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Part 1: Early Islamic to Pre-colonial era Week 3: The Ottomans (15th-16th centuries) Emergence of Ottoman Empire “ISLAM: EMPIRE OF FAITH” Episode -- ‘The Ottomans’: rise of empire up to and including the reign of ‘Suleiman the Magnificent’ [excerpts shown in class] Emergence of Ottoman Empire Ottoman ‘Empire’: 14th Century (1350) Ottoman ‘Empire’: 15th Century (1451) Emergence of the Ottoman Empire Emergence of Ottoman Empire timurid1405 Mamluks: c. 1400 Mamluks • “Mamluk” meaning ‘owned’: • slaves taken by rulers Middle East &North Africa • trained as soldiers for armies, administration • widely used Mamluks - 13th Century Egypt: Mamluks replaced Sultan: - leader ‘Baybars’ married Sultan’s wife - brought uncle of former Sultan from Baghdad to Cairo (1260) - established Caliphate - Caliphate did not last long in Cairo but power in region remained in Mamluk hands Mamluks - 1517: conquered by Ottomans (Selim I): - Mamluks left in control of administration - ‘province’ of Ottomans - Continued to support administration through incorporating slaves - Re-emerged as ‘semi-autonomous in 19th century Emergence of Harem: 14th Century • ‘Era of Osman’: • marriage strategic, crossed tribal and religious lines • high degree of symbiosis religious conversions [both Christian and Muslim] • sharing of traditions, ideas, institutions • Nomadic, warrior ideologies ‘Frontier Society’ • [see ‘Document: Ibn Battuta’ in Additional Reading] Emergence of Harem: 14th century • Story of Melik Danismend (Turkish), Artuhi (Armenian) and Efromiya (Greek woman) : • central plot has Efromiya, convert (retaining non-Muslim name) and female, fighting as a man against her own father • Story from Book of Dede Korkut (early chronicle): • Kan Ruali (Turkish, Muslim) loves daughter of tekvur (Byzantine Christian) • they end up together, she saves his life • no indication she converts Osman’s Dream • “Osman’s Dream: For Early Ottomans, history of their empire began with story of Osman and the Shaykh [video] • First recounted in late 15th century, long after Osman’s death • Dream said to have come to him while sleeping in house of traditional holy man (shaykh), Edebali Osman’s Dream • Upon awaking, Osman spoke to the shaykh: • “…I saw you in my dream. A moon arose from your breast. It rose and rose and then descended into my breast. From my navel there sprang a tree. It grew up and turned green. It branched out and got complicated. The shadow of its branches covered the whole world. • What does it mean?” Osman’s Dream • A second version differs slightly: the tree simply ‘sprouted’ and its branches ‘encompassed the world’: • “Beneath this shade there were mountains, and streams flowed forth from the foot of each mountain. Some people drank from these running waters, others watered gardens, while yet others caused fountains to flow.”… Osman’s Dream • And the Shaykh replied: • “Osman, my son, congratulations for the imperial office [bestowed by God] to you and your descendants, and my daughter Malhun shall be your wife.” And with the marriage, he legitimacy of the dynasty was established: Islam was ‘united’ with the state Osman’s Dream • Osman exemplified successful frontier beg (leader): power underpinned by network marriages, alliances • established allies, raided neighbours • married daughter of revered shaykh (who was also dervish) • allied with powerful ‘wonder workers’ (dervish were sufi, branch of mystical Islam) • son married daughter of tekvur , Christian Chief of local village who served as scout and important political ally Mehmed II: ‘the conqueror’ • 15th Century: conquest characterized Empire under Sultan Mehmed II: • Began ‘Ottoman’ practice of fratricide • “And to whomsoever of my sons the Sultanate shall pass, it is fitting that for the order of the