BARA DI KARTA TRAIL Tourist Route As a Catalyst for Rural Development, the Case of Washikemba, Bonaire

BARA DI KARTA TRAIL Tourist route as a catalyst for rural development, the case of Washikemba, Bonaire

Andrea Hulsebosch BARA DI KARTA TRAIL

Tourist route as a catalyst for rural development, the case of Washikemba, Bonaire

2016 Wageningen University Andrea Hulsebosch MSc Thesis Landscape Architecture LAR-80439 Washikemba, Bonaire – Wageningen, the Netherlands Routing as a catalyst for development, the case of Washikemba, Bonaire Supervisor/ examiner:

© Wageningen University, 2016 Dr. Ir. Ingrid Duchhart Assistant Professor Landscape Architecture A.C.M Hulsebosch Wageningen University [email protected] Registration number: 890516375060 ...... Illustrations displayed are created by the author unless indicated otherwise. Signature Date All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written Supervisor: permission of either the authors or the Wageningen University Landscape Architecture Chairgroup. This publication is written as a final master thesis in Dr. ir. Klaas Metselaar landscape architecture by order of the Chair Group of Landscape Architecture at Assistant Professor Soil physics, ecohydrology and groundwater department Wageningen University. Wageningen University

Landscape Architecture Chairgroup Phone: +31 317 484 056 ...... Fax: +31 317 482 166 Signature Date E-mail: [email protected] www.lar.wur.nl Reviewer:

Postal address Ir. Annet Kempenaar Postbus 47 Assistant Professor Landscape Architecture 6700 AA, Wageningen Wageningen University The Netherlands

Visiting address ...... Gaia (building no. 101) Signature Date Droevendaalsesteeg 3 6708 BP, Wageningen Examiner: The Netherlands Prof. Dr. Ir. Adri van den Brink In collaboration with and supported by: Chair Landscape Architecture Wageningen University

...... Signature Date This research was made possible through the funding of Stichting NH Bos

Commisioner:

Jan Jaap van Almenkerk in cooperation with DRO Bonaire Wayaka advies

Printed by printservice Ede, Ede, The Netherlands Acknowledgement

7i In this report I present you the results of my thesis. I, Andrea Hulsebosch, a landscape architect student at the Wageningen University, worked on this project to finish my master program.

This thesis, which is focused on the rural area of Washikemba, in Bonaire, began with a newspaper article in combination with my fascination for the Caribbean and, in particular, Bonaire, as a result of family members that have settled there or have other links with the Caribbean. Furthermore, touristic developments in rural areas always interested me because I, as a provincial and landscape architect, see that many functions can reinforce each other. The rural area is a place with the potential for ‘smart’ developments between different sectors for a ‘healthy’ and balanced environment. In here I refer mainly to the multi functionality that the landscape needs to possess in order to serve everyone and everybody.

People have helped and motivated me during this thesis and I would like to thank them. First of all: Dr. Ir. Ingrid Duchhart, supervisor of this thesis, I would like to thank you for your enthusiasm, advice, patience and faith in my ability to fulfill this thesis on my own. Further, I would like to that Dr. Ir. Klaas Metselaar for his enthusiasm, support and effort that he put into this research. Further, I would like to thank Jan Jaap van Almenkerk who gave me the opportunity to come to Bonaire and his introduction to the ‘right’ persons. Also, I want to thank Kris Kats for sharing his vision and knowledge during my three months stay (and after I left the island), for showing me around on Bonaire and his commitment to further develop the route after I left the island. Last, but certainly not least, I want to thank my housemates, friends and family who kept on motivating and helping me however they could. Summary

9iii Bonaire, a small island located in the southern Caribbean Sea has an economy that is highly dependent upon diving tourism. Due to climate changes, the quality of the coral is declining. Therefore the politicians of Bonaire have decided to take action and differentiate the tourist product from tourism focused on diving and water related activities towards tourism in the hinter land, in order to maintain the flow of tourists in the future. This diversification needs to be found in new tourist products that fit the culture of the island and contribute to sustainable development. Improving the accessibility of the rural outback is one of the projects that was appointed to steer this sustainable rural development. The DRO has asked me to design a route in the rural area of Washikemba, Bonaire that is supported by local entrepreneurs and inhabitants. In this thesis the dimension of sustainable rural development by ecotourism will be elaborated, in which landscape interventions contribute to environmental, economic and social development of the rural area. I state that knowledge of a landscape is required to steer sustainable development. The research question relating to this statement is the following: what are the crucial issues to consider in designing a route that stimulates ecotourism development and contributes to the improvement of the landscape qualities in the Washikemba area, Bonaire? Different methods were used and executed partly in the Netherlands and partly in Bonaire in order to answer this question. Landscape analysis, Google Earth photo analysis, literature research, fieldtrips and interviews were organized, with the help of the landscape based design approach or the adapted Duchhart model. With a thorough landscape analysis a full understanding of the landscape processes of the study area was generated. The Google Earth was used in order to find locations that have the interest of people (mostly tourists). Interviews were conducted to gain insight about what living on Bonaire entailed, and to include the opinion (and initiatives) value of an area, therefore understanding the landscape is crucial of the interviewees. Also, Dutch travel agencies and the local in order to obtain sustainability. The overall methodology should hotel and tourism association where interviewed to get their be replicable for similar islands that focus upon sustainable rural perspective regarding the development of ecotourism. The development with the help of ecotourism. Google Earth analysis, together with many fieldtrips, interviews and map analysis, has given an overview of the interesting 11vi points, sceneries and activities in the project area. The route connects many of these culture-social and natural qualities and points of improvement, as the aim of the route is to contribute to cultural, economic and environmental development to create a sustainable landscape. The trail has been discussed and tested with stakeholders throughout the process. After fieldwork, the trails have been implemented in the field, together with the creation of a website and a documentary. There are locations along the route that can be improved to make the area more accessible, workable and open for experience as revealed after analyzing the route with a theoretical lens. Some of the challenges can be overcome with suitable equipment, others need political interventions, cultural changes and sustainable landscape designs. A hike trail in the Washikemba Valley has been further elaborated, resulting in interventions that steer (culture-social and natural) development both for short term and long term.

The interventions involve a parking lot, a viewpoint and dam that are integrated in a landscape plan. The landscape plan provides recommendations for environmental, economic and social development. Also, an extension of the current route network and integral implementation of interventions by phasing is provided. The final result and answer to the research question are several actions – methodological and physical- to improve the cultural- social and natural qualities of the rural area of Washikemba in a sustainable manner. For the development of a (touristic) route it is essential to know the location of landscape elements that are interesting for both tourists and locals, and to guide users along these attractions and points of interest (with routing). Furthermore is offering facilities and settings to improve the accessibility and workability of a route and landscape seen as major condition as well. Design interventions at strategic points can be used to overcome challenges and to enlarge the economic Contents

13viii Acknowledgement Summary

Fascination 1- 14 1.0 Introduction 3- 14 1.1 Rural Development Plan, Bonaire 4- 6 1.2 Changing role of the rural landscape 6- 7 1.3 Introduction of Bonaire 8- 9 1.4 Problem statement 10 1.5 Projects within the POP 11 1.6 Outline of the report 12- 14

Research structure 15- 50 2.0 Research design 18- 38 2.1 Knowledge gap 18- 19 2.2 Aim 19- 20 2.3 Research questions 21 2.4 Strategy of inquiry 21- 23 2.5 Landscape Architecture lens 23- 25 2.6 Strategy and methods 25- 36 2.7 Significance 36- 38 3.0 Theoretical framework 39- 50 3.1 Tourism 40- 41 3.2 Ecotourism and sustainable development 41- 42 3.3 Routing for rural development 42- 43 3.5 Designing a route 43- 44 3.6 Criteria to become a destination for leisure 44- 45 3.7 Sustainable tourism development guidelines 46- 48 3.8 Summary of theoretical concepts 49- 50 Insights on Bonaire 51- 104 10.0 Sustainable development of the Washikemba area 129- 172 4.0 Bonaire, an island of contrasts 53- 62 10.1 Theoretical perspective on the route 130- 132 4.1 Link economic pillar and nature 54 10.2 Points of departure 138- 139 4.2 Bonaire: small but delicate 55 10.3 Analysis of the Washikemba valley 138- 139 4.3 Taking possession 56 10.4 Interventions in the Washikemba Valley 140 4.4 Changing role of the rural landscape 57- 58 10.5 Parking and crossing the Washikemba Valley 141- 156 15x 4.5 Upswing of tourism 59- 60 Implementation Parking 143- 150 4.6 Kunuku of today 61 Implementation Dam 151- 156 4.7 Conclusion 62 10.6 Viewpoint Washikemba Plateau 157- 162 5.0 Everyday life on Bonaire 63- 72 Implementation Viewpoint 159- 162 5.1 Exploring Bonaire 64 10.7 Development perspective 163- 172 5.2 People on Bonaire 65- 66 Fencing off the Washikemba valley 170 5.3 Daily rhythm 67- 68 ‘Self-sustainable’ fence 171 5.4 Local food 69 Further routing in the rural outback 172 5.5 Small scale markets 69 5.6 Carnival and other festivals 70 Reflection 173- 188 5.7 Conclusion 71- 72 Conclusie 175- 180 6.0 The landscape 73- 86 Discussie 181- 185 6.1 Landscape analysis 74 Recommendations 186- 188 6.1 Geology 75- 76 6.2 Soil 77- 78 References 189- 192 6.3 Hydrology 79- 82 Appendix 193 6.4 Landscape unit map 83- 86 6.5 Conclusion 86 7.0 Tourism analysis 87- 98 7.1 Activities on the island 88- 90 7.2 Google Earth analysis 91- 92 7.3 What is actually there 93- 94 7.4 Ecotourism development on Bonaire 95- 97 7.5 Conclusion 98 8.0 In between conclusion of the analysis 99- 104 8.1 Starting points 100-104

Igniting the rural area 106- 172 9.0 Routing Washikemba 108- 128 9.1 Routing in the Washikemba area 108- 109 9.2 Points of interest in the Washikemba area 109- 113 9.3 Strengths and weaknesses 114- 115 9.4 Landscape analysis zoomed in 116- 117 9.5 Designing the route 118- 128 PART I FASCINATION

FASCINATION Bonaire is an island located in the southern Caribbean Sea known for its amazing coral reefs, colourful marine life, balmy climate and relaxing people and atmosphere. These characteristics are also the main reasons, why tourists see Bonaire as a holiday destination, but Bonaire has so much more to offer, as this thesis will reveal. 1.0 Introduction

194 This chapter is an introduction to the topic of this thesis “the rural landscape of Washikemba, Bonaire”. The civil service the Public Domain of Bonaire Section Spatial Development (Dutch: Openbaar Lichaam Bonaire, Directie Ruimte en Ontwikkeling or DRO) stated: ecotourism will serve as a catalyst for the rural landscape of Bonaire, and simultaneously improve and preserve the quality of the countryside (Openbaar Lichaam Bonaire, 2010; 2013). The Public Domain of Bonaire Section Spatial Development (from now on referred to as DRO) is the commissioner of this thesis. DRO had the practical assignment to develop hike, car, and mountain bike trails in the area that lies between road Kaminda Lagoen and Kaminda Lac, from now on indicated as Washikemba, as displayed in illustration 1.

