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Wandering Memories WANDERING MEMORIES MARGINALIZING AND REMEMBERING THE PORRAJMOS Research Master Thesis Comparative Literary Studies Talitha Hunnik August 2015 Utrecht University Thesis Supervisor: Dr. Susanne Knittel Second Reader: Prof. Dr. Ann Rigney CONTENTS Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................. 3 A Note on Terminology ...................................................................................................................... 4 A Note on Translations ...................................................................................................................... 4 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 5 Antiziganism and the Porrajmos ................................................................................................. 8 Wandering Memories ................................................................................................................. 12 Marginalized Memories: Forgetting the Porrajmos ......................................................... 19 Cultural Memory Studies: Concepts and Gaps ........................................................................ 24 Walls of Secrecy ........................................................................................................................... 34 Remembering the Holocaust and Marginalizing the Porrajmos ......................................... 40 Remembering the Porrajmos, Part I: The Sinti and Roma Memorial in Berlin ............................................................................... 52 Lobbying for Remembrance and Civil Rights .......................................................................... 55 The Sinti and Roma Memorial Under Construction ............................................................... 58 The Continued Memorial ............................................................................................................ 63 Remembering the Porrajmos, Part II: Dites-le avec des Pleurs and Korkoro ...................................................................................... 73 Dites-le avec des Pleurs .............................................................................................................. 79 Korkoro ......................................................................................................................................... 87 Mediating between Worlds ........................................................................................................ 93 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 101 Works Cited .................................................................................................................................... 106 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS More than four years have passed since I found out that one of the most harrowing images of the Holocaust was not the face of a Jewish girl, but of a 9-year-old Dutch Sinti girl, who was caught on tape when she was staring out of the cattle wagon that would deport her from Westerbork to Auschwitz. Up until that point, I had never fully realized that so-called Gypsies, or Zigeuner, were persecuted by the Nazis with the same vicious intent as Europe’s Jewish population. Certainly I was aware that the Nazi regime targeted all those individuals who were considered threats to the purity of the “Aryan race,” yet, after finding out that the girl was not Jewish and that her name was Settela Steinbach, I wondered how it could be that the Nazi persecution of the Roma had been given so little attention. And why had it taken so long for her identity to be recovered? The unearthing of Settela’s identity marked the vantage point of my research, and her image, in conjunction with continuous antiziganism in and beyond the Netherlands, constantly reaffirmed that the topic of my thesis mattered. The writing of this thesis would not have been possible without the insights I gained during my last two years as a student of the RMA Comparative Literary Studies program in Utrecht. I would like to thank Ann Rigney, and all the others I was lucky enough to call my professors, for introducing me to novel concepts and for giving me a chance to enter the program in the first place. Also, I would like to thank my fellow students who were kind enough to help me when I was lost and with whom I had many interesting discussions. Special thanks to my thesis supervisor Susanne Knittel, for without her guidance and support I could not have finished this thesis. Thank you for responding to all the emails, in which I complained endlessly about my work, and for the constructive feedback which helped me to uncover the mechanisms behind the marginalization and subsequent discovery of the Porrajmos. To all the friends I have neglected over the past few months: thank you for reassuring me that I had the potential to finish this project and for shifting my attention to non-Holocaust related subjects. I would also like to thank the “Sipkes-clan” for their support, and for their hospitality. Words cannot describe how grateful I am to my sister, Adinda, Remco, and to my parents, Conny and Peter. Sorry for being stressed out and unreachable at times. Thank you for guiding me through and for your ceaseless patience. My precious two little nieces Aimée and Diede, and their sister whose memory I will carry with me always, helped me go through the rough patches without knowing it 3 themselves: even though you will not be able to read this, you made me realize what matters most. I am extremely proud of all of you. Last but not least, this thesis would have been simply impossible without Thimo, who supported me unconditionally and who was there for me during those moments when I lost myself in the horrors of the Holocaust, and who dragged me out of the moments of self-doubt. I could not have finished this work without you. A NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY While other scholars have used the terms “Gypsy” and “Romani” randomly and interchangeably, I follow Alaina Lemon’s usage of both terms “to convey subtle shadings in discourse, for the shifts are not arbitrary” (5). I use the term Gypsy (without quotation marks) to indicate stereotypy and antiziganism, while usage of the plural Roma and adjective Romani refers to actual individuals or the Romani collective. Furthermore, it must be noted that all terms derived from the masculine singular Rom (which means “man” in Romani) refer to a transnational, heterogeneous collective, which is comprised of other subgroups that sometimes may not define themselves as Romani – most notably so the Sinti in Germany. Nevertheless, I have chosen for the usage of the term Roma, not only since it is widely used in academia and more convenient than continuously referring to the “Sinti and Roma,” but more importantly since even this particular group defines itself as Romani within the wider field of European politics. A NOTE ON TRANSLATIONS All translations from texts written in languages other than English are my own unless otherwise indicated. 4 INTRODUCTION When it became clear that the Parti Socialiste (PS) had lost much support of the French voters during the municipal elections in March 2014, president François Hollande decided to pull the plug on the government lead by Jean-Marc Ayrault. On 31 March 2014 Hollande gave a speech “to the French” standing in front of both a French and a European flag, in which he claimed that it was “time for change” and that this change was to be led by the new Prime Minister Manuel Valls (Fressoz). With this strategic move Hollande attempted to increase the popularity of himself and his party, by electing the immensely popular Valls. While the popularity of Hollande’s party continued to plummet, the newly elected PM initially received much support. Earlier in 2014 Valls made headlines for his contribution to banning comedian Dieudonné M’Bala M’Bala’s shows from theatres all over France, for he claimed that some of M’Bala M’Bala’s jokes were “antisemitic and defamatory” and “virulent and shocking attacks on the memory of Holocaust victims” (Willisher). In these statements Valls makes a clear, and perhaps obvious, link between the Holocaust and antisemitism: the latter must be condemned so that the former will never happen again. Combatting antisemitism, especially in light of recent attacks on the Synagogue in Copenhagen and the kosher supermarket in Paris, remains an important task of governmental institutions. Perhaps Valls’ initial popularity partly relied on his condemnation of M’Bala M’Bala’s “Holocaust humor,” which certainly conveys the impression that the newly elected PM was morally just and tolerant towards other cultures. Yet the same Manuel Valls was in the news just one year before his election with his statements about the Gypsy population in France, claiming that Roma ⁠ could never fully integrate in France and should thus be sent “back to the borders” (“French Minister Valls”). In these statements Valls defended France’s widely critiqued expulsion of Romani people that started in 2009 when the French government expelled 10.000 people (back) to Romania and Bulgaria (“France Roma Expulsions”). Valls’ comments were immediately subject to attack, to which he responded that he had nothing to correct and that his arguments were only shocking to those who “don’t know the subject”
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