stance in driving glass recycling by fisheries’ influence on the ecosystem. agreeing on a model of self-regulation. This will involve a section 21 company being established Chemicals and managed according to guiding principles laid Although relatively small by international standards, down in the Glass MoU, signed on 19 May 2005. the chemical industry is a significant player in the The MoU evolved from extensive research, South African economy, contributing about 5% to consultation and negotiation, and enjoys the support GDP and providing employment to about 200 000 of the National Glass Recycling Forum, which people. The industry produces 1 301 t of primary and includes the entire waste-glass value chain, as well secondary process chemicals annually, making it the as consumer groups. The initiative aims to increase largest of its kind in Africa. glass-recycling levels from 20% to 50% a year in Several steps have been taken to align current less than five years. legislation with the Constitution of the Republic of The official signing of the MoU also marked the South Africa 1996 (Act 108 of 1996), as well as with launch of a comprehensive national recycling global chemicals management: campaign aimed at addressing the challenges • A special unit has been set up in the Department posed by waste glass in the environment. of Environmental Affairs and Tourism to implement a system aimed at preventing major Environmental injustices industrial accidents, as well as systems for The negative effect of asbestos on the environment emergency preparedness and response. and other environmental-injustice issues are a • The minister has initiated an integrated safety, priority for the Department of Environmental Affairs health and environment approach for the and Tourism.

240 Efforts being undertaken by the South African International co-operation Government to deal with the asbestos problem The department promotes South Africa’s interests include: by participating in a number of international • eradicating mine-dumps commissions, such as the International Commission • developing occupational health and safety for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas, the regulations on asbestos Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine • developing safety standards and establishing a Living Resources, and the International Whaling single compensation office Commission. • formulating a code of best practice for the The following important instruments have been maintenance, demolition and disposal of asbestos- acceded to, or ratified: containing material • Agreement for the Implementation of the • abolishing the use of asbestos in road Provisions of the UN Convention on the Law of construction the Sea on 10 December 1982 Relating to the • gradually phasing out asbestos-use in housing. Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (Straddling Stocks Agreement) • ACAP • Convention for the Protection, Management and In 2006, the draft Threatened and Protected Development of the Marine and Coastal Species Regulations, and the draft National Norms and Standards for the Regulation of the Environment of the East African Region and Hunting Industry, concerning the breeding, Related Protocols (Nairobi Convention) trade, transport and hunting of threatened • Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and and protected species in South Africa were introduced, establishing uniform national Development of the Marine and Coastal systems that will apply the same standards Environment of the West and Central African countrywide. Region and Related Protocol (Abidjan Convention) • SADC Protocol on Fisheries. This improves on the management of environmental resources according to provincial ordinances, which is often inconsistent, and United Nations Framework Convention ends activities such as canned hunting, illegal on Climate Change trade and unethical breeding. South Africa ratified the UNFCCC in 1997. The The Department of Environmental Affairs and convention is a global commitment to take collective Tourism now issues lists of nationally threatened responsibility for climate change, and is a mandate and protected species, and requires that permits for action to address the problem. be obtained for all breeding, hunting, trade and The convention was signed at the Rio Earth transport of listed species, thus effectively banning intensive breeding of listed large predators such as Summit in 1992 by heads of state and other senior the wild dog, cheetah, lion and leopard for hunting representatives from 154 countries (and the or sale for hunting, and requires that all captive- European Community), and came into effect on breeding facilities, nurseries, scientific institutions, sanctuaries and rehabilitation facilities be formally 21 March 1994. Since mid-1998, some 175 states registered. The Scientific Authority was also have ratified or acceded to the convention. established in 2006 to help regulate and restrict The objective of the convention is to stabilise trade in specimens of protected species. GHG concentrations in the atmosphere at a level Hunting by humane methods and in accordance that will not have an adverse effect on the climate. with strict fair-chase principles by hunters The convention aims to control this level over a registered with recognised hunting bodies is period of time, to: permitted. For better management of protected • allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate species, the South African National Biodiversity Institute maintains the National Hunting Register of change animals that have been hunted, for what • ensure that food production is not threatened purpose, where and by what method. • enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.