1.1 Rural Development Plan, Bonaire The policy document of Rural Development Plan Bonaire (Dutch: Platteland Ontwikkelings Plan Bonaire, hereinafter referred to as POP) is compiled by the DRO and contains multiple projects. Among others is the development of tourist routes in the rural outback of Washikemba. The POP is a written explanation and elaboration derived from the earlier established policy map: Spatial Development Plan Bonaire (Dutch: Ruimtelijk Ontwikkelings Plan Bonaire, hereinafter referred to as ROB). In order to achieve the objective (create circumstances for sustainable development), the overall aim is to develop the rural area in a sustainable manner towards a more attractive region, both for locals and tourists. In order to reactivate the rural area the accessibility needs to be improved. According to the DRO, routing is the best way to improve the accessibility of the rural outback and therefore forms the starting point of this thesis, as DRO has asked me to identify the most attractive route throughout the rural outback of Washikemba. View on the rural outback of Washikemba, photographed from the hill Bara di Karta. The section starts with the fascination that I, as a landscape designer and researcher, have for the changing rural landscape and its relation with recreation and tourism. Thereafter an overall context will be delineated in order to be able to introduce the challenges that occur in the area; also the policy document from where the assignment is formalized is elaborated, followed by my 5 6 perspective on these problems. 1.2 Changing role of the rural landscape O’Rourke stated in Oliver and Jenkins (2010) that rural landscapes and functions within these landscapes are changing. ‘The rural’ is no longer synonymous with agriculture, but it is a rapidly changing concept that is reflected in the landscape as well as in rural demography, employment, mobility and Illustration 1 | The island consumption (O’Rourke, 1999). Termorshuizen and Opdam Bonaire and project area (2009) have further elaborated by stating that “citizens and Washikemba 0 1 3 6 km companies are challenging farmers by demanding that the

Chapter 1: Introduction 1: Chapter landscape should provide more functions than food production The earlier drafted policy documents (POP and ROB) are part alone” (Termorshuizen and Opdam, 2009 P.1037). This implies of the umbrella project ‘Wilderness Protection Caribbean that landscapes are expected to fulfil many functions at the same Netherlands’ (Dutch: Natuurgelden Caribisch Nederland) that time. This changing (role of the) rural landscape is something aims to invest in the overdue of nature maintenance. Investing that intrigued me as I grew up in the rural landscape in the north into nature protection creates opportunities to improve the of Holland, as a daughter of a bulb grower. quality of the nature as well to create, strengthen and connect other subjects with nature preservation. For example, sustainable Even though agriculture is still a highly important economic post agriculture, goat husbandry, touristic facilities in nature areas, in this region, I have experienced that farming needs to share its water retention and agreements on sustainable material, position with other functions such as urban and infrastructural maintenance, waste and waste water management. Furthermore, sprawl, water retention, nature conservation and recreation. the aim of the project is to improve the employment The changing rural landscape and the role of recreation in this opportunities of the inhabitants and to create awareness about landscape is further explained by Brinkhuijsen: “With agricultural the human impact on nature. The umbrella project ‘Wilderness production losing its dominance in the highly urbanized countries Protection Caribbean Netherlands’ has three main themes: with service- and communication based economies, it is not coral conservation by control of erosion, sustainable usage of surprising that leisure and tourism are considered as important nature (e.g. by improving the accessibility) and creating synergy economic supports of future rural economies, both in the between nature, land use (agriculture) and tourism. Netherlands and elsewhere” (Brinkhuijsen, 2008. P.26). This thesis studies the landscape perspective of a tourist route In the same study it has been said that “...the countryside is and how landscape architectural interventions along a tourist being adjusted to meet leisure needs and wishes for two reasons: route could steer sustainable development. Therefore, the to provide green leisure environments in urbanized regions and to objective of this thesis is ecotourism development throughout support rural economies” (Brinkhuijsen, 2008. P.28). The United landscape architecture. Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has added: “Tourism has continued to gain importance in economies where traditional 1.3 Introduction of Bonaire activities are in crisis, notably in the agricultural plantation This study focuses on the rural area of Bonaire, a special sector” (UNEP, 2015). municipality of the Netherlands. The island is part of a chain of This movement is of course not only present in the Netherlands islands in the southern Caribbean Sea along with the islands but appears everywhere in the world where developments take Curacao and Aruba, also known as the ABC Islands or Leeward place. islands. Bonaire is known for its amazing coral reefs, colourful marine life, balmy climate and relaxing people and atmosphere. Since my family lived in Bonaire for a couple of years and some The people that inhabit this island have historically been coping family members still have a direct relationship with the island with the whims of nature, rulers and today with tourists. Every through social projects, I knew, alongside the many wonderful year the island attracts over 82,000 tourists, who mainly come to stories and pictures, quite a lot about the communal problems, the island to scuba dive and snorkel (CBS, 2014). Besides (dive) 7 degrading landscape, culture and history of the island. That is 8 tourism Bonaire’s economic pillars are the salt production and oil why I was surprised that the rural landscape is not fully exploited transshipment for both Venezuela and Curacao. even though it has so many potential for future development of As with many islands in the Caribbean ocean, Bonaire’s economy the island and solving today’s problems. is highly dependent upon tourism related activities, i.e. diving, surfing, and visits to the mangroves and other nature reserves (Eco) tourism could serve as a catalyst for further sustainable (Uyarra et al., 2004). Most of these touristic attractions are water developments. This has also been acknowledged by Oliver and related and therefore centralized at the (south) west side of the Jenkins: “Rural tourism goes beyond simply complementing island, the coastal area. This area (and in particular Playa or traditional activities such as agriculture, and can act as a catalyst Kralendijk) has developed over years in favour of the tourists. for a whole range of new entrepreneurial activities, partnerships and networks” (Oliver and Jenkins, 2010. P.295). Though the aim

Chapter 1: Introduction 1: Chapter of tourism is to support the rural (local) economies, this aim is often not achieved. As explained by UNEP in most all-inclusive package tours, about 80% of travellers’ expenditures go to the airlines, hotels and other international companies (who often have their headquarters in the travellers’ home countries). The expenditures do not go to local businesses or workers (UNEP, 2015). This concerns mainly mass tourism, ecotourism on the other hand is a small-scale tourism that enables the economic and social development of local communities (Fleischer and Felsenstein, 2000). Though I do not have a background in economy, I believe that new design and development strategies could aim for more benefits for Bonaire’s economy and society throughout ecotourism in the rural outback.

Illustration 2 - 3 | The island Bonaire compared to Venezuela and project area Washikemba on Google Earth. Sillignakis argues that tourism is the fastest growing industry in 1.4 Problem statement the world as supported in the equivalent article of Sillignakis by Since 1979, 100% of the waters surrounding Bonaire and its the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) which explains that satellite island, Klein Bonaire, have been protected to 60 m “tourism is the world’s largest industry generating 12% of the depth, with the status of National Park (Uyarra et al., 2004). global gross national product and it employs around 200 million Still the quality of the coral of Bonaire and worldwide is declining people worldwide” (Sillignakis, 2007. P.1). every year due to climate change. As underlined by van Beukering, “the declining quality of the coral reefs on Bonaire follows a global trend. About 27% of the world’s coral reefs in 2000 were in such a degraded state that recovery was highly unlikely” (van Beukering, 2013. P.12). It is expected that this number of damaged coral is going to increase even further 9 (van Beukering, 2013). For an island such as Bonaire which 10 is highly dependent upon coastal marine related tourism, this forms a serious threat. Especially because the declining quality of coral means that the future of the diving industry is uncertain which puts the economic pillar at stake. Therefore Bonaire needs to change its strategy towards tourism. Maintaining the natural areas as they are today and improving the quality of the landscape above water, is of great importance for the future of the island (tourism) and its inhabitants. Illustration 4 - 6 | Tourism DRO has decided to focus on the differentiation of the tourism on Bonaire: beachclubs, cruise industry in order to remain the flow of tourists for the future. tourism and diving Chapter 1: Introduction 1: Chapter “The diversification needs to be found in new touristic products, who simultaneously fit the culture of the entire island” (De Meyer and MacRae, 2006. Stinapa, 2003. P.41 translated by author). Sustainability has priority due to the fact that the island has profiled and branded the touristic sector as ecotourism over the past decade (Zuidgeest, and van Maarseveen, 2011; Openbaar Lichaam Bonaire, 2012; Tourism Corporation Bonaire, 2014). The contrast between the well-developed tourist area along the coast, and the (not yet) exploited rural outback of the island, is apparent. The rural outback is facing serious challenges: pollution, erosion, (illegal) excavations, larceny and destruction of goods, degradation of landscape elements and the quality of nature by free roaming goats and donkeys. The Public Domain of Bonaire has become aware of signalised this development and consequentially has written the Rural Development plan of Bonaire (Dutch: Plattelands Ontwikkelings Plan or POP) for the island. 1.5 Projects within the POP 1.6 Outline of the report In the POP it has been written that the rural areas need to be The first part of the report (fascination) is an introduction to developed in a sustainable manner towards a more attractive the research and Bonaire. In this first chapter I explain my region for both locals and tourists. (Openbaar Lichaam Bonaire, fascination with the multi-functionality of the rural landscape and 2010. Translated by author). As displayed in illustration 7, my link with Bonaire. I have given a short introduction of the multiple projects are prepared and submitted within the POP to island Bonaire and elaborated on the difficulties that the small create more sustainability on the island. All these projects serve island is facing today. The consequences of these problems for to transform and reactivate the (rural) area in a sustainable Bonaire and in a wider context were framed. This was followed by manner and solve the problems that occur. problem establishment. POP Playa East is specified in this thesis as the Washikemba region and forms the case area for this thesis. With the The second part of the report (research structure) consists of 11 realisation of potential car roads, hike and mountain bike tracks two chapters; Theoretical framework and research design. The 12 the aim is to improve the accessibility in the rural outback of second chapter: research design, starts with my perspective the Washikemba area and to stimulate sustainable touristic of how I am looking at the aforementioned problems and development. my worldview as being a researcher. This is followed by an explanation of the aim. The missing information and limitations are elaborated in the knowledge gap. From there the research objective and research questions are outlines, resulting in the practical assignment raised by the commissioner, followed by the main research question that will be answered by several Illustration 7 | Projects Rural supportive questions. These questions will be answered by Development Plan using multiple research methods and strategies. The theoretical

Chapter 1: Introduction 1: Chapter framework is an exploration of the theoretical concepts, providing work definitions and previous research relevant for this study in landscape architecture or closely related to the landscape and functions within the landscape. Since DRO has commissioned a development direction (ecotourism development via routing), different theories about tourism, ecotourism, sustainability, leisure landscape, routing and networks have been reviewed in chapter three to create a solid starting position.

In the third part (Insight to Bonaire) the context of the island will be framed and important moments in the timeline of the island will be further elaborated in chapter 4. In chapter 5, I will explain the everyday life of the inhabitants, including the local food, outdoor activities, culture and the role that tourism plays in daily life. Chapter 6 is the map study that elaborates the analysis on Bonaire and the Washikemba area. Chapter 7 is the tourism analysis that includes both the current activities indicated on the map as well as a Google Earth analysis of what people post on the internet. This is followed by chapter 8, the conclusion of the analytical chapters. The fourth part of the report (Igniting the rural area of Washikemba) can be divided into two chapters; starting with a landscape analysis and an analysis on the attractions in the 13 Chapter 2: Reseacrh strusture laid outinchapter13. the recommendationsonmultiplefacetsofthisresearchwillbe the used theories and the thesis process (chapter 12). And finally, questions whichisfollowedby thediscussionandreflectionon In partfive (Conclusions),chapter11willanswertheresearch and phasing. development plan, withaproposedextensionofthecurrenttrail designs, sectionsandatmospheres,followedby aregional presented inchapter10,thatincludesseveral studies,detailed sustainable development alongtheroutewillbeexplainedand in chapter9.Theproposeddesigninterventions tosteer Washikemba areaandresultinginaroutethatwillbeelaborated 14 PART II RESEARCH STRUCTURE

RESEARCH STRUCTURE The following two chapters describe the structure of the research as performed in this thesis and the terms and related theories that form the theoretical starting notions. 2.0 Research design

3318 The previous chapter introduced the challenge in this thesis: designing a route that improves the landscape qualities and stimulates ecotourism development. This chapter describes the aim of the research, followed by the limitations. From here the knowledge gap is set, together with the research questions which will be used in an attempt to reduce the gap. With these research questions I try to tackle the problems that occur in the rural landscape of Washikemba by using applied strategies and multiple research methods.

