PRESERVATION OF iMODERN EASEL PAINTING
A Multidisciplinary Study for the Preservation of
Two of David Alfaro Siqueiros' So-Called Pyroxyline Painîings:
Mine Drillers and Portrait of a Dead Girl and Live Girl
A thesis submitted to the Department of Art
in conformity with the requirernents for
the degree of Master in Art Conservation
Queen's Universis
Kingston, Ontario, Canada
September, 1998
Copyright Q Maria Celina Contreras Maya National Library Bibliothèque nationale du Canada
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Canada ABSTRACT
David Alfâro Siqueiros was a leftwing Mexica. artist who combined politics and artistic activities. His revolutionary painting shook traditional stnictures of art, and his new techniques marked the beginning of a new era of technical innovation in painting.
Although Siqueiros' versatile pyroxyline technique is one of his best known technical innovations, littie research has been done to define its aesthetic characteristics and the visual effects of degradation problems. Information obtained only fiom the appearance and condition of a painting can be deceiwig in the identification of a painting medium.
Consequently, curators often debate about the type of media Siqueiros used in some of his morks. This is the case with Siqueiros' easel paintings Mine Drillers and Porîrait of a Dead Girl and Live Girl, in which polarised light microscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy were successfully used to identify the medium that the artist used.
Results indicate that the controversiai appearance of both paintings is the outcome of
Siqueiros' technical innovations with traditional oil media. In both paintings Siqueiros' intent has been aitered; however, a philosophical analysis states that degradation does not always jeopardize the artist's intent nor does successful consentation treatments preserve it at al1 times. The choice of the most adequate conservation approach will depend on the point of view of conservators or curaton as well as the influence of taste, museurn policies and the opinion of the public. To my family and Orner ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author of this paper would like to thank:
The School of Graduate Shidies, Queen's University, Ontario, Canada and the Fondo
Nacional para la Cdtura y las Artes, Colonia Xoco, Mexico City for the hancial
support for this thesis.
The Soumaya Museum, Colonia San Angel Thph, Mexico City for the samples of
Siqueiros' paintings.
Dr Barbara Keyser and Dr. Alison Murray, Art Conservation Program, Department of
Art at Queen's University for their supe~sion,advice and interest dong the project.
And also
Dr. Cathleen Hoeniger, Art History Program, Department of Art, Queen's University
for her advice in philosophical issues.
Kate Helwig, Canadian Conservation Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada for the
identification analysis of the painting media.
The Staff at Flameluz Incoporado, Colonia del Camen Coyoacin, Mexico City for
being the communication Iink between this author and Mexican institutions.
The Staff at the Art Conservation Program, the Wnting Center, the StaufTer
Interlibrary Loan Office, the Art Library and the Technology Learning Unit, Queen's
University.
iii TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER fAGE
1. INTRODUCTION i
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 4
3. ART AND PoLmcs 8
4. TECHNICAL INNOVATIONS 14
Pyroxyline Technique
What is Pyroxyline?
Consentation and Siqueiros' Legacy
5. MSTORY AND EXAMINATION ECORDS
Mine Drillers
Description of Materials and Constmction
Condition Report
Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl
Description of Materials and Construction
Condition Report
6. ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
Experimentai
Results
Discussion and Conclusions
7. SIQUEIROS' INTENT
Ruhemann, Brandi, and Gombrich and Siqueiros Several Definitions for Siqueiros' Intent
Artists' Motives
Biographical Motives
Aims vs. Outcornes
Expression in Media
Artists' Intention
Expression
In Reference to the Artwork
The Artwork's Aesthetic Expression
Beyond Siqueiros' Intent
8. CONCLUSIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
VITA LIST OF FIGURES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURES
1. Monomer of cellulose nitrate.
2. Color photograph of Mine Mers(1996), the Soumaya Museum, Mexico City.
3. Weave design in canvas of Mine Drillers.
4. Color photograph of Portrait of Dead Girl and LNe Girl (1996), the Soumaya
Museum, Mexico City.
5. Black and White photograph of Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl (1 968).
6. Black and White photograph of Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl (1998).
7.Cross-section no. 1A fiom Mine Drillers.
8. Cross-section no.2A fiom Mine Drillers.
9. Cross-section no. 1B fiom Portrail of Dead Girl and LNe Girl.
10. Cross-section no.2B fiom Porîrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl.
1 1. FTIR Spectnim fiom sample no. 1A fiom Mine Drillers.
12. FT?R Spectnim fiom sarnple no.2B fiom Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl.
13. X-Ray Radiographs of Mine Drillers.
1 4. X-Ray Radiographs of Portrait of Deud Girl and Live Girl. David Alfaro Siqueiros was a Iefiwing Mexican artist who combined an active political life with his artistic creativity. The strength and passion of his life survive in his artistic
Iegacy. Throughout his life he devoted himself to search for change. His ideals and his faith in modemity have not been realised in Mexican politicai and social Iife; however, his revolutionary art shook traditionai structures and new painting techniques were born.
Mexico and North Amenca were irrevocably influenced. His discovenes and his expenmentation with industrial materials and modern techniques, especially on pyroxylines, rnarked the beginning of a new era. Siqueiros' pyroxyline technique was versatile: any appearance that the artist desired could be achieved. Matte or glossy finishes could be obtained with the use of pyroxyline medium; paint layers could be translucent or opaque; flat or highly textured surfaces could result from its application.
Although Siqueiros' pyroxyline technique has not yet been thoroughly researched, it has been pointed out that this seemingly promising material is unstable and easily subject to decay.
Siqueiros' use of pyroxyline and his search on new materials have emphasised his importance in the transition fiom oil to acrylics. His name is intemationally known for his technical innovations. Although research on Siqueiros7 pyroxylines is not extensive, historicai and Iimited chernical information can be found in the iiterature; however,
Siqueiros' oi1 painting technique has been completely overlooked, probably because curators, conservators and the artist himself did not consider oil to be a technical contribution. As a result of this unbaimced interest in both painting techniques, when
Siqueiros' paintings do not have the appearance expected for traditional oil painting technique, controversies take place with regard to the identifiing of the paint media.
Sophinicated anaiyticai techniques used for the identification of painting media are not always available in mialler rnuseums. To dissipatz doubts on the medium that the artist used, curators identie the media based on histoncal information and the Iimited knowledge of behaviour and signs of decay expected for pyroxyline media. This is the case with Siqueiros' easel paintings Mine Drillers and Portrait of a Deod Girl and Live
Girl. Curators have described the paintings to be oil and pyroxyline on different occasions. Both paintings have gone through several conservation treatments.
Conservators carried out treatments to prevent the paintings from dangerous structural decay and treatments were designed in accordance to the type of medium that it was believed at the tirne.
The uncertainty of the painting media of Mine Drillers and Portrait of Dead Girl and Live GirI and the causes of their degradation were successblIy overcome with the use of polarised light microscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Contrary to expectations, the results indicate that the causes of degradation are related to the artist's technique rather than the chemical composition of the painting media. The findings also explain the reason why oil was mistaken for pyroxyline technique.
Although hidden aspects of Siqueiros' oil painting technique were discovered and the myth of his pyroxylines was partially unveiled, fûrther research to define Siqueiros' intent was necessary to redise the possible conservation approaches that cm be followed to preserve both paintings. The term "hst's intent" has a broad range of definitions; however, hiaoricd and biographicd idormation, the paintings' materials and techniques are possible sources to define Siqueiros' intent. Conservators, art historians, philosophers have dissimilar opinions on the meaning of the term; nonetheless, there is a general agreement that physical and chernical transformations due to degradation, consemation treatments or circumstances surrounding the artwork may have an effect on the artist's intent. Whether degradation threatens or protects Siqueiros' intent or conservation preserves or jeopardizes Siqueiros' intentions is discussed in chapter seven. The arguments presented clariQ the relation between art conservation and Siqueiros' intent in Mine Drillers and
Portrait ofDead Girl and Live Girl. The influential role that taste, museurn policies and the public's opinion play on deciding the most appropnate conservation approach to preserve Siqueiros' intent is also included in the analysis.
In this thesis, history and science have corne together for the first time to explore myth and mysteries that surround Siqueiros' artwork. This snidy provides a new understanding of Siqueiros' legacy and a new interpretation has arisen. Once one has gained an insight into ';his life and his painting, flashes of truth and flashes of stage lightinp abound.. .It is impossible to ignore hirn."'
' Quotation fiorn Marontate, 1996, p.68. Paz, Octavio "Re'visions: Mural Painting", Essavs on Mexican -Art, New York, Harcourt Brace and Co., 1993, p. 155-57 Siqueiros himself documented political and social aspects of his artistic career?'
His narration of political events and personai anecdotes includes random description of his painting techniques, especially those related to modem techniques." Famous people and controversial political circumstances surrounded Siqueiros' fascinating life; however, in order to interest the reader in his political beliefs he aitered historical information and subtracted the less engaging events. Besides his own autobiographie records, Siqueiros' artistic and political activities were controversial enough to attract the attention of media and hi~torians.~-~-'Gaps in the history of Siqueiros life have been filled with Tibol's compilation of the artist's letters.
The type of publications on Siqueiros' easel paintings varies. Most publications issued while he was still dive avoid any political engagement but include a short chronicle of Siqueiros' life and a large nurnber of images of his artwork. 9.10.1 1 The influence of Siqueiros and Mexican Muralism on American Abstract Expressionism was also pointed out.'' It was not until the 1990s that publications of his polirical cornmitment were written. For instance, Hijar, a lefhving historia now involved in the liberation
' Siqueiros, Me Ilamaban el Coronelazo, 1977. ' Siqueiros. 1985. ' Siqueiros, 1 978. ' Zabludosky, 1966. Siqueiros, 1965. ' Siqueiros. 1970. 'TiboI, 1996. Luna, 1950. 'O MicheIi, 1988. " Siqueiros. 1970. " Hulbu~.1976, p237-246. movement in Chiapas, wrote on Siqueiros' teftwing ideology that seems curent for the
time being.13 Afier the 100" anniversary of his birth in 1996, more books on Siqueiros
appeared, which discuss the subject matter of his paintings.'" His personality in relation
to his paintings was also di~cussed."*'~The history of Siqueiros' Iast project with aqlics
at the Poliforum was summarised." The social content in Siqueiros' artistic
experirnentation also became a field for resear~h.~~Most important, in 1996 a major
Siqueiros retrospective was organised at the National Museum of Art in Mexico City.
Amvork fiom the 1920s to the 1940s was assembled from al1 over the world. Aithough
the exhibition catalogue included detailed historic information about the paintings, the
technical and conservation aspects were overlooked. ''
Research on Siqueiros' technique is mainly focused on his mural painting techniques; however, information on his easel painting techniques cm also be found.
Charlot discussed Siqueiros' early interaction with traditional mural painting techniques that most probabiy motivated his later experimentation with new materia~s.'~Three decades later, Gutiérrez, one of Siqueiros' srudents in New York, published a document in which he describes the modem techniques Siqueiros' used in mural and easel painting.-' 1 The narration outlines, step by step, painting techniques and matenals of ethyl silicate, pyroxyline, and fiesco. Siqueiros also descnbed his own mural painting
l3 Hijar. 1993, p. 19. 14 Moyssén, 1996 Is Siqueiros, Siqueiros Dar Siqueiros, 1996. 16 Hemcr, 1996. " Siqueiros, Poli forum Siaueiros, 1996. II Marontate, 1996, p.34-69. 19 Siqueiros, Retrato de una década, 1996. 'O Charlot, 1963. 2' Gutiérrez, 1956. technique.= Siqueiros' technique is relevant for the transition fiom traditional painting techniques to acrylics. His experimentatïon marked the beginning of a new ers?
i * Canadian and Arnerican artists were influenced and Abstract Expressionism \vas born."
Aware of the lack of information on Siqueiros' easel painting format. the present study combined an approach based on historie, scientific, and philosophical information to define the technique and materials he used in two of his paintings. Siqueiros' eascl paintings that are found in museums and private collections ofien exhibit critical degradation problems, which are usually assumed to be caused by Siqueiros' use of pyroxyline. This generalisation evolves fiom the knowledge that pyroxylines are prone to rapid decay. Their chernical structure is unstable and they challenge the skills of conser~ators.~~Although, pyroxylines were Siqueiros favourite painting medium, other facts may also be the reason for degradation to occur?
To determine the reason for preservation problems in Siqueiros' painting it is necessary to understand the construction of painting layers and their interaction. Polarised light microscopy is comrnonly use to solve îhis type of question.'7 Paint samples cm be prepared in cross-sections and observed under the microscope.'fi In order to explain degradation processes, identification of the painting medium should be carried out.
Fourier transform inhed spectrometry is a suitable tool for this purpose.2g
22 Siqueiros, Como se pinta un mural, 1977. " Lodp. 1988, p. 1 18-127. 2-1 Barclay, 1992, p.207-2 19. 25 Selwitz, 1988. '' Contreras. 1998. p. 124 1-47. " Piesters, 1976, p.7-16. Tsang. 199 1, p. 164- 165. " Ferretti, 1993. In order to select an adequate conservation treatment, a discussion on ethical
conservation issues is also required.'03' The artwork contains more than physical
substance. It embodies the artist's intentions, goals, and des ire^.^^' The decision made in
the conservation treatment depends on the person's understanding of the concept of
degradation." It can be understood as decay of the physical substance of znvork or also
it rnay be the alteration of the meaning the artist had in mind.3''6'7 Degradation may
obstruct or enhance the aesthetics or history of the painting.38Discussions on this topic
are numerous. Unfortunately the aabiguity of the temis involved prevent a satisfacrory
dialogue among curators, conservator and critics. 39.40 The best conservation treatment
will be the one diat recovers as far as possible the meaning and appearance of the
painting, while causing minimum interference.