241 All countries that have ratified the convention are the phase-out schedule for developed countries. Environmental management required to: Although South Africa is classified as a developing • develop, update and publish national inventories country, its consumption of these substances is of anthropogenic emissions by sources, and equal to that of some developed countries. removals by sinks of GHG (the GHG excludes To demonstrate the country’s commitment those listed in the Montreal Protocol) towards the phasing out of ozone-depleting • formulate, implement and update national and substances (ODSs), the following control measures regional programmes containing measures to constitute the overall position of South Africa on the mitigate climate change Montreal Protocol: • promote and co-operate in the development and • working groups were constituted to assist govern- transfer of technology that controls, reduces or ment in implementing the protocol prevents anthropogenic emissions of GHG • regulated ODSs can only be imported or exported • promote sustainable management, conservation after applying for an import/export permit and enhancement of sinks and reservoirs of through the Department of Trade and Industry GHG under the Import and Export Control Act, 1963 • co-operate in preparing for the adaptation to the (Act 45 of 1963) impact of climate change • ODSs can only be imported after an environmental • take climate-change considerations into account levy of R5 per kg of CFC has been paid where feasible, in relevant social, economic and • information is disseminated to interested and environmental policies and actions, to minimise affected parties the adverse effects on the economy, on public • Africa network meetings, as arranged by UNEP, health and on the quality of the environment are attended, where views, experiences and • promote and co-operate in the timeous and problems are shared to improve co-operation transparent exchange of information, including within the region and as per Nepad requirements. scientific, technological, socio-economic and Obligations include: legal information and research • ensuring that South Africa, as a party to the proto- • promote and co-operate in education, training col, protects human health and the environment and public awareness against harm from human activities that modify • report to the Conference of the Parties. or are likely to modify the ozone layer • ensuring the protection of the ozone layer by Convention on International Trade taking precautionary measures to equitably in Endangered Species (Cites) control total global emissions of substances that Cites, also known as the Washington Convention, deplete the ozone layer, with the ultimate was negotiated in 1973 when it was realised that objective of totally eliminating them international trade in wildlife and wildlife products • reporting and sending to the Ozone Secretariat could lead to the overexploitation of certain data on production, imports, exports and species, thereby threatening them with extinction. consumption of regulated ODSs as collected Cites came into force in South Africa on from dealers and relevant departments. 13 October 1975. South Africa, together with the The Department of Environmental Affairs and other 149 member countries, acts by regulating Tourism has embarked on a national project to and monitoring international trade in species which establish methyl bromide consumption trends, and are, or may be, affected by this trade. a database of suitable, feasible and economically viable alternatives to methyl bromide. This Montreal Protocol document will form the basis for an intensive South Africa, as a signatory to the Montreal research/evaluation project to phase out, in the Protocol, has a national obligation to safeguard the short term, 20% of methyl bromide usage, mainly ozone layer from depletion. in the agricultural sector. South Africa has phased out chlorofluorocarbons As of 1 January 2005, all developing countries (CFCs), halons, methyl chloroform and carbon were to reduce their respective methyl bromide tetrachloride – making it the only developing country consumption by 20%, as per the phase-out in the world that has achieved so much in line with timetable.