2.1 Knowledge gap First the limitations of the research will be explained, then earlier research about related topics executed by Wageningen University and others will be outlined and then this is followed by the information that is still lacking.

The research knows some limitations- First there are the Limitations challenges that are briefly mentioned by the DRO in the POP. For an outsider like me it is essential to see the interrelationships of challenges, and to find my problem to focus on as a landscape architect, therefore it is necessary to integrate in the culture. Further, very few (topical) map data is available, much of the data is outdated and often not digital. The maps that are available are on different scales and not accurate. The map analysis forms therefore an extensive part of the preparation of the fieldwork. This material needs to be produced before any conclusions about the landscape can be drawn or suggestions for rural routing can be made. Lastly, the landscape architecture profession is still a relatively unfamiliar compartment in Bonaire resulting in the lack of knowledge and understanding of what the discipline incorporates. Dive spot ‘1000’ steps Previous In recent times, within the department of Landscape Architecture accessibility. This is therefore the direct aim of this research. research at Wageningen University, other MSc and PhD theses have been In order to be able to answer this question and to find a new written which incorporate landscape theories in developing balance between people, nature and the tourism industry, countries. Previous research within the aforementioned the first thing to investigate is the manner these systems department executed by Borstje and Tak (2013) displayed the work and are interrelated with each other. The first two options for sustainable tourism development in the coastal associated subquestions touch upon the topic of ‘landscape’, Understanding landscape of Croatia, van den Berg and Koens (2011) had as understanding the landscape is essential in order to see the the landscape a focus on sustainable coastal development, and Lucassen interrelationships between the cause and effect. Therefore it is (2015) studied the pilgrimage route. Brinkhuijsen (2008) first essential to investigate how the landscape system works and studied design for leisure in the Dutch countryside. In literature what the qualities or challenges are. about tourism much attention is paid to different approaches Secondly, as both locals and tourists will use the route, it is 19 towards tourism development, especially when it comes to crucial to get an overview of what landscape elements have the 20 developing countries (Roessingh et al., 2008). In this thesis the interest of the user. Ecotourism as dimension of sustainable rural development by ecotourism will Third, it is necessary to get an overview of what Bonaire has a catalyst be elaborated, in which scientific theory on leisure, landscape already achieved, what the different stakeholders perceive as architecture, acupuncture interventions and incentives contribute possible development directions for the rural area and how does to environmental, economic and social development of the rural it impact their way of living. area. Finally, the aim of DRO was to develop the rural area in a Much research related to the semi-arid belt climate islands or sustainable manner. Therefore it is essential to know how countries in this region has been executed, for example research developments can be steered in a sustainable manner and where about the soil erosion, degradation and purification of the coral potential development locations are situated. reefs in relation with the extensive stock breeding and climate Clustering activities and attractions and developing routes along change or implications of climate change for tourism- dependent these interesting points has been described as the catalyst for states (Coblentz, 1980; Borst and De Haas; 2005, Uyarra, 2004). economic and social development, since it could add to the stay

Chapter 2: Reseacrh design Chapter 2: Reseacrh Though these problems are present in the project area, these of tourists. This means: using design strategies whereof Bonaire’s researches are mainly focused on the effect it has on the coastal economy and society can benefit both for short and long term, shore and marine life and does not address (or relate this with) and the lessons learnt can be applied to other comparable (semi- the outback of the islands. arid climate) islands. Furthermore, it could form an additional Furthermore, the research often addresses problems or solutions source of income and can be of cultural interest for locals. or draws conclusions but does not display the overall picture and The eventual aim is to develop a more sustainable landscape interconnections. This knowledge and solutions are often very system by creating a synergy between nature, agriculture and scientific and hard to implement in the field. tourism and improve and preserve the quality of the countryside for future generations. In order to reach this aim I need to 2.2 Aim understand the landscape and systems to better understand the In order to formulate the main research question and supportive island and find solutions. sub-research questions, the research objectives and goals are outlined. The purpose of this study is to investigate the key aspects required for designing a route that stimulates ecotourism development and contributes to the improvement of the landscape qualities. As explained earlier, DRO has stated: ecotourism will serve as a catalyst for the rural landscape of Bonaire, and simultaneously improve and preserve the quality of the countryside. The commissioner has asked me to develop a route in the rural area as a starting point in order to develop and improve the 2.3 Research questions The island has been inhabited for over 1000 years therefore, The practical assignment of this study is to improve the local knowledge can contribute to the solutions of the problems. accessibility of the rural area by developing new touristic routes. As each person sees, feels and understands the physical world differently, and gives individual meaning to moments and places, The main research question in this study is: it is important to understand the relationships on and in-between the islands and to derive knowledge about the problem (Creswell, What are crucial issues to consider in designing a route that 2009). stimulate ecotourism development and contribute to the Since the local economy is dependent on tourism, it is important improvement of the landscape qualities in the Washikemba area, to involve this group of actors (the tourists) in the perception Bonaire? study about the qualities of the landscape as well. I assume that the readers of the research seek to understand the world in which 21 Supportive questions: they live in and its development, as this is something that I seek 22 to accomplish as well. As a researcher I position myself within To answer the main research question, six research questions are the social pragmatic worldview by always regarding research as outlined: problem-centred and considering the consequences of the actions (Creswell, pp. 6, 2009; Lenzholder et al., 2013). The social • How does the landscape system works? pragmatic worldview is typically seen as an approach of mixed • What are the qualities and challenges of the rural landscape of methods research with which I identify myself by seeking to Washikemba? understand the broad topic of the research – developing a more • What landscape elements have the interest of tourists and sustainable landscape system by creating a synergy between locals? nature, agriculture and tourism and improving and preserving the • What are the perspectives of different stakeholders regarding quality of the countryside for future generations. This is carried the development of ecotourism in the Washikemba area? out as a researcher using both qualitative and qualitative data • What theoretical framework can steer the developments of the as it provides the best understanding of the problem (Creswell, Chapter 2: Reseacrh design Chapter 2: Reseacrh Washikemba area in a sustainable manner? 2009). • What are the potentials for further development in the Washikemba area? Postpositivism Constructivism Table 1 | Four Determination Understanding worldviews of Creswell, 2014 Reductionism Multiple participant meanings 2.4 Strategy of inquiry Empirical observation and Social and historical Social Given the challenges and context of the island the research measurement construction pragmatic can be placed in a social pragmatic worldview. I will use all Theory verification Theory generation worldview approaches available to understand the problem (Creswell, 2009. P.10). The involvement of stakeholders is a valuable Transformative Pragmatism research strategy as they have more experience with the area Political Consequences of actions which makes it possible to collect first-hand personal accounts of Power and justice -oriented Problem-centered experience, opinions, attitudes and perception. If developments Collaborative Pluralistic Change-oriented Real-world practice have negative consequences for the future generations, people oriented need to face the consequences of their actions and do something to prevent the negative consequences. However, the methods used in the field study also tend to gravitate towards the social worldview. This worldview is characterized by a strong will to improve society and to empower the people who live in it. As the research can be placed in a social pragmatic worldview, the participation of tourists, locals and other users will serve as consultants to research what their Constructivism perception of the landscape is. As each person sees, feels and plans to ascertain the protection of ecological processes worldview understands the physical world differently, and gives individual and sustainable development” (Duchhart, 2007. Pp.15-16). meaning to moments and places, it is important to understand Understanding the landscape that surrounds us, by unravelling the relationships on and in-between the islands and to derive the layers and discovering the interrelationships, is crucial before knowledge about the problem (Creswell, 2009). Placing this any interventions can be done. research in a constructivism worldview as well. Discovering Barnett theorizes about the role that a designer can play in the landscape 2.5 Landscape Architecture lens establishment of initial conditions. Summarized, it comes down qualities Position The landscape architectural lens, reflects my position as a to that discovering the landscape qualities and characteristics landscape landscape architect. It forms an important starting position for is something that the (Wageningen) landscape architects are architect this thesis since it is based on my personal vision on landscape good at. And these landscape qualities and characteristics could 23 architecture. The landscape architectural lens, determines serve as a potential starting point for (tourism) development 24 how I look at the world (and its problems) and it provides a on multiple scale levels. Conducting a landscape analysis as direction for the research strategy, and methods used in this proposed by Duchhart, (2007); Kerkstra and Vrijlandt (2006) and research. As described by Creswell, “researchers recognize that others, and searching for interrelationships are among others their own backgrounds shape their interpretation, and they tasks that we as landscape architects do and are good at. This is position themselves in the research to acknowledge how their acknowledged by Vroom who states that “landscape architects interpretation flows from their personal, cultural and historical work on different spatial scales, (local, regional and international) experiences” (Creswell, 2009. P.8). As for me, my agricultural in which the activities of the landscape architect are primarily of a background and living in the rural area made me recognizing and spatial character” (Vroom in Duchhart, 2007. P.15). experiencing the freedom and beauty of the rural landscape. As a landscape architect I consider the landscape qualities and Practical As a student in Landscape Architecture at Wageningen University, characteristics as a starting point for tourism development. Starting background this thesis is written from a landscape architectural point of Recognizing these qualities, problems and possible solutions is an point for view. My education in landscape design started with my bachelor development Chapter 2: Reseacrh design Chapter 2: Reseacrh important starting point for a landscape based design approach decree at Larenstein. Since 2011 I have been studying at and is one of the first assignments that I have to tackle. From my the Wageningen University, my education has become more viewpoint as a landscape architect, I acknowledge the importance theoretical, but my personal focus is to apply this knowledge into of the landscape (and the landscape system) in the development practice, and to solve problems. of sustainability. I also believe that people go to visit a place One of the tasks of a landscape architect is to find (and where (different than their home country) to experience the natural needed) add qualities or elements that frame these qualities, and cultural qualities that the landscape offers. And that these without disturbing the natural system. “Form is something landscape qualities historically serve as the basis which motives that rises out of the designers interaction with the landscape, tourist activities. Preserving, and where possible improving, these not something that is imposed on it” (Barnett, 2013, p.229). I landscape qualities is necessary in order to preserve this flow of Landscape believe that this is what we as landscape architects already do, tourists. This has partly been accomplished by the establishment analysis as we do not introduce new shapes but search for solutions that of the Bonaire Marine Park (hereinafter referred to as BMP) that ‘fit’ the landscape by looking at relief and other layers. Barnett protects the Bonaire National Marine Park and the Washington underpinned “landscapes are continually finding new forms Slagbaai National Park. anyway” (Barnett, 2013, p.229) as the landscape is constantly changing, sometimes quickly and sometimes slowly.