30 Brandi, 1 970. Hochfield, 1978,784 1 " Feagin, 1982. p.66-77. 33 Davenpon, 1995, p.40-52. 34 Hoeniger, 1995. 55 Dykstra, 1996, p. 197-2 18. 36 Gornbrich, 1963. " Gombrich, 1996. 38 Bomford, 1994. 39 Kuhns, 1960, p-5-13. M Dykstra, 1996, p. 197-2 1 8. CHAPTER 3
ART AND POLITICS
Siqueiros' art and technique are inextricably attached to his political ideas and his extensive foreign travel. It has been helpful that Siqueiros himself documented his political and artistic development in severai publications; however, these sources must not be blindly trusted. Frequently, he recreated events, altered the chronological order of events, and re-dated some of his pauitings." Siqueiros7 decision to justifj politically his actions and choices has resulted in a narration full of contradictions.
José David Alfaro Siqueiros was bom on December 29th of 1896 in Chihuahua.
At the age of fifteen he entered the Academy of San Carlos in Mexico City. There
Siqueiros was greatly influenced by the ideology of Dr. Atl, a professor at the Academy. who was in favour of Mexicanization in art; however, according to Siqueiros. At1 had no concrete ideas of how to achieve this goal.42 At1 also made advances in paintins techniques that resulted in the creations of crayons called Alt's colours. The relationship between Siqueiros and At1 aided in the development of reiated searches for public art and new techniques.43
Modem Mexican culture had a low statu when Siqueiros was a snident. He reported that in those days fernale students that attended the Academy dressed with a
French influence while male students wore an English fashion. Althouçh they were
Mexicans they spoke Spanish with a French accent because they had spent most of their lives in Europe; therefore, these students had stronger links to the 'old continent' than ro
4 I Hernandez, 1996, p. 13. 12 Siqueiros, Como se pinta un mural, 1977, p22. Mexico. For hem, art and everyday life couid oniy be conceived of using European models. During the same penod, the Dictator Porfino Diaz, who was also the leader of the social protocol, had initiated this condescending attitude towards iMexican culturc
His interest in Mexican art was iimited to pre-Columbian civilisations, which had vanished a long theaga?
The same year that Siqueiros frst attended the Academy, art students rebelled against the despotic education system. They held a strike that succeeded a year later when the Santa hita School was opened. The new school provided the opportunity to learn near nature and in open spaces. Professors such as Dr. At1 and Rarnos Martinez encouraged students to explore Nationalist themes related to peasants, revolutionary society and landscapes. Inspiration had to evolve from real life scenes.
Diaz' despotic government and the misery of peasants brought about the
Revolution in 19 IO. The peasantry were immersed in long and cruel battles to elirninare social injustice and to obtain a fair distribution of productive land. The whole society was politicised. Porfirio Diaz was defeated while Siqueiros was still attending kt School.
Although Diaz left in exile to France, the victory of the peasants was not irnmediate.
Victoriano Huerta, a new dictator, took power afier killing the elected president Francisco
Madero. Siqueiros, like other art students, enrolled in the Constitutional hyto fight against Huerta. Although Huerta was defeated, the revolutionary movement lacked unie and political agitation continued for several years.
Siqueiros remained involved in political-artistic activities: for exarnple, he participated in the conference of Artists-Soldiers where artists discussed the kind of
Marontate, 1996. p.42-48. u" Siqueiros, 1985, p. 16. themes that should concem artistic production. Revolutionary ideds were niIl cunent; artists wanted Mexican art to be independent fiom international influences and to be one in which the indigenous population could play an important role."'
In 19 19, the newly elected president Carranza sponsored a group of artists, including Siqueiros, to take a cultural trip to Europe. Carranza wanted to reward them for their participation in the Constitutional Amy. Overseas, Siqueiros met Diego Rivera and the two men discussed the need for a national art; both believed that art had to be public and had to be based on contemporary Indian roots. These issues were the first outlines of the Mexican Muralism.
Three years later, José Vasconcelos, the Minister of Education during President
Obregon's period, asked Siqueiros to remto Mexico. Vasconcelos was interested in a new education project focused on developing a new national identity. Siqueiros' revolutionary ideas were compatible with the minister's political agenda, especially those related to the needs of public art. Vasconcelos believed that Mexico could be successfully educated by visua: means? Siqueiros, Orozco and Rivera, among other artists, became the govemment's protégés and were invited to paint the walls of the National Preparatory
School. Each artist chose several spaces in the building and painted independently; as a result, the final project lacked unity of style or technique. Siqueiros explored encaustic technique in his paintings Spirit of the Occident, and also true fresco in Angels of
Liberation, Burid of a Worker and God and Satan, Monarchy and Dernocracy.
While the project at the National Preparatory School was still in progress, the three artists organised the Syndicate of Sculpturers and Painters. In 1924. the syndicale published a manifesta, which çtated that art should be public and esplicitly done for the abused ethnic minorities, factory workers and peasants. The easei-painting format kvas described as a private form of art created to decorate a cultured or pretentious home; therefore, it shouid be rejected?' Siqueiros frequently repeated rhis nrgative approach to easel painting in his publications; however, he painted a considerable number of such paintings. Themes in Siqueiros' easel paintings Vary and some of them exhibit an open intention to satise the elite such as the portraits of Margarita Ubieta and Enriqueta Roca
Gual Vidal.
Puig Cassauranc, the new Minister of Education, changed his position towards the political content of Muralism in 1925. The settled and confident govemment was no longer interested in the Revolution. The govemment 's new attitude angered students. who felt betrayed. As a result, the murals at the National Preparatory School were partially destroyed.
For the following five years, Siqueiros focused on political activities and set aside his artistic work. He became Secretary of the Workers' Confederation and the President of the Revolutionary National Federation of Miners in Jalisco. He joined several other lefiwing organisations. His divergence with the govemrnent's ideology caused him to be sent to prison. Afier a year in jail he was sent to Tavco under house arrest. Siqueiros remained in Tavco for a few months and during that period he devoted himself ro painting. In 1933 he was forced to exile in Los Angeles where he painted a mural at the
Chouinard School. This trip was the beginning of Siqueiros' search for new materials and techniques. In the mural project he faced problems related to the unsuitability of fresco
47 Siqueiros, 1978, p.69, over a cernent submate. Siqueiros solved the technical problem by subaituting calcium carbonate for a cernent medium. For the first time he used an airgun for artinic purposes.
Also in Los Angeles, he reaiised that photography could be a suitable tool for his painting.
The American governent did not renew Siqueiros' visa after he painted the murai called Tropical America at the Plaza Art Centre. The mural was disturbinp because it openly expressed Siqueiros' rejection of the way Amencans exploited Indians. Unable to retum to Mexico, Siqueiros travelled to Latin America. Firsr he travelled to
Montevideo where he discovered pyroxylines.48 Afterwards he went to Buenos Aires.
Siqueiros was unwelcome in Argentins due to a last minute change in the politics of the country. The Argentineans rescinded Siqueiros' invitation to paint a mural at Barrio
Portefio. Instead he painted a mural in Natalio Botana's basement with an experimental pyroxyline and ethyl silicate technique.ig Siqueiros retumed to Mexico and arranged to re-enter the United States of America.
In New York, under the auspices of the Communist Party, Siqueiros organised the
Experimental Workshop Laboratory of Modem Techniques in kt.'' The airns of the workshop were to create political propaganda, participate in political demonstrations, and also to try out modem techniques. Artists experimented with modem media and modem tools like pyroxylines, airguns, and still and motion cameras. Leftwing artists of different nationalities were chosen to join the team such as Harold Lehrnan, Jackson Pollock, José
Gutiérrez, Axe1 Hom, George Cox, and Sande McCoy, among othen.".'* Siqueiros lefi
" Tibol. 1996. p.509. 49 Siqueiros, 1985, p.33. " Hurlburt, 1976. p238. " -lbid. p.237. New York in 1937 to join the Republican Amy during the Spanish Civil War. In his absence the worlrshop disintegrated. In Spain he received the nickname of "Coronelazo". which rneans Great Colonel. This nickname became an inspiration for several of his future painting.
In 1947 in Mexico, the F.B.I. stole some of Siqueiros' paintings that hung in rhe
National Palace of Fine Arts because of their political implications." ïhe Mexican govenunent recovered the paintings, but made clear that it did not want to have Mer conflicts with the United States. In the following years, Siqueiros focused on artisric activities. In 1950 he gained the second prize at the XXV Venice International Art
Biennale-H~M Matisse gained the first prize. Modem materials caught critics' attention; however, they also commented that although Siqueiros had rejected the easel painting format, he was still using it.'"
During this penod Siqueiros actively participated in politics. In 1960, at the age of
64, he presented a speech during a political meeting. This caused him to be sent back io jail for four years. Whiie in jail, he created a great number of artworks and also wrote his autobiography. Once released, Siqueiros did his last project, for the wealthy and powerhl businessrnan Manuel Suiirez Suirez oflered hirn a commission for the murals of the
Poliforum, a cultura! plaza that was going to be built. Siqueiros zccepted and he also agreed to avoid controversial political content in the murals. Afier his death in 1971, the links between art and politics in Mexican society began to fade away. Siqueiros' circle of followers was not strong enough to keep the movement alive in the face of the changes in attitudes within Mexican culture. This was the end of an era.
*' Medina, 1996. p.43. *' Siqueiros, 1985, p33. TECHNICAL INNOVATIONS GNX) PYROXYLINES
Siqueiros' work mainly focussed on mural painting but he aiso painted a large number of easel paintiogs. His outspoken statements against easel painting were inconsistent with his acts. Although some of these paintings are experimental drafts for murds, others are traditional easel paintings. In this format, Siqueiros treated themes like politics, eroticism, landscape and abstract expression. There are aiso several comrnissioned portraits. Surprisingly he became one of the favourite portrait painten of the Mexican bourgeoisie including intellectuals, famous artists, wealthy men and women." In later years, Siqueiros justified himself when he said that his main interest was mural painting but easel painting could not be avoided becausc it meant an incorne for the painters of the Mexican School of ~ainters? When Siqueiros was imprisoned, the easel-painting format was the only possibility to remain artistically active.
Siqueiros used similar forma1 resources and technique in mural and easel painting such as colour and volume effects. After his fint trip to Europe, he was influenced bp
Cubism. He realised that the conception of space inherited fiom the Renaissance had changed. Aemdynarnic speed had transformed the perception of volume. Siqueiros went beyond that and transformed the concept of Cubisrn into the --make believe effect". j7 The make believe effect (or poliangularidad)'8 is one of Siqueiros greatest formal effects. The
Y Luna, 1950. p.27. 55 Moyssén, 1996, p. 73. 56 Zabludovsky, 1966. p. 16. " Herner, 1996. Pofyangdaridad is the visual effect obtained using several images of one object obtained from different positions of observation. As a result, in the final painting the two-dimension image appean to have the volume of a reaI object. viewer is no longer considered a static element. The beholder is invited to have an active participation in the composition and perspective. The composition changes as the spectator moves. This effect cm be observed in several of his paintings like Accidenre en la Mina (193 l), and Eco del Llanto (1937) as well as in his mural paintings like
Cuuuhtkmoc againsî the Myih.
The make believe effect was developed fiom images obtained with photographic and motion picture camera~.'~Probably Siqueiros conceived the use of photography for the rnake believe effect der a young member at the Block of Painters in Los Angeles who documented 300 images of the tearn of artists and aiso the evolution of the mural.
The man took photographs fiom different angles. Views fiom different angles of an image are resources fiequentiy found in Siqueiros' murals and easel paintings.60 The photographic and motion-film camera became a useful tool to understand the phenomena of volume, space, movernent and the relationship between them.
In Los Angeles, when Siqueiros first had contact with an airgun he was fascinated by its potential; nonetheless, his students were opposed to using it. They believed that art could only be expressed through the hand and brush of the artist. Siqueiros responded that the change fiom a bnish to an airgun was a mere substitution of an old tooi for a new one. He also argued that an artist could not be a slave of his own took and mate rial^.^'
His reflection on the use of the airgun became fundamental in his search of modem materiais and modem technique. Siqueiros was imrnersed in a world of scientific discoveries, political movements and industrial development. He believed in a change in social order where pesants, factory worken and ethnical minorities had the nght to
59 Herner, 1996, p. 17 1. -Ibid. education, health security and work. To achieve any transformation it was necessary to
reject anything that had been done in the past; therefore, the creaîion of a new alternative
was the only possibility of success. Siqueiros explored new materials and new techniques
within political parameters. Siqueiros' idea of an artist is far beyond the romantic
conception of the 19b century. For him an artist was a skilled worker, an engineer willing
to experiment in Laboratories and factories and no longer the artkt that remained in his
traditional atelier.62
The discovery of pyroxyline was not the result of a premeditated search. While in
Montevideo, he needed oil paint and by mistake he was sent to a hardware store. There he
could only find only pyroxyline paints. Because of his explorative nature, he tried them
out on a piece of wood." Since that moment he was fascinated by their qualities.
