X-37B wings into space Hayabusa makes a triumphant return onthehorizon

2010

APUBLICATIONOFTHEAMERICANINSTITUTEOFAERONAUTICSANDASTRONAUTICS CHANGE AIR FORCE TECHNOLOGY November

Cover-1110final.qxd:AA Template 10/21/10 3:02 PM Page 1 PM Page 3:02 10/21/10 Template Cover-1110final.qxd:AA 10 AEROSPACE AMERICA NOVEMBER 2010 10-0527

With New representatives, new goals, and new priorities in Washington, D.C., taking part in the 2011 Congressional Visits Day Program is more important than ever. Come to D.C., and share your passion for aerospace. Let your representatives hear how vital our community is to our national and economic security, and take an active role in helping shape the future of that community. On Wednesday, 16 March, AIAA members will share their passion about aerospace issues on Capitol Hill. Join us as we meet with legislators to discuss the importance of science, engineering, and technology to our national security and prosperity. AIAA Congressional Visits Day 2011

To register for AIAA Congressional Visits Day 2011 please visit www.aiaa.org/events/cvd, or contact Duane Hyland at [email protected] or 703.264.7558 toc.NOV2010-final.qxd:AA Template 10/15/10 3:03 PM Page 1

November 2010

DEPARTMENTS Page 4 COMMENTARY 3 The Greening of aviation: Another context.

INTERNATIONAL BEAT 4 Europe charts path to sixth-generation fighter.

WASHINGTON WATCH 8 The waiting game.

CONVERSATIONS 11 With Mark Clough. Page 16 ENGINEERING NOTEBOOK 14 Futuristic aircraft: Old-fashioned look is only skin deep.

OUT OF THE PAST 40 CAREER OPPORTUNITIES 42

VIEWPOINT COMBINING SAFETY AND SURVIVABILITY FOR FUTURE SPACEFARING 16 Combining survivability concepts of military aircraft design with the safety discipline of the spaceflight community can lead to safer space travel. by Robert E.Ball Page 8

FEATURES HAYABUSA’S ROUND-TRIP TO AN ASTEROID 22 After a troubled journey, Hayabusa had a perfect reentry and delivered a payload that may hold surprises. by Leonard David

AIR FORCE TECHNOLOGY:CHANGE ON THE HORIZON 28 Two decades of technology advances will radically change the Air Force and its systems, as well as their human operators. by James W.Canan

AIR FORCE X-37B WINGS INTO SPACE 34 After decades in the “wild blue yonder,” Air Force wings are finally flying where the blue sky turns to black. by Craig Covault

BULLETIN AIAA Meeting Schedule B2 AIAA Courses and Training Program B4 AIAA News B5 Meeting Program B15 Page 28 COVER The USAF report Technology Horizons describes an Air Force transformed by new technologies.For a look at what those changes Page 34 may be, turn to the story on page 28.Copyright© University Corporation for Atmospheric Research.Photo by Carlye Calvin.

Aerospace America (ISSN 0740-722X) is published monthly, except August, by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. at 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, Va. 20191-4344 [703/264-7577]. Subscription rate is 50% of dues for AIAA members (and is not deductible therefrom). Nonmember subscription price: U.S. and Canada, $163, foreign, $200. Single copies $20 each. Postmaster: Send address changes and subscription orders to address above, attention AIAA Customer Service, 703/264-7500. Periodical postage paid at Herndon, VA, and at additional mailing offices. Copyright © 2010 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., all rights reserved. The name Aerospace America is registered by the AIAA in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. 40,000 copies of this issue printed. This is Volume 48, No. 10. “I launched an Estes Astron Scout – I saw the smoke trail go up in the air and thought it was cool. Suddenly for the first time I could see how fins were angles, nose cones were parabolas. Geometry had value now and I loved it.”

David Newill AIAA Associate Fellow

In fascinating new videos, AIAAA members recrecall the moment when aerospaceerospace capturedcaptur Share the Inspiration their imagination. Share your story too, aand spread the passionon for aerospaaerospace. www.aiaa.org/MyStory/M www.aiaa.org/MyStory

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®

is a publication of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Elaine J. Camhi Editor-in-Chief Patricia Jefferson The greening of aviation: Another context Associate Editor Greg Wilson Production Editor Much emphasis has been placed in recent years on the greening of aviation. Jerry Grey, Editor-at-Large Christine Williams, Editor AIAA Bulletin The primary focus has been on reducing greenhouse-gas emissions, most notably carbon dioxide. But the burgeoning efforts in this direction have another Correspondents “greening” effect: the saving of “greenbacks.” Robert F. Dorr, Washington In July 1999, I wrote what might be viewed as an obituary for governmental Philip Butterworth-Hayes, Europe Michael Westlake, Hong Kong support of aeronautics R&D: “In FY99, both high-speed research (HSR) and advanced subsonic technology (AST) were essentially zeroed, leaving a yawning Contributing Writers gap in the technologies they supported. Then the DOD closed out its efforts in Richard Aboulafia, James W. Canan, hypersonic research. These actions, along with the now-decimated research and Marco Cáceres, Craig Covault, Philip Finnegan, Ed Flinn, Tom Jones, David technology (R&T) base, leave virtually no support for advanced U.S. aeronautics Rockwell, Frank Sietzen, J.R. Wilson technology development.” But now the new focus on environmental impacts has revitalized aeronautics Fitzgerald Art & Design Art Direction and Design R&D. NASA’s Environmentally Responsible Aviation (ERA) program, aimed at technologies and designs that could be implemented during the next 25 years, Craig Byl, Manufacturing and Distribution is developing advanced aeronautical technologies and novel designs that go well Mark Lewis, President beyond those envisioned by the old HSR and AST programs. These include new Robert S. Dickman, Publisher aircraft configurations such as the hybrid wing-body for Boeing-777-class aircraft, STEERING COMMITTEE highly integrated airframe-propulsion concepts, advanced engine concepts Michael B. Bragg, University of Illinois; such as a three-shaft turbofan and a turbine-electric hybrid, integrated composite Philip Hattis, Draper Laboratory; Mark S. structures, active aeroservoelastic controls, and especially the long-sought holy Maurice, AFOSR; Laura McGill, Raytheon; grail of drag reduction, laminar flow control (LFC). Under the ERA program Merri Sanchez, National Aeronautics and LFC has finally been brought within reach in practical aircraft hardware. Space Administration; Mary Snitch, Lockheed Combinations of these technologies are projected to produce not only marked Martin; David W. Thompson, Orbital reductions in emissions, but fuel-burn savings of up to 70%. And the ERA EDITORIAL BOARD program’s aggressive environmental goals have even spurred two designs for Ned Allen, Lockheed Martin Aeronautics; 100-seat supersonic airliners, circa 2030-2035. Jean-Michel Contant, EADS; Eugene The NextGen air traffic management system being implemented by the Covert, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; FAA represents another avenue—aircraft operations—for improving aviation L.S. “Skip” Fletcher, Texas A&M University; economics, along with big environmental benefits. “Tailored arrivals” and 4D Michael Francis, United Technologies; trajectory operations (three spatial dimensions plus time) can achieve huge Christian Mari, Teuchos; Cam Martin, fuel savings. Finally, the substantial replacement of petroleum-based fuels by NASA Dryden; Don Richardson, Donrich Research; Douglas Yazell, Honeywell alternative fuels derived from agricultural and municipal wastes and crops that do not impinge on food production (such as algae, camelina, salicornia, and ADVERTISING jatropha) is finally imminent: Approval of blends using up to 50% of these fuels National Display and Classified: is expected shortly. The benefits of alternative fuels go well beyond that of Robert Silverstein, 240.498.9674 fuel-burn cost reduction, by reducing U.S. dependence on foreign oil imports. [email protected] Europe too is moving aggressively in cost-reduction measures that derive West Coast Display: Greg Cruse, from reducing environmental impact. The Smart Fixed Wing Aircraft program 949.361.1870 / [email protected] will fly a “smart” wing with passive and active laminar flow and load control and Send materials to Craig Byl, AIAA, 1801 will demonstrate propulsion-empennage integration with open-rotor engines. Alexander Bell Drive, Suite 500, Reston, VA Future European thrusts include liquid-crystal polymer fibers (strength/weight 20191-4344. Changes of address should be ratios tenfold higher than steel), the “Claire Liner,” whose box wing-empennage sent to Customer Service at the same address, integration and “dolphin” body shape substantially increase lift-to-drag ratios, by e-mail at [email protected], or by fax at hypersonics, and solar-powered aircraft. 703.264.7606. Many have argued that since aviation generates only 2% of anthropometric Send Letters to the Editor to Elaine Camhi greenhouse gas emissions worldwide, efforts to reduce that small contribution at the same address or [email protected] even further are not really necessary. But the ancillary benefits—both the November 2010, Vol. 48, No.10 significant cost savings that can be realized and especially the revitalization of government research in aeronautics—are very good reasons for pursuing the greening of aviation. Jerry Grey Editor-at-Large BEATlayout.qxd:AA Template 10/14/10 9:56 AM Page 2

Newbatteries,fuelcellsenergize electricaviation

ON SEPTEMBER 2, THE FOUR-ENGINED ALL- electric Cri-Cri aerobatic flying testbed took to the skies for the first time above Paris Le Bourget Airport. The project is part of a joint effort by EADS Innovation Works, Aero Composites Saintonge, and the Green Cri-Cri Association. For EADS, Cri-Cri is an important testbed for emerging electric propulsion technologies such as unmanned aircraft engines, auxiliary power units, and hy- brid (half electric/half diesel) helicopter propulsion. These concepts are being re- searched as part of the company’s Eco2- Avia program. In the initial stage of the trials, the key issue will be to understand the ther- mal management issues of all-electric propulsion. Says Emmanuel Joubert, who heads the project, “We need to At Paris Le Bourget on September 2, the Cri-Cri all-electric flying testbed took to the skies check during the entire mission the tem- for the first time. perature of all-electrical components. For that we have developed specific soft- ware and panel instruments....For exam- enable researchers to see how distribut- development work on electrically driven ple, we can follow in real time the tem- ing the mass of the propulsion and en- aircraft has come from the light and ex- perature of batteries, with the LED ergy storage units around the airframe perimental aircraft community in the switch on orange when the temperature might obviate the need for a single large, U.S. In recent years, however, European is at its limits, and red when it is critical.” heavy engine and battery—with the at- designers have also been investing heav- Over the next few months, the team tendant weight, balance, and drag issues ily in this area. will test new battery management sys- it brings. This research has also been un- The past few years have seen a slow tems to see how they can be integrated dertaken by Cambridge University. but steady evolution of electrically pow- with other electrical components in ways “This aircraft flies very smoothly, ered sport aircraft, from ultralights to that keep them at optimal temperatures much more quietly than a plane with powered gliders, from powered gliders during all phases of flight. conventional propulsion,” notes Didier to light sport aircraft (LSA)—where we Esteyne, who piloted the all-electric Cri- are now—with another evolutionary A different breed Cri. “But we are still at the beginning move to Cessna 172-size aircraft ex- What makes the Cri-Cri slightly different and have a lot to learn. We are allowed pected during the next 10 years. from other electric aircraft concepts is its to start aerobatic maneuvers only after 5 Further accelerating the technology performance in the air: 30 min of auton- hr of flight and 15 landings.” boost into electrically powered aircraft is omous cruise flight at 110 km/hr, 15 the involvement of companies such as min of autonomous aerobatics at speeds Long evolution EADS and Boeing, whose focus is on reaching 250 km/hr, and a climb rate of Electrically powered piloted aircraft have something very different from the light approximately 5.3 m/sec. Until now, been around for some time. On April aircraft enthusiast market: Apart from most electrically powered aircraft have 29, 1979, the Solar Riser, designed by virtually zero carbon dioxide emissions, been motorized gliders, but the Cri-Cri Larry Mauro, made the world’s first offi- electrically propelled aircraft have two will allow its designers to test whether an cial flight in a solar-powered, fully con- other key benefits, with obvious military electric aircraft can perform maneuvers trolled man-carrying flying machine, an implications—very low noise levels and and operations that a conventional air- ultralight hang-glider. The craft rose to insignificant infrared signatures. craft cannot. 40 ft and flew for about half a mile. The There are, broadly, three means of The Cri-Cri’s unusual design will also impetus for much of the early design and providing electric propulsion: battery

4 AEROSPACE AMERICA/NOVEMBER 2010 BEATlayout.qxd:AA Template 10/14/10 9:57 AM Page 3

power, solar power, and fuel cells, often proved performance. Lithium-based bat- used in combination. Boeing Research teries are lighter than conventional units & Technology Europe in Madrid flew its because they have no anodes and have a first electrically powered aircraft, which much higher energy density. had both hydrogen fuel cells and batter- In Asia, work on advanced battery ies, in April 2003. During the climb, the technologies is well under way. This con- aircraft used a combination of battery trasts with the U.S., which accounts for and fuel-cell power but cruised on fuel- just 1% of the total global lithium-ion cell power alone. Flight time was gener- battery production, according to the ally about 30 min, with 20 min devoted U.S. National Alliance for Advanced to the fuel-cell demonstration. The fuel Transportation Batteries, or NAATBatt. cell had approximately 10 min of margin This recently formed group worries that beyond the 20 min planned for the tests, U.S. industry is falling behind its global which have been completed. competitors in this arena. Technological improvements in all The experimental aircraft Solar Impulse, The demand for new, advanced bat- three areas of fuel storage/generation with pilot Andre Borschberg onboard, teries is growing. The High Altitude Air- flies at sunrise above Payerne's Swiss are accelerating. airbase on July 8 during the historic ship under development by Lockheed first round-the-clock flight fueled only by Martin for DARPA in the U.S. will fea- Solar flight at night solar power. AFP photo/Fabrice Coffrini. ture a 40-kWh lithium-ion battery to In September, the solar-powered, Swit- store power from 15-kW thin-film solar zerland-based Solar Impulse HB-SIA arrays. These will generate all power re- completed a 26-hr flight powered only aircraft that performs like a conventional quired on-station and store it for use by by solar energy. According to the com- Cessna or Piper. the payload (up to 50 lb) and the 2-kW pany, “The success of this first night “Today’s technology allows a realistic lightweight all-electric propulsion units. flight by a solar-powered plane is crucial one hour of flying only,” according to Lithium-ion batteries are also at the for the further course of the Solar Im- Oliver Reinhardt, technical director of heart of Sikorsky’s electrically powered pulse project. Now that the HB-SIA’s advanced general aviation engine manu- S-300C Project Firefly technology dem- ability to remain flying at night using so- facturers at Flight Design, based in onstrator, announced at this year’s Osh- lar energy stored during the day has Stuttgart. “The bottleneck is the battery kosh AirVenture. The aircraft has a 190- been proved, we can start pushing the mass. Today the maximum is around hp electric motor replacing the standard human and technological limits further. 200 Wh per kilogram; we would need in piston-engine and lithium-ion battery The next important milestones for Solar theory around 5,200 Wh per kilogram.” packs. The energy storage system from Impulse will be the crossing of the At- Further issues that need to be ad- German manufacturer GAIA consists of lantic and the around-the-world flight, dressed are the expense of high-density 300 cells with an energy density of 0.13 using the second prototype, which goes batteries, the requirement for complex kW/kg, added to either side of the cabin. into construction this summer.” controllers to ensure they remain cool, Sikorsky says initially the Firefly’s flight The aircraft comprises 12,000 pho- and a complex charging cycle. One solu- time range will be just 15 min, compared tovoltaic cells, covering 200 m2, with tion is to develop hybrid engine versions, to over 3 hr for the conventional equiva- 12% total efficiency for the propulsion and the company is working on a lent. But as battery capacities increase chain. The HB-SIA’s motors generate lithium-ion battery-powered electric mo- and weights decline, this will improve ex- just 8 hp, or 6 kW, of power (around the tor in combination with a Rotax 914 en- ponentially. same output as that of the Wright broth- gine, with the battery and electric motor At current rates of progress, lithium- ers’ first flyer in 1903). Generated elec- boosting the power of the Rotax engine based battery technology is doubling in tricity is stored in batteries weighing 400 on takeoff. efficiency every seven years, according kg, more than a quarter of the aircraft’s to some industry experts. mass. Motors and batteries are fitted in A lift for lithium-based batteries four pods under the wings. The batteries Driven by billions of dollars’ worth of Fast track for fuel cells are polymer lithium units consisting of funding for research into environmen- Fuel cell storage/generation is also im- 70 accumulators, with a management tally friendly automobile performance, proving. According to researchers at system controlling the charge threshold battery efficiencies are improving every Boeing, PEM (polymer electrolyte mem- and temperature. year. In particular, the development of a brane) fuel cell technology could eventu- new generation of lithium-ion batteries, ally power small manned and unmanned A long way to go which can increase energy and power aircraft, while solid oxide fuel cells could It will, however, be a huge leap from a densities by a factor of two to four, will be applied to secondary power-generat- motorized glider to an electric four-seat open the way to units with greatly im- ing systems such as auxiliary power units