Vroom has further elaborated that “a conceptual framework on ecological processes and landscape form are the ingredients of landscape planning. Depending on the geographical conditions, emphasis may be put on design concepts or on management Many bad examples can been given of how tourism is responsible Throughout the research trial, designing is also used as a “...for its wide impacts, on economy, on the environment, on research instrument especially at the second phase of the Research societies and on cultural sites” (Sillignakis, 2007. P.2). As a study. The research through design approach (RTD) is described through design landscape architect, you cannot let this happen. Reading about by Lenzholder et al., (2013) as the designing activity that is these (international) examples has triggered me to do better as a employed as a research method. Furthermore, using the RTD landscape architect and create a dynamic and strategic example with a social constructivist worldview is broadly adopted in the in which tourism contributes to the sustainable development of field of landscape architecture as it addresses socio-cultural the rural landscape. Holding people back for going on holidays is issues that form a crucial aspect in landscape architecture, it is something you do not want and cannot influence, however you mostly embedded in a context and predominantly about ‘problem can shape the circumstances for addressing it as sustainably as finding’ and generating new ‘insights or constructs’ (Lenzholzer possible. As described by Barnett, “humans (designer, community et al., 2013). Frankel and Racine (2010) describe designing as an 25 and client are part of the system” and “if people are part of activity for planning and implementing new products. Sketches, 26 the system they can empowered by working with the system” cross sections, mapping, principal drawing and visualisations are (Barnett, 2013. P. 229). used to investigate the viability of new possible solutions and Research for implementation. For this thesis I use the description of Lenzholzer design et al. who describe designing as “the process of giving form to 2.6 Strategy and methods objects or space on diverse levels of scale” (Lenzholzer et al., 2013. P.121) design is described the results of a design process. In order to understand the basis of this thesis the main methods, The whole research outline, and related methods, is visualized in will be elaborated in this part. illustration 8 on the next page. For researching the objective in this study, a research-for-design (RFD) approach is the strategy used in the first part of the research. Research for design “informs design to improve the quality of the designed artefact and to increase its reliability and Chapter 2: Reseacrh design Chapter 2: Reseacrh such knowledge is then translated by the designer to substantiate the design” (Lenzholzer et al., 2013. P.121). Or as described by Frankel and Racine, “it provides the information, implication and, data that designers can apply to achieve an end result in their design project” (Frankel and Racine, 2010. P.5). In other words: research for design means that all kinds of methods have been used to collect information that supports specific and feasible design solutions and the design itself. This research has provided input to the design of the routing. The design-process and the design as an outcome contains a major part of this thesis and has, according to Frankel and Racine (2010), the most potential to contribute to successful design outcomes. 27 Chapter 2: Reseacrh strusture Research flowchart Research Illustration 8| 28 Organise the The landscape based design approach or the adapted Duchhart The ‘Duchhart model’ or the ‘landscape based design approach analysis model (illustration 9) is used as an approach to organise the model’ integrates the essential aspect that forms and transforms Landscape analysis. Duchhart has combined the model of Kerkstra and the landscape, time, and indicates what the driving forces can based design approach Vrijland with the model of Kleefmann and added time to it. The be. In the case of Bonaire the driving force is tourism. The model of Kerkstra and Vrijlandt is better known as the ‘triplex model illustrates the natural processes (nature) that serve as model’ (Vrijlandt, 2006) and separates the different layers within the foundation for tourism attractions, exemplifying why things the landscape, as well as illustrating the interactions. happen the way they do. The ‘landscape based design approach The model is based on theories from the Wageningen landscape model’ forms the basis for this research, as it is a comprehensive approach and visualizes the relationship between nature, framework to understand the landscape and can be seen as the environment and society. The natural organization is explained in result of the two previous described models. biotic and abiotic layers and forms the basis for the existence of The dual nature of the model is used to divide research methods 29 flora and fauna. into a physical part, focused more on human and natural 30 systems and patterns, and a cultural part that focuses on the Kleefmann’s model links the physical aspects of landscape, social forces that influence the natural processes, namely the Understand the including soil and vegetation, to social aspects, such as culture human experience and behaviour in the landscape. Ultimately, to landscape and history, and is a different model to explain the relationship understand what processes shape the landscape. between different layers within the landscape. The model considers nature as a self-regulating system as the society Besides the aim to understand, this analysis serves to recognize Recognize system is based on driving forces (cultural, political and the spatial and physical qualities and challenges of the area. spatial and physical economical). These qualities and challenges are often present where different qualities The natural substratum can be divided into biotic and abiotic layers (biotic, abiotic, occupation, cultural, political or social and subsystems and are closely interrelated through ecological system) meet and form interesting points. These interesting challenges structures and laws of nature. points have potential to be included in the routing but sometimes Illustration 9 | The society substratum can be divided into 3 subsystems, namely need architectural landscape interventions to improve the quality, The landscape based design