Siqueiros used pyoxylines in 1 933 for the first time in Proletarian ~icrim.~
Siqueiros declared that art had to be public but also pure and independent. Art
should not be allegoric, descriptive, imitative or decorative. It had to be developed fiom
the pleasure to recreate textures, volumes, shapes and co~ours.~~This idea relates to the
use of pyroxylines, which offer a broad variety of forma1 possibilities.
Further experiments with pyroxyline, the use of airgun, photographie camera, and
motion picture camera took place at the Experirnental Workshop in New York, where a
new pictonal language was created. The new language would influence in fiiture yean
6 1 Siqueiros, Corno se pinta un mural, 1977, p.67-68. 61 Hemer, 1996, p. 172, Ibid., p. 182. 64 Moyseén, 1996. Siqueiros, Retrato de una década, 1996. Carlisle, 1996, p.57. 65 Hemer, 1996, p. 174. the developrnent of the Abstract Expressionism in the United States. Then, for the fï~t time in history, the United States became a leader in international art?
At the Experimental Workshop pyroxylines were applied with airguns. Students tried them with stencils and sik screens to make patterns. AIso they used them on metal, sand, and paper. Pyroxylines were used in thin layers or impastos. They tried out dl sorts of possibilities. Snidents threw pyroxyline onto the surface, mixed it, and also splashed it onto paper, panels and canvas. Artists experimented thoroughly with
Siqueiros did not limit himself to the use of pyroxylines for the conventional characteristics of the paintings. He developed the painting-sculpture in which prominent volumes were created with the use of paper, wood, sand or any available material.
Throughout his life Siqueiros dso experimented with other materials like bakelite, celotex, plastic, masonite, vinelite and acrylics.
Pyroxyline Technique
Pyroxyline was an automobile lacquer that offered other possibilities than traditional oil and tempera It had great plasticity and an intense hue. It could be opaque or translucent. It could dso be mixed with fillers to achieve highly textured surfaces.
Although pyroxylines aiso had the disadvantage of fugitive hue and discoloration, they were tvidely used by the artists in the Western hemisphere dunng the fiat half of the 20~
" Tibol, Pinacoteca de los Grandes, n.d. " Herne:, 1996. p. 1 82. 'Gutiémq 1956. p.57. Siqueiros was probably the first to make advances in this technique though it has also been mentioned that The Forest, painted by Max Ernst painted in 1926, has the appearance of pyroxyline.69 Siqueiros told Gutiérrez, a Mexican art snident at the
Experimental Workshop, that his search for new materials began in Taxco when, on his way back from an excursion, he found a group of people examining his oil paintings under the sunlight. Then, he realised the effects this would have on the oil. He began to look for a suitable technique to use outdoors.
In order to find long lasting results in the use of pyroxyline, Siqueiros went to the manufacturers. He wanted to obtain more permanent colours and a matte finish. Fint he went for advice to the Nitro Valspar Valentine Company and then to the Dupont de
Nemours Power Company. At the last Company, his interest in pyroxylines was not weii received. The salesman even suggested that Siqueiros' intentions were to obtain the secret formula of the medium. The salesman's offensive suggestion occurred when, in
New York, Siqueiros and his team tried unsuccessfuIly to obtain the formula fiom a chemist that worked for a pyroxyline manufacturer. 'O Siqueiros could not obtain funher information from the chemist or fkom manufacturers and instead he expenmented by adding different name-brand lacquers and solvents to the pyroxylines and modified hem with different solvents.
Pyroxylines Iooked like a viscous paste similar to a mass of very srnaIl wax candles. They were sold in three densities: heavy, medium and thin. The heavy lacquer was used to prime ngid surfaces, mostly cellulose agglomerates. It could be applied either by bmh or gun spray. First it was diluted in thinner. Then, if applied by brush,
@ Lodge. 1988, p. 120. m Marontate, 1996, p.65. 1/20 to 1/10 carbito17' was added, and if better drying retardation \vas desired a few drops of Flexol D.O.P.could be added. For coloured grounds, pigments were added. For highly texhired gromds, 115 CeIlite or Hy-Flo were included in the mV<. The best formula reported fiorn Gutiérrez is 2 parts medium pyroxyline, 6 parts of thinner and 1 part
Carbitol.
If the application was done wkh a brush, die surface had to be covered in one stroke. The matddid not accept repeated brushing because it would begin to dry in 15 minutes. When the application was done with an airgun, it had to be even. The lacquer had to be previously thinned to obtain a 'heavy ndk' consistency: one part heavy lacquer, one part thin lacquer and thinner.
Prirning with pyroxyline was not only done for pyroxyline painting media, but also for oils and synthetic resins. To paint directly on the canvas without priming, the formula used was one part of thick pyroxyline, one part of thin pyroxyline, two parts solvent and then 10 to 20% Carbitol. Pyroxyline lacquer was also mixed with dry pigments, preferably with those used in fresco and ethyl silicate techniques.
The behaviour of pyroxyline was not always controllable. Effects as a result of the technique were called 'mail shells' or accidents. Accidents became an important characteristic of the technique. Accidents are spirai designs obtained fiom a combination of pyroxylines of different colours and they were fiequently used to create sky effects.
This was done by superimposing a white layer, and a blue layer, and then adding a few drops of thimer. Finally the surface was shaken. Effects would also be obtained by applying a white layer and then a rough mixture of white and blue lacquer. The hardware
71 Gutierrez, 1956, p.57. Castor oil, tetracresil of phosphate, FIexol D.O.P, and Lyndol were used as substitutes for Carbitol. used in this technique was sandpaper, steel combs, srnall squeegees, flexible scrapers, and rollers.
To obtain an opaque surface, either 1/5 of siliceous powder, Celite 1 10 or High-
~lo~,was added to the pigment volume or 1/5 was mixed with the coloured lacquer.
Depending on the concentration used, the effects could change from luminosity to opaque. Celite was described as resembling white talc but as being lighter in weight. The result would be a hard finish. For luminous effects, for example glazes, bvo parts pigment and one part Celite or High-Flo were mixed and shaken. The concentration of the paste could be reduced with soivent. Also, if the artist was not satisfied with the results the paint could be wiped off with solvent.
Although many restorers consider a nitrocellulose paint to be very glossy,73
Siqueiros preferred a matte fmish. In order to decrease the gloss he experimented by adding different types of solvents and fillers. The lacquer could be mixed tvith a varïety of fillers like Celite, marble grits, clean sawdust, threads of conon or finely broken glas to achieve several types of surfaces. The mixture was applied in gradua1 layers but the thickness of the film should not exceed one-inch. Before applying the painting layer, the mixture had to be completely dry. A coane background could be obtained by applying the lacquer to the support and then spnnkling sand on the surface. After six hours the support was shaken to eliminate loose particles.
Pyroxyline also allowed the imitation of fresco technique. White lacquer was used to prime the support. A thin and srnooth layer of pyroxyline was added. Afierwards,
Manufactured by John Manville Co. " Tom Lemer, conservation scientist at the Tate Gallery, personal communication, July 1998. thinner was brushed ont0 the surface. The pigments and thinner were mived and then
applied to the tacky surface.
Carbitol diethylene glycol monoethyl ether (C2, Hjt 0CH2- CH2, OCHI, CH2,
OH)-similar to methyl cellosolve-\vas commonly used as an additive. Gutiérrez
describes it as a colourless and slightiy hygroscopic Iiquid of a mild pleasant odour.
However, it is now known as a toxic solvent that should be avoided. Celotex-a type of
cardboard-was a comrnonly used support; however, the support someùmes warped,
probably because the ethanol and acetone penetrated the hygroscopic sitrface causing
deformation, therefore the artist preferred to work on a flat suppon lying on the floor.
The use of jute and linen canvas is also fiequently found in Siqueiros' paintings.
The brand name of the pyroxyline was related to the quality of the formula.
Siqueiros was also very strict with the type of thinner. It was better to create home-made
thimer composed of: 50% industrial acetone, 25% methyl alcohol, and 25% benzol.
Siqueiros, as well as other artists who worked with pyroxyline, was aware of the
darkening and cracking of the material film. Some of his paintings from the 1930s had
already decayed by 1952. It is now known that deterioration is caused by both the
additives and the chernical nature of pyroxyline. Chemists did not recornmend the use of
pyroxyline for use outdoors. It was weli known that light, humidity, and temperatme
degraded the material. Nonetheless, the artist overlooked these recommendations.
Instead, Siqueiros tried to improve the results by contacting the manufactures and adding
plasticizers. Following safety recommendations, Siqueiros worked in ventilated areas' avoided flames, and removed stains fiom his skin with thinner. Then he washed with soap and water and appiied cold cream. ïhe basic pyroxyline palette was made with white primer, clear heavy-lacquer* clear medium-lacquer, clear thin-lacquer, white clear iacquer, Ultramarine blue, Prussian blue, maroon with the most intense red hue (as othen were considered to be fugitive) and dl the basic colours available. Pigments used in fiesco were also considered to be suitable like white lime putty, ivory vine or iron black, bumt sienna, bumt umber, raw sienna, yellow ochre, Puzzoli red, Indian red, iron oxide, vindian, permanent green, green earth, Ultramarine blue, cobalt blue, cedean blue, cadmium yellow, cadmium red, and cadmium orange.
What is Pyroxyline?
Pyroxyline is a commercial name for cellulose nitrate, which is a semi-synthetic polymer. Nitrocellulose was discovered in 1846 by Christian Friedrich Schonbein who treated Cotton with nitric and sulphuric acid. In 1862 it was first presented in the Great
Exhibition in London and six years later it was produced cornmercially as a plastic mixed with carnphor. It kvas used for the molding of shapes such as dentures, piano keys, knives, billiard balls, combs, and aiso to produce explosives, photographic emulsions, artificial silk, Ieather dressings and lacquers. According to the British patents, pyroxyline was used for paints and varnishessince 1860.~'Afier World War 1, a less viscous and fast drying pyroxyline was developed which was promptly used For automobile lacquers. The demand for pyroxyline increased considerably during the 1920s and DuPont began to produce it under the tradenarne of Duco. 75
7J Brown, 1928, English Patent 2,249. " The Develournent of Svnthetic Polvmer Resins for Artists Use. n.d. The fïrst patent of the DuPont de Nemours Power Company for the use of
pyroxyline was found in the Unites States in 1917. The formula specified for a
pyroxyline is described to being tougher than the previous formula and to have bener
adhesion": pyroxyline/20 parts, aidoVl8 parts, castor oii/52 parts, pigmentIl0 parts.
benzoV180 parts, alcohoV90 parts, and ethyl acetate/30 parts. The next year the same
Company patented another formula7': lacquer or pyroxyline 12% in the following
solution: benzol (55%), ethyl aicohol (40%) and amyl acetate (5%). Two yars later in
England, two patents were registered also by DuPont. Pyroxyline film was formed by
evaporation of solvent: ethyl acetate plus a liquid aliphatic carbon with a similar boiling point as benzene and a alcohol like methyl or ethyl alcoh01~~.The second patent of pyroxyline solution contained resins and gums.
Cellulose nitrate or nitrocellulose is a polynitrate ester of the natural polysaccharide cellulose. It has an average number of 2.3 of nitrate groups per glucose unit. Its molecular weight is 20,000 to 250,000. The chah Iength will depend on the degree of polymerization (D.P.)and the average number of nitrate groups per ring is refened to the degree of substitution (D.S.).
Figure 1 Monomer of celIulose nitrate
Brown. 1928. U.S. Patent 1334.92 1. ''n Ibid., U.S. Patent 1,266,073. " Ibid., English Patent 164,032. Cellulose nitrate is prepared by soaking cellulose pulp in concentrated nitric and ofien in sulphuric acid. The D.S. is 2.0-2.2 (1 1.2423% nitrogen by weight). The glas transition temperature will depend on the stabilisen and plasticisers used. Sometimes camphor was employed for this purpose but there were other possibilities. The use of camphor cannot be easily determined unless the characteristic me11 remains. If rhe plasticiser is volatile. like camphor. when released the cellulose nitrate will shrink when released. If it is not volatile, it will tend to migrate, for example to the ground on a canvas or it cm be exuded onto the surface.
Cellulose nitrate is not resistant to degradation but its solubility parameters remain stable due to the polarity of the ester groups and the hydroxyl gro~~s'~.It is moderately permanent under 13j°C. However, oxidation and hydrolysis will take place at room temperature, induced by the high relative humidity, ultraviolet radiation exposure, storage conditions, air pollutants and the presence of metals.
When the degradation process takes place nitric acid fumes are released and the backbone structure of the chain is broken. In consequence, the molecular weight will be reduced and the material will turn yellow to dark brown with a brittle consistency. Cracks may fom as a way to release stresses. The presence of metals for example in pigments or attached to other materials will cause Merreactions. The stronger reaction would be in due to contact with lead, and decreasing with calcium, silver, th, iron, copper and ~ncBG.
The exposure to ultraviolet radiation also affects its properties. The shoner wavelength produces chah disintegration. On the other hand, the longer ultraviolet radiation causes the cleavage of the nitrogen-oxygen bond.
79 Horie, 1996, p- 133.
" -p Ibid p. 132. The three primary effects of near UV radiation are8':
The loss of nitrogen the takes
The nitrate acid cm create an autocatalytic reaction if proper conditions are present like in poorly ventilated areas or tight cases. Deterioration can result in discoloration and embnttlement of the materiai. Pyroxyline can also suffer from hydrolytic decomposition, where sulphuric acid residues fiom the mixture and water attack the nitrate esters.