AEROSPACE AMERICA/NOVEMBER 2010 5 BEATlayout.qxd:AA Template 10/14/10 9:57 AM Page 4

DIESEL AND ELECTRICITY ROTORCRAFT POWER for large commercial airplanes. EADS Innovation Works is developing a diesel-electric hybrid proof-of-concept helicopter propulsion A fuel cell is an electrochemical en- system. Electrical motors in combination with OPOC (opposed piston, opposed cylinder) diesel en- ergy converter that mixes fuel and oxy- gines drive the rotors and have shown reduced fuel consumption and emission rates of up to 50%, gen from air to produce electricity. according to the company. Takeoffs and landings are possible on electrical power alone, resulting in When the fuel is hydrogen, the only by- lower noise levels and improved flight safety. products are water and heat. In Europe, Says EADS, “The main components of this hybrid system are multiple diesel-electric motor-gener- the drive for cleaner transport solutions ator units, a pair of high-performance batteries, and a power electronics unit controlling the energy has sparked massive investment in fuel flows for best efficiency. The OPOC diesel engines, designed and built by EcoMotors International in cell research. the U.S., offer a fuel economy improvement of up to 30% compared to today’s helicopter turbine The Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint engines. “The OPOC engine’s power output shafts are fitted with advanced, weight-optimized genera- Technology initiative will see national tors delivering electrical current to a power electronics unit, which manages the distribution of the governments, the EU, and industry part- electricity to the electrical motors driving the main rotor and the tail rotor as well as the other user ners plan for an investment of nearly €1 systems on the helicopter. High-performance batteries can store sufficient energy to enable the heli- billion in new fuel cell concepts over six copter to take off and climb or approach and land on electrical power alone.” years. Although this research aims mainly at the automotive and stationary electricity storage markets, it is highly likely there will be aerospace applica- MAJOR CURRENT ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN PILOTED AIRCRAFT PROGRAMS tions. “The activities of the JU [joint un- Aerola Alatus-ME dertaking] will help to reduce time to On January 10, 2009, the Aerola electrically powered Alatus-ME glider flew for the first time. The company market for hydrogen and fuel cell tech- is based in Ukraine. Its Electravia engine delivers 26 hp and is powered by a lithium-polymer battery. nologies by between two and five years APAME Electra and will therefore have a faster impact APAME (Association pour la Promotion des Aéronefs à Motorisation Électrique), based in St. Pierre on improving energy efficiency, security d’Argençon, France, flew its Electra F-WMDJ on December 23, 2007. It has an electrical engine of 25 cv of supply, and reducing greenhouse (capacitance voltage) and lithium-polymer batteries. gases and pollution,” according to the Bye Energy/Cessna JU objectives. In July, Cessna Aircraft announced that it is collaborating with Bye Energy (Englewood, Colo.) to design This year Lange Research Aircraft and develop an electric propulsion system for a Cessna 172 proof-of-concept aircraft. and the DLR (German Aerospace Cen- ter) began test flight work on aviation Flightstar e-Spyder The e-Spyder ultralight features a Yuneec power system that is available in 10, 20, 40, and 60 kW, allowing fuel cell performance using the Antares it to fly 40 min on two lithium-polymer batteries. The company is based in South Woodstock, Conn. DLR-H2 flying testbed, which demon- strated a range of 700 km and a dura- ElectraFlyer-X tion of 5 hr. The ElectraFlyer-X is a two-seater based on the Electraflyer-C ultralight. The first -X will have a 20-hp The next stage of work will be to fly (15-kW) engine and two lithium-polymer batteries. ElectraFlyer-C is a converted Monnet Moni motor a new, more capable aircraft in 2011, glider; the company is based in Cliffside Park, N.J. the Antares H3, to a range of up to Lange Aviation Antares 20E 6,000 km, for an endurance of more The Antares 20E motor glider (Zweibrücken, Germany) electric engine has been certificated by the than 50 hr, with payloads of up to 200 European Aviation Safety Agency for the very light aircraft class, which covers vehicles that have a kg. The aircraft will use four external maximum mass of 750 kg and can carry two people. The engine, a 42-kW DC/DC brushless motor called pods to house fuel cells and fuel. The EM42, is powered by lithium-ion batteries. aim is to develop an aircraft capable of PC-Aero Elektra One both piloted and unmanned operations. The single-pilot Elektra One ultralight is being built to fly for 3 hr. The company, based in Landsberg am Lech, Germany, has two- and four-seat versions in development. vvv Sonex Aircraft Slowly but steadily, improvements in The Sonex (Oshkosh, Wis.) e-flight program is to develop a practical and affordable aircraft based on a electric propulsion are feeding into the proof-of-concept craft positioned between the company’s Xenos electrically driven motor-glider and mainstream aerospace industry—from conventionally powered sport aircraft, based on a 55-kW (74-hp) brushless motor engine powerplant. below, via the light sports aircraft enthu- siast community, and above, via ad- SkySpark Alpi 300 The Italian two-seat SkySpark Alpi 300 flew with a 75-kW (101-hp) brushless electric motor powered by vanced, long-endurance UAS research. lithium-polymer batteries, achieving a world record of 250 kph (155 mph) for a human-carrying electric air- The speed with which these aircraft ma- craft on June 2009. The team of researchers is now working on an engine powered by hydrogen fuel cells. ture will depend to a large extent on im- provements in fuel cell and battery tech- Yuneec E430 nology—areas of major investment for The E430, announced in 2009, has flown extensively. This all-battery electric two-seater uses three Europe and Asia. lithium-polymer battery packs to fly for 2 hr. It is regarded by many as the market leader for electric aircraft. Yuneec, based in Shanghai, China, is aiming to sell its E430 from mid-2011. Philip Butterworth-Hayes [email protected]

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Thewaitinggame

WHEN FY11 ARRIVEDON OCTOBER 1, two-pronged effort for the DOD is re- Rep. John P. Murtha (D-Pa.), lawmakers Congress had passed only one of the 13 solved by late summer. This year, a de- added 10 Air Force C-17s to the budget authorization bills that establish funding fense authorization bill failed to pass the at a cost of $2.5 billion. The service will for more than one-third of the govern- Senate because Democrats tried unsuc- eventually have 223 planes instead of ment, including most executive branch cessfully to insert two measures that the 180 it wanted. agencies, for the next year. The rather doomed the bill—language ending the This year, no lawmaker announced a surprising exception was NASA, which “don’t ask, don’t tell” law, known as plan to insert C-17s into defense legisla- began the fiscal year with its funding pri- DADT, which prohibits gays from serv- tion. None was included in the Senate orities enacted into law—albeit via a ing openly in the military, and the measure that was defeated. Even Rep. compromise measure that is not without DREAM Act (Development, Relief and Norm Dicks (D-Wash.), disparaged by controversy. Education for Alien Minors) Act, provid- critics as “the congressman from Boe- Although lawmakers are often late ing a path to citizenship for young illegal ing,” announced he would seek no more fulfilling their core duty of financing gov- aliens of military age. Critics saw the lat- C-17s. Dicks replaced Murtha as chair- ernment, never before have they entered ter as a backhanded way of providing the man of the House defense appropria- a new fiscal year without approving Pentagon with a new pool of young peo- tions subcommittee. funds for so many branches of govern- ple to sign up as service members; Dept. ment. To prevent government from of Defense spokesman Eileen Lainez Cuts and changes shutting down completely, lawmakers confirmed that the department supports Many in Congress—across party lines— enacted, and President Barack Obama the DREAM Act as a recruiting tool. oppose efforts to cancel work on the signed, a last-minute continuing resolu- The vote broke down almost along second engine for the JSF, the F136, tion that provides temporary FY11 fund- party lines, with two Democrats breaking built by General Electric and its partner, ing through December 3 for all agencies ranks to help Republicans filibuster the Britain’s Rolls-Royce. The administra- that receive appropriations funding. The defense authorization bill. Emotions tion wants a single JSF engine, the F135 measure holds most agencies to FY10 were high: Sen. John McCain (R-Ariz.), from Pratt & Whitney. The House voted levels of funding for most programs, and who opposes repealing DADT now, ar- again this year to maintain funding for even lower levels for the remainder. gued testily with a reporter over the is- both engines in FY11. The Senate Ap- Democrats in Congress say they will sue. Repeal had easily passed the House propriations Committee, while paradox- enact FY11 appropriations bills, but not of Representatives, but observers now ically calling for a cut in JSF purchases, before the November 2 elections. Many say even that cannot happen again, as- issued this statement: “The incongru- in Washington believe that key legisla- suming that the next House will have a ence of the [administration’s] insistence tion—even, it appears, for defense—may very different composition. on canceling the second engine pro- be stalled until the post-election, “lame The tally on the defense authoriza- gram, which is a near model program duck” 111th Congress gives way to the tion is a defeat for the administration. and which most analysts expect would 112th on January 3. The delay would Still, the White House and Defense Sec- curtail long-term costs of the entire JSF require a second continuing resolution. retary Robert Gates are expected to get program, with equal [administration] in- This is viewed as especially likely if the their way in the recurring debate on the sistence on the need to fully fund the elections bring about dramatic change in C-17 Globemaster III airlifter. The ad- JSF program, is hard to rationalize.” Congress, where it is possible that Re- ministration may even prevail on the Having succeeded in canceling or publicans will wrest control of the House F136 alternate engine for the F-35 cutting back the F-22 Raptor fighter, the from the Democrats, say many Washing- Lightning II Joint Strike Fighter. C-17, the Army’s Future Combat Sys- ton observers. Over several years, two Inaction on Capitol Hill is having an successive administrations— impact on aerospace, especially in the with Gates as secretary of Dept. of Defense. For the Pentagon, as defense in both—sought to with other Washington agencies includ- end C-17 production for ing NASA, each year’s budget requires U.S. forces. Even so, Con- two items of legislation: a policy measure gress appropriated funds for called an authorization bill, followed by a 43 of the planes that the Air spending measure called an appropria- Force did not request and tions bill. said it did not need. Last Two successive administrations have sought to end C-17 In most years, the first half of this year, pushed by the late production for U.S. forces.

8 AEROSPACE AMERICA/NOVEMBER 2010 WATCH2layout.qxd:AA Template 10/14/10 9:58 AM Page 3

tems, and four Navy DDG-1000 de- Some lawmakers’ concerns over stroyers, Gates has his eye on the F136 JSF are assuaged by a September 21 as part of a new program that he says “fixed-price” agreement with prime con- will save $100 billion over five years. tractor Lockheed Martin for this batch— Gates also emphasizes that he wants to the fourth—of the fighters. The agree- redirect, rather than reduce, some mili- ment ends months of negotiations. tary spending. He has ordered a 30% re- Pentagon spokesman Bryan Whitman duction in the Pentagon’s use of con- says the deal includes 30 JSF fighters tractors, elimination of the Joint Forces for the U.S., one for Britain, and an op- Command in Norfolk, Va. (an issue on tion for one more for the Netherlands. which congressional hearings were pend- These are not the same 32 airframes Lockheed Martin agreed to a fixed-price contract ing when we went to press), a reduction covered by the Senate Appropriations for the latest batch of F-35s. of 50 flag-rank officers, and a cut of 150 Committee’s funding proposal, but senior executive positions. Gates has rather constitute “low-rate initial produc- In the late 1990s, the military service also announced that he would like to tion” (LRIP) Lot 4, which precedes branches experienced a significant pilot step down next year. Those them. The planemaker shortage. Today, say observers, declin- in Washington who do not had wanted to delay the ing airline salaries are no longer a lure, support his policies are fixed-cost agreement until airline work no longer guarantees glam- openly talking about waiting even later, for a batch of our or even respect, and too many pilots him out. planes called LRIP Lot 5. are remaining in uniform. About half a dozen other Whitman says the contract A familiar sight in the Navy, the one- key Obama advisors have left provides a “fair and rea- of-a-kind nuclear aircraft carrier USS En- or are leaving soon. One is sonable” basis for the terprise (CVN 65) will be retired when it White House Chief of Staff fourth lot of production completes its current combat tour in wa- Rahm Emanuel, who is run- jets and “sets the appropri- ters off South Asia. September 24 ning for mayor of Chicago. ate foundation for future marked the 50th anniversary of the He was replaced by Pete Defense Secretary William Gates production lots.” The deal launch of the giant aircraft carrier. The Rouse, who played a major was initially expected in “Big E” was the first nuclear carrier, a pi- role in Obama's presidential May, but took longer to oneer in a largely nuclear Navy, and a campaign and transition. An- negotiate given a shift to a key participant in conflicts from Vietnam other is retired Marine Gen. “fixed-price, incentive fee” onward. But because it differs from every James Jones, who resigned contract structure. other carrier in the fleet, Enterprise is as national security advisor. Previous JSF contracts now costly to operate. Jones had strained relations were on more traditional Capt. O.H. Honors, the ship’s skip- with other war leaders such “cost-plus” contract terms, per, estimates that a quarter of a million as Adm. Michael Mullen and which make the govern- sailors served aboard the warship. But, Gen. David Petraeus, com- ment responsible in the said Honors in the Navy Times, “The mander of U.S. forces in event of cost overruns—a people who designed and built the Afghanistan. Jones’ replace- Chief of Staff Rahm Emanuel method now opposed both equipment for this ship—they’ve been ment is Deputy National Se- by Pentagon acquisitions dead for 25 years. When this ship was curity Adviser Tom Donilon boss Ashton Carter and Defense Secre- commissioned, I was three months old. Funding legislation may be in limbo, tary Gates. Think of a car that was built 49 years but lawmakers’ concerns about aero- In another area of defense issues, ago, you’ve been driving it the whole space issues are still on the table, and the Navy says it has too many pilots. In time, and they only built one of them, some are still being debated. The Senate September at the Tailhook Association and it was a technology demonstrator. Appropriations Committee, while urging convention in Reno, Nev., Capt. Bret There’s no store that we can go to. a second JSF engine, nonetheless wants Batchelder of the Navy Personnel Com- There’s no Pep Boys for the Enterprise.” to curtail the JSF program until technical mand said the sea service has 743 more and cost issues can be resolved. The naval aviators than its plans call for. At NASA spending issues committee considered scrapping all JSF the same time, the Navy has a shortage The NASA authorization bill enacted on funding for FY11 but recognized what it of officers in other fields. The Air Force September 29 amounted to reluctant called the nation’s “urgent” need for the is currently seeing the largest proportion House acquiescence to a Senate version. new fighter. It recommended a purchase of its pilots remaining in uniform for a The policy measure does not give the this year of 10 fewer JSFs than the 42 career since the 1980s and currently Obama administration everything it requested by the Pentagon, claiming a has about 400 more pilots than it has sought in the realm of human space- saving of $1.5 billion. cockpits for them to occupy. flight, but it does require the agency to