Chapter 2: Reseacrh design Chapter 2: Reseacrh economic, cultural and political subsystems which are closely experience or to solve challenges and frictions. approach with the addition related according to the principle of social organisation. These of time, adapted Duchhart systems must move in the same direction and work together. If model friction evolves between the systems, problems will occurring, as the balance between the systems is disturbed. 31 Chapter 2: Reseacrh strusture Map analysis along theroutearedetailed designs,thatwillbesketched and be seeninthefollowing partsofthisthesis.Theassemblages could beplacedincontext orfurtherresearchedindepthascan driving theroutemultiple timesby car, difficulties alongtheroute is thereforeusedasaresearchmethod.Through sketching and research process.Theroutinghaschanged multipletimesand Designing isavery muchintertwinedprocessintheentire viability canbemeasureddirectly. depth. Thisisrelevant fortheproposedphysical interventions, as process thecaseareaanddetailswillbeanalysed morein- with abioticlayers, andthereforeexplained.Further, inthedesign landscape andstructuresasobserved problemscanberelated image oftheresearcharea.Italsohelpsto have agripon the Analysing thelandscapeandsystemsonmapscreateaspatial detailed). area, Washikemba, andtheassemblagepoints(whetherornot from thisanalysiscontributetotheroutedesignincasestudy forces behindthedevelopments ontheisland.Theconclusions together andcouldforminterestingpoints.Aswellasthedriving an understandingofwheredifferentlandscapesystemscome soil, geomorphology, ecologyandlandusethereby give The landscapeunitmapwilldisplay theinterconnectionbetween maps, pictureandexplanationswhichcanbefoundinappendixI. the landscapeunitmap. Thelandscapeunitswillbeclarified by the assemblagepoints.Anotherresultofmapstudywillbe goals, ideas,systems,interrelationshipsandthelocationsof development ofaproblemtree,mappingthepriorities,changes, The landscapeanalysisconsistsof, amongothers,the intervention scale. resulting inalandscapeanalysisoftheisland,projectareaand principle. Afterthefieldworkthiswillbeeditedandwidened fieldwork started,firstorganisingthenatural organisational Roughly thelandscapeanalysiswillbeexecuted beforethe due tothelimitationsthathave beendescribedinchapter2.0. analysis willbeexecuted inmultiplephasesduringtheresearch and crosscheckingseveral mapsandsources.Thelandscape public. Thereforethesemapsneedtobeproducedby combining information isoutdated,ondifferentscalesornotavailable for that thereislimitedaccesstodigitaldataandmuch(hardcopy) conducted tounderstandthelandscape.Itshouldbementioned from islandscaletothedetailedlevel ofthe Themapanalysiswillbeperformedondifferentlevels, varying kunukus andis easily accessiblesource. to communicateinformationanddevelopments; thereforeitisan engine isthefactthatthisforumfor politiciansandcitiz and Lahkar, 2010).AnotherreasonforusingGoogleasthesearch performing andmostefficientenginefor Internet searches(Deka Google was usedforsearching greyliterature, asthis isthebest database forpeer-reviewed literature (Sciverse, 2012). search forscientificliterature isScopus,asScopusthelargest framework. Thebibliographic databasethatwillbeusedto their expertisehasbeenreviewedinordertobuildatheoretical Ingrid DuchhartandRene van derDuimrelatedtothetopicand Also, literature recommendedby, amongothers,KlaasMetselaar, topic relatedtermsusedinthepolicydocumentsorliterature. identify searchterms.Thelistisoccasionallycomplementedby Using synonyms fromthewebpage‘thesaurus’hashelpedto concept andresearchquestionshave beenincludedinthesearch. Keywords andsynonyms relevant totheresearchproblem, (Deming andSwaffield, 2011. P.146). keywords, databases,searchenginesandothertechniques” The samplingframe is, therefore,generated, andlimited,by relevant toagiven researchproblem,concept,orquestion. literature search.Thetargetpopulationincludesallpublications review reliesonahighlyfocusedsamplegenerated througha documents. DemingandSwaffield explainthat“theliterature reports arereviewedtodistillatethechallengesfrompolicy Additional greyliterature, suchaswebsites,touristbrochuresand landscape andpeople’s behaviour. Scientific articles, raw dataandbooksareusedtoanalysethe strategies ofinvestigation” (DemingandSwaffield, 2011. P.144). and Swaffield, aliterature reviewis“usedtodescribea variety of research ontheinternetandinlibraries. Asdescribedby Deming the commissionerandsupervisors,therehasbeenathorough will beexecuted. Besidesthedocumentsthatareprovided by related to)Bonaire,aliterature studyandsecondaryresearch geology, geomorphology, landuseorothertopicsabout(or To gaininsightaboutwhathasbeenwrittenthehistory, researched atdifferentscalelevels. ens Bonaire. about secondary research addressed inliterature and red indicatesthesocialtopics model, The adaptedDuchhart Illustration 12| Bonaire. about secondary research addressed inliterature and red indicatesthenaturetopics model, The adaptedDuchhart Illustration 11| secondary research. addressed inliterature and and relatedtoBonaire red indicatestopicsabout model, The adaptedDuchhart Illustration 10| research secondary study and Literature 32 33 Chapter 2: Reseacrh strusture fieldtrips. as experienced inthe red indicatesthelandscape model, The adaptedDuchhart Illustration 15| uploaded onGoogleEarth thephoto’s the analysisof appreciated by touristsin red indicatesthenaturetopics model, The adaptedDuchhart Illustration 14| their socialsystem. look atthelandscapdueto red indicatestheway people model, The adaptedDuchhart Illustration 13| photo analysis Google Earth Field trips the landscapethrough theeyes ofalandscapearchitect,it is Since everyone perceives thelandscape differently, and I see things thatstayed withmeorwereimpossibleforto explain. I willexplainwhatthe fieldtripshedlighton,whatthegoal was, also reflecttheresultsoflandscapeanalysis. Inthejournal The hikes andfieldvisitswillbedescribed inajournal,which architecture” (DemingandSwaffield, 2011. P.66). describe siteorplaceinventories as“anintegral partoflandscape the reasoningbehinditwillbeanswered.Deming andSwaffield, different landscapetypologies areandtransitions andwhatis I see,whereandwhy, whatthehotspotsare,wherere talked aboutandfindanswerstoquestionssuchaswhat do Fieldtrips alsohelptounderstandandidentify locationsmost the area,aswelltoexperienceandperceive thelandscape. Fieldtripsarenecessaryinorderto‘know’andunderstand in locationsandphotostaken. culture, whichispossibleby explainingthedifferentpreferences and lifeontheislandcontainshowitdiffersfromDutch to getafeelingofwhattheCaribbeanculture,nature,people As Ilived ontheislandfora couple ofmonths,thenIwas able area was determinedby countingthephotos. location ofthepopularplacesonislandandwithinproject and like tovisit.Priortheclassificationofphotos, on theislandandtofindoutwhichareaspeopleattractive locations canbefoundtoindicatethescaleandtype oftourism objects. Inthisway thequalitiesinlandscapeandpotential to understandwhatmakes it‘special’regardingthelocationor analysis itisimportanttodescribewhatinthepictureand the popularplacesandattractions ontheisland.Inphoto people Iconsidermyself successfulinobtaininganoverview of photos ofdifferenttopicsthathave beenuploadedby different from asubsequentpointintime.Bycountingtheamountof snapshot ofthatmomentGoogleEarthwhichcanbedifferent Google Earthwherepeopletaglocationswithphotos.Itwillbea online. Inthisresearchinformationwillbesubtracted from you askpeopletotake picturesfromobjectstheylike orpost is actuallyareversed photostudy:normally, asaresearcher, (Martin andHannington2012.P.134). Thisadaptedversion visual, self- reportedinsightsintouserbehaviours andpriorities” of hisorherlifeandinteractions, providing theresearcherwith “Photo studiesinvite theparticipantstophotodocumentaspects of theby MartinandHanningtondescribedphotostudyisused. analysis willbecarriedout.For thisresearchanadaptedversion To gaininsightaboutthequalitiesofandonBonaire,aphoto eventually 18interviews canbefoundinAppendixIII. and forthetimeframe ofthisresearch.Asummarythe as timewas alimitedfactorduringmy stay ontheisland Bonaire of Wageningen andnarroweddowntoamaximumof18persons, persons andwas criticallyreviewedtogether with my supervisors activity, workandpositionontheisland. Thislistconsistedof27 stakeholders tointerview, basedontheinterviewee’s dailies A localpersonwithalargenetworkproposed alistof open endedquestions”(DemingandSwaffield, 2011. P.157). Deming, “depthinterviewsaretypically undertaken one-on-one questions” (Creswell,2009.P.131). Asdescribedby Swaffield and qualitative strategy ofinquirytheinterviewcontainsopenended (Deming andSwaffield, 2011. P.153). As“theresearchisa architecture –includinginterviews,textandobservation” to awiderange ofdatasourcescommonlyusedinlandscape Deming andSwaffield, “theneedforactive interpretationapplies found” (DemingandSwaffield, 2011. P.152). As described by Interpretive strategies are“usedtomake senseofwhatis could contributetotheeconomicsituationoflocals. opinion (andinitiatives) oftheinterviewees.Inthisway theroute the pointsofinterestare,interviewsalsohelptoinclude structured. Asintervieweesmightthinkdifferentlyaboutwhat may ariseduringtheinterview, thentheinterviewwillbesemi- P.102). People telltheirpersonalstoryandasnewquestions attitudes, andperceptions”(MartinHannington,2012. to collectfirsthandpersonalaccountsofexperience,opinions, fundamental researchmethodfordirectcontactwithparticipants, goals. Asdescribedby Martinand Hannington,”interviews area provide anoverview ofthesplans,futurevisionandpersonal life usedtobeandhowthelandscapelooked like. Itwillalso The informationobtainedfromtheinterviewswillillustrate how what doesitmeantolive ontheislandofBonaireenhanced. Interviewswillbecarriedoutinordertogaininsightabout in AppendixII. duration ofthetracks. Asummaryofthefieldtripscanbefound what peopleneedintermsoffacilitiesaswellmeasuringthe helped metoexperiencewhatitisrecreateinawarm climate, I hadmultiplewalks andbicycle tripsaroundthearea.This I experiencedthelandscapealsoinways otherthanby caras representatives ofotherprofessions. interesting todiscussmy findingswithotherstakeholders and their socialsystem. look atthelandscapdueto red indicatestheway people model, The adaptedDuchhart Illustration 16| one-on-one semi structured Open ended Interviews 34 35 Chapter 2: Reseacrh strusture Triangulation Snowballing Informal talks 2009. P.89). Headvisesnot toputparticipantsatrisk,and to respecttheparticipants andthesitesforresearch”(Creswell, underlined, “asresearchers anticipatedatacollection,theyneed especially becauseBonaire’s population issmall.AsCresswell experience andopinionsitisimportantnot toviolatetheirtrust, reviews anddocumentarystudies).Asinterviewees sharetheir (interviews) andsecondarydata(amongothers, literature Two types of dataaregatheredinthestudy, primarydata (Creswell, 2009.P.191). the standpointofresearcher, theparticipant,orreader” validation as“determiningwhetherthefindingsare accurate from to thevalidity andreliability oftheresearch.Creswelldescribed The accuracy ofcollectingandanalysingthedatawillcontribute map studies,observations, fieldvisits andinterviewsareused. research, amongothersmethodssuchas:literature studies, Lastly, triangulationisusedtoincrease thecredibility ofthe tourists. of theterm,wishes,expectationsandneedsthistype of tourism wereinterviewedtohave ahave abetterunderstanding Wageningen University thatareinvolved inthesubjectof(eco) Furthermore, expertsfromtourismorganisationsandwithinthe experts isaprocessthatrepeatsitselfduringtheentireresearch. organisations aswelllocalfarmers.Consultingandtalkingwith concept astheyincludebothprofessionalsfromtheinstitutesand too specifictouseinthisthesis.Expertscanbeseenasawide since notalltheinformationprovided mightbenecessaryoris topic, Ichosetokeep theconversations unstructured.Especially, informal settingandthelackofknowledgemightdifferper narratives. Asthetalkscanalsohappenspontaneousorinan matters like vegetation, water streams,historyandlandscape hierarchy onthe island.Butalso, tofindanswers topractical the available informationandtounderstandthesystem Besides interviewsIhadinformaltalkswithexpertstoincrease information. interviews, asyou talktopeopleandgeteithernewordifferent see snowballsamplingasaway totriangulatethefindingsof informed onthetopic”(DemingandSwaffield, 2011. P.155). I interview forthenamesofotherpeoplewhowouldbewell initial startingpoint,theresearcherthenaskseachpersonthey is explainedby DemingandSwaffield as“having identifiedan persons (DemingandSwaffield, 2011).Theterm“snowballing” composition ofalistpersonsthataremostlikely thekey common approachof“snowballing”isused,togetherwiththe Inordertointerviewtherightpersons(key informants)the 2.7 Significance residents andentrepreneurs theopportunity tostartbusinesses The POPandthedeveloped routeintheoutbackgive the documentary andstarting uptheotherprojects. next stepforDROisthe graphic designofthemap, websiteand be implementedinthe field,includingsignsandfurniture.The before leaving theisland.Afterleaving theislandrouteswill mountain bike trails, andguidinginformationwas presented the ROBandPOP. Thetouristroute,includingproposedhike and of howdifferentprojectscouldworktogether withinoroutside the causeandeffect.Furthermore,itcould serve asanexample knowledge andunderstandingofmutualrelationships between implementation ofthePOP. Thethesiscanbeusedtospread the islandaswelltangibleexamplesof rural development and an elaborated booklet withmapsandextensive researchabout increased theamountof(public)digitaldataandwillofferDRO other futurerural developments ontheisland.Thisresearchhas generates be compiled together will and could serve as a basis for The visuals,plan,maps,postersandresearchthatthisthesis relevance ofthisresearch. which isthenfollowedby adescriptionofthesocialandacademic First, theexpectedresultsofthisresearchwillbeelaborated route. review pointsofinterest)willbeusedtocomeupwiththetourist fieldwork findings(e.g.discussions,multipledrives, testingand it incasetheinformationiscontradictory. Triangulation ofthe of thedatamakes itpossibleputintotopractice, ortoadjust reinforcing” (DemingandSwaffield 2011. P.79). Thetriangulation look forevidencefromdifferentdatasourcesthataremutually of research,triangulationinaresearchdesignmeansthatwe particular phenomenathroughtriangulation...inthecontext sources may alsoprovide greatercertainty andprecisionabout another sourceasdescribedby DemingandSwaffield: “Multiple and comparedwiththeinformationprovided withtheuseof compared. Informationfromonesourcecanbecross-checked interviewees onthesametopic)canbecross-checked and obtain data)–persontriangulation(i.e.interviewingseveral By triangulatingthemethods(i.e.usingseveral methodsto interviews canbefoundintheappendixIV. asked toreactduringtheelaborated interviews. Elaborated respect vulnerable populations.Therefore,participantswere results Anticipated fieldwork of findings Triangulation 36 37 Chapter 2: Reseacrh strusture relevance Social relevance Academic thesis. Also, interrelationships between the systems (for example, Washikemba, oraboutothertopics thatareaddressesinthis digital knowledgeabout Bonaireand,inparticularabout for DROandotherswho areinterestedinlandscapearchitecture relatively unfamiliarcompartment, this thesiswillprovide both For Bonairetheprofessionlandscapearchitectureisstilla is somethingrather new. designs andtranslating abstract visionsintospecificinterventions for sustainabledevelopment. However, applyingthistheoryin discovering of(landscape)qualitiesandwhataretheguidelines role thatalandscapearchitecthasintheestablishment and required forthedevelopment of(sustainable)tourism,the at differentlevels ofabstraction itistheorised aboutwhatis of ecotourism,hasnotyet beenestablished.Furthermore, system fortheprotectionofrural outback,withthehelp financed by fees(Cote,2010,Uyarra, 2010),anequivalent example of‘successfulusersfeeimplementation’asitisfully the BonaireNationalMarinePark (BNMP)isoftencitedasan the situationofBonaireisnoexception fromothers.Although benefits forother(comparable) islandsandprojectareassince developments intherural areaofBonaireandmighthave lacking. Thisstudywouldbeawelcomedfirststepforsustainable as anengineforsustainabledevelopments intherural areais economies canbroadentheireconomy by usingecotourism the knowledgeofhowsmall-scaledislandswithunilateral and criticallyevaluated itssignificanceandeffects.Still,today and many researchershave studiedtheconceptofecotourism Today theadvantages anddisadvantages oftourismareknown research) oftheabstract visionwrittenby theDRO. a practical quiteforimplementation,(supportedby scientific Also, thisthesisisanexample,orperhapsatranslation and interventions. thefrictionwithhelpofarchitectural landscape (part of) the issuesthatcausefrictionandfindsolutionscouldsolv is disturbed.Itwouldbeasignificantresulttoableidentif which meansthatthebalancebetweensystemsandlayers same directionandworktogether. Bonaireisfacingchallenges, and systemsthattogetherformthelandscapemustmove inthe into practical applicablesolutions.Asdescribedearlier, thelayers I hopethatwillbeabletotranslate thescientificknowledge improve thelivingconditionofBonairians. or otherinitiatives linked withtourism.Whicheventually could e y economic benefits. area moreaccessible.Thiscouldeventually have bothsocialand question forthedevelopment ofaroutewhichshouldmake the of sustainabletourismasthisresearchstartedwithaspecific this thesiswillserve asthestartingpointfordevelopment made clearwithrecommendationsforfurtherresearch.Last, the cultural systemthatfringesontheabioticsystem)willbe 38 3.0 Theoretical framework

5540 The following chapter is an exploration of theoretical concepts relevant for this study in landscape architecture, for Bonaire or closely related to the landscape and functions within the landscape. These theoretical concepts form the starting points for this research.