Conservation and Siqueiros' Legacy
In the last few years, the problem of preserving Siqueiros' work has become of great concern. The Mexican govemment recognises Siqueiros' relevance in the history of
Mexican art, and historians of painting techniques recognise his role in the transition fiom oil to acrylics. Mexican conservators and curators are mare that Siqueiros' paintings have a higher tendency to decay, especially pyroxylines. Frequently his artwork shows a poor state of preservation; therefore, conservators have treated many of them but
8 1 Selwitz 1988, p33. " -Ibid. nothing related to this topic has been published. Conservators acknowledge that problems
in pyroxyline are derived fiom the unstable chernical composition of nitrocellulose and
generally believe that Siqueiros mixed different types of media. Brech has said that "he-
Siqueiros-did not start from the g00d old things but the bad new ones. 8
consequence Zuri5.n has advised conservaton to be cautious with Siqueiros' work and to
remain scepticd about Siqueiros' narration related to his own technique.H Unfomuiately
Siqueiros' technique has not been suficiently docurnented. Scientific ùIformation on
Siqueiros' pyroxylines is not available.
The most relevant problems that have been pointed out in Siqueiros' pyroxylines
are related to visual observation of these paintings, for example cracking and Baking of
paint films and the darkening of colours. Some conservators have observed equivalent
degradation in the pyroxyline palette-8' Othea have remarked that light colours_
particularly white, are more prone to It has been rnentioned that there is lack of
adhesion and cohesion of pyroxyline pictorial layers also occur. These bits and pieces of
information that have been gathered from different sources exhibit a lack of dialogue among conservators. Probably the mystery surrounding pyroxylines has also stopped conservaton from publishing treatments carried out on thern.
Conservators remain silent but curators cannot. Curators have been in charge of cataloguing Siqueiros' work kept in museurns or pnvate paintings presented in temporary exhibitions. They have had a difficult task labelling the materials of the paintings. Their research becomes complicated when Siqueiros' inconsistent narration is considered and
83 Folgarait, 1988, p.88. Y Author intewiew with Tomh Zuriiin, former Director at CENCOA, Mexico City, December 18'. 1997. " Frida Mauos, unpublished observations, 1998. 86 Author interview with Rosalia Cuevas, Sub-Director of CENCOA,Mexico Ciw, December l~~,t 997. the limited information available about Siqueiros' technique. Dissimilar opinions on
Siqueiros' painting materials have resulted hm it. That is the case in two of Siqueiros' paintings that belong to the Soumaya Museum in Mexico City. The easel paintings Mine
Drillers and Portmit of Dead Girl and Live Girl have been the subject of a private conaoversy in regards to their painting media. Historic research endorses these paintings as having an oil medium; however, their appearance and signs of decay exhibit the characteristics expected for pyroxyline media. Conservators cannot remain indifferent towards this situation. It is necessary to share responsibilities and help solve the mystenes of Siqueiros' technique. cHAPTER5
HISTORY AND EXAMINATTON RECORDS
Mine Drillers
Figure 2 D.A Siqueiros' Mine Drillers. Photography by Javier Hinojosa 1996. Mine Drillers, also cailed Stonenrtters or Picadores de Piedra, was part of Hubert
C. Hefig's collection in 1932. h 1992. the painting was sdd at Sotheby's to a private collection in Los Now it belongs to the Sournaya Museum in Mexico City.
The records kept in the museum do not include information on any previous conservation treatments cmied out on Mine Drillers. The design of the painting shows two minen, dressed in simple light-colored oudits and hats that cover their faces. Both figures are working inside a mine tunnel. Both are holding a drillhg machine while digging a hole in a rock.
Siqueiros' signature cm be found at the bottom nght of the painting. Undemeath the signature, there is also the number 76. The 26 codd relate to the year of esecution although it has also been mentioned that Mine Drillers was painted around 193 1 while
Siqueiros was in Tauco. Some curators believe that the number 26 indicates the year when Siqueiros saw the scene that inspired this painting.88
Description of Materials and Construction
The painting is mounted on the onginai wooden stretcher and both have a rectangular shape. The dimensions of the painted surface (100.5 X 75.5 cm') are slightly larger than the dimensions of the stretcher (100 X 75cm2). In the museum records, the material of the painting's canvas is labeled jute. The canvas dimensions are larger than the painted surface by approximately 3 centimeters. The canvas has a coarse weave with a density of 3 X 6 threads per square centimeter (Figure 3). There is no visual evidence of
87 Siqueiros, Retrato de una década 1996.
" -9Ibid 1996. p. 1 16. a size layer but the gromd is white and porous. It covers one centimeter of the tacking
ma@.
- -- Figure 3 Weave design in canvas of Mine Drillers
The painting medium is described as an oil/pyroxyline media in the museum files.
A label stamped on the back of the stretcher has exactly the same description. Rafael
Cruz Arvea supported this information in 1996. He suggested that the paint media had a
similar appearance and signs of degradation expectrd for a pyroxyline/oil media;
however, within the same year, during an exhibition at the National iMuseum of An in
Mexico City, curators exhibited the painting as an oil on canvas.
The paint film is opaque and exhibits an uneven semi-matte finish. It is dark and duII. The film has a coarse and highly textured surface. At the top le fi corner the medium has formed drippings uncornmon for traditional oil technique. The drippings are arranged in T" patterns, with an accumulation of material at the bottom. Clemente Davila. conservator at the Sournaya Museum, has suggested that the drippings rnay have been
formed when the liquid medium was applied and the surface rapidly polyrnerized before the paint undemeath it did. The drippings rnay be related to Gutiérrez' comments on the fast drying rate of pyroxylines. The paint film is soluble in polar solvents and semi- soluble in non-polar solvents. The rate of solubility is higher in alcohols as would be expected for a pyroxyline medium. The pigments found in the design layer are similar. but have not been identified. There is no visible sign of a surface coating.
Condition Report
The canvas is Friable and slack. The stretcher is stable and onl;! two of the keys are missing. The major sipns of decay are found in the ground and paint layers. The ground has shrinkage cracks, cleavage, and cupping. It seems that relaxation of the canvas and shrinkage of the ground have caused a decrease in adhesion between the layers; notwithstanding, the amount of loss of ground and paint film remains in a low percentage of the total. The paint film has similar problems to the ground. It has shrinkage cracks and cupping problems although its adhesion to the ground is remarkable. The ground and paint layers fom rigid flakes. In the tacking margins, the flakes are smaller and have more severe cleavage problems. Small and random losses of the ground and paint layers have dready been infilled and inpainted. Following from information that the painting medium was pyroxyline, the cupping was locally treated with heat, weight and a solution of methyl methacrylate; however, positive results werc not achieved. The planar distortion due to the cupping is still aesthetically disnirbing and the cleavage is still a serious structural problem.
Mine DrilIers has severe structural instability due to the poor adhesion of ground and paint film to the canvas. The permanent darnage is moderate; only a small percentagc of the paint film has been lost. Cracking, cupping and planar distortion obstmct the appreciation of the image to a high extent. The painting must receive immediate and extensive treatment to prevent it from losing major parts of the paint film and, only if acceptable to the museum, efforts should be made to recover the aesthetics of the painting. Before carrying out any treatment it is necessary to identiQ the binding materials. Once the results fiom the analyses are obtained, a proper discussion about the ethical issues of conservation treatments is necessary, especially concemuig the consolidation treatment. Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl
Figure 4 D.A. Siqueiros' Portraii of Deud Girl wul Live Girl. Photography by lavier Hinojosa 1996. The record files of Pormair of Dead Girl and Live Girl do not include references
of previous ownes, die date of its acquisition or consenration reports; however, other
sources indicate that this painting belonged to the artist Ignacio Asiinsolo from 1960~'to
at least 1968?O In 1990, the painting was sold in an auction at Christie's to a private
collection in Mexico. Now it belongs to the Soumaya Museum.
The design shows two young girls. In the fust plane. there is a lifeiess girl who is
probably three years old and who we assume is dead. She rests on a chair that is quite big
for her. This dead girl is wearing a lace bo~etand a long dress that covers her feet. Her
eyes are closed and her mouth is halfway open. Her torso is inclined to her lefi as if she
was going to fall down. Standing on her right, there is a girl who is probably three years
older. The older girl has darker skin, black hair, and her eyes are staring at the spectator.
The live girl is wearing a Long and plain maroon-colored dress. With her left hand she is holding the dead girl's left shoulder and her right hand is holding the younger girl's nght hand. The background was not painted in detail; however, it resernbles a hall or a room.
Siqueiros signed the painting at the bottom-left and undemeath the signature he also inscnbed 3-19; 1. Some have suggested these numbers are the date; nonetheless,
Siqueiros States that he painted this portrait in 1930 and that it was exhibited the same year at his painting exhibition in Los Angeles, ~alifomia." Siqueiros' comment creates confusion because historic sources state that Siqueiros' eshibition was held until 1922:' however it, seems feasibie that Siqueiros executed Portrait of Dead Girl und Live Girl in
1930, during his house arrest in Taxco.
" Siqueiros, Me llamaban el Coronelazo. 1977. p.303-304. 90 Micheli, 1968. 91 Siqueiros, Me llamaban el Coronelazo, 1977, p.304. 9t, Siqueiros, 1970, p.23. Descriptions of Materials and Construction
The original canvas has been covered xvivith a new linen support; therefore, the weave type cannot be described. The tacking rnarghs have probably been cut off. Undér the microscope, some visible fibes at the edges have a similar appearance to those of conon; however, a label stamped on the back describes the canvas as jute. The wood stretcher does not seem onginal. It has four rnembers and the keys are complete. The dimensions of painted surface (102 x 77 cm2)are larger than the dimensions of the stretcher (100 x 75 cm').
The sizing, if any exists, is not visible. On the edges of the canvas, a white and compact ground can be seen. The ground coven between 0.5 and 1.5 cm of the tacking margins. The museurn files and the label stamped on the back of the painting describe the painting medium as oil; however, Cruz Arvea has suggested that the opaque, rnatte, and flat fiim was an indication of a pyroxyline This piece of information recalls the assvnption that was made on Pollock's painting S~imrnertimenumber 9A that has a flat and matte paint film. The painting is currently labeled "Oil and Enamel
(nitrocellulose paint) on Canvas". According to Tom Learner, kom the Tate Gallery in
England, the description of the technique was not based on any particular evidence or analysis. He believes that if the painting had been in isolation, without any hint of it being
Pollock's work, people might think it was an oil paint fi~rn.'~ This would probably dso be tnie for the case for Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl.
Rafael Cruz A~eain a visit to the Soumaya Museum in 1996. " Tom Learner. conservation scientist at the National Gallery in London, personal communication with this author, Myt 998- In general the paint surface is flat and smooth but the impasto cm be found in the
whirer areas and in the chair. On the top half of the painting, there are uplified rings of
paint medium randomly distributed. This characteristic is uncommon for a traditional oit
painting technique. The dimensions of the rings Vary and their shapes are almost perfect
circles.
The solubility tests indicate a partial dilution of materiais in hydrocarbons like
xylene and toluene. Polar solvents had no effect. These results are not considered reliable
perhaps because the wax relining mixture used in previous treatments is soluble in
hydrocarbons and it has unavoidably influenced the results.
The appearance of this painting is unusual for a traditionai oil technique. The
painting has been wax lined and that may have caused some physical changes. Following
Zurih's advice one mut remain sceptical when trying to detemine the type of painting
medium of Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl, even when we read Siqueiros' story of
when he was asked to paint the portrait of a dead girl in Taxco. In this account, Siqueiros
mentions he uscd an oil
- - - 95 Siqueiros, Me 1larnaban el Coronelazo, 1977, p.303-304. Condition Report
Any sign of decay in the support has been hidden with the addition of a new
canvas. The appearance fkom the front side gives no indication of tears. holes or defects
in its construction. After relining, the canvas look tight. slightly rigid and there is no
planar distortion. The new stretcher is stable and complete. The paint film has a low
percentage cf losses especidly on the edges of the stretcher. When the painting was Iined
and mounted on a new stretcher, the onginai paint film was slightly larger that the
stretcher; consequently, part of the original paint film had to be folded onto the tacking
margins. This probably explains why the paint film is cracked and flaking in the edges.
The colon found in the paint film are dark except for the white areas of the dead
girl's bonnet and skirt. It is not clear whether the painting was originally like the image
Siqueiros descnbed: "When 1 got to the house 1 saw the following scene: a chair typical
of the Mexican countryside, a polychromed and decorated chair .. .the dead body of a nvo
and a half year-old girl, dressed in light green with a pink cap or h00d."'~ Nor whether
discoloration occurred or whether he originally painted the image with dark hues. A biack
and white photograph published in 1968 (Figure 5) provides information to suggest that
the painting was selectively cleaned between 1968 and 1998.~~Figures 5 and 6 show that
the balance of tones has changed. The coiors in the dead girl are much brighter relative to
rest of the painting, which is quite dark. Some details on the bonnet have also been lost.
Unfortunately, this photograph does not offer chromatic details.