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The USS Enterprise will be Committee chairman, to go further than Discovery was delivered to the launch pad retired when it completes Gordon originally wanted toward elimi- on September 20 for its final flight. its current combat tour. nating the Bush-era Constellation pro- gram (except for its large booster rocket) in favor of commercial carriers for both astronauts and cargo. The measure had strong support from Sen. Kay Bailey Hutchison (R- Texas), who said it will “safeguard Amer- ica’s human spaceflight capabilities while balancing commercial space investment with a robust mission for NASA.” Even though the agency may no longer be the rely on private companies to launch as- prime moving force in the design and the program. As now scheduled, the fi- tronauts into space while it starts work development of a next-generation space- nal mission will be STS-134, to be flown on a larger booster able to launch a pay- craft, NASA will receive slightly more by Endeavour, also with six astronauts, load of at least 70 tons for travel to more money in FY11 than it did in FY10— and commanded by Navy Capt. Mark E. distant destinations—an asteroid, per- some $19 billion, a modest increase Kelly. Endeavour will deliver spare parts, haps, and eventually Mars. The measure over last year’s $18.7 billion, and in line including two S-band communications eliminates the Moon as a destination with Obama’s budget request. antennas, a high-pressure gas tank, addi- and, except for the new booster rocket, Eventual passage of a NASA appro- tional parts for the robotic device Dex- wipes away most of the ingredients of priations bill—needed before space tre, and micrometeoroid debris shields. the earlier “Vision”; thus, the Ares I, for agency employees can actually work on The launch date for the 36th and final example, is rendered defunct. their new mission—is expected to be rou- shuttle journey to the ISS is now Febru- The bill “helps put the U.S. space tine. In the meantime, however, the con- ary 26. program on a more sustainable trajec- tinuing resolution keeps NASA’s spend- NASA has also named four astro- tory,” says Lori B. Garver, NASA’s ing levels—and programs, including nauts who might become the final Amer- deputy administrator. Constellation—unchanged until passage icans to fly a shuttle, if one additional, NASA Administrator Maj. Gen. of further legislation. last mission is assigned to Atlantis. The Charles Bolden quietly called the FY11 NASA authorization calls for one more NASA authorization bill a “historic vote” Shuttle missions flight to take supplies to the ISS in the but appeared to be maintaining a low The Washington actions that set NASA’s second half of 2011. profile in Washington—the agency’s in- future policy came after September 20, If it happens, the not-yet-scheduled spector general (IG) had charged him when the agency trundled the space shut- mission will probably be christened STS- with an ethical misstep after he con- tle Discovery to Launch Pad 39A at the 135, the number reflecting a final total sulted Marathon Oil on whether NASA Kennedy Space Center for its last journey of 135 shuttle journeys into space. should participate in a biofuels project. into orbit, the mission scheduled to go to Whether this “final, final” flight will hap- Bolden, who sat on Marathon’s board, the ISS on November 1. Led by Air Force pen is as uncertain as the rest of NASA’s denied wrongdoing, and many observers Col. Steven W. Lindsey, the six-member future, but the agency is planning for it. saw the IG overreacting to a single, short STS-133 crew will deliver and install the “Normal training template for a shuttle phone conversation Bolden had held permanent multipurpose module and the crew is about one year prior to launch, with a Marathon official. Still, while he express logistics carrier 4, and will pro- so we need to begin training now in or- appeared at the National Press Club in vide critical spare components to the der to maintain the flexibility of flying a September to tout privatized space ISS. This will be the 35th shuttle mission rescue mission if needed, or alter course travel, Bolden was less visible than to the station. Two space-walks are part and fly an additional shuttle mission if Garver in commenting on of the plan. that decision is made,” said Bill Gersten- funding issues. There will be just one maier, NASA associate administrator for On the other hand, more shuttle mission there- space operations, in a statement. Sen. Bill Nelson (D-Fla.)— after, unless NASA modifies A U.S. astronaut and two Russian who chairs the Senate a longstanding flight sched- cosmonauts returned from the ISS on Commerce, Science and ule—as it has the authority September 25. After an initial technical Transportation Committee’s to do—and many in Wash- glitch, American Tracy Caldwell-Dyson subcommittee on science ington believe it will. The and Russians Mikhail Kornienko and and space—was the driving schedule was already Alexander Skvortsov, who had lived force behind the NASA au- changed to arrange for the aboard the ISS for six months, landed thorization bill and appar- last two flights after the start safely in Kazakhstan in a Russian Soyuz ently persuaded Rep. Bart of FY11, which was once capsule. Robert F.Dorr Gordon (D-Tenn.), Science Sen. Bill Nelson intended to mark the end of [email protected]

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MarkClough Interview by Philip Butterworth-Hayes

Why does it take so long for World sidies in a respectable way,” which will Or is this simply a Boeing vs. Airbus Trade Organization (WTO) trade dis- mean developing a further bilateral dispute? pute decisions to come through? agreement. This is especially important I think it does have further implica- That’s the result of panel members now as there are a lot more competitive tions in that it shows what the panel’s who need the time to peruse these mat- pressures in the market, new players interpretation of the subsidies agree- ters. Often the parties will ask for more who will start outmaneuvering them if ment is in the context of aircraft manu- time to submit their briefs and request they are not careful. facturing. It has set a precedent. If some- the opportunity to submit further briefs. Going back to the question of why body else tries to do the same thing, This will delay the process. this process has taken so long, I imagine there will now be an easier and faster that both sides, the governments of the way to reach a settlement—because If you take a summary of the outcome EU and the U.S., have told the panelists agreements on subsidies and counter- of the two cases concerning Boeing that they would like to try to settle this is- vailing measures have been reached for and Airbus at the WTO, who won and sue through the WTO disputes process— this market. It’s obviously not terribly who lost? though obviously this hasn’t happened. tidy, but in areas where subsidies have I don’t think either of them has ac- been condemned, there is a precedent, tually won it. Airbus says it can rectify So what are the implications, if any, at least for negotiations between new- the situation by simply changing the lan- of the WTO dispute rulings for the comers to these issues—for the new guage of the contract on launch aid, but worldwide aerospace industry—and countries who are subsidizing their there are other situations of financing for other industries, for that matter? industries. agreements relating to the Airbus A380 that are subject to scrutiny. Boeing has always had a significant mixture of civil and military business, which makes it Geneva,and the European Courts in very difficult. Boeing is supposed to have Luxembourg.His work involves countries enjoyed $22 billion of tax breaks from ranging from the U.S.to China,and defense and research contracts, and Azerbaijan to Ukraine.Recent antidumping those have never been repaid at all—Air- cases concerned ethanol-amines,shoes,and bus has repaid [its launch aid]. I would chemicals,as well as WTO dispute procedures have thought it was one black mark and issues relating toWTO accession. against both of them. Clough has also advised on the Energy It is stalemate. Though of course CharterTreaty in the context of energy there is still the appeals process to go projects.In his capacity as legal advisor through, and it is interesting to note that to the EU Ukraine Business Council,he there is no implementation timetable for recently made representations at the public the recommendations. hearing of the European Commission Mark Clough QC (Queen‘s Counsel) is on its Green Paper on EU trade defense Given the outcome, then, does this a partner in the competition and trade instruments. case really matter? Is this important? practice of U.K.-based international A member of the editorial board of the I think it’s important in that it ap- lawyers Addleshaw Goddard.He leads International Trade Law and Regulation pears that the U.S. has decided it does the European Union and international Journal,Clough has written many articles not want to go on any longer with the bi- trade law practice covering antidumping, onEUandWTOissuesandhaspublisheda lateral arrangement, so in a sense it is subsidies and countervailing duties, book on theWTO and telecoms, Trade and testing the WTO rules on what the legal- safeguards,and WorldTrade Organ- Telecommunications. He has participated ities really are on the subsidies issue be- ization dispute resolution.In addition, in numerous international trade conferences tween Boeing and Airbus. It is also test- he specializes in customs advice and and governmental training events in ing the strength of the U.S. and the EU litigation as well as export controls. on whether they really will remarry, and different countries,and belongs to the whether this process of having a free-for- He represents clients before national International Chamber of Commerce and all actually allows them to get something trade administrations,the European the International Bar Association’s out of the system. Or should they go Commission in Brussels,theWTO in international trade committees. back and say, “We agree to limit our sub-

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Most industry experts seem to believe dies agreement. If it’s a genuinely gov- for a long time blocked Doha—though that no one in China, Brazil, or Russia ernment-owned aircraft manufacturer there are recent signs of a change of will be particularly concerned about employing people to do the work, that’s mind. Of course one would have thought the results of this dispute. Most aero- one thing. But if they don’t employ peo- that the last few years of bilateral trade space manufactur- ers outside North America and Europe “Maybe that is the motive for these lengthy exchanges, to have a see this as just an multilateral agreement that will bring in the other relevant countries. Airbus and Boeing It would be nice to think that.” issue. But if a new- comer, building an aircraft industry financed mainly ple but effectively just pay a private body agreements which the large countries through its own government, attempts to do the work, then I would have have embarked upon would have per- to flood the market with cheap air- thought that was subject to international suaded the developing countries that it liners, will these findings have some agreement. In China I suspect they tend would be in their interest to move ahead relevance? to do the latter rather than the former. on the Doha round, no matter how little I quite understand why people say they may get from it, rather than trying it’s just a bilateral tiff, because that’s ex- Isn’t the best solution for the U.S. and to undo what they see as the disadvan- actly what it is. But once you have gone Europe to create a new civil aircraft tages of the previous arrangements. to the WTO for a panel ruling—and in- manufacturing agreement alongside I don’t understand why there isn’t deed an appellate body ruling—that adds the WTO? That should surely be the more progress. But of course the current to the body of law at the WTO level. It’s next step. economic climate is not exactly useful, not a binding precedent, but it is very One solution would be to do that with the prospect of politicians in the helpful for those who want to criticize or and then try to make it a multinational larger countries having to tell their do- defend a position. agreement, to get everyone to sign up to mestic electorate that they are going to it. The two sides could fall back on a be giving away trade concessions. Aerospace is a global industry, with plurilateral agreement—such as the al- When it comes to the question of aircraft manufacturers contracting ready famous agreement on trade in civil subsidies, developing countries are not out large parts of production work to aircraft—for those who might want to subject to the same subsidy rulings as the other countries, where government- sign up to it. Maybe that is the motive larger trading nations. There’s a let-out owned industries undertake all the for these lengthy exchanges, to have a for them. work. Are these contracts covered by multilateral agreement that will bring in the WTO trade rules or not? It seems the other relevant countries. It would be Does that mean it’s easier, for exam- to me it is possible for manufacturers nice to think that. ple, under present international WTO to circumnavigate the rules by getting trade rules, for India to obtain a gov- governments in other parts of the What it a plurilateral agreement? ernment subsidy in an international world to subsidize the cost of building A multilateral agreement is one competitive industry than someone in new aircraft. Isn’t one of the key chal- which all members of the WTO have to the U.S., Canada, or the U.K.? lenges the fact that the industry is just sign up to; a plurilateral agreement is India is a developing country, but it so complex and international trading where all those governments who want is the “least-developed countries” which laws so difficult to understand? In the to sign it do so. benefit from “special and differential context of outsourcing, what consti- treatment,” primarily. tutes fair and unfair subsidies when What’s the latest on the Doha round the work is carried out by a third [the current series of trade negotia- How would you define a developing country? tions aimed at lowering trade barriers country in this case? It’s obviously quite difficult, in this around the world]? Is there any sign of These are states which are listed as context, to deal with a state-owned busi- progress? developing countries within the WTO ness. A government that delegates the Doha is very difficult at the moment membership. India is listed, as are Brazil work to a private enterprise that gives it in that keeping negotiations going at all and China—though that sounds quite subsidies is subject to the [WTO] subsi- is an achievement in itself. The Indians bizarre.

“When it comes to the question of subsidies, developing countries are not subject to the same subsidy rulings as the larger trading nations.”

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As part of the issue of developing It often does arise—but there again, and the EU keep using the WTO trades countries receiving “special and differen- there would be another tit for tat. dispute procedures, since these are now tial treatment” within the WTO, the pro- under way, as a means to bolster their hibition of subsidies for exports is quali- In considering whether aid is fairly or market positions? At some stage they fied for developing countries under unfairly distributed by governments, will have to share some of their market annex seven. This covers the least devel- how are governments exactly defined? with some of the newcomers. oped countries as designated by the For example, if a regional or state au- United Nations. thority agrees to subsidize the manu- It’s true that Boeing and Airbus are This means there is some recogni- facture of an aircraft production going to have to share the market tion that subsidies can play a part in im- plant, would that grant be covered by with new competitors, but the issue is portant economic development for gen- a WTO agreement? How far down surely one of fairness. After all, China eral issues and not just aircraft does the remit of the WTO go? has a huge domestic market on which manufacturing. I think if the aid were given by a it can base demand for its new air- governmental body and it had an impact craft manufacturing sector. It would Although the WTO ruling has a sig- on exports, it would normally be covered be very difficult for Airbus or Boeing nificance for Airbus and Boeing, what by the agreement. The designation of a to prove that Chinese airlines have does it mean for smaller, medium en- subsidy can be defined as a financial con- been made to buy Chinese aircraft terprise [SME] manufacturers in the tribution by a government or any public even though they would prefer U.S. or West—is this important for them too? body in the territory of the member re- European models. The only way it would be significant ferred to in the agreement. I agree—it would be very difficult. is if they were receiving aid in a direct On a positive note, if the market overall way, which would then be stopped if Spool forward five years, at a time improves, there may be enough room either the EU or the U.S. decided they when the Airbus A320 and the Boeing for new Chinese aircraft without dimin-

“I think both the U.S. and Europe should recognize that a single level playing field is in their interest, especially because of the way the market is expanding now.”

were going to comply with the WTO 737 replacement programs are just ishing the sales volume of Boeing or Air- rulings by stopping subsidies as they had about to be getting under way. Do you bus. That I would have thought was the agreed. The main remedy is to stop the think, by then, there will be clear best outcome—and a fairly realistic one. subsidy. I suppose smaller companies rules and a clear understanding about One result of the Chinese economic rev- could suffer if either party agreed to with- what is allowable? Or do you think olution is that there is going to be a draw the subsidies that had previously these arguments will just carry on more prosperous society. been agreed with each particular SME. forever? I think there are three considera- And they will be using the U.S. dollar So would European companies, for tions here. The first concerns how well to buy and sell aircraft. example, have to repay the subsidy— respected the WTO will be and how well Yes—I don’t see why the United or would it simply be stopped? its rules will be applied. I would like to States should miss out. They are, after I don’t know whether they would think they will be respected, because it is all, highly competitive. necessarily have to repay the money, be- in everyone’s interest if they are. After cause the subsidies agreement is different all, with the arrival of China and India on Finally, are you optimistic that the to the EU law on state aid, which would the aircraft manufacturing market, the U.S. and the EU have now agreed require a government to recover unlaw- U.S. and Europe will want to have some- what fair play, a level playing field, ac- fully paid aid. The WTO arrangement thing in place. tually looks like in the market for doesn’t seem to require that; it seems to Second, there is the question of large aircraft manufacturing? require that the subsidy be stopped. how these newcomers are going to get I think both the U.S. and Europe There are other questions as to whether their share of the overall market. One should recognize that a single level play- the harmed member of the WTO would view, though a very cynical one, is that ing field is in their interest, especially be- require compensation—I don’t think that this is all about sharing out the market cause of the way the market is expand- compensation necessarily has to come and making sure that you keep your ing now. If they don’t effectively plan to from the beneficiaries of the subsidy. share. I think it would be too much for have other players in their market, they either Airbus or Boeing to expect to will not ultimately succeed, because they Do you know whether anyone has, or block the other one out of the market. won’t be the cheapest—which is always a could request, compensation? The third issue is, should the U.S. deciding factor in purchasing policies.

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Futuristicaircraft: Old-fashionedlookisonlyskindeep

AN 18-MONTH NASA RESEARCH EFFORT TO compared with aircraft entering service core is even smaller, and airflow through visualize the passenger airplanes of the today, are: the duct surrounding the core is substan- future has produced some ideas that at •A 71-dB reduction below current tially larger, than in a conventional en- first glance may appear old fashioned. FAA noise standards, which aim to con- gine) for more efficient thrust. Instead of exotic new designs seemingly tain objectionable noise within airport In a reversal of current design borrowed from science fiction, familiar boundaries. trends, the MIT concept increases the shapes dominate the pages of advanced •More than a 75% reduction on the bypass ratio by minimizing expansion of concept studies that four industry teams International Civil Aviation Organiza- the overall diameter of the engine and completed for NASA’s Fundamental tion’s CAEP 6 (Committee on Aviation shrinking the diameter of the jet exhaust Aeronautics Program in April. Environmental Protection Sixth Meeting) instead. The team said it designed the But look more closely at these con- standard for nitrogen oxide emissions, D8 to do the same work as a Boeing cepts for airplanes that may enter ser- which aims to improve air quality around 737-800, but its unusual shape gives it vice 20-25 years from now and you will airports. a roomier coach cabin. see features that are quite different from •A greater than 70% reduction in fuel The Northrop Grumman team fore- those of today's aircraft. Just beneath burn performance, a reduction that sees the greatest need for a smaller 120- the skin of these ideas lie breakthrough could lower greenhouse gas emissions passenger aircraft that is tailored for airframe and propulsion technologies and the cost of air travel. shorter runways to help expand capacity designed to enable significantly quieter, •The ability to exploit metroplex con- and reduce delays. The team describes cleaner, more fuel-efficient flight that of- cepts that enable optimal use of runways its Silent Efficient Low Emissions Com- fers greater passenger comfort and ac- at multiple airports within metropolitan mercial Transport, or SELECT, concept cess to more of America's airports. areas, as a means of reducing air traffic as “revolutionary in its performance, if You may see ultramodern shape congestion and delays. not in its appearance.” Ceramic com- memory alloys, ceramic or fiber com- Leading the teams were General posites, nanotechnology, and shape posites, carbon-nanotube or fiber-optic Electric, MIT, Northrop Grumman, and memory alloys figure prominently in the cabling, self-healing skin, hybrid electric Boeing. airframe and ultra-high-bypass-ratio engines, folding wings, double fuselages, The GE Aviation team conceptual- propulsion system construction. The air- and virtual reality windows. izes a 20-passenger aircraft that could craft delivers on environmental and “Standing next to the airplane, you reduce congestion at major metropoli- operational goals in large part by using may not be able to tell the difference, but tan hubs by using community airports smaller airports, with runways as short the improvements will be revolutionary,” for point-to-point travel. The aircraft has as 5,000 ft, for a wider geographic dis- says Richard Wahls, project scientist for an oval-shaped fuselage that seats four tribution of air traffic. the Fundamental Aeronautics Program’s across in full-sized seats. Other features Boeing’s Subsonic Ultra Green Air- Subsonic Fixed Wing project at NASA in include an aircraft shape that smoothes craft Research, or SUGAR, team exam- Hampton, Va. “Technological beauty is the flow of air over all surfaces, and ined five concepts. Its preferred choice, more than skin deep.” electricity-generating fuel cells to power the SUGAR Volt, is a twin-engine aircraft advanced electrical systems. The air- with hybrid propulsion technology, a Goals for 2030 and beyond craft’s advanced turboprop engines tube-shaped body, and a truss-braced In October 2008, NASA asked industry sport low-noise propellers and further wing mounted to the top. Compared to and academia to imagine what the future mitigate noise by providing thrust suffi- the typical wing used today, the SUGAR might bring and develop advanced con- cient for short takeoffs and quick climbs. Volt wing is longer from tip to tip and cepts for aircraft that can satisfy antici- With its 180-passenger “double bub- shorter from leading edge to trailing pated commercial air transportation ble” configuration, the MIT team strays edge, with less sweep. It also may include needs while meeting specific energy effi- farthest from the familiar, fusing two air- hinges to fold the wings while planes are ciency, environmental, and operational craft bodies together lengthwise and parked close together at airport gates. goals in 2030 and beyond. The studies mounting three turbofan jet engines on Projected advances in battery tech- were intended to identify key technology the tail. Important components of the nology enable a unique hybrid turboelec- development needs to enable the envi- D8 concept are the use of composite tric propulsion system. The engines could sioned advanced airframes and propul- materials for lower weight and turbofan use both fuel (to burn in the engine’s sion systems. engines with an ultra-high-bypass ratio core) and electricity (to turn the turbofan NASA’s goals for 2030-era aircraft, (meaning airflow through the engine when the core is powered down).

