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Impact Assessment of Pesticides Applied in Vegetable-Producing Areas in the Saharan Zone: the Case of Burkina Faso

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Impact Assessment of Pesticides Applied in Vegetable-Producing Areas in the Saharan Zone: the Case of Burkina Faso Impact Assessment of Pesticides Applied in Vegetable-Producing Areas in the Saharan Zone: the Case of Burkina Faso THÈSE NO 8167 (2017) PRÉSENTÉE LE 19 DÉCEMBRE 2017 À LA FACULTÉ DE L'ENVIRONNEMENT NATUREL, ARCHITECTURAL ET CONSTRUIT GROUPE CEL PROGRAMME DOCTORAL EN GÉNIE CIVIL ET ENVIRONNEMENT ÉCOLE POLYTECHNIQUE FÉDÉRALE DE LAUSANNE POUR L'OBTENTION DU GRADE DE DOCTEUR ÈS SCIENCES PAR Edouard René Gilbert LEHMANN acceptée sur proposition du jury: Prof. C. Pulgarin, président du jury Dr L. F. De Alencastro, directeur de thèse Prof. R. Zanella, rapporteur Prof. B. Schiffers, rapporteur Dr B. Ferrari, rapporteur Suisse 2017 Acknowledgements Acknowledgements With these words I would like to thank everyone that contributed to the successful delivery of this Doctoral Thesis, and I would like to start with the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) for funding this research project through the program 3E and for giving us the opportunity to be part of it. I would like especially to thank Dr. Luiz Felippe de Alencastro for the confidence that he has placed in me when giving me the incredible opportunity to participate in this research project. Thank you for coming to me five years ago, that day you probably changed my life. I did a lot and learn a great deal. Thank you for always attentively listening to my endless speeches, for your endless enthusiasm and unwavering support. You guided me through this project and made it a very enriching experience for me, you were a true mentor in every aspect. I know this was a “once in a lifetime” experience and I can never thank you enough. I would like to thank all the members of the team in 2iE that contributed to the success of this thesis. Dr. Sandrine Biau Lalane, without you and Dr. Luiz Felippe de Alencastro, this journey would have never even started. You also gave me your trust from the very beginning and helped me through the first steps of this project. I also wish to thank Prof. Yacouba Konaté and his resourceful team, Boukary Sawadogo and Dr. Awa Koita Ndaye and all the personnel in 2iE for their contribution in the realization of this project and particularly for their support during my stays in Burkina Faso. This success was made possible by the hard work of each and every one of you. Of course, the realization of this project would have never been possible without the full support of the gardeners in Burkina Faso. I wanted to especially thank them for the welcome which they extended to us and for agreeing to participate in this project. Thank you for breaking all the cultural barriers and for your full support in all our activities. You really helped us through the success of this project and I can never thank you enough for your confidence. I would also like to thank my trusted partners and translators that helped me tirelessly during the long hours of field surveys: Eric Tapsoba and Sayouba Ouédraogo. My gratitude is also expressed to Rasmane Kon- seiga, Adama Ouédraogo, Saydou Ouermi, and Yolande Koutaba who helped us in the organiza- tion and the success of the field investigations. All this work would have never been completed without the contribution of all the interns and Master students, who have furnished a tremendous amount of work and time to complete their projects: Moussa Zeba, Désiré Herman Ohui, Jokhanan Abraham Toé, Nadiah Congo, Marius i Acknowledgements Kolia, Nuria Turrero Álvarez, Christelle Oltramare, Morgan Fargues, Yirsigré Somda, Jean Eric Madeng and Hichem Benlakhdar. I also thank Kader Congo and Augustin Mbaby, for their con- tribution at the beginning of the project and for sharing with me all the knowledge they had acquire on the topic. Special thanks to all my colleagues for welcoming me into their team. I would like especially to thank Dominique Grandjean for his skillful technical assistance on the project. You always solved my problems and taught me so much during these four years. Thank you for your endless patience and enthusiasm. I wanted to thank also Nicolas Estoppey, for the time you took to answer so thoroughly all my questions, for your advice and your contribution to the success of this work. Thanks also to all the team of the Central Environmental Laboratory, Sylvain Coudret, Yann Lavanchy, Pablo Jimenez, Karine Vernez Thomas, and Adrien Schopfer for this incredible working atmosphere and for your support. A special shout-out to Florian Faure, my incredible office partner and friend, I already miss the daily messages with all these “very relevant” things that you found ingeniously on the internet. You really helped me to “push the science one-step further”. Thank you