% Siqueiros. Me llamaban el Comnelazo, 1977,303-304. Translation M. Celina Contreras Maya 97 Micheli, 1968, p. 10. Figure 5 Photography of Portrait of Figure 6 Photography of Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl Eom 19685g Dead Girl and Live Girl fiom 1998 by Javier Hinojosa
The painting film has a few long cracks that run across the surface. The canvas was probably rolled or folded causing this pattern of cracks. At the top left of the design, in a localized area, the paint film has been compressed and a small portion of the bare canvas can be seen. This sign of decay is previous to 1968 and was probably caused when the painting was still fiesh.
The painting has been impregnated with a wax-resin mixture. Wax-resin lining is the most common relining treatment in the Mexican conservation approach, especially for paintings with degraded canvas and paint films with cleavage problems. A wax lining is considered an effective treatment even when it darkens the colors of the design. In cornparison with the previous photograph nom 1968, its seems that the textures on painting surface have been flatten This could be an effect of the linïng treatment, but also it couid be a visual effect due to the angle of illumination of the photopph; domately the information on the reasons fgr carryïng out the lining treatmenr is missing, leaving a large question about the history of the object.
Although damage to the structural integrity of Portrair of Dead Girl and Live Girl is negligible the permanent damage is high. This includes the probable darkening and flattening effects of the lining treatment on the painting surface and the loss of some details in the bonnet that has taken place since 1968. The ternporaq. disfigurement is slight due to the change in the tonal balance, which could probably be recovered.
The confusion of curators surroundhg the identity of the painting's medium is understandable when the physical characteristics of both painting are considered.
Siqueiros did not begin to use pyroxyline until seven years afier the date inscribed in
Mine Driliers; however, sources mention that 1926 is not considered to be the date of the painting's execution. The appearance of this painting is similar to those paintings linked with Siqueiros' pyroxyline technique; the paint film has a matte finish and is nch in textures. Also, signs of degradation in hfine Drillers, like cracking, flaking, friability and the suggested discoloration are aiso expected reactions of nitrocellulose paint. Finally, the high solubility in alcohols of the paint film of !Mine Drillers suppons the rheory of a pyroxyline medium. The examination of Porlrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl is not so clearly convincing. The painting does not exactly repeat the pattern of behavior expecred for nitrocellulose paint media; however, the paint film also has an uncomrnon appearance for a traditional oil painting technique. It has a matte finish, which could also be an effect of the wax lining. The uplifted circles may be the 'snails' or 'accidents' Gutiérrez descnbed as being an effect of pyroxyline technique. The discoloration of the paint film during the last thkty years should also be considered. It may be that the wax relining process could have masked other sipof decay or altered the solubility expected for pyroxyline. CWTER 6
&VALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
Evidence found on the painting3 was not &cient to solve the dilemma of the
painMg media of Mine Drillers and Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl. Scientific
analyses were necessq to identie the painting media. Polarized Iight rnicroscopy and
Fourier transfomi infkared spectroscopy were used to characterize and identify the
binding media in samples of both paintings. Polarized light microscopy is an analytical
technique fiequently used to study the layering in paintings and therefore the &ts'
techniques. I2 FTIR is able to identi& the presence of funciional groups characteristic for
certain organic compounds. This technique deals with electromagnetic radiation in the so-
cailed infiared region that excites the molecules of the compound. When the molecule
releases the energy absorbed, it is measured and the spectnim of the compound is
obtained. To identify the compound, the spectnim is compared to spectra of reference
~orn~ounds.~
Experimen ta1
In ikhe Drillers, two samples were taken fiom the edges of the painting where
flakes were coming off. The cross-sections have a maximum size of 4OO x 800 x 200j.imj.
Sarnple no. 1 A was taken from a dark brown area located at X=75.Ocm and Y=90.0cm of the bottom left corner of the pinting." Sarnple no2A was extracted from a gray area ar
X=l9.0cm, Y=O.Ocm. In Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl, two samples were taken
1 PIesters, 1976, p.7-26. ' Bur Ier, 1993. pp.4-26 1 ' Arnold, A., 1984, 129-138. ' In a11 samples X=O Y=O is always located at the bottom left corner of the painting- fiom cracked and flaky areas at the folding edges of Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl.
The size of the cross-sections do not exceed 650 x 1,400 x 800pn3. Sample no. lB \vas
exûacted f?om a dark red area X=O.Ocm, Y=9.0cm and sample no2B was taken from a
dark brown ma at X=75.4cm Y=95cm. Samples from Mine Drillers and Purimit of
Dead Girl and Live Girl were cast in epoxy resin, cut with a diamond saw, and sanded with water sandpaper until the sample was exposed. They were polished. Finally, the- were mounted with epoxy resin on a microscope slide.' Afterward the cross-sections were characterized using a Nikon stereomicroscope.
The painting media from samples no. 1A and 2B from boùi paintings were
identified with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy using a Bomem MB-100 spectrometer. Paint fragments were mounted in a diamond anvil microsample cell and piaced in the microbeam sample cornpartment of the spectrometer. In each case the top paint layer at the top of the sample no.lA was analyzed, except for a sample in Mine
Drillers where a fine translucent coating was found. In this sample, the coating and the immediate paint layer immediately below were analyzed. To examine the design in the painting films of both paintings, four x-ray radiographs of each painting were taken using a Phillips Super Practix at 20mA and 72kV with a Kruppa screen 0.3 at 22 volts.
Results
In sample no.lA fiom Mine Drillers, the stratigraphy shows three layers that include a possible final coating, a paint layer and a ground layer (Figure 7). The coatine
(a) is thin (12pm) and it is evenly distributed on top of the paint layer. It has a dull.
' The technique is widely described by Tsang, Jia-Sun 1 99 1. translucent dark brown color. The paint layer @) is 28 to 48pthick It is opaque and has a dark brown color. The film is compact and has good cohesion. The ground layer (c) is
120 to 340p thick and contains white and translucent particles. It has a coarse and porous consistency. The layer has voids and is sensitive to water. The lower area of the ground has a waxy appearance.
Figure 9 Cross-section no.I A tiom Mine fifiers
Sample no.2A fiom Mine Drillers exhibits a stratigraphy with a total of four layers altemating between a gray paint film and a white ground layer (Figure 8). The top gray pint layer (a) is 48 to 1 12p. It is a compact and opaque aggregate of black, gray, white, blue, and red particles. The following top ground layer @), 20pthick, is also compact and thin. It has a bright white color. The bottom ground film (c) of 264~is considerably thicker than the top &round layer. It is a coarse and porous aggregate of translucent white particles. The bottom gromd color varies fiom white to straw yellow and it has a waxy appearatlce. The bottom paint layer (d) of 1640pis thinner than the pallit film at the top. It has a darker color as well. It is compact. Figure 8 Cross-section no2A hmMm Dnifers
The stratigraphy of sample no. 1B fiom Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl has a
@nt layer at the top and a ground layer at the bottom (Figure 9). The uneven paint film
(a) is 60 to 140pm thick Redorange, dark-brown, and yellow particles are randomly distributed The ground (b) is a straw-yellow film 60 to 300p thick It contains translucent crystalline particles. It is coarse and has a waxy appearance.
Figure 7 Cross-section no. 16 fiom Portrait of Deod Girl andLive Girl In sample no.2B of Portrait of Dead Girl and LNe Girl, the stratigraphy shows a thin and even paint layer at the top an4 mdemeath if two types of ground layers that sandwich a large paint parhcle (Figure 10). The paint layer (a) is 8 to 36jm thick. It is a compact and smooth film that has a dark brown opaque color. The top part of the groimd
@) is considerably thicker (480~)than the paint film. It is a white aggregate that is highly porous. It is water sensitive. On the other hand, the bottom part of the ground (c)
(200p) has a yellow color and a waxy appearance and it is not water sensitive. The particle between both grounds is a black matenai with a similar appeanuice to the paint film matenal. Before the polishing process, this particle looked like an even paint film. It is compact.
Figure LO Cross-section no.2B &om Portrait of Dead Girl md Live Girl For Fourier transfomi infrared analysis, paint fragments from sample no. 1A were
mechanical 1y separated (Figure 1 I ). 'O' The coating was identified as beeswrtu. There was
no evidence to suggest the presence of pigments or fillen. The spectrum fiom the top
dark-brown paint film indicated the presence of dryuig oil and probabiy soaps. Calcium
carbonate, quartz, kaolin and a possible trace of bone black were identified as fillers and
pigments.
Figure 1 1 ETIR Spectra kom sample no. 1 A fiom Mine Drilltirs
'O3 Analysis camed out by Kate Helwig at Canadian Conservation Innitute in Ottawa A fragment fiom sample no.2B From Portrait of Deud Girl und Live Girl was mechanically separated to perfom the identification with Fm.'OJ (Figure 12) The paint medium was identified as a drying oil. It was also indicated the presence of bkum sulfate, calcium carbonate and a possible trace of kaolin and quartz.
Figure 12 FTIR spectra fiom sample no.2B From Portrait of Dead Girl mrd Live Girl. Discussion and Conclusions
The results of the FTIR analyses state that Mine Drillers and Portrait of Dead
Girl and LNe Girl have a cirying oil medium. The appearance and sipof decay in iMNie
Drillers are therefore not related to the degradation of pyroxyline. The top beeswax
coating can be understood to be from previous conservation treatment where it was used
as a consolidant. The signs of decay are probably related to Siqueiros' technique.8
In Mine Drillers, the stratigraphy of sample no.2A is unusuai. The two ground
layers and the two paint films could indicate two possibilities. First, Siqueiros could have painted another image undemeath Mine Drillers; however, radiography confimied that there is not another painting beneath Mine Drillers (Figure 13). Second, the layering could suggest that Siqueiros followed this unorthodox technique in order to enhance uplifted textures. The difference in the morphology and color of the two types of ground probably indicate that Siqueiros built up the paint layers using several ground films.
It has never been mentioned before that Siqueiros varnished his paintings; therefore, it was unexpected to fmd a final coating on sample no. IA. The fact that this film was found only in one of the samples suggests that it could be a glaze or a local coating. The layer is extremely thin and no mineral particles can be seen under the microscope. The ground layers of both samples that are in contact with the canvas are porous and water sensitive; however, the paint films are always compact and resistant to the effect of water.
a Contreras, Siqueiros' Pvroxilines, 1998. Figure 13 X-Ray Radiographs of Mine Drillers
In Portruif of Dead Girl and Live Girl, the thickness of the paint layers in cross- sections 1B and 233 varies remarkably. The thin and smooth paint film could be explained to be a result of the heat and pressure used to fold the extending paint edges onto the tacking margins. The thickness variation in the ground layers of both sarnples 2A and 2B is remarkable. Tt suggests that Siqueiros applied an uneven prime layer. In both cross- sections fiom Portrait ofDead Girl and Liue Girl, the ground that is directly in contact with the canvas is not water sensitive. Wax impregnation in the linhg process is done from the verso of the canvas; this could explain the difference in solubility between the top and the bottom ground in sample no.2B. The black material that is similar to the painting media and that was found at the boundary between the bottom and the top
ground layers is not well understood. It may be an indication that Siqueiros superimposed
ground and painting media and then another ground and paint layers. As was determined
for Mine DriIlers, X-ray radiography records venfied that there was not another painting
undemeath Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl. (Figure 14)
Figure 14 X-Ray Radiograp hs of Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl
The paint layers in both paintings are always compact and even within each sample. Conversely, the ground layen have been unevenly applied The ground has a variable porosity and water sensibility. It seems that degradation problems rnay derive fiom the physicai characteristics of the ground layer rather than any chernical or physical characteristics of the paint film. A porous, thick and uneven, water-sensitive ground cm be creating stresses that can be relieved with the formation of cracks. The porosity in the ground may be the cause of cleavage especially in Mine Drillers.
The suggested presence of two paint layers in a cross-section is an outstanding discovery that could help in Mer understanding Siqueiros' technique and the degradation of his paktings. The two layers rnay be creating rigidity of the paint film and causing a lack of adhesion to the canvas. CWTER7
SIQUEIROS' INTENT
In conservation, the tenn "artist's intent7' unially refers to the physical substance that
embodies a work of art. Art historians and philosophers have a broader range of
definitions for the artist's dent. Some believe historical and biographical factors shape the artist's conception and the meaning of the work. In other cases conservators and art
historians have agreed that the image of the artwork may provide mcient information
to define the artist's intent. In any of these cases it seems consistent that physical and chernical modifications to the object can alter the ability to infer the artist's intent fiom the appearance of the work. Transformations cari result fiom degradation or from conservation treatments. It should not be generalized that degradation always jeopardizes the artist's intent or that successfbl conservation treatments preserve it at al1 times.
To clariQ the links between Art Conservation practice and the artist's intent,
Siqueiros' Mine Drillers and Portrait of Dead Gid und Live Gid will be analyzed fiom the points of view of art conservaton, art historians, and philosophers. The fom in which degradation processes and conservation treatments modify the artist's intent and artistic interpretations will be pointed out in this chapter. This multilateral discussion will offer dissimilar approaches on degradation and conservation of these two paintings. Aithough largely opposite, these theories have points in common. Other factors foreign to conservation that play an influentid role are discussed as well. Ruhemann, Brandi, and Gombrich, and Siqueiros
Although Siqueiros fought the social and political establishment during his career,
in recent years his artistic legacy has achieved major importance in the arts establishment.