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Northrop’s SELECT GE’s 20-passenger aircraft

“Identifying those necessary technolo- gies will help us es- tablish a research roadmap to follow in bringing these innovations to life during the coming years,” Shin says.

Next steps The next step in NASA’s effort to MIT’s D8 design the aircraft of 2030 is a sec- ond phase of studies. These will seek to begin developing the new technologies that will be necessary to meet the national goals related to an improved air transportation sys- Boeing’s SUGAR tem with increased energy effi- ciency and reduced environmental im- pact. The agency received proposals from the four teams in late April and ex- NASA did not specify future com- long, on average—to increase operating pects to award one or two research con- mercial air transportation needs as do- capacity and efficiency. tracts for work starting in 2011. mestic or global. All four teams focused •Smaller aircraft—in the medium-size NASA managers also will reassess on aircraft sized for travel within a single class of a Boeing 737, with cabin accom- the goals for 2030 aircraft to determine continent, because their business cases modations for no more than 180 passen- whether some of the crucial technologies showed that small and medium-sized gers—flying shorter and more direct will need additional time to move from planes will continue to account for the routes, for cost efficiency. laboratory and field testing into opera- largest percentage of the overall fleet in •Reliance on promised advances in air tional use. With their concepts the four the future. One team, however, did pre- traffic management, such as the use of teams managed to meet either the fuel sent a large hybrid wing concept for automated decision-making tools, for burn or the noise goal, not both. intercontinental transport. merging and spacing en route and during A companion research effort looked departure climbs and arrival descents. at ideas for a new generation of super- Recurring themes The teams recommended a variety sonic transport aircraft capable of meet- All of the teams provided “clear paths” of improvements that can help bring ing NASA’s noise, emissions, and fuel for future technology R&D, says Ruben their ideas into reality, in areas including efficiency goals for 2030. NASA envi- Del Rosario, principal investigator for lightweight composite structures, heat- sions a broader market for supersonic the Subsonic Fixed Wing Project at and stress-tolerant engine materials, and travel, with aircraft carrying more pas- NASA Glenn in Cleveland, Ohio. “Their aerodynamic modeling. NASA is weigh- sengers to improve economic viability reports will make a difference in plan- ing the recommendations against its ob- while meeting increasingly stringent en- ning our research portfolio. We will iden- jective of developing aeronautics tech- vironmental requirements. tify the common themes in these studies nologies that can be applied to a broad Teams led by Boeing and Lockheed and use them to build a more effective range of aircraft and operating scenarios Martin evaluated market conditions, de- strategy for the future,” he says. for the greatest public benefit. sign goals and constraints, conventional Common themes from the four re- “This input from our customers has and unconventional configurations, and ports included: provided us with well-thought-out scenar- enabling technologies to create pro- •Slower cruising, at about Mach 0.7— ios for our vision of the future, and it will posed road maps for R&D activities. which is 5-10% slower than today’s air- help us place our research investment Both teams produced concepts for air- craft—at higher altitudes, to save fuel. decisions squarely in the mainstream,” craft that can carry 100 passengers up •Engines that require less power on says Jaiwon Shin, associate administra- to 5,000 mi. at cruise speeds greater takeoff, for quieter flight. tor for aeronautics research at NASA than Mach 1.6. Edward D. Flinn •Shorter runways—about 5,000 ft Headquarters. [email protected]

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Viewpoint

COMBINING SAFETYand

u uman spaceflight is a risky bat loss rate of the B-17 bomber in WW II. business. Spacecraft undergo This very high loss rate must be reduced if hu- very large acceleration forces man spaceflight is to grow. during launch; travel through the atmosphere at great THE MILITARY AIRCRAFT MODEL Hspeeds;H and, in the harsh environment of One way to lower the loss rate of spacecraft is space, either connect with the international to adopt some of the design processes and space station, remain in low Earth orbit trying technology used to increase the survivability of to avoid orbital debris and meteors, or con- military aircraft in combat. An aircraft takes tinue farther into outer space. Then, after off toward the target, which may be defended what could be weeks or months, crew and by one or more weapons or threats. As it ap- passengers return to Earth, again traveling at proaches, it may be detected by enemy air de- very high speeds and under very high deceler- fense sensors, tracked, engaged, and hit and ation loads. possibly killed by ballistic projectiles, warhead As difficult as this process is, it has been fragments, or high explosive blasts. A large completed many times, thanks to the efforts number of U.S. military aircraft have been of the NASA/industry human spaceflight com- downed, lost, or killed in this man-made hos- munity. One spacecraft, the space shuttle, has tile environment since the early 20th century. been launched 133 times since 1981. Unfor- For example, approximately 5,000 U.S. tunately, two shuttles and their crews have fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft were killed in been lost, Challenger during launch in 1986 combat during the Southeast Asia (SEA) con- and Columbia during reentry in 2003. These flict from 1964 to 1973, with an overall loss tragedies have resulted in a ‘loss of vehicle rate of approximately one per 1,000 sorties. and crew’ rate of 1.5 per 100 launches, That’s a lot of aircraft. which is approximately the same as the com- As a result of those losses, a new aircraft

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Aswemovetothenextgenerationof manned spacecraft,new initiatives would benefit from combining the survivability concepts of military aircraft design with the safety discipline of the spaceflight community.

SURVIVABILITYfor future spacefaring

design discipline called aircraft combat surviv- damage would lead to an air- ability (ACS) was developed, starting in the craft kill, those survivability early 1970s. Fundamentals have been estab- enhancement features should lished for this discipline, including a viable, enable a gradual degradation cost-effective technology for enhancing sur- of system capabilities, giving vivability and a methodology for assessing it. the crew a chance to eject Live-fire testing for survivability is congres- over friendly territory. sionally mandated, top-level survivability de- As a consequence of this sign guidance is prescribed, and quantified emphasis on increasing sur- survivability requirements are now routinely vivability, the number of U.S. specified by the Dept. of Defense. military aircraft killed in com- Flak damage completely destroyed The goal is the early identification and bat since the SEA conflict has dropped dra- the nose section of this Boeing successful incorporation of those specific sur- matically, and loss rates have been signifi- B-17G, a 398th Bomb Group vivability enhancement features that increase cantly lowered. aircraft flown by 1Lt. Lawrence the combat cost-effectiveness of the aircraft as Although manned spacecraft are not cur- M. Delancey over Cologne, Germany. USAF photo. a weapon system. In situations where the rently threatened by weapons in space, this

Robert E.Ball is a distinguished professor emeritus in the Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,Naval Postgraduate School,Monterey,California.He is the author of the AIAA Education Series textbook The Fundamentals of Aircraft Combat Survivability Analysis and Design, First (1985) and Second (2003) Editions.He started the first-ever graduate-level course in Aircraft Combat Survivability at NPS in 1978, and 19 of the 33 astronauts who graduated from NPS have taken one of his courses.He currently is working with the NPS Center for Survivability and Lethality on several survivability projects,including the merging of the safety and survivability disciplines for spacecraft.

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and mission assurance. One of the major ac- tivities within NASA’s Office of Safety and Mission Assurance is “improving methodolo- gies for risk identification and assessment, and providing recommendations for risk mitiga- tion and acceptance.” Risks are associated with hazards or con- ditions that can cause injury to a spacecraft’s occupants or damage to the vehicle. For ex- ample, a piece of foam insulation could break away from the surface of a spacecraft and im- During Operation Iraqi Freedom, A-10 maintenance members pact a critical portion of the craft’s thermally from the 392 Air Expeditionary relatively new discipline could contribute to protected exterior, a phenomenon known in Wing inspect their aircraft for the needed improvement in the naturally hos- combat survivability as cascading damage. any additional damage after it The impact damage could cause a loss of the was hit by an Iraqi missile in the tile space environment. right engine. The A-10 made it spacecraft upon reentry. If the hazard occurs, back to the base safely. USAF AIRCRAFT SURVIVABILITY VS. and people are injured or killed and the vehi- photo/Staff Sgt. Shane A.Cuomo. SPACECRAFT SAFETY cle damaged or lost, as happened to Colum- Aircraft combat survivability is applicable to bia, the result is known as a mishap. flight in a man-made hostile environment, but Any potential hazard can pose a threat to survivability can be more broadly applicable to the safety or mission capability of a space- flying in any hostile environment, including se- craft. In any safety program, risks or hazards vere turbulence, lightning, birds, or crashes. are identified and then assessed, first by deter- Aircraft survive either by avoiding being hit by mining the severity of the subsequent mishap, a damage mechanism—known as susceptibil- possibly using a failure mode and effects an- ity reduction—or by withstanding any hit that alysis (FMEA), and then by estimating the does occur—vulnerability reduction. Stealth probability the mishap will occur. and electronic countermeasures reduce sus- Risks, hazards, or mishaps deemed unac- ceptibility because they make it less likely an ceptable because of their combination of se- aircraft will be hit; fuel system fire and explo- verity and probability of occurrence must be sion protection and redundant and separated avoided, mitigated, or, as a last resort, ac- flight control components reduce vulnerability cepted if no satisfactory avoidance or mitiga- because they make it less likely the aircraft will tion technique can be found. Avoidance and be killed given a hit. mitigation techniques include eliminating the The spaceflight community has a similar hazards through design selection, incorporat- During STS-115, micrometeoroid discipline devoted to safe travel. It is part of a ing safety devices, providing warning systems, orbital debris struck the shuttle Atlantis and left a 0.108-in. ding package of disciplines known as safety, relia- and developing procedures and training. in its right-hand payload bay bility, and mission assurance, or just safety Comparing the two disciplines, safety is door radiator. Credit: NASA. achieved by avoiding hazards, survivability by avoiding hits and thus reducing the likelihood a hazard or hit will occur. Safety is also achieved by mitigating hazards, survivability by withstanding hits, reducing the severity of the subsequent mishap or damage. One difference between the two disci- plines is the operational environment. The threats to the survival of a military aircraft are external and man-made. The current threats to the safety of a spacecraft are not man- made (except for orbital debris) and are both external (micrometeorites, orbital debris, radi- ation) and internal (such as mechanical or electrical breakdown). When considering external threats, the survivability fundamentals can be applied to spacecraft as well as aircraft: Avoid being hit by the damage mechanisms, if possible, and withstand any hits that do occur. (One could

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consider the external threat to spacecraft as a The loss of the shuttle Columbia threat to its survival rather than a safety issue.) and its crew of seven was a stark When considering internal threats, the reminder that human spaceflight, though now viewed as routine, is safety discipline relies on the traditional ap- still a high-risk undertaking. proach of hazard avoidance and mitigation. The survivability discipline, although devel- oped for external threats, can also be used for internal threats if the definition of a hostile en- vironment is expanded to include them. A leak, a fire, or a burst pressure vessel on board a spacecraft creates an internal hostile envi- ronment that must be withstood if the space- craft is to survive. (Again, one could consider the internal threats as threats to the survival of the spacecraft rather than a safety issue.) The difference in the nature of the threats to survival in combat and to safety in space- flight influences how they are dealt with by the two disciplines. For example, the primary em- phasis in system safety is the avoidance of hazards, particularly by preventing compo- nent failures through improvements in reliabil- ity. Similarly, the primary emphasis in surviv- ability is to reduce the likelihood a hit occurs. Preventing a hit on a component is conceptu- ally the same as preventing its failure—the component continues to function as needed. The difference between the two disci- plines shows up in safety’s mitigation of haz- ards versus survivability’s withstanding hits. In Among the larger pieces of debris safety, if a pump fails, an adjacent back-up recovered from the crash of pump can be used. The severity of the mishap mode occurred on Apollo 13 when one of the Columbia was its nose gear, shown here with its tires still intact. associated with the hazard occurrence is miti- two O2 tanks in the service module burst. Cas- gated by the use of redundant pumps, and the cading damage caused a loss of the adjacent resultant two-pump design is failure tolerant. O2 tank and a subsequent loss of electrical This is not the situation in survivability. power and air in the command module. In a When an aircraft is hit, damage can cascade. more survivable design, the two tanks would This cascading damage must be withstood if have been separated so that a rupture of one the aircraft is to survive. If a pump is hit and tank would not cause the loss of both. killed, an adjacent back-up pump could also In short, the safety discipline focuses on be killed by the same hit or by cascading dam- hazard elimination and mitigation, whereas age from the hit pump, and the functions pro- the survivability discipline focuses on avoiding vided by both are lost. Survivability requires hits and withstanding the subsequent damage redundancy with separation. As a conse- when hits do occur. Safety is an a priori con- quence of this difference between safety’s dition where hazards are avoided or mitigated component failures and survivability’s compo- during design; survival is a beneficial outcome nent damage, the combat survivability disci- of an undesired event. When safety fails, sur- pline conducts a damage mode and effects vivability is there to save the vehicle. analysis (DMEA) after the FMEA when identi- fying the consequences of a hit. COMBINING SAFETY AND SURVIVABILITY The DMEA can also be used to analyze Because the fundamentals of the aircraft com- the survivability of a spacecraft design. In this bat survivability discipline have direct applica- situation, although the components are not bility to the design of spacecraft, a merger or hit by a damage mechanism, more energetic combination of both could be beneficial for fu- component failures are assumed, such as a ture human spaceflight. The merger could liquid oxygen tank that bursts. This particular damage “When safety fails, survivability is there to save the vehicle.”

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contract, and Meghan Buchanan, lead engi- neer for the company’s spacecraft survivabil- ity innovation for Orion, in collaboration with the Naval Postgraduate School Center for Survivability and Lethality, are developing a spacecraft survivability program based upon the fundamentals of the ACS discipline. Sev- eral design changes to Orion were made using this new approach. In June, the NASA/Lock- heed Martin Orion team completed the Phase 1 Safety Review, making Orion the only spacecraft in development that meets all of NASA’s human-rating criteria for missions be- yond low Earth orbit. Now is an opportune time to formalize the merger. NASA’s Commercial Crew Devel- opment Program is currently working on a standardized integrated safety and design analysis process for the NASA commercial An entire panel of the Apollo 13 crew initiative that will be used for risk assess- service module was blown away ment during design, development, and demon- by the apparent explosion of take the form of a combined discipline known stration of vehicles for human spaceflight. oxygen tank number two, located as safety and survivability, or a separate disci- This work will focus on the integrated analysis in sector 4 of the SM. Two of the three fuel cells are visible pline could be developed known as spacecraft process instead of prescriptive failure toler- just forward of the heavily survivability. ance requirements to generate a safety-opti- damaged area. If a combined discipline is chosen, NASA mized solution. The DMEA and other design Procedural Requirements 8705.2B, Human- and analysis processes developed for enhanc- Rating Requirements for Space Systems, ing the survivability of military aircraft should should be expanded to include the fundamen- be incorporated into this new analysis, to en- tals of survivability enhancement developed for sure safer and more survivable spacecraft. military aircraft. (“The human factor,” page 3, and “Human rating for future spaceflight, RECOMMENDATIONS A Roundtable Discussion,” page 26, July- As the shuttle era draws to an end, new com- August, examine the ramifications of rating mercial initiatives are under way for human systems for human spaceflight.) If a separate spaceflight. They can all benefit from the fol- spacecraft survivability discipline is chosen, a lowing recommendations, drawn from experi- new process and requirements document ence during the development of the aircraft should be developed. combat survivability discipline: This proposed combination has already •Safety and survivability should be merged begun for internal threats to the Orion crew or combined to form a new discipline for exploration vehicle, originally part of NASA’s space systems, leading to improvements in Constellation program. Michael Saemisch, both the safety and the survivability of human former safety and mission assurance manager spaceflight in all environments. They should for Project Orion on the Lockheed Martin be essential elements, just as they are in mili- tary aircraft. This does not mean there will be no more losses—as long as there are flights, A production assembly crew lowers a full-scale Orion mockup onto the there will be losses. It does mean that any crew module holding structure mishap will not be the result of a lack of fore- during an assembly pathfinding sight, insight, or oversight. maneuver at the Operations & Checkout Facility at NASA Kennedy. •Safety and survivability should be consid- ered from the inception of any program, whether for military aircraft or a human-rated space vehicle. Any changes that have to be made well into the program because of post- poned or neglected safety and survivability concerns will most likely be very costly in weight and dollars and may result in cancella- tion of the program, or even loss of life.