world he shall kill his brothers. Most of the ulema allow it. So let them act on this.” • Response to concern over civil strife that threatened empire at death of each sultan – issue of ‘succession’ [same ‘issue’ shaping emerging role of harem, see below] Mehmed II: ‘the conqueror’ Ruled 1451 - 1481 Emergence of Harem: 15th Century • 15th century: century of conquest • War provided slave women • Given as wives to: royal clan, administrators, provincial governors • Gradually replaced traditional system ‘strategic’ marriages • ‘The harem’ grew, occupied increasingly important place in system: concubines, children (boys and girls), attendants (slave servants – including eunuchs) Emergence of Ottoman Empire Mehmed II 1451-81 Selim I 1512-20 Suleiman 1520-66 Conquest of Constantinople 1453 Mehmed II Entering Constantinople [19th C. European Painting] Conquest of Constantinople 1453 Breaching the Walls [19th C. European Painting] Conquest of Constantinople 1453 Ottoman Renditions: Breaching Walls (left) Entering the City (below) Emergence of Harem: 15th Century • Conquest of Constantinople (1453): critical watershed in relations with Europe • Personal ‘ties’ used to integrate European territories • Herzegovina: Lord of the Realm converted, served as Grand Vizier under Mehmet’s son (Bayzid II), married Mehmet’s daughter • Byzantine Eastern Colony: Daughter of ruler entered Sultan’s Harem Emergence of Harem: 15th Century • Conquest of Constantinople (1453): critical watershed for Empire itself • Yielded large number slaves and other wealth [see ‘Documents: ‘Fall of Constantinople]’ in Additional readings] • Became new capital of empire; increasingly urban, ‘sedentarized’ • New Palace “yeni sarayi” buitl (c. 1460 – late 1460s?): named ‘Topkapi’ 19th c. Topkapi Palace: symbol of ‘new’ Ottoman State Topkapi Palace: Symbol of new Ottoman State Site of ‘Eski Yarayi’ – ‘Yeni Yarayi’ – Old Palace New Palace (later Topkapi) Emergence of the Harem: 15th C. • Under Mehmet II: (1444-6; 1451-81): • Court moved to New Palace [hereafter ‘Topkapi] • harem remained housed in ‘old palace’ • ‘Queen Mother (valid sultan) resided with harem Emergence of Harem: 16th C. • Era of ‘The Sedentary Sultan’: Suleiman ‘the Magnificent’ (1520-66) • ‘watershed’ : ‘pinnacle of empire’ [video] • also turning point in terms of Sultan’s role, behaviour • As ‘expansion’ of empire by conquest gave way to ‘consolidation’, successors (Selim II, Murad III, Mehmet III) preferred withdrawal from direct governance, warfare • increasingly Sultan remained in Istanbul, Topkapi Palace Emergence of Harem: 16th C. - For example, Murad III (1575-95): ‘Patron of the Arts’ - first commissioned portraits of sultans to illustrate historical texts - significant: Sultan depicted ‘on his throne’, rather than on horseback - reflected new vision of Sultan’s ‘sedentary’ role - centered power firmly in palace Emergence of Harem: 16th C. - Changes in court life even under Suleiman: - moved significant part of harem, including attendants and servants, into Topkapi Palace (probably by 1534) - brought about important changes: in power, authority of harem vis-à-vis Sultan Emergence of Harem: 16th C. • Once in Topkapi, grew in size: • under Suleiman, numbered 49 • under Selim II (c.1575) more than 70 • ‘older’ women moved back to Old Palace • Topkapi harem ‘retired’ to Old Palace on death of Sultan • By 1600: • Topkapi harem housed 275 women • Old Palace harem, 298 women Emergence of Harem: 16th C. • Palace Harem: • extended Royal Family: ‘active’ concubines, mothers of royal children, valides sultans – said to be 80,000 • many married to janissaries, ‘suitable men of state’ –most being of slave or devshirme origins themselves: manumitted, given dowry • Valides sultans seldom married • became influential centres of their own courts Emergence of Harem: 