His paintings are found in many major museums and private collections. Mine Drillers
and Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl now belong to the Soumaya Museum in Mexico
City. These paintings have deteriorated since Siqueiros died in 1974, and the problem has
arisen of choosing a treatment that respects his intent because the two paintings are embodied in tangible matter. They, like any other artwork, inevitably decay. Degradation in Mine Drillers is more evident than in Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl- The colours in the composition are dark except for the figures of the miners. The painting has a jute support that has been primed with a white ground layer. The ground layer is coarse and has an uneven thickness. The paint layer is a heavily texnired surface and has a matte finish. With regard to its preservation, the painting, the ground and paint layers are rigid and bride; there is flaking, cracking and cupping throughout the surface. The painting has been consolidated at different times with beeswax and synthetic adhesives, and probably with skin glue also. Degradation is still active, which necessitates the choice of a stabilizing treatment. Portrait cf Dead Girl and Live Girl was painted on a cotton support primed with a white ground layer. The semi-matte paint surface is flat but heavy impmtos are locally found in the dead girl's outf~tThe colors in the composition are dark, except for the dead girl; therefore, it is difficult to appreciate the design. The painting has been relined with a wax-resin mixture. As a resdt, it is in a stable state of preservation, but it has been irreversibly altered by the treatment. The scenario presents two opposite problems. With Mine Drillers, Siqueiros'
intent is threatened due to structural insecurïty. On the other hand, any stabiiization
treatment may aiso jeopardize the da's intent. Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl is
stable; however, it is still necessary to recover the artist's intent. In both cases,
conservators have canied out treatments to prevent the materials from decaying fiirther.
A wax relining has stabilized Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl but other signs of
degradation have occurred. The painting has become darker and impastos have been
fiattened. The wax lining was an attempted to save the substance of Siqueiros' artwork
but alterations in the artist's intent have resulted fiom the treatment,
In Mine Drillers conservation treatments have been less intrusive than in Portrait
of Dead Girl und Live Girl, but degradation processes are still highly active. There is a
possibility that the artist's intent is safeguarded by the minimal intervention approach;
however. at the same time, the cupped paint film that is flaking off compromises the
material integrity of Siqueiros' work. Signs of decay are aiso causing dificuities in the
aesthetic appreciation of the image.
In order to undentand the eRect that degradation and conservation treatments have on Siqueiros' intent, information gathered during the vamish removal controveny ha been successfully applied in this analysis. Unfomuiately, nothing has been written on these other uses of the information. Conservators have been publicly criticized for the cleaning of paintings, but cntics are much more likely to remain silent about structural treatments that have less dramatic visual e~ects.'Unlike cleaning controversies, subtie changes by structural treatments are seldom discussed outside the technical literature.
This is a philosophicai as well as a technical issue. In rejecting the highiy interventive resîoration carried out during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, art historians and conservaton remarked that the artist's intent was to be found in the degraded but 'original' materiais. Consequently, by the
1920s art hisonans and art conservators were c1ai.gthat cosmetic intervention was an unacceptable intrusion on the artists' work regardless of the extent of the damage.
Deceptive retouching was considered forgery. The puritanical approach asserted in 1930, during the International Conference of Restorers in Rome, the idea that art curators should educate the public by exhibithg some paintings in a damaged state. These damaged paintings were considered useful for art historians who could do research on them; however, the public's desire for Wly restored paintings was ais0 taken into con~ideration.~The proposa1 to exhibit damaged and retouched paintings together, discussed during the conference, was the first attempt to reconcile cosmetic conservation with pure preservation activities within a collection.
The main goal of contemporary conservation is preservation of the physical cornponents. While it deals with the problem of cleaning and compensating for loss, these have become secondary goals. Due to the priority of preserving the physical matter that embodies an artwork, conservation has encouraged the shidy of the artist's technique and materials; however, in a work of art there are more than tangible remains that have aiso to be preserved. Partially aware of that, the Mexican conservation approach, besides conservation treatments, focuses also on the object's historic context, social function, aesthetics and manufacture technique.3 These issues are considered essential in developing a satisfactory treatment proposal. This outline has been helpful in the study of Siqueiros' intent in Mine Drillers and Po- of Dead Girl and LNe Girl; nonetheless, the Mexican tendency to categonte and divide these entangled aspects can be distracthg and confusing. The four issues of the Mexican approach are intenelated. Only if they are analyzed in conjunction with Intentionalkt and Anti-intentionalist positions can any attempt to understand the effects of treatments on the artist's intent be properly achieved.
Although contemporary conservators use the term "artist's intent", they seldom andyze it. Conservation activities seek the preservation of the physical integrity of the object. Perhaps that is the reason for conservator to consider that artist's intent means the physical aspect of the artwork-r perhaps things happened the other way round. '
Usually it is taken for granted that during the preservation of the physical matter of an artwork the artist's intent is preserved as weif. Definitions that art historians, critics and co~oisseunhave given for artist's intent do not cab this assumption. In that case one may wonder, why is consideration of the artist's intent important if it does not refer to materials and techniques? Why should conservators care? Feagin considers that "what distinguishes art as human creation is precisely the presence of intentions, goals, or purposes to be achieved .. . We would not have the concept 'art' or 'work of art' unless we were interested in intentional beha~ior."~
Probably because of the unsolved differences that the arnbiguity of the artin's intent has created among conservators and scholars, conservaton have avoided discussing the term. During the National Gallery of London controveny of the 1950s and
Guevara, 1996. ' Dutch Association of Rofessional Renorers. p.7 . European Confederation of Conservator-Restorers' Organisations, n.d. B lack, 1984, pp2- 10. ICOM, n.d ICOMOS, 1964, p.4. ' Feagin, 1982, p.65. 60s, three approaches towards the artist's intent were put forward. Ruhemann, at the
National Gallery, felt that the only way to recover any trace of the artists' intent was removing al1 artifacts of aging and additions to uncover the remaining original6
Gombrich, at the University of London, rejected Ruhemann's approach. He believed that the aaist's intentions are neither available nor desirable for assessing art, and, furthemore, that our interpretations were our own and we misunderstood them if we identified them with the artist instead of ourselves. Brandi, at Istinito del Restauro in
Rome, was carefûl to Say that one was closer to the artist when a "patina" or a sign of decay was lefi.' Mer this controversy, conservaton were divided into intentionalisis or scientific conservators and anti-intentionalists or aesthetic conservators. Gombnch, who was not a conservator but an art historian, was also a weak anti-intentionalist.
Ruhemann's intentionalist position states that one mut see the properties and structure of a work of art in order to understand the artist's intentions.' htentionalism believes that the artist's intent, or what is left of it, is always available and it can be objectively obtained through thorough research on materials, design, colors or textures found in the artwork; the ariist's reasons for doing his work in a certain way can be also useful? On the other hand, anti-intentionalism states that the artist's intent is no longer available and any claim on fmding the artist's intent is merely an interpretation. hti- intentionalkm may be either strong or weak, depending on whether it denies or affirms the usefulness of interpreting the artist's intentions. Brandi's weak anti-intentionaiisxn suggests that the artist's intent, although unreachable, may remain in the artwork when
6 Dykstra, 1996, p201. 7 Ibid, 1996, p202. 8 Zumbach, 1984, p. 147- 148. p.151. conservaton leave a "patina". Gombrïch, a weak anti-intentionalist, believes the artist's intent refers to the relationship of graded tones in an artwork that suggests the artia's accomplished impression of iight and dep&.'' Unfortunately, the "relationship of graded tones" is aitered once the original illumination conditions change because the picture is no longer what the artist intended to paint. The aaist's intent can be recovered only if the conservator is able to revive the artist's balance of tones; however, the spectator does not need conservators assistance to meet the artist' intent if he is capable of overcorning the barriers of physical decay." To obtain accurate results, conservators must have partly inbom and partly leanied sensibility.ILI3.14
Although conservators have divided opinions, Ruhemann's and Brandi's approaches both assert that artists' intent can be preserved regardless of the style of the painting. Their differences are based on the extent of treatment necessary to recover the artist's intent. Ruhemann's approach, although it has been considered objective by a large group of conservators, is highly intluenced by taste. Taste is at work in his desire to see what the artist made without later additions or subtractions fiom the artwork." In this approach the conservator wants to recover as far as possible the first appearance of the artist's creation; therefore, the first appearance is conceived as the artist's intent.
Ruhemann is aware that the recovery of the artist's intent as appearance is no feasible because artworks change due to naturai aging. Consequentiy, scientific conservation is directed to unveil the physical substance of what the artist made. Under these terms,
Siqueiros' intent in Mine Drillers has been drastically altered. The canvas has become
10 Gombrich, 1996, p. 1 13- 1 14. II Gombrich, 1962, p.55. " Zumbach, 1 984. p. 148. l3 Dykmq 1996, p202. 59 slack, the ground and paint layes have mcked the paint layer has darkened a.the tonal balance has changed.
To get closer to the artist's intent in accordance with Ruhemann, it would be advisable to consolidate the ground and paint film. Relining would not be appropriate because it would cover the artist's original jute support. The cupping should be reversed as far as possible. And the cracks should be filled up and extensive retouching should take place. Siqueiros' creation in Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl has also been almost lost due to the wax relining. The wax impregnation cannot be reversed. The onginai textures cannot be recovered. The darkening of colon can be partially reversed by extracthg the wax-resin mixture but the stabiiity of materials may be compromised-
The only alternative left to get closer to Siqueiros' intent would be the recovery of the tonal balance.
Brandi's point of view offers an interesting approach that attempts to balance age value and artistic value. 16 For him, leaving a patina or a sign of decay is an attempt to accept ''the hand of the" on the aesthetic value of artworks. In consequence Brandi's artist's intent can be defined as the acceptable transformation of the artist's creation due to the passage of time. The concept of 'acceptable transformation' stands for a desirable degradation. Unwanted signs of degradation are to be removed. Although Brandi's approach tends to be more sensitive to the substance contained in the artwork, it Ieaves a broad possibility for the influence of taste. According to this view, later additions. which may include previous conservation treatments, should be respected because they are part
t~ Gombrich, 1962, p.55. " Carrier. 1985. p29 1. l6 ~iegl,1982. p33. of the age value. " But any decision regarding the type and amount of signs of decay to be removed would depend on the conservator's reinterpretation. It is dinicult to define age value in Siqueiros' paintings. Both paintings are approximately 70 years old; however, their degradation is rernarkably more perceivable than degradation nom many paintings of previous centuries. Shouid this extent of decay be considered acceptable? Or should it a iess degraded appearance be sought to avoid an anachronistic image when compared with older paintings of the same collection? What are the implications in the appearance of modem objects when they are as decayed as Mine Drillers is?
Degradation can reveal Siqueiros' spontaneous technique. It may also be the historie evidence of Siqueiros' consciousness of the fact that oil paintings degrade due to environmental causes. Siqueiros realized that oil paintings degmde in 1930 and thereupon he began his search for new materials like pyroxylines and acrylic as a paint medium." In such circumstances conservaton and art historians may consider that the degradation of his oil paintings could be considered historical evidence of Siqueiros' motivation to search for alternative painting materials; therefore, any sign of decay in
Mine Drillers could be acceptable. On the other hand, would it be ethical to maintain the structural danger of the paint film when the artist has not advised so? Probably under
Brandi's approach it could be advisable to consolidate the paint film without a complete removal of the cupping, and the cracking could also be accepted. According to Brandi's approach in Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl there is Iittle treatment required. The painting is stable and the wax relining should be preserved as historic evidence; however, attempts should be made to decrease the lack of tonal balance.
l7Brandi, 197 1. " Gutierreq 1956, p.57-58. Gombrich has a skeptical attitude towards the ability of restoration to recover the
artist's intended relationship of gradientdg He denies that scientific and histoncai
evidence is suficient to objectively reinterpret the artist's intent. Considering the limiting
factors, conservation treatments have Little chance to obtain positive redts; therefore, it
is advised to focus on the age value of an artwork rather than the artistic value.
Restoration must preserve paintings for their history rather than mutilate them for our
aesthetic value. Only in circumstances where the physical substance of the painting is
severely jeopardized he encourages conservators to intervene. Siqueiros' relatiomhips of
gradients have been altered in both Mine Drillers and Portrait of Dead Girl and Live
Girl. There is historic and scientific information that suggests how specific processes of
decay have modified the original balance of tones.
The cracking and cupping of the paint film in Mine Drillers has changed the
effect of light that Siqueiros originally intended; however, Siqueiros' specific intentions
remain unknown. On the other hand, the painting is jeopardized by structural insecurity.
In those circumstances, Gombrich urges conservators to preserve the object; however, he
does not specie the type of treatment that should be carried out. Probably, it would be
advisable to consolidate the object with a treatrnent that does not cause Merchange in
the relationship of gradient tones. Wax consolidation should not be accepted because it darkens the image.
In the case of Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl, the photograph taken in 1968
shows the appearance of the painting when Siqueiros was still dive." The balance of tones has changed, textures have been flattened and motifs in the dead girl's bonnet have
19 Gombrich, 1962, p.55. Chapter 5, p.38. been stripped off. Could this piece of information be useless because, according to
Gombrich, conservaton mut recover the relationships of tones that Siqueiros' saw when he painted it in his studio in Taxco? If conservators follow Gombnch's words rigorously, the signs of decay in Purmit of Dead Girl and Live Girl must remain untouched.