for your good spirit and all the good times spent during these years in Lausanne. I should also not forget all the friends I made during all these stays in Burkina Faso. Huge thanks to Pauline Daffis, Marine Gourvès, Merete Vinther, Virginie Claeyssens, Marilou Béguin, Julie Van der Smissen, Augusto Comé, and Jerome Koundouno for all these incredible memories. Thanks also to my friends Nicolas Charbonneau, Antoine Souef, Florian Villaume, and Pauline Villaume, our meeting in Burkina Faso and the time spend together is always a source of inspira- tion for my future challenges. I would also like to thank Franck Lalanne for his advices, support, and mentorship, on every projects I have been conducting since we met in 2011. I also thank the Ouedraogo family and especially Jeaneau Ouédraogo for always welcoming me like a family mem- ber. Special thanks to all my friends who gave me their support during this journey and particularly Justine Gay des Combes and Blaise Dhont. We shared so many great memories; it was incredible to share this experience with you. Special thanks also to my partner in crime and occasionally roommate Javier Perez Saez, for all the good time we had in Ouagadougou and Lausanne. Saving the best for last, I want to thank my family, Elisabeth Lehmann, Marc Lehmann, Paulette Bernaz, Gilbert Bernaz for their unconditional support in all my projects. I also wanted to thank my father René Lehmann for his full support throughout my studies. All of you are a real source of strength and inspiration for me. Finally, a special message for Sylvie Anthonioz. Thank you for your tremendous energy and for making me always smiles even through the most difficult of times. Thank you for always being there for me. Your determination and strength have been a real source of inspiration to meet this challenge. Lausanne, 19th November 2017 ii Abstract Abstract The present thesis aimed at characterizing the extent of the pesticide contamination and resulting impacts on the environment and the human health in market garden- ing areas in Burkina Faso. Analytical procedures were developed and validated for multi-class pesticide analysis in water, soils, sediments, and human hair. Passive samplers were deployed and grab samples were collected during a three-year inves- tigation period. Results indicated that pesticide levels in surface water exhibited seasonality patterns. During the dry season, pesticide levels were generally low (<0.03 µg L-1). Isolated cases of higher concentrations were related to gardening activities. During the rainy season, pesticide contaminations were more frequent and exhibited higher concentrations. A larger variety of active substances was detected during this season, including banned organochlorine pesticides (chlordane, dieldrin, DDTs and endosulfan). These substances were also detected in soils and sediments in the study area. In total, twenty-three pesticides were detected in drinking water resources. Among them, atrazine, azadirachtin, carbofuran, chlorpyrifos, cyperme- thrin, dieldrin, imidacloprid, and profenofos presented levels exceeding the threshold limit for safe drinking water (> 0.1 µg L-1). Hazards were also identified for fish, cladocerans, and benthic invertebrates all year round but mainly during gardening activities. The assessment of the dietary intake of pesticides via vegetables and water consumption also outlined hazardous situations. Exposure levels to chlorpyrifos, diel- drin, and lambda-cyhalothrin presented acute and chronic risks for children and adults. The present work also proposed a novel approach for the quantification of 37 multiclass pesticides in hair using a modified QuEChERS procedure. In addition to the simplification of sample treatment, this method offers a robust and sensitive tool for the biomonitoring of population exposure to pesticides. Hair samples col- lected from local populations were found positive to 17 active substances. For certain pesticides used in gardening such as acetamiprid, cypermethrin, and lambda-cyhalo- thrin, occupational exposure was found to be the main source of exposure. However, for other substances such as imidacloprid and deltamethrin, similar exposure be- tween occupationally and non-occupationally exposed individuals suggested the prevalence of other sources of exposure (e.g. dietary intake, vector control activities, etc.). Levels detected in hairs are of concerns, as they were higher than reported in iii Abstract some other areas of the globe and indicated exposure to endocrine disrupting chem- icals and probable carcinogens. Finally, the potential risk reduction of various miti- gation measures was assessed using three international risk exposure assessment models. Simulation results indicated that training the operators to comply with pes- ticide recommendations of use and using suitable protective equipment was not suf- ficient. Additional behavioral changes
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