20 AEROSPACE AMERICA/NOVEMBER 2010 The Fundamentals of Aircraft Combat Survivabilityy Analysis and Design, Second Editionon Winner of Best the Summerfield Seller! Book Award

Ball illustrates clearly the The only book on the “ complexity of dealing “ aircraft survivability with an attack on discipline that speaks to aircraft …. Although both the operator and the publication focuses the engineer. The bible ROBERT E. BALL on military aircraft, Naval Postgraduate School of aircraft survivability! both fi xed-wing and 2003, 889 pages, Hardback — MAJOR ROBERT ” helicopters, there are ISBN: 978-1-56347-582-5 “WANNA” MANN clear implications List Price: $104 Chief, B-2 Branch, and lessons to be AIAA Member Price: $79.95 Wright-Patterson AFB gleaned for commercial airliners, which have This book belongs on the The best book on now also become potential “ desk of everyone who works “ this subject available targets. in the survivability fi eld. in the public domain. — ROBERT” WALL, in Aviation — DENNIS A. FENN ” — LINA CHANG ” Week and Space Technology Strategic Development, Lockheed Martin Boeing Phantom Works

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Hayabusa makesa triumphant return On its mission On June 13, the Japan Aerospace after its seven-year journey, Hayabusa was Exploration Agency’s (JAXA) Hayabusa hailed as an icon of scientific curiosity and to an asteroid, spacecraft completed its 6-billion-km round- sheer persistence. Japan’s Hayabusa trip mission to an asteroid. In many ways, its journey could be viewed as a robotic equiva- Sampling a rock of ages spacecraft was lent of Apollo 13: In both cases, ground con- The asteroid mission began to take shape in plagued with trol teams and onboard intelligence triumphed the mid-1980s, spurred by studies at Japan’s over seemingly insurmountable odds, over- Institute of Space and Astronautical Science malfunctions and coming a multitude of technical snafus to re- (ISAS), now part of JAXA. delays. But the turn a crippled spacecraft to Earth. JAXA launched Hayabusa from The Japanese probe truly became the lit- Kagoshima Space Center aboard an M-V creativity and tle interplanetary spacecraft that could…and rocket on May 9, 2003. A swing-by of the dutifully did. During its long voyage through Earth in May 2004 accelerated the craft, persistence of the deep space, reaction wheels used to stabilize which reached its target—asteroid 25143 program’s science its attitude failed; its chemical engine suffered Itokawa—on Sept. 12, 2005, after traveling a fuel leak; communications with Earth were about 2 billion km. In September and October team brought the lost for weeks; and repeated problems of that year, Hayabusa completed its remote crippled vehicle plagued its ion engine propulsion system. sensing tasks and measurements of the aster- A few months after Hayabusa’s 2003 oid. The following month it made back-to-back back to a flawless launch, even its solar panels were degraded touchdowns in an effort to sample the rock reentry, including slightly by a solar flare, reducing the amount and deliver the specimens to Earth. of electricity received by the craft’s ion engine. Itokawa was discovered in 1998 by the the successful At a cost of $200 million, the Hayabusa LINEAR (Lincoln near-Earth asteroid research) delivery of a program focused on wringing out new hard- program, an effort conducted by MIT’s Lin- ware and testing ion propulsion, autonomous coln Laboratory with funding from the Air payload that may navigation, sampler, and reentry capsule con- Force and NASA. The asteroid received the yet hold major cepts. But the craft was much more than a fly- provisional designation 1998 SF36. In 2000, ing testbed. When its return sample canister it was officially named after Hideo Itokawa, a surprises. parachuted down into the Australian Outback professor who had died the previous year. Af-

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Sharp-shooting cameras on Hayabusa provided impressive close-up views of asteroid Itokawa. Credit: JAXA/ISAS.

fectionately known as “Dr. Rocket” in Japan, ward; hence the need he had played a seminal role in the early for neutralizers. stages of the country’s space program. “The Hayabusa can Asteroid Itokawa is a potato-shaped ob- be called a ‘high-tech ject about 600 m long, classed as an S-type— spaceship,’ as its key of siliceous, or stony, composition. Asteroids technologies—a plasma are believed to be celestial time capsules that reactor that supports retain information from the beginning of the cutting-edge industries, solar system’s formation. Bringing a sample robot technology with of the space rock back to Earth for laboratory visibility, development study could yield precious clues for piecing to- of heat resistance, and gether information on the origin and evolu- power-saving technol- Hayabusa’s September reentry was celebrated at Operations tion of the solar system. ogy—are expected to be applied to various Center 2. Credit: JAXA/ISAS. After liftoff the mission’s name was other fields,” says Hayabusa project manager changed from MUSES-C to Hayabusa, Japan- Junichiro Kawaguchi. ese for “peregrine falcon.” Propelling the craft were four xenon-fed ion engines. The xenon Touchdown! ions were generated by microwave electron Asteroid rendezvous took place in September cyclotron resonance and accelerated in an 2005. When Hayabusa arrived at a point 20 electric field. For its acceleration grid, the km from Itokawa, a reflective target marker unique system used a carbon/carbon compos- was dispatched to the surface to assist in the ite material resistant to erosion. spacecraft’s descent. Although Hayabusa had The ion engine array also featured neu- an autonomous navigation system, the marker tralizers designed to turn the high-speed jetted was used to gauge the speed of the space- ions into electrically neutral plasmas. If the craft’s horizontal movement as it landed. spacecraft were to keep injecting positively Later that year, Hayabusa succeeded in charged ions, it would become negatively making two touchdowns on the asteroid, one charged and attract positive ions. That would on November 20 and another on November by Leonard David prevent Hayabusa from being propelled for- 26, in efforts to use the sampling gear. Contributing writer

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On that first landing, the craft touched gines made an irregular stop in late 2009. A the asteroid’s surface, bounced twice, and final workaround involved the “cross-opera- came to rest in one place for 30 min. On the tion” of previously separate pairs of neutraliz- second touchdown, the tip of the craft’s sam- ers and thrusters. “By using this method, we pling unit was able to contact the asteroid’s generated thrust and managed to guide Haya- surface for about one second, after which the busa to Earth,” Kuninaka says. spacecraft made an immediate ascent. Ex- This cobbled-together attitude stabiliza- perts believe that in both cases the sampling tion method—using a single reaction wheel, equipment, which involved firing pellets into the ion beam jets, and photon pressure—en- the asteroid’s surface, did not function as abled Hayabusa to struggle homeward. planned. However, it is possible that the “Hayabusa had enough redundancy, but speed of the spacecraft’s contact with Itokawa some of that redundancy was developed after stirred up the scene, with particles of the as- the malfunction,” says Kuninaka, “including teroid perhaps finding their way into the col- the improvement of onboard software and the lection unit. ground support system.” Although trouble-plagued, Hayabusa did In April and early June of this year, chalk up a milestone, performing the first as- Hayabusa performed delicate trajectory cor- cent from any other solar system body except rection maneuvers to prepare for receiving the Moon. precision guidance into the designated Aus- Overall, the road to and from asteroid tralian landing zone. A team of Japanese and Itokawa was fraught with difficulty, says Hi- U.S. navigators directed the spacecraft on the toshi Kuninaka, group leader for spacecraft last leg of its expedition. They calculated the systems at JAXA’s Space Exploration Center. final trajectory correction maneuvers the ion Because of Hayabusa’s equipment failures, its propulsion system would have to perform to return to Earth was deferred by three years ensure a triumphant homecoming. from the original date of 2007. The craft had innumerable problems with Import from outer space its solar arrays, ion engines, lithium-ion bat- Three hours before Hayabusa’s reentry into tery cells, and attitude-controlling reaction the Earth’s atmosphere, the sample return wheels, encountering several delays and losses capsule was to separate from the mothership. of communication. For example, in departing A specially developed heat shield protected the asteroid after its second landing, Haya- the 40-cm capsule from blistering tempera- busa suffered a fuel leak from its reaction con- tures of 10,000-20,000 C. The shield, fabri- trol system. As the escaping fuel turned to gas cated in-house, used two main ingredients: and shot out into space, the spacecraft lost at- carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic and carbon titude and its antenna lock on Earth. The re- phenolic resin. sulting communications link loss, although At an altitude of roughly 10 km, a pyro- temporary, lasted more than seven weeks. technic mechanism in the capsule triggered the jettisoning of both the heat shield and a lid Homeward bound from the sample return capsule. The two Hayabusa literally limped back to Earth, with pieces of the heat shield then fell to Earth sep- Hovering above Itokawa, Hayabusa the very weak pressure of sunlight helping it arately as a parachute was deployed by the casts a shadow on the asteroid. The bright dot is a deployed to regain attitude control. Adding to the mis- capsule to slow its plummet into the Woomera marker to aid the probe’s landing ery of ground operators, the probe’s ion en- Prohibited Area test range. The capsule’s loca- on the space rock’s surface. tion was tracked using radar and a radio bea- Credit: JAXA/ISAS. con onboard the returning canister. JAXA had to do some legal paperwork to enable its foreign-made hardware to drop in on Australia. Hayabusa was an import, not just from Japan but from outer space as well. Furthermore, the Australian government had concerns about introducing possible contami- nants reminiscent of the fictional “andromeda strain” of book and movie fame. Japan obtained import consent via the Authorized Return of Overseas Launched Space Object from the Space Licensing and Safety Office of the Australian government.

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Hayabusa’s June 13 reentry was closely An artist’s view depicts the return of Hayabusa and the watched by a NASA-sponsored Hayabusa release of its sample capsule Reentry Airborne Observing Campaign. An toward Earth. Credit: C. Waste international lineup of scientists on board the and T. Thompson, courtesy agency’s instrument-packed DC-8 Airborne NASA/JPL-Caltech. Laboratory recorded the entry of the space- craft bus and capsule. Flying at 39,000 ft in a race-track pattern some distance from the capsule’s anticipated touchdown ellipse, researchers used a clutch of gear and instruments mounted to aircraft windows—spectrographs and several types of cameras: high-definition TV, high-frame-rate, intensified, and near-infrared-sensitive—to snare the light from the capsule, now a speed- ing fireball, during its swift reentry. pieces ejected at very high speeds and surpris- “It couldn’t have been better,” notes SETI ingly high angles. Spectroscopic features were Institute’s Peter Jenniskens, principal investi- identified, including the moment when the gator of the Hayabusa observing campaign. lithium batteries were destroyed. “Everyone had put so much energy and effort “We’re using the colors of the flares, the into pulling it all together. It was nerve-wrack- types of signatures, to potentially reconstruct ing—there were so many worries.” the breakup process. Of course, all this is go- ing to take time. We have a whole mountain “Awe-inspiring and jaw-dropping“ of data to face,” Jenniskens notes. The infor- Jenniskens has a habit of being in the right mation is potentially a bonanza, particularly place at the right time for watching human- for understanding the intense breakup pro- made meteors. He ran a similar airborne cess, to ensure safety on the ground in the campaign for NASA’s Stardust sample return case of a deliberate reentry. Similarly, studies capsule entry in January 2006 and took part of the high-speed fall of the 18-kg return cap- in observing the September 2004 Genesis sule might lead to lighter thermal protection spacecraft reentry. In September 2008 he systems or aid in validating computer models. was a principal investigator for the joint ESA/NASA multiinstrument aircraft cam- Hopeful signs paign that monitored the controlled destruc- In early October, there was heightened excitement by officials at JAXA. Analysis of the tiny tive reentry of Europe’s 13-ton automated contents within the Hayabusa sample capsule may indeed be particles of the visited space transfer vehicle, the Jules Verne, over the rock. According to researchers, some 100 rocky particles have been detected, apparently di- South Pacific. verse in composition. More than a year of planning for Haya- While JAXA officials remain cautiously optimistic, more analysis of the materials is busa‘s nosedive to Earth came down to just needed. The extremely tiny bits will undergo further inspection at SPring-8, a large syn- 40 seconds, Jenniskens recalls. There were chrotron radiation facility located in Harima Science Park City, Hyogo Prefecture, Japan. SPring-8 derives its name from super photon ring-8 GeV, with 8 giga-electron volts, being many uncertainties: Would the capsule be iso- the power output of the ring. lated from the main spacecraft’s breakup? Given this powerful tool, scientists hope to determine whether microbits of the aster- How bright were things going to be? Would oid were captured by Hayabusa—or if they are bits of Earthly contamination. the intense light from the spacecraft bus dem- olition swamp the return capsule itself? At the appointed time, Hayabusa sped its “It’s surprising how difficult it is to predict way toward terra firma at well over 26,000 how the mechanical and thermal stresses ac- mph. “When the event actually happened, we tually work out on these breakups. Our obser- immediately recognized that the thing moving vations, in a way, give ground truth to what ahead of everything, and a little bit below it, really goes on,” he concludes. must be the capsule,” Jenniskens says. “It was just phenomenal. It was awe-inspiring and Right on time, right on target jaw-dropping…just to see this whole capsule Shooting ahead of the debris field in the tu- sitting there and seeing all this stuff going on multuous breakup of the Hayabusa bus, the around it—and then it survives.” thermally protected return capsule continued The airborne campaign gathered a beau- on its path toward the target ellipse. tiful set of data, says Jenniskens. The reentry Ground observation equipment was set was rich in phenomena, with numerous bus up to record Hayabusa’s plunge. Three opti-

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Hayabusa’s scientific sleuthing mission for so long. Then all of a sudden you Hayabusa weighed 510 kg at launch, toting into space a tightly packaged suite of scientific realize, holy cow, this thing is coming back,” instruments: says Paul Abell, a planetary scientist from •A wide-view and a telescopic camera for imaging Itokawa in multiple spectral bands to determine its shape and surface features and to map mineral distributions. NASA Johnson and a member of the Haya- •A near-infrared spectrometer to determine the distribution and abundance of the as- busa science team. Abell was one of four indi- teroid’s surface minerals. viduals who served on a contingency ground •A laser altimeter for measuring the range to the asteroid’s surface, to build up high- recovery team. “We were there in case there resolution topographic profiles and provide both an accurate spacecraft position and a was an off-nominal return, the parachute global shape model. didn’t work…[or] the beacon didn’t activate,” •An X-ray fluorescence spectrometer to determine the chemical composition of surface he explains. materials. Hayabusa also contained a small surface hopper called MINERVA, short for micro/nano As they traipsed to a nighttime position in experimental robot vehicle for asteroid. Japan’s first planetary exploration rover, MINERVA the Australian Outback at around 10:30 p.m., was built to move around on the asteroid autonomously, hopping about from spot to spot Abell recalls, the skies were perfect, with no taking surface temperature measurements and churning out high-resolution images with Moon and no clouds. “The atmosphere was each of its three miniature cameras. electric. Then, right on target, right on time, In addition, Hayabusa carried a deployable target marker covered with a reflective we saw it come in…both the mothership and coating. When illuminated by a flash of light from Hayabusa, the marker served as a light- house to guide the vehicle’s descent onto the asteroid. To prevent the marker from bounc- the capsule. We knew we were in a recovery ing off the asteroid because of the low gravity there, the device was filled with beads of situation. The fireworks were spectacular.... polyimide resin—bean bag style—to dissipate energy as it contacted Itokawa’s surface. The like Roman candles,” he says. marker also contained 880,000 names from 149 countries around the world. The “business end” of Hayabusa was essentially a sampler horn, a 1-m-long cylindrical Lessons learned tube projecting from underneath the spacecraft. When a sampler mechanism makes con- The Hayabusa mission, Abell believes, offers tact with an asteroid, a pellet is fired to fracture the object’s surface. The anticipated result important lessons: Never give up on a situa- is that bits and pieces of the asteroid spew up into the sampler horn’s interior. The sample- catcher is then inserted into the recovery capsule, followed by a lid-closure operation that tion, and always come up with innovative includes latching and sealing the lid. ideas for handling certain failures. “The Jap- All in all, a creative way to snag specimens, given the gravity on asteroid Itokawa: less anese have shown that, if you are flexible and than 1/100,000th that on Earth. resilient, you can do a lot of things with a modest spacecraft—even in dire situations,” he points out. cal stations were installed near the prohibited Abell stresses the huge importance of in- area to profile the capsule’s ablating thermal ternational cooperation by Japan, Australia, protection system. Infrasound and seismic and the U.S. in bringing about Hayabusa’s sensors were installed on four stations to de- success. Having those lines of communication tect atmospheric shock waves emitted from open early in a program is vital. Being flexible the incoming capsule. The return capsule it- and preparing for just-in-case contingencies is self deployed a parachute that provided high an important take-home message, he says. reflectivity for radar signals and a radio re- “Yes, Hayabusa was a technology dem- sponder to locate it within desert brush. onstration, but the science it returned is ab- “It’s kind of weird. You’ve worked on this solutely huge, everything we learned about

The recovery team in Woomera, Australia, inspects Hayabusa’s sample return capsule after its-seven year voyage to and from asteroid Itokawa. Credit: JAXA/ISAS.