3.1 Tourism As tourism is the main economic pillar of Bonaire, it is essential to understand the concept and role of tourism for the island. Oxford Dictionaries described the term tourism as “the commercial organization and operation of holidays and visits to places of interest” (Oxford Dictionaries, 2015). As described by Grandoit, “tourism was promoted as having two main advantages: a source of income and a basis for greater international understanding. In effect, tourism became the means by which Third World countries with little to offer but nature could accumulate capital, and ultimately develop” (Grandoit, 2005. P.89). But with the growth of tourist industry the negative impacts have also become evident as more pressure is exerted on the environment of the island. The islands which have engaged themselves with tourism are struggling with pollution to coastal waters, the loss of productive reef and sea grass ecosystems, excessive erosion and sedimentation, overexploitation of coastal resources, and a reduction in drinking water quality and quantity (Grandoit, 2005; Wijnen, 2009). These concerns are all discernable in Bonaire. According to Briedenhann and Wickens, the declining economic activity, restructuring of the agricultural sector, dwindling rural industrialisation and out-migration of higher educated youth, has led to the adoption, in many western nations, of tourism as Bonaire as a destination for visitors all over the world an alternative development strategy for the economic and social means that the tourist activity should provide a solid foundation regeneration of rural areas (Briedenhann and Wickens, 2004). for further economic development, and completely preserve the The fact that since the advent of tourism the rural area of Bonaire character of the island in terms of nature and culture (Werven is regenerated has been acknowledged by interviewees A, B van., 2009. P.33 translated by author). According to Dehoorne and C who have experienced this movement themselves in the and Tătar (2013), ecotourism for Caribbean destinations has Washikemba area. Planning for tourism has traditionally been become unavoidable, as it is “a simple strategy to adopt in oriented towards the needs of the tourist rather than the needs of diversifying the tourism offer” (Dehoorne and Tătar, 2013. P.227). the island population (Holder, 1988). Diversifying the tourism offer is necessary to ensure the flow of tourists. Many researchers and politicians are appointing ecotourism or 3.2 Ecotourism and sustainable development sustainable touristic development as a possible development 41 The term ecotourism is part of the main question “What are direction (Cameron and Gatewood, 2008; Christou, 2012). 42 crucial issues to consider in designing a route that stimulate Wall (1997) has argued that if tourism needs to contribute ecotourism development and contribute to the improvement of to sustainable development it must be economically viable, the landscape qualities in the Washikemba area, Bonaire”? environmentally sensitive and culturally appropriate. This has Ecotourism development has priority due to the fact that the been acknowledged by Kiper since he states that “achieving the island has profiled and branded the touristic sector over the aims in ecotourism depends on whether they are environmentally past decade as ecotourism (Hunter, 1997; Zuidgeest, and van and ecologically sustainable and economically applicable” (Kiper, Maarseveen, 2011; Openbaar Lichaam Bonaire, 2012; Tourism 2013. P.785). Kiper sets three criteria for ecotourism. Ecotourism Corporation Bonaire, 2014). should provide environmental conservation, include meaningful As elaborated by Grandoit, “to minimize the effects of tourism community participation and be profitable and self-sustained. Environmentally and ecologically sensitive development on the island ecosystems, the marketing of tourism As there are many definitions about ecotourism, I will describe should be redirected and the Caribbean islands should pursue and economically ecotourism as a sustainable type of tourism that contributes to applicable alternative forms of tourism” (Grandoit, 2005. P.95), Bonaire environmental, economical, social and cultural development of has focused on ecotourism (Abel. 2003). Ecotourism is often an area. I use the description of IISD to describe sustainable referred as “the fastest growing segment of the tourism industry” development as development that meets the needs of the present (Fennell, 2013. P.24). The World Tourism Organisation (OMT) without compromising the ability of future generations to meet Chapter 3: Theoretical framework defines ecotourism in Caribbean Tourism and Development their own needs. as “tourism which leads to management of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological 3.3 Routing for rural development processes, biological diversity and life support systems” (Zappino, The policy document POP reflects the aim to give the rural Accessibility 2005. P.14). Other definitions of ecotourism used in the society outback an economic boost by opening it up for tourism and beyond sun are, among others, sustainable tourism, responsible tourism, offering hiking, car, and mountain bike trails. In the dissertation sand and agro tourism, alternative tourism and rural tourism and covers of Brinkhuijsen the need for opening up landscapes has been beach tourism that goes beyond the traditional activities such as sun, underlined, as “accessibility is a primary condition if one wants sand and beach holidays (United Nations Department of Public to make use of a landscape” (Brinkhuijsen, 2008. P.213). Information, 1994; Briedenhann and Wickens, 2004; Cameron Briedenhann and Wickens (2004) claim that “tourism route roads and Gatewood, 2008; Sillignakis, 2007). As acknowledged can form the catalyst for the sale of local products” and “tourism by Oliver and Jenkins, “rural tourism goes beyond simply route roads are the greatest development tool” (Briedenhann and complementing traditional activities such as agriculture, and Wickens, 2004. P.78). The POP enhanced multiple projects related can act as a catalyst for a whole range of new entrepreneurial to agricultural and/or tourism in order to give the rural outback activities, partnerships and networks” (Oliver and Jenkins, 2010. an economic boost. Zappino explains that the first advantage P.295). Cater and Lowman (1994) notes that alternative tourism is connected to the consumption of food and beverages by the comprises of small scale, locally owned activities. Quality tourism tourists during their holidays (tourism could be considered as an interesting market for the agricultural of singular tracks “because those gave people the freedom to sector). The second advantage is related to the development choose their way” (Brinkhuijsen, 2008. P.224). In the above of all tourism activities by local stakeholders connected to the mentioned research of Brinkhuijsen, she further elaborates that agriculture (e.g. ecotourism, rural tourism, etc.) (Zappino, 2005). “when the consumer culture intensified, the diversity of routes When cross-linking the different initiatives with each other (e.g. gradually expands” (Brinkhuijsen, 2008. P.230). routing with the restoration of dams, agritourism, the production Routing (or as Lynch describes it, paths) is a way to connect Routing and marketing of local vegetables, and nature conservation) the these points of interest and make the area more accessible. It connect point sectors (and inhabitants) could directly benefit from tourism could however also be a tool to develop an area as underlined of interst development in the rural area. by Barnett, who calls routing an initial condition that is crucial and makes it According to Briedenhann and Wickens, the development of for later landscape performance. I interpret Barnett as that we accessible routes and clustering of activities and attractions along the trail as the designers are good at discovering the potentials and 43 in the rural area has many stimulating effects. They further claim shaping the conditions for (sustainable) development, but as the 44 that it stimulates entrepreneurial opportunity, the development landscape is constantly changing we cannot exactly predict what of ancillary services and provides a diverse range of optional is going to happen. Barnett explains: “A landscape never reaches activities. This is in line with the overall vision of the island to an achieved condition – there is no final form” (Barnett, 2013. diversify the tourism product. P.229). The advantages of the development of a route and dispersing the tourists along the trail is underlined by Hill in Briendenhann Duchhart, in turn, calls the route an ‘incentives’ which is an and Wickens as the management of carrying capacity can intervention to develop an area (Duchhart, 2007). In her be facilitated, negative environmental impacts reduced, and dissertation she describes the use of spatial incentives to economic benefits more evenly distributed (Briedenhann and influence the pattern of urban growth. In the research of Wickens, 2004). Duchhart it is shown how spatial incentives can be used as a 3.4 Designing a route. useful strategy for landscape development in Kenya. Multiple researchers have written about the role that a designer 3.5 Criteria for a landscape to become a destination for leisure Discovering has in the establishment of a route. According to Saito, intersting Although opening up the area is a primary condition for points (landscape) architects and (landscape) designers have a key role Attractions Chapter 3: Theoretical framework in creating both every day and scenic experiences for people with accessibility, Brinkhuijsen (2008) also explains that only cross- Facilities natural processes and systems. These (everyday) aesthetics and linking the different initiatives with each other is not enough for Settings judgments can exert a powerful and positive influence on the a landscape to become a destination for leisure. The presence of state of the world and our quality of life (Saito, 2007). Integrating attractions (points of interest) is a prerequisite as well, together every day and scenic experiences in scenic routes has, according with offering facilities and settings to improve the accessibility to Kent and Elliott, enormous potential as it conserves “the and workability of a route. visual resources of a locality and provide memorable experiences Interesting points are created by the complexity that arises through a linking network of natural, cultural, recreational, and between the interaction of horizontal and vertical layers of a historic amenities” (Kent and Elliott, 1995. P.353). Routing is landscape with the addition of time change the landscape at a manner to provide memorable experiences as underlined by particular places. Points of interest itself have been mentioned Saito in the dissertation of Brinkhuijsen “landscape designers in literature numerous times. Points of interest are explained appeared to have a special interest in routes that enabled visitors by Brinkhuijsen as attractions and by Barnett (2013) as an to experience the structure and diversity of a landscape. Routes assemblage. Barnett elaborates further on assemblage points have been marked out right through the different parts of the (or points of interest), explaining that these locations have landscape” (Brinkhuijsen, 2008. P.215). Barnett (2013) agrees potential to develop. With design interventions the development with Brinkhuijsen and Saito by stating that designers are good at of these points can be steered in a sustainable manner. Design outlining interesting points. interventions have been described differently in theory as Brinkhuijsen underlines the importance of networks instead well, for example by Nassauer, (1995) Dunnett &Hitchmough (2004) who describe design interventions as design cues of human intention. Barnett (2013) calls them initial conditions 3.6 Sustainable tourism development guidelines while Duchhart (2007) calls them intentions. Barnett, keeps the Though the term ‘sustainable’ is difficult to define, this has been guidelines rather abstract by not explaining what the intervention attempted by different organisations in various documents that (or as Barnett calls it ‘initial condition’) should include. He only have developed guidelines to steer touristic developments in a states that designers can establish ‘initial conditions’ by adding sustainable manner. (Hunter, 1997; Tanguay and Rajaonson, complexity and letting other forces take over (Barnett, 2013. 2013). Multiple lists are established but it is the list displayed P.228). in the report of the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) which is Brinkhuijsen describes in her dissertation the distinction between mentioned in several studies as the most complete and clear list regional and local landscape designs. Regional landscape (Blancas et al., 2011; Lozano-Oyola et al., 2012; Tanguay and designs contain both elements and areas as leisure destinations. Rajaonson, 2013; Lee., 2014). Examples that are made into attractions are historic objects, the As the list of WTO is extensive, it can be used for any type 45 presence of animals or concentrations of recreational facilities and scale of destinations for creating sustainable recreation 46 (e.g. natural areas, beaches). On the other hand, in the local and tourism, it is however not specifically prepared for spatial Routing as landscape designs, landscape designer used special elements as design. GSTC has concretized these guidelines in spatial relevant intervention destinations or as attractive objects along the route, by putting principles for sustainable recreation and tourism as a comparable emphasis on attractive landscape features. An example of an organisation: EUROPARC federation. In the research of Van attraction (or setting) is a strategically positioned bench (or other der Lee (2014) the spatial relevant principles for sustainable facility) that enables visitors to enjoy the view. Another manner recreation and tourism of GSTC and EUROPARC are summarized to transform landscape features into attractions is by explaining and classified. Subsequently, the duplication are joined together, the characteristics of that specific landscape. The task of the whereof the spatial relevant principles for sustainable recreation Spatial principles landscape designer is to design these interventions in an integral and tourism are taken apart, in order to come to a set of relevant manner so it could steer environmental, economic, social, cultural spatial principles. development. Worth mentioning is that facilities and settings can Van der Lee has then, based on a design experiment in Friesland, be developed into attractions with design interventions. added a new principle to this set of guidelines, specific for The intervention (in this research ‘routing’) is a tool that I as landscape architecture, and divided this list in five clusters a landscape architect use or add to develop the landscape underlining the overlay of landscape architecture and ecotourism. and make things happen within the landscape. The first actual Alongside the set of guidelines, Van der Lee asked herself leading Chapter 3: Theoretical framework intervention for this thesis is to connect the points of interest questions that could serve as a basis for spatial development with routing. The second is to establish facilities and settings to plans focusing on sustainable recreation and tourism. The design improve the accessibility, workability and attractiveness of the principles as displayed do not automatically create a landscape area for the users. I describe the word ‘incentive’ to describe the design, as a landscape design must be designed, which is the impact that the intervention has. In the case of Washikemba, this task of a landscape architect. The spatial principles give a is sustainable development. landscape architect a steering role in sustainable development. The list of van de Lee is translated and can be divided into five clusters (natural and cultural qualities as a basis for recreational and tourism development, experiencing natural and cultural qualities, careful use of natural resources, responsible and interactive planning processes, development of recreation and tourism in accordance with wider context) as displayed in the illustration on the following pages. 47 48 Chapter 3: Theoretical framework

Illustration 17 - 18| Translation of the spatial relevant principles for sustainable recreation and tourism of van der Lee, 2014 3.7 Summary of theoretical concepts A lot has been written about the theories on landscape development by landscape architects. In the illustration below the theoretical concepts relevant for this study in landscape architecture, for Bonaire or closely related to the landscape and functions within the landscape are displayed. As there are no uniform terms, working definitions have been provided as displayed in illustration 20.