16th C. Suleiman’s Hurrem Sultan – “Roxalana” -- played major role: Emergence of Harem: 16th C. • Suleiman’s Hurrem Sultan – former concubine, “Roxalanna”: • from western Ukraine: captured by Crimean Tartar slave traders, sold into royal Harem, Instanbul • became Suleiman’s ‘favourite’: gave birth to Mehmed, becoming ‘haseki’ (mother of a prince) • potential challenger to Suleiman’s first son (with now- displaced haseki), Mustapha Emergence of Harem: 16th C. • Broke with Tradition: • Received more than four times the ‘salary’ of other haseki • ‘one concubine – one child’ was norm to avoid earlier fraternal struggles over succession: she had four more sons and a daughter between 1522 and 1531 • Also ‘illegal’: according to Islamic law, once concubine is umm walad, she has special status – no longer ‘slave’ therefore no longer eligible as concubine • Usually removed herself with prince when sent to ‘provinces’ to train and await possibility of acceding to throne (as Suleiman’s first haseki did with their son Mustapha): Hurrem spent life at court with Suleiman Emergence of Harem: 16th C. • Broke with Tradition: • Hurem was freed, then married (by contract) to Suleiman 1533-4 • Received huge dowry (5,000 gold ducats annually), "grand apartments… 100 servants, clothes worth 100,000 ducats” • Said to have assured that potential concubine competitors (the most beautiful) were rapidly married off and out of harem: Suleiman monogamous: “unheard of for a Sultan” • Took valide sultan’s role on death of Suleiman’s mother Emergence of Harem: 16th C. • Broke with Tradition: • (Pierce explains): role of ‘mother to the Sultan’ and ‘mother of the Prince’ kept distinct -- occupied by different women any given moment. Clearly identified where ‘loyalties’ lay. • Also true of Sultan: ‘love’ (loyalty) was to be guarded solely for his people – hence there should be no ‘wife’ to challenge that commitment. Concubines were to be many and were intended
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  • 1 the Turks and Europe by Gaston Gaillard London: Thomas Murby & Co

    1 the Turks and Europe by Gaston Gaillard London: Thomas Murby & Co

    THE TURKS AND EUROPE BY GASTON GAILLARD LONDON: THOMAS MURBY & CO. 1 FLEET LANE, E.C. 1921 1 vi CONTENTS PAGES VI. THE TREATY WITH TURKEY: Mustafa Kemal’s Protest—Protests of Ahmed Riza and Galib Kemaly— Protest of the Indian Caliphate Delegation—Survey of the Treaty—The Turkish Press and the Treaty—Jafar Tayar at Adrianople—Operations of the Government Forces against the Nationalists—French Armistice in Cilicia—Mustafa Kemal’s Operations—Greek Operations in Asia Minor— The Ottoman Delegation’s Observations at the Peace Conference—The Allies’ Answer—Greek Operations in Thrace—The Ottoman Government decides to sign the Treaty—Italo-Greek Incident, and Protests of Armenia, Yugo-Slavia, and King Hussein—Signature of the Treaty – 169—271 VII. THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE: 1. The Turco-Armenian Question - 274—304 2. The Pan-Turanian and Pan-Arabian Movements: Origin of Pan-Turanism—The Turks and the Arabs—The Hejaz—The Emir Feisal—The Question of Syria—French Operations in Syria— Restoration of Greater Lebanon—The Arabian World and the Caliphate—The Part played by Islam - 304—356 VIII. THE MOSLEMS OF THE FORMER RUSSIAN EMPIRE AND TURKEY: The Republic of Northern Caucasus—Georgia and Azerbaïjan—The Bolshevists in the Republics of Caucasus and of the Transcaspian Isthmus—Armenians and Moslems - 357—369 IX. TURKEY AND THE SLAVS: Slavs versus Turks—Constantinople and Russia - 370—408 2 THE TURKS AND EUROPE I THE TURKS The peoples who speak the various Turkish dialects and who bear the generic name of Turcomans, or Turco-Tatars, are distributed over huge territories occupying nearly half of Asia and an important part of Eastern Europe.