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the asteroid....It has changed our whole way imaginative and novel system that uses elec- of thinking about these small objects…how trostatic forces to pick up and transfer individ- they are put together, their internal structure, ual dust grains, he says. the nature of rubble-pile asteroids,” Abell “We’re going to buy a copy of that sys- says. “It was the experience of a lifetime. The tem and test it out in our labs,” adds Allen, Japanese should be absolutely thrilled.” who sees it as another tool for handling extra- terrestrial samples in the future. Tiny specks in a big container How daunting is the study of ultrasmall Recovery teams located not only the reentry particles such as those possibly brought back capsule but also the two parts of the heat to Earth by Hayabusa? shield cast off during the descent. The cap- “We’ve known from our cosmic dust col- The spacecraft reached asteroid sule, with its parachute, landed less than 1 km lection—and more recently from the Stardust Itokawa on September 12, 2005, from the predicted touchdown point. mission—how to deal with particles of this after a journey of roughly 2 billion In early July, JAXA announced that tiny size, to subdivide them, and then slice them km. The asteroid is about 600 m particles had been found in the sample con- up into lots of different samples that can be long and of siliceous, or stony, composition. tainer. This was confirmed by specialists at the sent all around the world,” Allen says. “Small agency’s Sagamihara Campus, where Haya- particles are not a problem. [Working with] busa’s collection hardware was brought and them is not easy, but we know how to do it.” opened. But they could not be certain whether the particles were from Itokawa or from Earth. Follow-on activities Detailed and painstaking scrutiny would be Michael Zolensky is one of two NASA scien- needed to discern the true origin of the specks. tists engaged in examining the specimens. He The curation center at the Sagamihara is the agency’s curator of stratospheric dust Campus was built to provide tremendous flex- and also works in the ARES directorate at ibility in handling extraterrestrial samples. NASA Johnson. There the capsule was first inspected in detail; Zolensky believes that, despite the space- it was then opened in a laboratory clean craft’s sampling difficulties, the landing itself room. Specialists at the JAXA sample curato- may well have coated the inside of the collec- rial facility are performing a preliminary cata- tion equipment with dust from Itokawa. If so, loging and analysis of the capsule’s contents. the captured microscopic grains of asteroidal Assisting the Japanese astromaterials experts material would, indeed, speak volumes. are scientists from NASA and Australia. “Hayabusa is probably going to return “They’ve done their homework,” says less than a gram of sample, at the most a few Carlton Allen, head of the Astromaterials Ac- grams…possibly much less than that,” Zolen- quisition and Curation Office at NASA John- sky says. Nevertheless, an incredible number son’s ARES (Astromaterials Research and Ex- of things can be done with even a sample that ploration Science) Directorate. tiny, he adds. Allen visited the Hayabusa curatorial lab A team of scientists, most of them from about a month before the capsule’s return to Japan, will study the samples for a year and Earth. He and other NASA officials had inter- then release them to “anyone on the planet acted with the Hayabusa curatorial team for who is qualified to study them,” says Zolensky. years as they built the facility and honed their Because of Hayabusa’s success, JAXA skills in using it. “They had a spacecraft in un- has received a thumbs-up to conduct prelimi- known condition, possibly damaged, but they nary design work on Hayabusa 2. This time wanted to preserve as much science as they the target will be 1999 JU3, a C-type (car- possibly could,” Allen tells Aerospace America. bonaceous) asteroid. “So they wanted to build a lab where they Hayabusa’s achievement has also resulted could work with something that might be in a collaboration by Japan’s NEC and U.S.- damaged, dented, partially broken…and if based Aerojet-General. The two companies everything worked, they could responsibly test will work together on a new ion engine tech- and curate the samples.” nology aimed at the lucrative communication Early indications are that the sample con- and broadcast satellite market. tainer seals held. “If they cleaned it well before In summing up Hayabusa’s mission, launch and the seals held, whatever is in there NASA’s Abell says, “It was just amazing how should be from the asteroid,” Allen says. everything came together. [The team] should At Sagamihara, scientists are dealing with be very proud of their accomplishments. It microscopic dust grains in a big container. To was a tremendous effort on their part…ab- study the material, they have developed a very solutely stunning.”

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AIR FORCE TECHNOLOGY Change

In an Air Force transformed by the next two decades Over the next 20 years, technological change will make the USAF of technological progress,autonomous systems look very different from the way it looks to- will have vastly greater capabilities than those of day. Aircraft and other systems will become increasingly autonomous, and the people in- today,says an exhaustive new USAF study. Cyber volved in their operations will have to use per- formance-enhancing technologies to keep up systems,already changing rapidly,will gain even with the changes. This is the main thrust of Technology more power and speed. The human operators of Horizons, a voluminous report on the outlook for Air Force science and technology (S&T). these and other systems will themselves need Published earlier this year and based on an ex- haustive study, the report highlights the key enhanced capabilities to avoid becoming the areas of R&D that the service should stress weakest link in a chain of continuing advances. between now and 2030 to meet its warfight- ing and fiscal requirements. Orchestrated by Air Force Chief Scientist

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onthehorizon

Modernization of the ISC2 (Integrated Space Command and Control) program will provide warfighters with a common operational picture of the global battlefield derived from shared, real-time data. (Source: Integrated Space Situational Awareness Brochure.)

Werner J.A. Dahm, the study involved brief- The chief scientist notes that strategic and ings and discussions held throughout the Air budgetary considerations will make the next Force S&T community and at the Air Com- 20 years “different from the past.” The Air bat, Air Force Special Operations, Air Force Force, he says, “is now at a pivotal time in its Space, and Air Mobility Commands. Other history; it needs a clear vision for S&T to [pro- parts of the Air Force also provided inputs, as duce] capabilities that align with future needs.” did the Dept. of Defense, federal agencies, Technology Horizons is the latest in a suc- federally funded R&D centers, national labo- cession of reports produced since WW II, each ratories, industry, and academia. aimed at refining and redirecting the Air The resulting report is “visionary” but Force’s S&T outlook 10-20 years ahead. The “not a prediction of the future,” notes Dahm. service’s top two officials, Secretary Michael Instead, he says, it is “an assessment of what is Donley and Chief of Staff Gen. Norton credibly achievable from a technical perspec- Schwartz, initiated the study to give Air Force tive” through the next two decades, and is in- leaders an updated S&T perspective. tended as guidance for Air Force leadership. “The far-reaching strategic changes, “We are not looking five years out or 50 years rapid global technological changes, and grow- by James W.Canan out. This is not science fiction,” he stresses. ing resource constraints that we face over the Contributing writer

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provide long-range penetration of enemy air- space and persistent striking power, they are among “the most distinguishing elements of the Air Force,” says the report. They will face an increasingly challenging environment, but “will remain essential for the ability they give to penetrate defended airspace, for the sensi- tivities they demand in the air defense systems of potential adversaries, and for the potential secondary benefits that this can create for other technology-based capabilities.” Technology Horizons puts its S&T priori- ties into strategic perspective. It warns that “the immense strategic advantage” provided by the Air Force’s superior technical capabili- ties through the years may well be eroded or eliminated by the development and prolifera- tion of high-tech weapon systems around the globe, including integrated air defenses, long- Stealth technology such as that used by the B-2 Spirit bomber range ballistic missiles, and advanced air com- will continue to play a major next decade make this an especially timely bat capabilities. role through the next 20 years. document,” Dahm says. “It will serve as a In many nations, “there have been equally guide for Air Force S&T efforts that can max- important advances in counter-space tech- imize our ability to maintain technological su- nologies, in cyber warfare technologies, and in periority over potential adversaries.” understanding the cross-domain effects that these technologies can produce on the U.S. Challenges abound ability to conduct effective air, space, and cy- The Air Force will be challenged in many ber domain operations,” the document states. ways and on many fronts to maintain such su- periority, the report concludes. Among other Intrusion resilience things, the service must focus on developing In recent years, no other technologies have technologies for air and space systems that grown in importance as rapidly as those per- enable it to maintain air dominance in hostile taining to offensive and defensive cyber war- territory. Three research areas are deemed fare, the study found. “The electromagnetic particularly important in this regard: precise spectrum is becoming fundamental to every- navigation and timing in GPS-denied environ- thing that we do,” Dahm declares. “Being ments, electromagnetic-spectrum warfare, able to develop technologies to enable domi- and “cyber resilience,” including the introduc- nant electromagnetic-spectrum warfare is very tion of “massive virtualization” and “polymor- important—everything from protecting our phic networks.” own use of the spectrum to making direct use Low-observable, or stealth, technologies of the spectrum for our own purposes.” and the systems that use them will continue to This is why “intrusion-resilient cyber sys- play a major role through the next 20 years, tems” rank high among the technology- the report notes. Because stealthy systems spawned capabilities the report projects for the Air Force in years to come. Such The X-48 blended wing body systems represent “a fundamental design promises lower fuel costs, which will continue to receive shift in emphasis from cyber protec- high priority. tion” to “maintaining mission effec- tiveness in the presence of cyber threats,” using such techniques as frequency hopping, “network poly- morphing, massive virtualization, and rapid network recomposition,” says the report. It also spotlights tech- nologies for automating the assess- ment of, and reaction to, cyber threats, and for improving electronic warfare (EW) capabilities.

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Investment priorities The report identifies key areas of priority for S&T investment through the next decade, in- cluding “intelligent” sensors/processors; di- rected energy, including high-power micro- waves and lasers for tactical strike missions, aircraft defense, and airbase defense; persist- ent situational awareness of space; “rapidly composable small satellites”; and next-genera- tion high-efficiency gas turbine engines. The study also puts a premium on tech- nologies for systems that lower fuel costs while improving performance. Prime exam- ples of such systems are hybrid wing/body air- craft, high-altitude long-endurance airships, and partially buoyant cargo airlifters. Another top priority will be technologies for rapid-response, globe-spanning airbreath- ing hypersonic vehicles designed for long- range strike and ISR (intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance). These technologies are vital to the creation of “future airbreathing, two-stage access-to-space systems.”

The major finding Withal, the S&T study’s “single greatest find- ing” involves “decision-making” autonomous systems: Expanding their use will address the Air Force’s “need, opportunity, and potential” for greatly improving efficiency, increasing ca- Military laser technology will be pabilities, reducing manpower, and lowering an area of significant investment costs. Calling them “autonomous systems writ tempo for combat units, which is “in itself a during the next decade. large,” Dahm explains that their levels of au- major capability advantage.” tonomy far surpass those of current applica- The study foresees pervasive autonomy tions such as remote-piloted aircraft and oper- not only in air and space platforms, but also ational flight programs. in a wide variety of cyber management appli- The newer, “flexibly autonomous“ deci- cations, including regional and theater air op- sion-making systems would be able to collect, erations and multifaceted ISR activities. analyze, and decide how to act on information about the environments in which they fly, and The human factor about their own performance and effective- As highly or wholly autonomous systems gain The study also puts a premium ness during missions. ascendancy in the Air Force, the performance on high-altitude, long-endurance airships, which lower savings A remote-piloted aircraft, for example, while increasing performance. “might measure its own battle damage and autonomously decide how to execute its oper- ator’s intent—maybe as part of a much larger mission package—to adjust the way its mission will be executed in order to maximize its ef- fectiveness,” Dahm explains. Technology Horizons predicts that “highly adaptable autonomous systems will be used in entirely new remote-piloted aircraft, but will also be implemented widely in Air Force sys- tems and processes.” These applications “can create massive time-domain operational ad- vantages over adversaries [who are] limited to human planning and decision speeds.“ An- other benefit will be a heightened operational

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TECHNOLOGY HORIZONS: MAJOR FINDINGS technologies can bring,” the S&T study says. According to the study, “Key technology areas are those that support Such augmentation could take the form of the following key capability areas”: Highly adaptive autonomous systems drugs or implants to improve human memory, Human performance augmentation cognition, alertness, and sensory capabilities. Increased cyber resilience It also could involve screening humans for PNT (precision navigation timing) in GPS-denied environments brainwave patterns, “or even genetic modifi- Electromagnetic spectrum warfare cation itself,” the report says. “While some Processing-enabled intelligent sensors such methods may appear inherently distaste- Directed energy for tactical strike/defense ful, potential adversaries may be entirely will- Next-generation, high-efficiency gas turbine engines Persistent space situational awareness ing to make use of them,” it says. Rapidly composable small satellites Human-machine interfaces are already being explored, using techniques such as “brain wave coupling.” For this, humans would wear brain-sensitive skull caps to estab- of the people who operate them must be en- lish and enhance their brain-wave connections hanced, states the study. The report’s “second with intelligent machines. key finding” is that “natural human capacities Performance augmentation is an area are becoming increasingly mismatched to the where “tremendous progress has already been enormous data volumes, processing capabili- made,” says Dahm. It “will find routine use in ties, and decision speeds” of the rapidly im- the cockpit, on the flight line, by ISR opera- proving intelligent processors and sensors that tors, and by commanders,” says the report. control autonomous systems. “Data may be fused and delivered to humans” “Although humans today remain more in ways that will speed up and improve their capable than machines for many tasks, by innate ability to make decisions, it says. “Hu- 2030, machine capabilities will have in- man senses, reasoning, and physical perform- creased to the point that humans will have be- ance will be augmented using sensors, bio- come the weakest component in a wide array technology, robotics, and computing power.” of systems and processes,” the report asserts. In years to come, humans and machines “Humans and machines will need to become will become “very tightly coupled” in many far more closely coupled, through improved venues, and “the Air Force will be a major human-machine interfaces and by direct aug- beneficiary of that,” Dahm predicts. mentation of human performance.” Developing ways of augmenting Developing ways of augmenting human A major obstacle human performance in areas such performance “will become increasingly essen- The report warns that there could be a major as cognition will be essential tial for gaining the benefits that many [other] impediment ahead for the development of au- for taking advantage of rapidly advancing technologies. tonomous systems: certification of the volumi- nous and highly complex computer-generated software they require. Verification and valida- tion (V&V) of such software is currently out of the question, says the study, and still requires the standard human-driven methods of seek- ing and finding errors in software codes. “It is possible to develop systems having high levels of autonomy, but it is the lack of suitable V&V methods that prevents all but relatively low levels of autonomy from being certified for use,” the document asserts. This lack, it says, precludes the “trust in autonomy” that the Air Force must develop before it puts highly autonomous systems into operation. “Potential adversaries, however, may be willing to field systems with far higher levels of autonomy without any need for certifiable V&V, and could gain significant capability ad- vantages over the Air Force by doing so,” the report notes. “Countering this asymmetric ad- vantage will require as-yet-undeveloped meth- ods for achieving certifiably reliable V&V.”