49 50 Illustration 19 | Summary of the theoretical concepts used in this research Illustration 20| Working definitions used in this research Chapter 3: Theoretical framework PART III UNDERSTANDING

UNDERSTANDING Understanding the landscape is crucial for a landscape architect as it makes us understand what we observe, for example, the places where people have settled, where they have their kunuku, or sudden altitudes in the landscape. This understanding is obtained with the help of such methods as map analysis, Google Earth photo analysis, literature research, fieldtrips and interviews. 4.0 Bonaire, an island of contrasts

6954 This part starts with a brief explanation and description of the Illustration 21 | island followed by the results of the analysis of the everyday The island Bonaire compared life and landscape (system). For the analysis of everyday life I to Curacao, Aruba and interviewed and talk with the inhabitants of the island and my Venezuela. Adapted from Google Earth colleagues and review the (grey) literature and conduct a photo analysis. Last, I stayed on the island for more than 3 months, so I was be able to observe the everyday life of people. The analysis of the landscape system executed through a map study, together with field visits, interviews, literature and document review. The findings from the fieldtrips, interviews and talks with the inhabitants have contributed tourism analysis. This chapter will briefly introduce the circumstances surrounding the island, including the variety in landscapes, a summary of the turbulent history and the changing role of the rural area as a consequence of the upswing of the tourism industry. In this chapter the findings of interviews, fieldtrips, literature review and talks with inhabitants are elaborated.

4.1 Link economic pillar and nature Bonaire focuses on sustainable (eco)tourism, tourism is the driving force on the island and it is dependent on nature. Nature is a component of the sociophysical organisation (landscape) and dependent upon other organisations within the model. Creating sustainability in other (abiotic, biotic, cultural, political and economic) sub-systems is therefore also necessary. Understanding the landscape and its organisations is therefore crucial to achieve sustainable tourism. Besides achieving sustainable tourism, understanding the landscape, the socio- physical organization, challenges and qualities of the landscape is necessary to answer the research questions and eventually to make a design.

Flamingos are the national symbol of Bonaire, and a real eye catcher in the saltpans (auntbeulahblog.wordpress.com, 2015) 4.2 Bonaire: small but delicate 4.3 Taking possession Bonaire is a varied and interesting island with many extremes in In order to understand the dominant driving forces and to landscape types between the northern and southern part of the organise the analysis (as explained in chapter 2.0 displayed with island. Geology had a strong influence on the geomorphology the Duchhart model), studying the past has proved to be a good of the current landscape of Bonaire. The northern part of the tool as time exposes and transforms the landscape. island is characterized by an undulating landscape with multiple Traces of the first settlers date back to 1000 CE. Bonaire’s earliest Surface: mountains and forms the Washington Slagbaai National Park. inhabitants were the Caquetio Indians, a branch of the Arawak Capital: The south is marked as a counterpart of the north, with its flat who came by canoe from Venezuela (Ezechiels and Huijgers, Kralendijk 288 km2 pink coloured landscape close to sea level and saltpans. The 1992). As with most Caribbean islands, Bonaire has a colonial Inhabitants: 35 km long west coast is, because of its calm water and easily accessible past. It has been a colony of Spain, the Netherlands and England. 12500 11 km wide waterfront, very opportune for both diving and snorkelling. The From 1816 the island was returned to the Dutch. Until 1868 it Language: 55 east coast is the opposite of the west coast. As steep cliffs and served as a government plantation, until the land was sold to Papiamentu 56 heavy currents characterize this side of the island making this private parties (van Beukering, 2013). As with many islands Dutch coastal shore not suited for any water related activities. Still, this over the world, the colonial time left its mark, as described by English coastal shore offers a significant moonlike landscape because of Grandoit: “Within a hundred years of Columbus’ arrival, the the large amounts of limestone that have been raised and left by forests were being cleared for plantation agriculture and virtually storms and tsunamis. Furthermore, it has a large area suitable disappeared. On many of the islands, aquifers and streams dried for agriculture, with traces of colonial times. Examples include up permanently and coral reefs began to suffer the effects of former plantation houses, slave huts at the saltpans, the slave sedimentation from land based erosion runoff” (Grandoit, 2005. trail along the coast and the slave wall. P.91). Alongside these extremes, the island offers a diversity of The capital city and main port of Bonaire is Kralendijk, in Dutch landscapes, such as mangrove forests and inland bays, Koralendijk (of which the name Kralendijk derives from) means contrasting the rough rural landscape with its cacti, thorny ‘coral reef’ or ‘coral dike’. (Daantje and van der Linden, 2011). bushes, trees and caves. The island has a total area of 288 Locals call the capital Playa, which means ‘beach’. km2 and is about 35 km long and 11 km wide. The mountain Rincon is the oldest village on Bonaire, and was originally Illustration 22 - 27 | Brandaris (241m high) forms the highest point. The shortest established by the Spaniards in the early 1500s. Rincon was Variation in landscape types; distance from Bonaire to the mainland of South America strategically nestled within a valley to ward off impending danger saltpans, cacti landscape with (Venezuela) is about 80 km and the distance to Curacao is about from pirates and other threats. In colonial times it was the village saliña, inland bay, cliff in the northern part, empty coastal 50 km (Borst and De Haas, 2005). Bonaire has a predominantly of slaves, as slaves were brought to Bonaire and worked on the

Chapter 4: Bonaire an island of contrast shore in eastern part and hilly easterly wind direction, which explains the shape of many trees. plantations or saltpans. The slaves stayed in Rincon with their National Park. families during the weekend and on Monday the males marched back to work. Today the village is inhabited mostly by Bonairians and it has multiple museums, a restaurant where local food is served, a distillery of Cadushy liquor and multiple hiking and Illustration 28 | Timeline of developments on mountain biking trails. Many tourists pass the village when they Bonaire. visit the National Park. 4.4 Changing role of the rural landscape purposes, is a tradition and many kunukus are family-owned for The climate and geography of the island do not provide a good generations. As interviewee A explains, owning a kunuku used environment for intensive agriculture. From the island’s total to mean that your were producing your own food and being Agriculture on self-sufficient. A couple times a year a number of animals of the kunuku area (28,100 ha) only 2,800 ha (10%) is suitable for rain- Donkeys fed agriculture and another 400 ha is suitable for irrigated herd were slaughtered to provide the family meat (Interviewee as beast of agriculture. Similarly, only 195 ha is suitable for grazing (Scura A, 2014. Personal communication, translation by author). People burden & van’t Hof, 1993). Still, the rural area of Kralendijk and Rincon lived in the kunuku area and the entire family and neighbourhood were originally used for both agriculture and livestock breeding, helped with harvesting and maintenance of the kunuku. Donkeys providing food for the local population. In addition, also fruits and where used as beasts of burden. Bonaire was self-sufficient for vegetables were produced in a small scale for the neighbouring its production of food and could even trade with neighbouring island Curacao. According to De Meyer and MacRae (2006), rice islands. (Interviewee B, C, and D, 2014. Personal communication, 57 production and export of Aloë products used to be an important translation by author) 58 Up to the fifties, goats were kept on thekunuku, monitored Aloe production part of agriculture on Bonaire. Especially the cultivation of Aloë vera in the 19th century for Europe, the United Kingdom and and enforced by the ‘kunuku police’ so people kept their kunuku Kunuku police America. The procees for the production of Aloë is described by fenced and the goats inside their property. After the harvesting multiple interviewees in the following manner: leafs were cut period, owners kept the sheep and the goats on the kunuku so after the rain season and placed upside down in a trough so the the animals could eat the remaining vegetation and fertilize the juice would leak out of the leaves and the collected into a can. ground with their manure. Before the rainy season started (and The juice was then boiled till it became a thick resin and chipped crops were sowed), the sheep and the goats were unleashed to in wooden boxes. (Interviewee B, C, and D, 2014. Personal roam freely in the rural area during the day and they returned to communication, translation by author). The production of Aloë the kunuku in the evening. (Interviewee B and C, 2014. Personal vera came to a sudden standstill after the delusion in the quality communication, translation by author) of the product caused by mismanagement. Today the remnants Goat keeping of this trade are still visible through the presence of Aloë fields, and the ovens and pots that can be found scattered around the island. The kunuku area (or ‘mundi’ as locals like to call the area) has a typically Bonairian agricultural landscape with ecological landscape, cultural and historical values (Openbaar Lichaam

Chapter 4: Bonaire an island of contrast Bonaire, 2013 a and b). Within the Bonairian tradition, agriculture played an important role in the kunuku area as it provided food and meat for many Illustration 31 - 32 | Illustration 29 -30 | Vegetable garden in kunuku families thanks to which people could maintain a relatively cheap Aloë plantation on Bonaire and inhabited kunuku and traditional kunuku land- livelihood. Owning a kunuku, which is a small plot for agricultural scape 4.5 Upswing of tourism Together with this growth came the recognition of the need for The agricultural production has lessened over the years, as the management of the marine life. The result was the creation of the consequence of the dive-tourism niche that emerged in the Bonaire Marine Park (BMP) in 1979. The park is self-supporting mid-1960s on the island because of the island’s natural assets with its operating income being generated by the proceeds from a Bonaire Marine (Parker, 1999). According to De Meyer and MacRae (2006), $25 annual user fee collected by STINAPA from all divers (Parker, Park “tourists started to visit the island when the island government 1999. Washingtonparkbonaire, 2015). Stichting Nationale Parken constructed the first pier in the harbour in 1940, just before the Bonaire (STINAPA Bonaire) is a non-governmental, non-profit airport was built in 1943” (De Meyer and MacRae, 2006. P.13). foundation commissioned by the island government to manage Though the island was ‘discovered’ by tourists in 1940 it took the two protected areas of Bonaire: the Bonaire National Marine over 20 years before tourism became substantial. This happened Park (BNMP) and the Washington Slagbaai National Park (WSNP). Reef protection Capt Don with the arrival of ‘Capt Don Stewart’ who was an ocean As underlined by Wilkinson, tourism became more and more 59 conservationist, a pioneer in diving and a sailor; he was a leading important for the economy “since the 1970’s the economy of 60 person for the development of dive tourism on Bonaire. In 1963, Bonaire and many Caribbean islands had become to a very dive tourism developed into a rising industry and became the great extend dependent on tourism, a situation which was mainstay of the island economy (De Meyer, and MacRae 2006). exacerbated by the impending collapse of export agriculture” As described by Tourism Planning and Research Associates in (Wilkinson, 2009. P.382). Interviewee B has experienced this Parker, “serving the visiting SCUBA divers, snorkelers, yachtsmen transition in person in the late 60s and 70s when the tourism and sun lovers has become the island’s major source of income industry became an important pillar for Bonaire, before then Mid 60’s dive and employment, generating US$64 min receipts in 1996 and Bonaire was only suitable for agriculture (Interviewee B, 2014. tourism supporting approximately 2100 jobs” (Tourism Planning and Personal communication, translation by author). Interviewee Research Associates, 1997 in Parker, 1999 P.242). The number of B further explains that “with the rise of the tourism industry, people lost interest in the kunuku and abandoned them”. But by Kunuku lost tourists increased for many years as underlined by Parker: “For the interest of years, increasing numbers of travellers, primarily from the United leaving the kunuku the landscape elements of the kunuku (e.g. inhabitants States and Europe, have been journeying to this tiny desert windmills and dams) were neglected, causing challenges on local island in the South East Caribbean, approximately 50 miles and regional scale. As the rural outback has lost the interest from the coast of Venezuela, to experience its famous marine- of the Bonairians then these problems are aggravated by the tourism attractions” (Parker, 1999. P.242). That tourism forms landscape quality, which is degrading (due to the large amount an important economic pillar for the island’s economy has been of free roaming goats and donkeys, among others). In the further elaborated by Parker: “The waters surrounding this 112 research of Huijzendveld this effect of these free roaming goats