Although Gombrich's point of view is specific my opinion as a conservator, is that it would seem more responsible to restore, as far as possible, the dismption that a violent intervention has ~aused.~'
Among Ruhemann, Brandi and Gombrich, the last mentioned is the most reluctam to accept the availability of the artist's intent. The influence of taste and the dflerent estimation of age value in artworks can explain the opposite positions between
Ruhemann and ~randi.* Instead, Gombrich's opposition to intervene seerned incomprehensible especidly when he declared that science was not an objective guide to the discovery of the artist's intention? Ody der consulting art histoncal and philosophicai sources was it possible to understand that his argument was related to art criticism and artistic interpretation, which are indeed foreign subjects for mon conservators. In those terms, any discussion on the effect of the treatments on artin's intent could obviously create unsolved differences. Thus, for these two camps to amve at a mutud understanding it is suggested that art theory and art conservation facts be combined.
'' Gombrich. 1962, p.55. Carrier, 1985. pz9 1. 23 Dykstra, 1996, p.202. Several Defmitions of Siqueiros' Intent
To corne to a mutual understanding of the rneanings given to the artist's intent a
variety of tems have been applied to Mine Drillers and Portrait of Dead Girl and LNe
Girl. However, for this purpose it is first necessary to know where to begin the search for
artist's intent. Feagin suggests three possible ways to hdit: to ask the aaia directly,
which in Siqueiros' case is not possible, to examine the social and historical contexts of
his making, and to uispect the artwork. The second and third suggestions are feasible in
this case and have been mentioned in the previous chapters. The information obtained cm
then be applied to six possible types of artist's intent that Richard ~uhns"identified and
Steven ~~kstra'jhas recently discussed. According to the context in which they are useci,
these six rneanings have been divided into three categories: artists' motives, artists'
intentions, and artists' intent in reference to artwork.
Artists' Motives
Biographical motives. The artist's intent in this case refers to the artist's personal
circurnstances, such as satisfaction of patrons, emotional catharsis and desire to
establish or contribute to a body of related work. Artistic, social, political, economic,
or romantic influences can define the artist's intent.
Siqueiros believed in the value of his art as part of an international creative process of penonal and collective emancipation, a process that was both political and
24 Kuhns, 1 960, p.5-23. Dykstra, 1996 p.197-218. aesthetic in nature.26 In 1924, Siqueiros, Orozco and Rivera, among others, published
their Manifem in support of educational purposes and native aesthetics of art." In this
publication easel painting was rejected because it was an unacceptable private form of ad8Even though Mine Drillers and Portrait of Dead Girl und Live Girl have an easel painting fomiat their content cm hardly be considered to have been chosen to satisfy an elite. Both paintings are clear evidence of Siqueiros' solidarity with the minorities.
From 1925 to 1930, when Siqueiros mainly concentrated on political activities and became the President of National Revolutionary Federation of ine ers,'^ he probably painted Mine Drillers; however, Oles has suggeaed that the creation of this painting took place in ~axco.~'Durhg Siqueiros' house arrest in Taxco he also painted Portrait of Live
Girl and Dead Siqueiros tells that when he was in Taxco a young boy approached him:
Mister photographer, mister photographer, corne with me, rny dad wants you to come to make a portrait of my little sister that died yesterday, because early tomorrow they have to bury her. They have already clothed her in her new dress and she looks so pretty that it seems as if she were alive. 1 went with the boy to the outskirts of Taxco [.. .]. When I got to the house I saw the following scene: a typical chair of the Mexican countryside, a polychromed and decorated chair; she was wel1 positioned, in a naturai posture, the dead body of a two and a half year-old girl, dressed in light green with a pink cap or hood. And her sister, one year and a half older, embraced the dead body so naturally as if her sister was alive. Around them, the relatives quietly discussed whether the father had placed the Iittle baby in a suitable position. It seemed as though they were al1 waiting for me. Also, they all thought 1 was a photographer. [In regard to the fact of not being a photographer] 1 told hem that my method [to make a portrait] was longer but better. [I told them] That at first I was going to make a drawing wiîh pencil, and with colon called watercolos 1 was going to mark the general tones of the girl, the ounit, the hood, an so on; [All this sol I could paint her later. [And once the portrait was finished] They could see then
'6 Marontate. 1996, p.39. " Ibid., 1996, p.42. " Hijar, 1993, p. 1 9. 29 Chapter 3, p. 1 1. Siqueiros, Retrato de una dtcada, 1996, p. 1 16. 3 1 Chapter 3, p. 1 1. how well it [Siqueiros' procediire] was going to work out And so 1 did. I worked on that picture for several weeks, first in a watercolor drawing, and afterwafds in a more forma1 little work with oil media Later on 1 called the relatives. And al1 of them agreed that the portrait looked very similar to the [dead] girl, and most of ail 32 [agreed that] the colon of the outfit were exactly the same.
This information clarifies SiqueirosT personal circumstances when he painted
Portrait of Dead Girl und Live Girl. Unfominately, events surroundhg the creation of
Mine Drillers are not as well documented; however, one may assume that if Siqueiros was president of National Revolutionary Federation of Miners he was sympathetic enough to worken to paint them. In both cases the information obtained does not seem usehl in discussion of the effect of degradation and treatments on the artist's intent; however, the results in this case must not be generalized in the approach to other paintings.
Ahs vs. Outcornes. The artistTsintent in this case only &es one of two events. Art is
first conceived in the artist's mind; he then chooses the medium to materialize this
idea. The creative process is separated into purely mental formulation and purely
technical. The mental formulation is the artist's intent. Under these circumstances,
signs of the process of creation that were not planned are to be considered a
disfigurement. High degrees of compensation are acceptable.
Siqueiros' formulation of Mine Drillers was planned to have a highly textured surface but degradation was not intended; therefore, degradation must be considered foreign to the artist's intent. There is nothing to support the idea that he wanted this painting to decay. Degradation has evolved from the process of creation, but it is not the process
'' Siqueiros, Me Ilamaban el Comnclazo, 1977, p303-304. Translation M. Celina Contreras Maya itselc cupping and flaking are therefore unintended features and they should be reversed-
A relining treatment that could help to stop the degradation problem would not be
acceptable. It wodd cover the jute cânvas Siqueiros' planned. Degradation shouid be
stopped but any material in treatment must have simiIar characteristics to the ones
Siqueiros used. A high degree of compensation is accepted; therefore, retouching of
cracks shouid be carried out.
Portrait of Deod Girl and LNe Girl has already been relined with a wax-resin mixture. Siqueiros' mental formulation has aiready been altered. The new linen support at the back covers the original Cotton support. The reasons for relining the painting are unknown; however, efforts to reverse the relining should be encouraged even when wax relining is not completely revenible. In regards to the dark image, the scenario that
Siqueiros described when painting Portrait cf Dead Girl and Live Girl is quite different fiom the image in the painting. "1 saw the following scene: a typical chair of the Mexican countryside, a polychromed and decorated chair, she was well positioned, in a natural posture, the dead body of a two and a half year-old girl, dressed in light green with a pink cap or hood." 33 It is not clear whether the colors nom the scene were not duplicated on the painting or whether a change has occurred due to chemical instability of the pigment or as a result of the wax relining. Paintings tum darker after a wax relining, but the extent of this alteration has not been de~cribed.~~
Expression in media. In this case the artist's intent refers to the way characteristics of
the chosen media have influenced the development and realization of the artist's
33 -Ibid. " Heyndenreich, 1994, p23-27. creative idea The medium has special c~cteristicsgranted when used in a certain
form i.e. pentimenti reveals the course of the artist's work and in generai there is a
desire to avoid compensation. Nonetheless, a low degree of retouching cm sometimes
be accepted. It seems feasible that this concept of expression in media may also be
applied to the other materials in the artwork. The materials of elements like stretcher,
support, and ground are also part of Siqueiros' choice. These materials also have an
effect on the realization of Siqueiros' creative idea. They interact with the medium to
grant aesthetic characteristics d~gthe creation of the artwork and they create
special results in the degradation process.
Siqueiros used oil media in both paintings. According to the date of execution, he had not yet discovered pyroxyline or ethyl silicate as paint media; oil was probably his ody ~hoice.~'The others materials he used were probably more carefully planned. Mine
Drillers is mounted on the original wood stretcher, which is stable and almost complete.
The canvas has relaxed and its size exceeds the stretcher dimensions. The jute canvas is an interesting component, especially in light of this approach. Siqueiros' choice of a jute support is probably related to the flowering of nativism and nationaliçt culture.36
Siqueiros and other artists tried to revive indigenous painting techniques and to innovate uses for indigenous matenals. Besicles the social connotation of jute, this type of canvas also grants special characteristics to the artwork. It is a rough and highly textured fiber with low flexibility when degraded. It reacts to environmental changes. To create textures and emphasize impasîos on the paint film, Siqueiros applied an uneven ground layer. The oil paint was applied on top of the gesso and also in between gesso Iayers. Alarming
-- - -- 3s Marontate, 1996 p.56. " Ibid., p.44. degradation processes like cracking, cupping, and flaking have resulted hmthis
technique.
Preservation of the artist's intent dehed in expression in media treatmemts should
be directed at maintainhg the materials contained in the artwork. A minor intrusive
approach is suggested. The stretcher cm be keyed out as Siqueiros' planned, but in that
case the paint film may separate completely fiom the canvas. A consolidation treatment
must be carried out before. Only materials similar to the ones found in the painting could
be accepted. Aiso. the addition of a backing board is suggested to protect the paint
support from vibration and environmental changes. A relining would not be an acceptable
approach. Traces of foreign materials used in previous treatments like wax and synthetic
adhesives shouid be removed whenever possible. Retouching would not be necessary.
According to this approach. the wax relining in Portmit of Dead Girl und Live
Girl has distorted Siqueiros' intent. The original strainer has been removed. The Cotton
support has been covered with a linen canvas. The paint layer hsa matte and smooth
finish as a resuit of the relining process. The tones have darkened also due to the wax
impregnation. It would be advisable to reverse as fa. as possible the wax relining
treaûnent. The tone balance should be recovered only if it can be proved that it has
resulted from a selective cleaning procedure.
Artists' Intention
Articulafion. In this case the artist S Nitent is what the artist wants to exhibit through
the artwork. Beholders are only considered receptos and must take a passive
position. This approach is used in consuItation with living artists; nevertheles, conservators and art historians do not have to accept the artists' opinion without
question. It recalls the case of Hanson's Sunbather (1 971) in which rapid degradation
became so disnirbing that the artkt and curators agreed to mode a great percentage
of the artwork. They wanted it to look fiesh and new?' For obviùus reasons we
cannot ask Siqueiros for his opinion; however, Raque1 Tibol, an art critic and a close
fiiend of his, could have an idea of Siqueiros' answers to the questions Davenport
used with contemporary artists: Wholwhat did Siqueiros consider to be the primary
source to look for to define how a work should look over he?; did Siqueiros make
his wishes known in regard to the preservation of his work?; From Siqueiros' point of
view, shouid his work be left alone or simply preserved as best as possible? Or,
should it be restoredF8 Under these circumstances Tibol, or whoever answers, would
have an influence on the information obtained.
Expression. The artist's intent is defined as the artists' expressive character and
personality that are reflected and represented in artwork. Some of Siqueiros' works
are dynamic and disturbing; nonetheless, some of his artworks do not have these
characteristics like Mine Drillers and Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl. The degree
to which this characteristics are present probably depends on the period, the media
used, and the purpose of his work. in order to define the conservation approach to
protect the aaist's expression it would be necessary to consult with an art histonan
who specializes in Siqueiros. Tibol of the Institut0 de Investigaciones Estéticas at the
National University of Mexico is a suggested advisor.
37 Davenport, 1995, p.40-52. '"bid, p.46. In Reference to the Artwork
The artworkf aesthetic expression. This considers that the arfists' intent is the
interaction of parts found in the artwork as if it was an organism. Dykstra believes
this approach is not related to conservation; however, this approach provides the basis
to separate the artist 3 intent fiom the artisf 's technique in regard to degradation. Two
aspects are involved in the artwork's aesihetic expression: explanandum and carcsal.
&da~ndumrefers to the description of Siqueiros' painting technique and any
degradation process reiated to materials and environment. Causai is the reason for
Siqueiros decision to choose a particular painting technique. The information that
historical and scientific sources have provided is usefûi in understanding processes of
the technique but it does not give a cawl account of Siqueiros' intent. "This
[explanandum] does not give a causal explanation, it is an action explanation. It
[only] explains what thing was being done, not always what brought about the
[painting] process. "j9
Degradation in Siqueiros' painting, according to this theory, is foreign to the artist's intent Siqueiros painted Mine Driks with oil media, a gesso ground layer, and a jute support. Physical and mechanicd stresses and chernical reactions have caused degradation. Preserving degradation signs does not mean that the artist's intent is being preserved dso. Decay signs are histoncal information that one chooses to keep as a result of the passage of time, taste, or educational purposes. According to Fulton's approach the wax relining of Porhait of o Dead Girl and Live Girl or any other conservation treatment does not affect interpretation of Siqueiros' intent. Beyond Siqueiros' Intent
It is a general assumption that signs of degradztion become visible after long
periods of tirne. According to Hochfield it is also conventionally expected that a
generation does not notice the change which occurs during a lifeti~ne;~'however,
Siqueiros' Mine Drillers has gone through a more rapid process of degradation. Materials
have decayed beyond 'normal' expectations. in around 70 years the painting has gone
through at least two consolidation treatments which have not achieved positive results.