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Fractionated architectures Technology Horizons also looks ahead to par- tially or fully autonomous, “fractionated” sys- tems supplanting or augmenting totally inte- grated systems. The latter would include the current fighter aircraft and other complex aer- ial platforms that the Air Force has been bent on developing and deploying in recent years. Fractionation may also be the hallmark of future Air Force space systems, the study says. Constellations of small satellites, each with a particular function, could operate as a single, distributed system. It would be more survivable, less costly, more readily upgraded, and more capable than the large, complex, expensive satellites long in fashion, it says. In most modern system architectures, the report observes, various subsystems and their Constellations of small satellites, mission functions—such as communications, each with a particular function, EW, strike, and ISR—are physically integrated ultrasecure communications make fraction- could operate as a single within a single platform. These platforms, it ated systems feasible, says the report, adding distributed system that would be more survivable, less costly, says, tend to become too big and too heavy, that such communications are in the offing or and easier to upgrade than which limits their range and functioning. They already coming into play. today’s large, complex satellites. also have relatively high unit production and operating costs. Moreover, the loss of any one Improving navigation and timing subsystem can cause the whole system and its The report attaches high priority to technolo- mission to fail, the report notes. gies that will enable the Air Force to augment In fractionated systems, the subsystems or supplant GPS precision navigation and tim- and their functions would be spatially dis- ing capabilities in GPS-denied operational en- persed among various smaller, simpler plat- vironments. These technologies foster devel- forms capable of communicating with each opment of chip-scale inertial measurement other, and of operating, in effect, as a coher- units and atomic clocks, and of “cold-atom” ent whole. The S&T report spells out the dis- inertial navigation systems and timing systems tinction between fractionation and modularity, “based on compact matter-wave interferome- which applies to the individual subsystems of try approaches,” says the document. integrated platforms. The study recommends that the Air Force “Most important, when a fractionated ar- explore and develop technologies that will chitecture is augmented by even low levels of “enable single-pass, extremely precise, auton- redundancy among the dispersed elements, omously guided aerial delivery of equipment survivability can increase dramatically [over and supplies under GPS-denied conditions” that of integrated systems],” the document and at altitudes required for aerial operations contends. “Fractionated architectures are the in steep mountainous terrain. key to the development of low-cost auton- omous systems that can survive in anti-access, vvv area-denial environments.” A major premise of Technology Horizons is The “standardized, remote-piloted” air- that, given the rapidly increasing globalization frames in such architectures would be small to of up-to-the-minute science and technology, medium sized, with compact, efficient turbo- potential adversaries will likely have the same jet engines. They would be capable of fully access that the Air Force has to advances in autonomous takeoff, flight, landing, and “col- S&T in the years ahead. Thus they will be laborative control among elements of the mis- able to develop capabilities that the Air Force sion package,” says the report. They would must be prepared to counter. carry standard-sized modular payloads such All things considered, the report seems as those for ISR, EW, strike, and communica- upbeat about the Air Force’s prospects for tions. And they would use “secure, burst- prevailing against all comers in future years, mode, frequency-agile RF [radio frequency] or but with this qualification: “If we invest in the laser communication.” right technology areas, we can have unbeat- Technologies that allow for jam-resistant, able capabilities.”

AEROSPACE AMERICA/NOVEMBER 2010 33 COVAULT_11.10.qxd:AAFEATURE-layout.Template 10/14/10 10:18 AM Page 2 wingsintoAir Force X-37B n a historic milestone, the Air Force finally has a winged space vehicle—the X-37B—to Idemonstrate the diverse missions that can be carried out by a robotic reusable military After 50 years of study,the spaceplane. The first flight of the 5.5-ton Boeing Air Force finally has its own Phantom Works X-37B, under way since April, is a major step forward as the Air Force begins building a new, more responsive space military spaceplane, the X-37B. system infrastructure. An additional vehicle, now nearing completion, is to fly the second Built by Boeing’s Phantom USAF spaceplane mission in 2011. The challenge for the Air Force in ex- ploiting the new fleet’s capabilities will be to Works and launched in April, develop a new “concept of operations” for the military spaceplane, said Gary Payton, the reusable craft has gone then-deputy undersecretary of the Air Force for space at a briefing. These new concepts must transcend the USAF’s traditional “wild through many iterations blue yonder” mindset and provide truly higher, faster operations where that blue sky turns to under three different agencies. black in the vacuum of space. Launched April 22 from Cape Canaveral, Fla., on board a United Launch Alliance Atlas On this first orbital flight it V rocket, the X-37B carries enough hydrazine propellant to remain aloft for nine months, is seeking to demonstrate though it will likely return earlier. As part of a move by NASA and the Air several new technologies and Force to take greater advantage of commer- cial facilities, the craft underwent final assem- bly and checkout several miles outside the systems—the most important launch site, at the Astrotech commercial spacecraft processing facility. “As a first-of-its- of which,managers say,is kind vehicle, it was remarkably easy to work with,” says Lt. Col. Erik Bowman, comman- der of the Launch Support Squadron for the the spaceplane itself. 45th Space Wing, which manages Cape Canaveral launch operations. The vehicle is testing second-generation reusable spacecraft technologies, especially a greatly improved reentry thermal protection system, says Payton, who flew in 1985 as a military payload specialist astronaut on shuttle Mission 51C. His flight launched a top-secret eavesdropping satellite into geosynchronous orbit. Payton provided a detailed media brief- ing on the X-37B.

by Craig Covault Tougher,lighter,smaller Contributing writer The new spaceplane’s most notable thermal

34 AEROSPACE AMERICA/NOVEMBER 2010 Copyright© 2010 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. COVAULT_11.10.qxd:AAFEATURE-layout.Template 10/14/10 10:18 AM Page 3 ospace protection advance is at the wing lead- inforced oxidation-resistant composite, or ing edge, which on the shuttle is covered with TUFROC. Developed by NASA Ames, it is reinforced carbon carbon (RCC). The ce- thicker than RCC and heats at a slower rate, ramic-type material is relatively fragile, as the which makes it stronger and less susceptible loss of the orbiter Columbia and her crew to degradation from oxidation. TUFROC is tragically demonstrated in 2003, after a piece also lighter than RCC, which improves vehicle of external tank insulation pierced the leading payload performance. Thermal engineers are edge of the left wing RCC. eager to see how the new material holds up to The X-37B, however, is using a different quick-turnaround ground processing. material, called toughened unipiece fibrous re- On its belly the X-37B is carrying tough-

The X-37B spaceplane sits on its Atlas V interface mount as a booster nose shroud is placed around it at Astrotech facilities near Cape Canaveral. USAF photos.

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ened unipiece fibrous insulation, or TUFI, tiles spacecraft routinely fly unclassified missions similar to those flown on the space shuttle for with elements of their payloads kept secret. 15 years. TUFI is more durable and provides In fact, the X-37B’s current mission is like a better barrier against water absorption when those of nonrecoverable Air Force Space Test rained on. Program satellites, which since 1965 have Instead of a human crew, redundant au- flown over 450 space sensor and other hard- tonomous flight control systems are being ware tests on more than 175 space missions. used to maneuver the vehicle in orbit. These The Air Force kept the X-37B’s orbit feature computers that are much smaller but classified, but a skilled group of civilian space more powerful than those of the shuttle. trackers based around the world eventually The spaceplane, which can carry 500 lb, sighted the spacecraft in a 255-mi. circular or- is 29 ft 3 in. long with a wingspan of just un- bit inclined 40 deg to the equator. The ground der 15 ft and a tail height of 9 ft 6 in. Its pay- track of this orbit repeats every four days. load bay measures 7 ft x 4 ft. The NRO’s imaging reconnaissance satel- Like the shuttle, the X-37B has two lites often use the altitude and inclination of clamshell doors that are kept closed during this orbit, says Canadian-based tracker Ted reentry and launch. At this size, the new vehi- Molczan, who helps coordinate the observa- cle can carry any two of several small satellites tions. This makes it likely that the X-37B is currently under development by the Air Force testing reconnaissance sensors, perhaps re- and the other military and intelligence services, lated to advanced technologies such as hyper- says Payton. spectral imaging, he says.

The USAF/Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar spaceplane was approved for development in 1957 but later canceled. USAF photo.

Element of secrecy With a double delta wing that duplicates The X-37B and its technologies are not classi- space shuttle aerodynamics, the X-37B will fied, but on this mission it carries a classified perform a fully automatic reentry and steep payload. The first flight, however, does not in- 20-deg final approach to land on the 15,000- volve the deployment or retrieval of other ft space shuttle runway at Vandenberg AFB. spacecraft, nor will it entail any rendezvous or NASA and the Air Force adopted the shuttle proximity operations with other satellites. The design when they were developing the X-37B mission is demonstrating one of the primary so the same complex reentry flight algorithms uses planned for the X-37B: flying attached could be used to fly the spaceplane. Edwards sensor payloads so that their performance AFB will be the backup landing site. can be assessed before they are integrated with much more costly free-flying systems. Origin and goals The existence of a new winged military The X-37B comes 50 years after cancellation spaceplane carrying a secret payload has in- of the X-20 Dyna-Soar program, the first Air trigued the media considerably. This interest is Force initiative for a winged space vehicle. overblown and unwarranted, say military Test pilot Neil Armstrong, who nine years managers, who point out that U.S. military later would command Apollo 11 on the first

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manned lunar landing, was among several pi- In this NASA graphic, the X-37B flies in space with its payload lots secretly selected as X-20 military astro- bay open and solar array nauts in 1960, before Armstrong transferred extended. NASA graphic. to NASA. The Air Force proposed other winged space vehicles but, in decisions made 40 years ago by the Nixon administration, had to com- promise with NASA for military use of the manned shuttle. That proved to be a costly and unhappy marriage for both parties. The X-37B itself grew out of a NASA program, but as a dedicated robotic military spaceplane it will benefit from lessons learned on the manned shuttle. Instead of serving only as a launch vehi- height to under 10 ft so it can fit under a cle, however, the X-37B will be more respon- launch vehicle nose shroud. An initial plan sive to rapidly changing mission needs that calling for the spaceplane to be exposed to place greater emphasis on small spacecraft the airflow atop a Delta II during launch was well suited to launch and recovery by a space- dropped when analysis showed there would plane this size. be excessive aerodynamic loads without a The primary goal of this first mission is to nose shroud to cover the vehicle. demonstrate the performance of specific X-37B technologies. Most, including thermal New missions protection and electromechanical systems, The flight kicks off a twin vehicle effort to represent second-generation reusable space- forge—at Mach 25 and 250-mi. altitude—the craft hardware that was proven initially on the same multirole space capability inherent in space shuttle. many military aircraft operations. “If the technologies on the vehicle prove While proving new technologies such as to be as good as we currently estimate,” notes advanced thermal protection materials, the Payton, “it will make our access to space two X-37s will also demonstrate entirely new more responsive, perhaps cheaper, and push missions, including the emergency surge- us toward being able to react to warfighter launch of small critical satellites. The space- On April 22 an Atlas V lifted off needs more quickly.” plane’s payload bay provides a standard inter- from Space Launch Complex 41 face for user satellites, and the X-37B itself carrying the X-37B on its first Not your father’s STS has a standard user interface with the Atlas V, spaceflight. The new spaceplane, which has redundant Delta IV, and possibly other launchers such as and fault-tolerant robotics, is just one-fourth the SpaceX Falcon 9. the size of the space shuttle. The other major Payton points out that, in an emergency, difference between the two vehicles is that the launchers already in their processing flows at X-37B uses a several-foot-long gallium ar- the Cape or Vandenberg would be used for senide solar array panel that extends from its quick-reaction spaceplane flights. A decision payload bay to feed power into lithium-ion would be made on which payloads are more batteries. The shuttle instead uses liquid oxy- important; if those capable of X-37B launch gen and hydrogen fuel cells for electricity and are needed, the previously planned payload auxiliary power units to generate hydraulic for the Atlas or Delta would be bumped to pressure and move its large control surfaces. open a slot for the X-37B mission. The X-37B is an all-electric vehicle that Unlike the shuttle orbiter, however, the will use the battery power to move its control unmanned X-37B carries a destruct system surfaces during reentry. It uses hydrazine pro- that allows safety officers to destroy the vehi- pellant in its attitude control thrusters and in cle over the Pacific should it stray from its its single 6,000-lb-thrust maneuvering engine. reentry corridor enroute to Vandenberg. It carries no manipulator arm. Landing at Vandenberg will position the Unlike the shuttle, whose large vertical spacecraft at the Air Force’s west coast launch tail/rudder splits open as a speed brake, the site—only a few thousand feet from processing X-37B uses twin tails for better yaw control facilities and launch pads for any of four dif- and an aft-fuselage top-mounted speed-brake ferent rockets that could be used to launch it panel somewhat like that of the F-15 fighter. into polar orbit, in contrast to its current equa- Smaller twin tails also keep the X-37B’s torial mission.

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the ground with these new technologies,” he says. “So it’s as much a ground experiment in low-cost operations and maintenance as it is an on-orbit experiment with the vehicle itself.” Managers hope that processing of the spaceplane will be more like that of the SR- 71, with perhaps one or two weeks between flights instead of the months it takes to pro- cess existing spacecraft, says David Hamilton of the Air Force Rapid Capabilities Office, which is overseeing X-37B operations. Man- The X-40 subscale technology demonstrator aging the actual flight operations will be the is suspended under a CH-47 Chinook cargo Air Force Space Command’s 3rd Space Ex- helicopter during a captive-carry test flight perimental Squadron and Space Command at at NASA Dryden. Following a series of such Colorado Springs, Colo. flights, the X-40 made free flights from a launch altitude of about 15,000 ft, gliding X-37B development has gone through so to a fully autonomous landing. many iterations at NASA, DARPA, and now the Air Force that Payton says he has no idea what the program’s total costs have been since its inception in 1996. That fits well with the Rapid Capabilities Office that handles the X-37B. The motto on the organization’s insignia reads, “Opus Dei cum pecunia alienum efficemus,” which is Latin for “Doing God’s work with other peo- ple’s money.” Research conducted at the Air Force In- stitute of Technology at Wright-Patterson Evolutionary steps AFB, Ohio, shows that an operational X-37B- The vehicle that became the X-37B is derived type spaceplane will support the Air Force from the Air Force X-40 Space Maneuver Ve- Space Command Strategic Master Plan. The hicle project and NASA’s Future-X reusable research found that it would have a “direct launch vehicle concept. Key steps in the evo- and substantial” effect on several goals. Key lution of the vehicle were: among them are: •1996: The Air Force awards a contract to •Intelligence, surveillance, and reconnais- Boeing for a Space Maneuver Vehicle demon- sance of ground targets with either integrated strator that could be launched by the shuttle or sensors or deployed surveillance satellites. atop an expendable booster. A year later it is •Deployment of space control micro satel- designated the X-40. At the same time NASA lites for key surveillance and intelligence mis- is evolving concepts for its Future-X program, sions in a crisis. aimed at developing future reusable launch ve- •Rapid replenishment of constellations by hicles. NASA reserves the X-37 designation the small satellites that can be carried in the for use later as it does conceptual work on its X-37B payload bay. X-34, which will later be turned over to indus- try for possible commercial development. Top priority •1998: Initial X-40 auto-land drop tests Payton stresses that obtaining cost and work- from a UH-60 helicopter at 9,000 ft take flow data once the vehicle is back on the place at Holloman AFB, N.M. ground will be especially important. •1999: NASA selects a Boeing proposal to ”The top-priority technology demonstra- use the X-40 as the basis for its Future-X tion is, on this first flight, the vehicle itself. pathfinder program, with the vehicle redesig- Getting it into orbit, getting the payload bay nated the X-37A. Built by Boeing, the X-37A doors open, solar array deployed, learning is a 20% larger version of the X-40 design be- about on-orbit attitude control, and then gun with the Air Force. bringing it all back. •2000: The Air Force agrees to partici- ”But probably the most important dem- pate in the X-37A program and gives NASA onstration will be on the ground, once we get the X-40 for ambitious drop tests from The X-37B test vehicle is readied the bird back: to see what it really takes...how 15,000 ft. The tests, which employ air data for ground testing. USAF photo. much it really costs to do this turnaround on and software developed by Boeing and

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NASA, use a CH-47D helicopter to drop the The X-37B completes its rollout X-40 seven times. on the runway after a drop test. USAF photo. •2001: More drop tests are completed, but cost factors compel the Air Force to pull out of the program. NASA continues to plan for an X-37A orbital test mission that could be deployed from the space shuttle as early as 2002. A plan is also drawn up to launch the vehicle in 2006 atop a Delta II booster, then later on an Atlas V with a nose shroud cover- ing the spaceplane. •2003-2004: NASA, facing cost issues, is reevaluating the need for any space test of the X-37A. But in late 2004, DARPA agrees to take the craft. space and designated the X-37B orbital test •2006: After adding more avionics to the vehicle. A USAF statement says the OTV’s X-37A, DARPA begins its own series of tests objectives will be “risk reduction, experimen- on the Scaled Composites White Knight car- tation, and operational concept development rier aircraft that has dropped the Space- for reusable space vehicle technologies, in ShipOne commercial manned suborbital vehi- support of long-term developmental space ob- cle. In April 2006 it makes its first drop test jectives.” Aspects of the project are also clas- from the White Knight. sified. The vehicle then enters preparation for •2007: By early 2007 the Air Force is launch into space, and a second vehicle is also moving ahead with a new plan to develop a procured to give the USAF an initial robotic variant of the drop test vehicle, to be flown in spaceplane fleet.

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25 Years Ago, November 1985 in Washington, D.C., and the signals are sent by wire to the Naval Research Laboratories at Stump Neck, Md. From there they are transmitted by microwave Nov. 27 Payload specialist Rudolfo to the passive Echo balloon satellite nearly 1,000 mi. above Earth. The signals are Neri Vela, the first Mexican astronaut, then bounced off the satellite and picked up by the tracking antenna of Bell flies on board the shuttle Atlantis. Telephone at Holmdel, N.J. The Aeroplane, Dec. 2, 1960, p. 744. The mission, STS 61-B, launches Morelos B, Mexico’s second satellite. Nov. 12 The Discoverer XVII reconnaissance satellite is launched into a polar orbit NASA, Astronautics and Aeronautics, from Vandenberg AFB by a restartable Agena-B second stage. It is the first flight 1985, pp. 329, 339-340. for this upper stage. E. Emme, ed., Aeronautics and Astronautics 1915-60, p. 130.