242 Private-sector involvement • EcoLink Numerous private bodies are involved in • Endangered Wildlife Trust conservation activities. There are more than 400 • Green Trust organisations in the country concentrating on • Keep South Africa Beautiful conservation, wildlife and the general environment, • National Conservancy Association of South as well as more than 30 botanical and horticultural Africa organisations. Among these are: • Peace Parks Foundation • BirdLife South Africa • South African National Foundation for the • Botanical Society of South Africa Conservation of Coastal Birds • Centre for Rehabilitation of Wildlife • Trees and Food for Africa • Conservation International • Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa • Delta Environmental Centre • Worldwide Fund for Nature South Africa. • Dolphin Action Protection Group

243 Acknowledgements Environmental management BuaNews Beeld Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism Estimates of National Expenditure 2006, published by National Treasury National Zoological Gardens of South Africa South African National Biodiversity Institute South African National Parks www.southafrica.info www.collectacan.co.za www.gov.za

Suggested reading Beinart, W. Rise of Conservation in South Africa: Settlers, Livestock and the Environment, 1770 – 1950. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Bethlehem, L and Goldblatt, M. The Bottom Line: Industry and the Environment in South Africa. Rondebosch: University of Cape Town Press, 1997. Bond, P. Unsustainable South Africa: Environment, Development and Social Protest. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 2002. Carruthers, V and Pearson, M. eds. Wildlife of Southern Africa: A Field Guide to the Animals and Plants of the Region. Halfway House, Gauteng: Southern Book Publishers, 1997. Dovers, S. ed. South Africa’s Environmental History: Cases and Comparisons. Cape Town: David Philip, 2002. Fuggle, RF and Rabie, MA. Rev. eds. Environmental Management in South Africa. Cape Town: Juta,1996. Griffiths, T and Robin, L. eds. Ecology and Empire: Environmental History of Settler Societies. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press and Keele University Press, 1997. Hattingh, J. et al. eds. Environmental Education: Ethics and Action in Southern Africa. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC), 2002. Hinz, M. Without Chiefs There Would Be No Game: Customary Law and Nature Conservation. Windhoek: Out of Africa Publishers, 2003. Hosking, S. Exploring the Case for Increasing Glass Recycling Through Regulation. Pretoria: HSRC, 2000. Hugo, ML. Environmental Management: An Ecological Guide to Sustainable Living in South Africa. Pretoria: Ecoplan, 2004. Hulme, D and Murphee, M. eds. African Wildlife and Livelihoods: The Promise and Performance of Community Conservation. Cape Town: David Philip, 2001. Karoo Veld: Ecology and Management, edited by K Esler et al. Pretoria: Briza, 2006. Kok, P and Pietersen, J. Biodiversity. Pretoria: HSRC, 2000 (National Research and Technology Foresight Project). Kok, P and Pietersen, J. Environmental Management. Pretoria: HSRC, 2000. Le Grange, M. The Capture, Care and Management of Wildlife. Pretoria: Van Schaik, 2006. McDonald, D. ed. Environmental Justice in South Africa. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, 2002. Mills, G and Harvey, M. African Predator. Cape Town: Struik, 2001. Nürnberger, K. Prosperity, Poverty and Pollution: Managing the Approaching Crisis. Pietermaritzburg: Cluster Publications, 1999. Phezulu, L. Leigh Voigt’s African Album: A Miscellany of Paintings, Curiosities, Lore and Legend by a Bushveld Naturalist. Cape Town: David Philip, 1999. Ritchie, J. The Environment Funding Guide: A Comprehensive Guide to Raising Funds for the Environment. Cape Town: Papillon Books for Nedbank, c.1997. Spence, C. ed. Ten Days in Johannesburg: A Negotiation of Hope. Pretoria: Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, and the United Nations Development Programme, 2004.

244 Van der Riet, W. et al. Environmental Potential Atlas for South Africa. Pretoria: Van Schaik for the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 1997. Van Oudtshoorn, F. Guide to the Grasses of South Africa. Photographs by E van Wyk and F van Oudtshoorn. Pretoria: Briza, 1999. Van Wyk, B and Gericke, N. People’s Plants: A Guide to Useful Plants of Southern Africa. Pretoria: Briza, 1999. Weinberg, P.ed. and photographer. Once We Were Hunters: A Journey with Indigenous People. Cape Town: David Philip, 2000. White Paper on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of South Africa’s Biological Diversity. Pretoria: Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 1997.

245 Environmental management