Even when some aspects of Siqueiros' intent are still available, the damaged condition of
the painting is not considered acceptable for conservators, curators or the public. Portrait
of Deod Girl und Live Girl hm gone through a highiy intrusive treatment. Under most of
the meanings of the artist S intent, the lining process has obscured Siqueiros' intent.
However, its modified and 'stable' appearance has been acknowledged withour
complaints. At first sight, it has the appearance that someone like myself-who was bom a
few years before Siqueiros died-expect it to have; the painting shows slight signs of
decay.
Frequently one may hear derogatory expressions regarding treated paintings whose age value has been taken away. That is the case with the cleaning treatment of
"Phillip IV" of Veliquez; in 1936 when someone wrote that "It look to me as if it might have been painted today, in preparation for the next year's ~cadern~.'"'This
" Fulton 1977, p. 187. 40 Hoechfiel, 1976, p28. " Keck, 1984, p.80. peson considered that the age value or patina embodied in the decayed yeilow vamish was an enhancement of aesthetics for an 'old painting'.
Age value is not considered acceptable for all paintings. There is a tendency to prize it in what one believes to be an 'old' work of art but to reject it in artworks that we feel contemporary to. An example is Hanson's sculpture Sunbather in which the degraded appearance became so unappealing that the artist and curators agreed to change original pieces of the artwork. There are many others cases such as paintings of Pollock,
Jones or Rothko in which any sign of decay distresses owners, curators, consexvators and the public. Signs of deterioration can be deskble only when they are a 'slow disease'.
Therefore the decayed appearance of Mine Drillers is alarming and disturbing while the wax encapsulated Portrnit ofDead Girl and Live Girl can be appealing and even more acceptable to those familiar to wax relined paintings.42 Canier's comment ''we mut choose between admiring a Titian for its age value and cleaning it so that the artistic value is evident'*" may be applied with regard to Portrait of a Dead Girl and Live Girl when it was wax relined. The paint layer was protected and the artistic value was partially preserved. Should the same choice be made with Mine Drillers? 1 would not agree with that. I would suggest searching for less intrusive treatment; nonetheless, my opinion is not exempt fiom the influence of taste. Afier al1 any conservation approach can be admissible to a certain group of people because "no available evidence can demonstrate.. .that one procedure is obviously mistaken"."
Besides the definition of the artist's intent and the influence of taste, the politics of the Soumaya Museum play a relevant role in the conservation approach to be taken on
" Carrier. 1985, p.294. " Ibid, p.292. bot. paintings. The Soumaya Museum belongs to a non-profit association created by a
group of arnan'ngly profitable corporations that are in the hands of one of the wedthiest
Mexicans. From 1993 to 1997 the young museum followed an indirect consexvation
approach. Activities were primarily focussed on developing preservation measures for the
collections. That was understood to be the most appropriate cause for a new museum.
This conservation approach was also the kind of thinking that arises out of a concem to
protect the museum's investment. "
In the last two years the museum's activities have increased. Ternporary
exhibitions in the museum are organized more fiequentiy, and the Soumaya Museum's
collections are more prone to participate in travelling exhibitions. The new circumstances have changed the museum's policies in regards to conservation. Conservation activities
are increasingly directed towards the standards of the public. Direct treatment and cosmetic conservation are now encouraged. Other institutions' and the public's demands do not allow the keeping of artworks of relevant artistic significance 'on hold' due to their fragility.16 Aesthetic treatments have corne fmt rather than scientific and historicai conservation's needs. The works of art have assumed the purpose of seMng the pblic."
Under these conditions, there is disagreement regarding the role that museums play in recovering the artist's intent. Feagin suggests incompatibility between the institutional accounts of art and her concept of the artist's intent. If this were the case, social roies and conventions would defme If Mine DriZZers and Portrait of Deod
Girl and Live Girl were exarnples of this incompatibility, their value as aesthetically
Ibid, p292-293. 4s Davenport, 1995, p.47. " Ibid., p.47. " Hendy, 1963, p. 139. appealing public objects would be more significant than Siqueiros' intent. Museum
activities would be directed at reinforcing the aesthetic enjoyment or educationai
purposes of the paintings. Identifjhg the theoretical meaning of Siqueiros' intent to
determine the best conservation approach would be a secondary issue. In defense of the
role of museurns Davies says:
Institutional desand conventions seem to have the hction of reveaiing the artist's intention, so that the çignificance of his or her act may be read from the character of the act itself, without recourse to independent evidence of the [museum's or] agent's intentions. When the [rnuseurn or] agent knowingIy uses the conventions and is sincere in doing so, the [institution or] agent expresses and aftirms, rather than betrays, his or her thoughts or conditiond9
Davies' opinion may apply to the Soumaya Museum's conventions in regards to
Siqueiros's goals to create art for the public. The tensions between Siqueiros' intent and
the museum's policies may be rooted in the fact although his painrings belong to a
Museum, they are at the same tirne a possession of one of the wealthiest Mexicans.
Although this art collecter is one of the very few who has opened a private collection to the public, the public that visits the Soumaya Museum is probably not the sort of pubiic that Siqueiros was thinking of. In contravention of Siqueiros' wishes, the museum is located in an exclusive commercial plaza designed for those people who own a car and can pay expensive prices. nie museum's visiton are mainly people educated in the arts or shoppers that have been drawn into the museum by mere curiosity; it is unlikely that this is what Siqueiros had in mind when he said that he wanted to create public art.
Perhaps the institutionai accounts of art and the artist's intent are, at least in some cases, incompatible after dl. The institution settings preserve the physical substance while the social and political rneanings are partially violated. CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
The importance of Siqueiros' legacy must be undemtood as a social and political
expression of art. His work represents an artistic school, a political ideology and a
modem conception of democratic society. Mine Drillers and Portrait of Dead Girl and
Live Girl are two examples of Siqueiros' solidarity with abused minonties. These
paintings exhibit reject the deplorable living and working conditions of miners and
indigenous people. Siqueiros' artïstic cornmitment to democracy and technical innovation
has also been pointed out in his experimentation with indigenous material such the use of jute canvas in Mine Drillers.
Although Siqueiros' enthusiastic search for new materials has given him a major
role in the historical transition of traditional oil painting technique to acrylic media, little
has been done to understand the evolution in his oil painting technique. Conservaton and
curators have focussed their attention on Siqueiros' use of new tools, pyroxylines and
acrylics. The missing information on Siqueiros' oil technique has created a myth about
his use of pyroxylines. As a result, Siqueiros' paintings that do not have the appearance of a traditional oil painting technique or that exhibit signs of decay similar to those expected for nitrocellulose paint media are almost automatically labelled as pyroxyline.
This thesis has identified the way degradation of Siqueiros' oil paintings can be mistaken for those created with pyroxyline medium. In Mine Drillers and Portrait of Dead GirZ and Live Girl, Siqueiros did not follow the traditional steps of oil painting. Scientific research indicates that heavy textures were obtained by using a thick ground layer. In
49 Davies, 1987, p. 179. some areas he superimposed ground layers and paint nIm layers alternatively perhaps to obtain thick impastosS Consequently, the pictorial materials that are still exposed to environmentai changes are cracked and cupped, and have a lack of adhesion to the support has also occurred. Results also give an indication of how conservation treatments may both protect and alter paintings original appearance. Alterations can cause a misidentification of matenals, especially when scientific analytical techniques are not available.
In order to presewe Mine DriIlers and Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl, the discussion of Siqueiros' intent and its relevance to the conservation approach of both paintings has been of major importance. This issue has been difficult because of the complexity of the term. Frequently, conservators are reluctant to participate in discussions related to interpretation and art criticism because is not considered to be the aim of restoration. This paper has pointed out that conservation activities play a major role in the interpretation of the artist's intent. To remain distant of this complex scenario may not be the most responsible attitude. Conservaton mut be aware that to restore a works of art, could also mean a change to what the artist made."
The passage of time is always considered the worst enemy for the conservation of objects; nonetheless, in Mine Drillers, if the rate of degradation can be decreased, time may become a conciliator between drastic signs of decay and the public's expectation.
Also, the public becomes more forgiving towards objects' appearance when they are
'old'. In regards to the relining treatment of Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl, îime rnay change the opinion of those who are fond of images resulted from wax lining treatrnents; however, for those who reject them, Clark says that "any innovation becomes acceptable with time.""
The anaiysis does not provide the amvers of which approach should be followed
to preserve Mine Drillers and Portrait of Dead Girl and Live Girl, it only gives
possibilities of questioning. There are innumerable factors involved. The choice of a
conservation treatment could hardly be considered objective. Evidently there are more
questions than definite answers. The issue to be discussed is how should conservators
deal with the responsibility once they have acknowledged this problem.
There is one question and several answen. The final decision on the conservation
approach will depend on a group of factors that are foreign to 'pure' conservation like
taste, museum policies, traveling needs, economical value, and the available.
Circumstances can occasionally be controlled; however, being conscious of the elements
involved can make a difference in the final decision. In any case, it would be suggested to
preserve as far as possible Siqueiros' intent in regards to his cornmitment to minorities
and technical innovation fond in Mine Drillers and Portrait of Dead girl and Live Girl.
In order to achieve this goal, it would be necessary to encourage the paintings to
participate in travelling exhibitions and publications 'so people can see hem.' At this
point, Mine Drillers is in structural danger; therefore, conservation treatment to stabilize
and protect the physical substance should be carried out. Alternatives for not hiding
materials Siqueiros' used should also be sought because the painting technique is also
part of the artist's intent. nie recovery of aesthetics also needs special attention. Portrait
of Dead Girl and Live Girl is stable although it has been irreversibly altered by previous
treatment. It this case, it can only be recommended to recover the tonal balance that the
- -
'O Carrier, 1985, p.29 1. " Clark, 1954, p.30. painting had in 1968, when Siqueiros was still dive. These generai recornmendations rnay conciliate several of Siqueiros' intents, the Soirmaya Museum policies, educational and academic purposes and the public's desire to appreciate the pâintings' artistic value as well. Afier al1 Siqueiros' solidarity with the public was probably the most emphasized goal in his artistic career. iUthough this paper has an immediate application for the conservation of Mine Drillers and Portrait of Dead Girl, it has also accenhiated the need of Mer study to get iosight into Siqueiros' innovations and limitations of his oil painting technique that encouraged his search for new materials. Arnold, A. (1984). Determination of Mineral Salts from Monuments. Studies in Conservation 29: 129-138. Ashley-Smith, J. (1 995). Consider the Benefits and Calculate the Risks. Stavenger: ICOM July: 12. Ashley-Smith, J. (1995). Definitions of Damage. London: Association of kt Historians Apd 7-8: 9. Azuela, A. (1990). David Alfaro Siqueiros. International Dictionam of An and Artists Chicago: St. James Press 2906-907. Barclay, M. (1992). Technical Essay. The Crisis of Abstraction in Canada. The 1950's. Ottawa: National Gallery of Canada, 207-23 1. Bemal, E. (1996). Centenary of Siqueiros' Birthday. Art Nexus, 0ct.-Dec.38-40. Black, C. (1984). Conservation Ethics: An Informal Interview. WAAC Newsletter 6(3):2- 1o. Blank, S. (1990). An Introduction to Plastics in Collections. Studies in Conservation 35: 53-63. Bomford, D. ( 1994) Changing Taste in the Restoration of Paintings in The British Museum Occasional Papers London: British Museum Press 32-37. Brandi, C. (197 1). Principios de la teoria de la restauracion. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autonoma de ~México. Brooks, L. (1959). Oil Painting.. .Traditional and New. New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Brooks, L. (1964). Painting and Understanding Abstract Art. New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Brown, K. and Crawford, F. (1928) A Survev for Nitrocellulose Lacquer. New York: The Chemical Catalogue Company. Butler, M.H. (1993). An Investigation of the Technique and Materials used by Jan Steen. Bulletin Philadelphia Museum of Art 18 WintedSpring: 44-6 1. Carlisle, Cristina, (1 996). Out of the Basement. Art News 9557. Cher, David, (1985). Art and Its Preservation. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Cnticism 43 (Spnng): 29 1-300. Charlot, 3. (1993). The Mexican Mural Renaissance 1920- 1925. Haarlem, New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Clark, K. (1954 ). The Ideal Museum" in Art News 57(9). Contreras Maya, C et al. (1 998). Siqueiros' Pyroxy lines: Identification, Degradation and Similarities to his Other Painting Techniques. Polvmer Preprints. Boston: Amencan Chernical Society 39(2): 1241-42. Contreras Maya, C. (1998). Siqueiros and his Seanih for New Materials. PrepMits. Kingston; Ontario: Association of Graduate Programs in Conservation, in press. Davenport, K. (1995). hpossible Liberties: Contemporary Artists on the Life of thcir Work Over Time. Art Joumal53(2):40-52. Davies, S. (1982). The Aesthetic Relevance of Author's and Painter's Intentions. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Cnticism. 4 1:65-76. Davies, S. (1 987). A Note on Feagin on Interpreting Art Intentionalistically. The British Journal of Aesthetics 37: 178- 180. Dickie, G. (1 968). iMeaning and Intention. Genre, 1 (3): 182- 194. Dipert, R. (1986). Art, Artifacts and Regarded Intentions. Amencan Philosophical Ouarterlv 23(4): 40 1-408. Dutch Association of Professional Restorers, VesRes Code of Ethics,
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