50 Years Ago, November 1960 Nov. 14 Discoverer XVII’s capsule is successfully ejected after 31 orbits and is captured at 9,000 ft Nov. 3 Explorer by an Air Force Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar carrier VIII is successfully plane. This is the second recovery of this type from launched by a Juno space. E. Emme, ed., Aeronautics and Astronautics II. Shaped like a 1915-60, p. 130. spinning top, the satellite is designed Nov. 14 Umbaugh Aircraft of Ocala, Florida, to investigate the demonstrates its Umbaugh 18 two-seat Gyro- radio-reflecting copter at Los Angeles. The Aeroplane, Nov. 25, layers of the Earth’s 1960, p. 703. ionosphere and to observe the effects of solar flares and other cosmic Nov. 15 A North American X-15 hypersonic rocket disturbances that affect radio research plane (No. 2) is flown for the first time with its Reaction Motors Division, communications. The Aeroplane, Thiokol Chemical, XLR-99 rocket engine, which provides 57,000 lb of thrust. The Nov. 11, 1960, p. 640. plane reaches an altitude of 80,000 ft and a speed of Mach 2.9 as flown by A. Scott Crossfield. E. Emme, ed., Aeronautics Nov. 6 The USSR and Astronautics 1915-60, p. 130; The publishes the Aeroplane, Oct. 21, 1960, p. 552; D. world’s first atlas Baker, Flight and Flying, p. 373. of the far side of the Moon, based Nov. 15 The solid-fuel Polaris fleet ballistic missile becomes operational when the on photos taken USS George Washington leaves Charleston, S.C., with a load of 16 A-1-type Polaris by the Soviet Lunik, intermediate-range ballistic missiles. U.S. Naval Aviation 1910-1980, pp. 240-241. or Luna III, launched on Oct. 4, 1959. E. Emme, Nov. 21 During preparations for a test of the unmanned Mercury-Redstone (MR-1) ed., Aeronautics and Astronautics space capsule at Cape Canaveral, the pylon-mounted escape rocket inadvertently 1915-60, p. 130; D. Baker, Spaceflight fires and tears loose from the capsule while the Redstone launch rocket, with the and Rocketry, p. 95. capsule, remains in place. The Aeroplane, Dec. 2, 1960, p. 745.

Nov. 10 The first extended-range A2 Nov. 23 The Tiros II weather satellite is sent aloft by a Thor-Delta rocket. The model of the Polaris missile lifts off 14th satellite launched by the U.S., it transmits nearly 1,000 pictures within five from Cape Canaveral, Fla., and travels days. The photos are successfully sent to receiving stations at Fort Monmouth, 300 mi. in a test flight. The Aeroplane, N.J., and San Nicolas Island, Calif. E. Emme, ed., Aeronautics and Astronautics Nov. 18, 1960, p. 694. 1915-60, pp. 130, 132.

Nov. 11 The first successful trans- Nov. 30 A cow is reportedly killed in Eastern Cuba by space debris, a fragment mission of a letter through space of a Thor-Able Star rocket that went out of control after its launch from Cape takes place when a “Speed Mail” letter Canaveral. The rocket was to have launched a new Transit navigational satellite is sent via the Echo satellite. The letter and a smaller research satellite but was blown up by the range safety officer. The is scanned by a facsimile transmitter Aeroplane, Dec. 9, 1960, p. 783.

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An Aerospace Chronology by Frank H.Winter, Ret. and Robert van der Linden National Air and Space Museum

75 Years Ago, November 1935 Birmingham is fitted with an Nov. 3 President Franklin D. Roosevelt awards the Air Mail Flyer’s Medal of 83-ft-long platform. The experiments Honor to seven U.S. air mail pilots. Medals go to Edward A. Bellande, TWA, for continue, and on January 18, 1911, landing a burning plane safely; James H. Carmichael Jr., Central Airlines, for Ely completes the first landing and safely landing his plane in the dark after one engine had dropped off with part of takeoff from a ship, the USS the undercarriage; Gordon H. Darnell, Braniff, for safely landing his burning plane Pennsylvania, which is some 13 mi. and retrieving the mail before the plane exploded; and Wellington P. MacFail, out to sea from San Francisco. C.H. American Airlines, for bailing out with the mail after the aircraft’s Gibbs-Smith, Aviation, p. 156; Flight, single engine came off. Three other pilots who performed similar acts Jan. 28, 1911, p. 67. of heroism are also honored. The Aeroplane, Nov. 27, 1935, p. 652. Nov. 23 Octave Chanute, one of the Nov. 11 Capts. Albert W. Stevens and Orvil A. Anderson, both of great aviation pioneers who influenced the Army Air Corps, reach the highest altitude ever attained by the Wright brothers, dies at age 72. humans as they take their stratospheric balloon, Explorer 11, to In 1894 the French-born Chanute 74,000 ft. The 3.5-million-ft3-capacity balloon is inflated with published his classic Progress in Flying helium.Taking off near Rapid City, S.D., they fly for 8 hr 12 min, Machines, earning him the title of landing about 340 mi. away at White Lake, near first aviation historian. He undertook Aurora, Neb. The Aeroplane, Nov. 20, 1935, p. 645. gliding experiments and contributed greatly to the Nov. 13 Jean Batten becomes the first woman to make a solo development flight across the South Atlantic, landing her De Havilland Gypsy of control Moth at Natal, Brazil, after a 13-hr, 5-min flight from Dakar, systems, having Senegal. Aero Digest, Dec. 1935, p. 58. invented the wire wing Nov. 21 The USSR claims the world altitude braced structure record by an airplane as Vladimir Kokkinaki, a that was later 31-year-old former stevedore, flies a single-seat, adopted in single-engine biplane to a height of 47,806 ft. The aircraft biplanes and flies 62 min and lands with empty fuel tanks. Kokkinaki sets a became the dozen aviation records in his lifetime and dies, in 1985, as one nucleus of wing warping. Chanute of the most decorated Soviet airmen. The Aeroplane, Dec. 4, became a special mentor of the 1935, p. 701; The New York Times, Jan. 21, 1985. Wrights. Aero (St. Louis), Nov. 23, 1910, p. 3. Nov. 22 The Martin C-130 China Clipper flying boat of Pan American Airways leaves San Francisco And During November 1910 on the first of its scheduled mail and passenger services across 7,000 mi. of the Pacific Ocean to Manila. Capt. Edwin Musick commands a crew of seven. Two tons of mail are aboard the flight, which stops at Honolulu, Midway, Wake Island, and Guam. The run takes six days, with 60 hr of actual flying time. Passenger service will begin in the autumn of 1936. The Aeroplane, Nov. 27, 1935, p. 671; R. Bilstein, Flight in America 1900-1983, pp. 92-93. The German military purchases five or 100 Years Ago, November 1910 six aircraft and then, in December, orders 20 Etrich monoplanes from Nov. 14 The birth of the aircraft carrier is said to start Austria. France also begins acquiring with the first flight of Eugene B. Ely in a Curtiss from military aircraft in the summer of the deck of the modified cruiser USS Birmingham 1910 and by December has 35. The at Hampton Roads, Va. For this experiment the Aeroplane in War, pp. 27, 42-47.

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The Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering in the Viterbi School of Engineering at the University of Southern California seeks outstanding individuals to fill the endowed chair Choong Hoon Cho Chair in Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, with specific emphasis on aerospace and aeronautics. Candidates must have an outstanding research record, a strong interest in teaching, and the proven ability to supervise undergraduate, graduate, and post-doctoral researchers, and to develop a funded research program. We seek individuals with research experience and accomplishments commensurate with the rank of professor. The AME Department has 28 full-time faculty, including two members of the National Academy of Engineering. The Department offers programs leading to the Bachelor of Science degrees in Aerospace Engineering and in Mechanical Engineering and to graduate degrees of Master of Science, Engineer, and Doctor of Philosophy. The USC Viterbi School of Engineering is among the top tier engineering schools in the world. It counts 168 full-time, tenured/tenure-track faculty members, and it is home to the Information Sciences Institute, two National Science Foundation Engineering Research Centers, a Department of Energy EFRC (Energy Frontiers Research Center), and the Department of Homeland Security’s first University Center of Excellence, CREATE. The school is affiliated with the Alfred E. Mann Institute for Biomedical Engineering, the Institute for Creative Technologies and the USC Stevens Institute for Innovation. Research expenditures typically exceed $160 million annually.The University of Southern California (USC), founded in 1880, is located in the heart of downtown L.A. and is the largest private employer in the City of Los Angeles. Application Process Instructions Qualified candidates must have a PhD or equivalent and a strong record of scholarly achievement, leadership experience, and a research record covering at least some area of specialization in aeronautics. Applications must include a letter clearly indicating area(s) of specialization, a detailed curriculum vitae, a one-page statement of current and future research directions and funding, and contact information for at least four professional references. Interested applicants should mail applications to: Faculty Search Committee Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering Viterbi School of Engineering University of Southern California 3650 McClintock Avenue, OHE 430 Los Angeles, CA 90089-1453 Please visit the Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering website (http://ame-www.usc.edu/) for further information about the department or the application process.

USC values diversity and is committed to equal opportunity in employment. Women and men, and members of all racial and ethnic groups, are encouraged to apply.

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The Aerospace Engineering Department at the United States Naval Academy invites applications for two tenure-track Assistant Professor positions commencing in August 2011. Higher grade tenure-track appointments will be considered for suit-able distinguished records.The Naval Academy is an undergraduate military institution dedicated to developing midshipmen mentally, morally, and physically for careers as Naval and Marine Corps officers. The Naval Academy is committed to increasing the diversity of its faculty to reflect the demographic changes of the U.S. population and, in particular, the U.S. Navy. To enrich the education of the midshipmen by faculty members with diverse life experiences, the Naval Academy strongly encourages and welcomes women and individuals from minority groups to apply for these positions in the Aerospace Engineering Department. The successful applicant must have a doctoral degree in aerospace engineering or a closely related field along with demonstrated research ability, a strong commitment to undergraduate teaching, and excellent communications skills. The Department seeks applicants from all aerospace disciplines with particular emphasis for one position in space systems engineering and further emphasis in either astrodynamics or space structures. Applicants from all aerospace disciplines will be considered for our second position. Some industry experience in aerospace systems development is desired, but not required. Candidates are encouraged to submit promptly, but applications will be accepted until the position is filled. U.S. citizens or permanent residents are preferred. Applications should include curriculum vitae, description of research/scholarly interests, and names, address, and phone numbers of three references. Send applications to:

Prof. Daryl Boden Faculty Search Committee Aerospace Engineering Department Stop 11B 590 Holloway Rd. United States Naval Academy Annapolis, MD 21402-5025

The United States Naval Academy is an equal-opportunity, affirmative-action employer, and provides reasonable accommodations to qualified applicants with disabilities.

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Arizona State University Faculty Positions in Aerospace Engineering and Mechanical Engineering

The Fulton Schools of Engineering at Arizona State University (ASU) are seeking creative and entrepreneurial faculty who have backgrounds and interests aligned with our research themes and passion for educating and mentoring the next generation of engi- neers. Our research themes include energy, health care, sustainability, security, exploration, and engineering education.

This year, we seek applicants for tenured and tenure track faculty positions with particular interests in aerospace propulsion; aero- space and marine vehicle control, dynamics, flight mechanics and structures and robotics; and sensing for autonomous networks and systems. The faculty appointment is expected to be in the Aerospace Engineering or Mechanical Engineering programs.

Appointments will be at the assistant, associate or full professor rank commensurate with the candidate’s experience and accom- plishments, beginning August 2011. Faculty members are expected to develop an internationally recognized and externally funded research program, teach graduate and undergraduate courses, advise students, and undertake service activities. The originality and promise of each candidate’s work are higher priorities than the specific sub-area of research.

We will also consider how each applicant might leverage University investments that promote interdisciplinary teaching and re- search, including the Global Institute of Sustainability (http://sustainability.asu.edu), the High Performance Computing Initiative (http://hpc.asu.edu), and the School of Earth and Space Exploration (http://sese.asu.edu).

Required qualifications include an earned doctorate in engineering or a related field, demonstrated evidence of research capability and commitment to teaching excellence, as appropriate to the candidate’s rank. Review of applications will begin November 1, 2010 and continue until the search is closed. To apply, please submit a current CV, a statement describing your research and teaching interests, and contact information for three references to [email protected]. Please address questions to the Search Committee Chair, Professor Ronald Adrian ([email protected]).

The Fulton Schools of Engineering at Arizona State University (ASU) are seeking creative and entrepreneurial faculty having back- grounds and interests aligned with our research themes and who have passion for educating and mentoring the next generation of engineers. Our research themes include energy, health care, sustainability, security, exploration, and engineering education.

In particular, we seek applicants for a tenure-track/tenured faculty position in the area of smart/active/self-healing materials and structures, with emphasis on candidates whose work relates closely to one or more of the broader themes described above. The faculty appointment is expected to be in the Aerospace Engineering, Civil Engineering, Materials Science and Engineering, or Mechanical Engineering programs. Appointments will be at the assistant, associate, or full professor rank commen- surate with the candidate’s experience and accomplishments, beginning August 2011. Faculty members are expected to develop an internationally recognized and externally funded research program, teach graduate and undergraduate courses, advise students, and undertake service activities. The originality and promise of each candidate’s work are higher priorities than the specific sub-area of research.

We will also consider how each applicant might leverage investments by the University in promoting interdisciplinary teaching and research, including the Center for Solid State Science (http://lecsss.asu.edu), the Global Institute of Sustainability (http://sustain- ability.asu.edu), the High Performance Computing Initiative (http://hpc.asu.edu), and the School of Earth and Space Exploration (http://sese.asu.edu).

Required qualifications include an earned doctorate in engineering or related field, demonstrated evidence of research capability and a commitment to teaching excellence as appropriate to the candidate’s rank. Review of applications will begin November 1, 2010; if not filled, it will continue weekly until the search is closed. To apply, please submit a current CV, a statement describing your research and teaching interests, and a list of, and contact information for, three references to smart.materials.faculty@asu. edu. Please address questions to the Search Committee Chair, Professor Pedro Peralta ([email protected]). Current information regarding this position is also available at http://engineering.asu.edu/facultypositions.

Arizona State University is an equal opportunity/affirmative action employer. Women and minorities are encouraged to apply.

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Faculty Position MECHANICAL &AEROSPACE ENGINEERING OKLAHOMA STATE UNIVERSITY (Design, Solid Mechanics & Structural Mechanics) A tenure track faculty position at the level of Assistant Professor or Associate Professor is available beginning January 2011, or later, starting date negotiable. Oklahoma State University has a strong commitment to grow both the quantity and quality of our engineering research programs. With 24 faculty lines and 180 graduate students, mechanical and aerospace engineering annual research expenditures will soon exceed $200K per tenure track faculty member. Applicants should have teaching and research interests in the general area of design, solid mechanics and structural mechanics, with a plan for development of a research program in an emerging or rapidly developing area. Excellent experimental skills are required, together with good analytical and computational skills. It is expected that the successful candidate will have the desire and ability to teach courses at the undergraduate level, in mechanical design, aircraft structures, Hope. engineering design, and similar courses, and courses at the graduate level commensurate with his/her research interests. An earned Ph.D. in engineering is required, with a preference for either mechanical or aerospace engineering. Successful candidates must have demonstrated potential for excellent teaching at undergraduate and graduate levels, and for developing a strong externally funded research program in areas where there are excellent possibilities for competitive When Heartbreak Turns to Hope, You’re There. extramural funding. Good communication Down the street, across the country, around the world skills, both oral and written, as judged by faculty and students, are essential. —you help save the day. Every day. Applications accepted until the position is filled. Send letter of application, statement When you give blood or provide a hot meal to a disaster victim, on teaching interests, philosophy, and approach; statement on plan for developing train in first aid or help a member of our military, a research program, including securing extramural research funding (including you reach out your hand. It’s at that moment—when heartbreak specific program officer contacts made with funding agencies) for at least two turns to hope—that you’re there through the American Red Cross. projects; curriculum vitae; and list of five references to: Your help is needed now more than ever. Visit www.redcross.org.

Dr. Raman P. Singh, Chair Solid Mechanics Search Committee School of Mech & Aero Engineering 218 Engineering North Oklahoma State University Stillwater, OK 74078-5016

Women and minority applicants are strongly encouraged. Oklahoma State University is an affirmative action/equal opportunity/E-Verify employer 1-800- RED CROSS | redcross.org committed to diversity.

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