Chapter 4: Bonaire an island of contrast square-mile dive mecca are home to an extensive system of coral is underlined: “Free roaming goats, especially in large numbers, reefs, and island leaders have followed a very conscious strategy are capable of affecting and altering ecosystems on a permanent basis. Not only terrestrial ecosystems are affected, overgrazing Illustration 33 - 34 | of marketing this natural resource” (Parker, 1999. P.242). Windsurfing and diving of the land also results in a loss of vegetation cover, making the attracts many tourists soil vulnerable to erosion which subsequently causes increased Picture: jibebonaire.com sediment deposition on coral reefs surrounding this land. This deposition of sediment can have adverse negative effects on the coral reefs” (Huijzendveld, 2014. P.7). This is a serious problem since the degrading landscape above sea level also influences the marine life under water, whose the diving tourism and so Bonaire is dependent of. 4.6 Kunuku of today 4.7 Conclusion Today kunukeros; persons who own a kunuku, occasionally go to The island offers a diversity of landscapes, such as mangrove their kunuku, but maintaining a kunuku today is very expensive forest and inland bays, contrasting the rough rural landscape with Free roaming goats and (Interviewee B, 2014. Personal communication, translation by its cacti, thorny bushes, trees and caves. There are especially donkeys. author). Nowadays most kunukeros are living in Playa or Rincon many extremes between the northern and southern part of the and are part-time farmers (Openbaar Lichaam Bonaire, 2013a island. The island has a turbulent history with many different and b). residents and occupiers, including Caquetio Indians, Spanish, The livestock breeding on Bonaire mainly consists of extensive Dutch and England occupiers and slaves that were imported by goat farming. Estimates about the amount of free roaming goats the occupiers to work on the plantations. Today traces of the vary between 25 000 and 40 000 goats and sheep (Coblentz, colonial period are still visible in the landscape; examples are 1980). The cattle mostly walks freely in the countryside or in the former plantation houses, slave huts at the salt pans, the slave 61 nature. (Coblentz 1978; Schofield 1989; Moran 1996; Desender trail and wall. 62 et al., 1999). Nowadays parts of the kunukus are in agricultural The Kunukus have a typically Bonairian agricultural landscape use, some have a recreational function and other kunukus are with ecological, cultural and historical values. The rural area of abandoned and have no function or maintenance (Openbaar Kralendijk and the area around Rincon was originally used for Lichaam Bonaire, 2013 a and b). agriculture and livestock breeding, also fruits and vegetables Although the kunuku played a crucial role in the self-sufficiency of were produced on a small scale for own use and for trading with the family, in 2015 the role of the kunuku has vastly diminished neighbouring island Curacao. The island had a significant position as less than 1% of the fruit and vegetables are grown on the in the world market for the production of Aloë vera. Remnants of Goods island (Interviewee C and D, 2014. Personal communication, this trade are still visible due to the presence of Aloë fields, ovens imported. translation by author). According to CBS, Bonaire imported in and pots that can be found scattered around the island. 2013 goods with a value of $ 165 million, 18% of this amount Today goat keeping in particular plays an important role in the ($29,7 million) was food and living animals CBS, 2013). Most Bonairian culture as the goats roam free on the island together imported goods come by ship to Bonaire and originate from the with the donkeys which were used as a beast of burden in the Netherlands, Venezuela and the United States. From personal heydays of agriculture. As the consequence of the dive-tourism, experience I can tell that the prices of food and products from the agricultural production has lessened over the years. Since Venezuela are considerably lower than the food imported the 1970s the economy of Bonaire has become to a great extent from the Netherlands and the United States due to the cost of dependent on tourism, in particular, dive tourism, which can be transport. Due to the unstable political situation in Venezuela found, on the coastal area.

Chapter 4: Bonaire an island of contrast there is a lack of constituency in the supply of products, which results in the empty shelves at the supermarket. Illustration 35 - 36 | Free roaming goats in rural area and remnants of a former Aloë vera plantation 5.0 Everyday life on Bonaire

7964 This chapter describes the everyday life on Bonaire, it seeks to give an understanding of the diversity in population and a description of the social life, local food and traditions. I was able to get a feeling of the Caribbean culture, nature, people and life on the island when I was living on the island, interviewing stakeholders who have different functions and carrying out literary research and various fieldtrips. By exploring the natural landscape and cultural elements, having meetings and talk to (elderly) locals, the habits and culture (change) became more comprehensible. 5.1 Exploring Bonaire During my 3-month long stay on Bonaire, I stayed in an apartment in the centre of Kralendijk, which is close to the coastal shore, and the city centre. From this location I could easily move around the island by bike because the distances are Snek relatively small. In addition to many trips to the project area Washikemba, I took quite some time wandering around the rest of the island. In order to experience the ‘kunuku life’ as part of Bonairian culture, I interviewed fivekunukeros at their kunuku. Other interviewees I visited at their homes, at their work or (as also part of culture) at a bar, the so-called ‘snek’. In this chapter my findings and impressions of the everyday life of the people on the island based on ethnographic research (observations, interviews and ordinary conversations with inhabitants) are explained. Bonairians, The people on Bonaire can roughly be divided in three groups: makamba’s Bonairians, Makambas and tourists. In order to get a better and tourists understanding of these groups of people, the groups will be briefly introduced. This description is not meant to prototype people and groups but is given in order to indicate the vast between the people and nationalities that live on this small island.

People prefer to stay in the shade during the hottest hours of the day. 5.2 People on Bonaire years to work on Bonaire and then go back to their country of Describing a ‘Bonairian’ is quite hard as Bonaire is a melting origin. Everything is taken care of for this group of people, they Bonairian pot for immigrants whose roots lie in the South America, the have a car, house travel allowance and high salary. For example, Netherlands or Spain and their origin begins around 1000 years the government of Bonaire benefits from the knowledge and ago with the Caiquetio Indians. Today most of the immigrants knowhow available in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, as laws are from the Dominican Republic, Colombia, Venezuela, America, and regulations are in development (Groenenboom, 2009). Peru and China (Groenenboom, 2009) and mostly work in Retired persons or pensionados live often part time on the island tourism, fisheries, trade or government. and stay here during the winter period. Religion (which is mostly Catholic) is important in the life of the Fortune seekers are persons who come to the island for its Bonairians. Every Sunday people go to the church for the service. relaxing atmosphere as they left the Netherlands with the idea The Bonairians are superstitious and they believe in ghosts, to start up a business without the complex rules and regulations 65 which explains the large amount of narratives and rituals. that in the Netherlands. 66 Though the island is surrounded by a beautiful underwater world, Dutch Bonairians are persons that are fully integrated in the the Bonairians do not dive to a great extent. The reasons why Bonairian culture and customs and often left the Netherlands way they do not dive differ, some believe that the water is dirty as before 10-10-10 (before Bonaire became a special municipality of this is the environment where the fish live, others say that they the Netherlands). cannot swim and are afraid to stay under the water or to depend up a tank. Bonairians do however snorkel, swim, windsurf and TCB describes a tourist as “usually a visitor whose stay Tourist like to watch baseball and soccer from the stadium. Windsurfing includes at least one overnight stop in a hotel or other tourist is an especially popular sport with Bonairians and it is a sport in accommodation and, or, a consumer of tourism services” (CBS, which they are (internationally) known to be very good at. 2014). Tourists come to the island to dive, snorkel as well to wind- and ‘Makamba’ is the way for Bonairians to describe people who are kite surf and sunbathe. There are also tours along the island with Makamba “born in the Netherlands and bring Western customs, norms the possibility to visit the National Park, mangroves and cave and values to the island” (Groenenboom, 2009). Furthermore, tours. Many of the resorts have a beach where tourists spend this is also how they call the Dutch with whom they have had a a large share of their day. Most of the tourist head towards the bad experience. There are approximately 1500 ‘makambas’ or boulevard in the evening to have dinner or a drink. Though most ‘white’ Dutch people who live on Bonaire and theycan be divided of the tourists come by plane, cruise tourism is an expanding Chapter 5: Everyday life on Bonaire Chapter 5: Everyday into four groups. Many Dutch people emigrated (part time) to field where the number of visitors varies between 200 and 5000 a Bonaire as Bonaire is a special municipality of the Netherlands day. In 2012, 82 000 tourists visited the island by plane, among and has many Dutch influences and similarities. For many people them 39 percent of the tourists came from the Netherland and 24 the climate and the relaxing atmosphere were the reason to percent from the United States of America (CBS, 2014). Illustration 37 - 38 | Tourists are entertained by emigrate. An Antillean person who has lived for a long period events on the beach, locals of time in the Netherlands is called a Makamba pretu (black prefer the small scale markets Dutchman) (Groenenboom, 2009). The group makambas can be to catch up. divided into four subgroups, namely expats, pensionados, Dutch Bonairians and fortune seekers. The makambas often go to the beach resorts, either in Lac or Kralendijk. Another meeting point is Gio’s, an ice cream shop and cafe in the centre of Kralendijk. They also invite guests over at their homes for a drink and dinner. Expats (or expatriate according the Oxford dictionary is a “person who lives outside their native country” (oxforddictionaries.com, 2015). Besides the tourism industry, the oil transshipment, salt industry, government and construction also offer many job opportunities. Some workers are expatriated for three or more 5.3 Daily rhythm As temperature does not drop much during the evening or the Early in the morning, when I was cycling to the DRO office where night, social life happens on the street. It should be mentioned also my office was located at, the roads where already crowded that the social activities and meetings play a crucial role in the everyday routine of people, inviting people at your home is not Start early with many people that were heading to work by car. It is quiet along the waterfront as the fishermen sail out around 5.00 am common in the Bonaire culture. It is remarkable to see how and return around 11.00 am to ‘clean’ the fish and sell it to local much time people actually spend outside after sunset either on restaurants. boulevards, streets, squares, parking lots, beaches or decks. The Many people head to work by car, very few by bike or foot due to beaches are especially intensely used on Sundays, Bonairians the warm climate and the fact that roads are badly maintained often go to the ‘donkey beach’ and have a barbeque there with and bicycle roads or sidewalks are missing. People do not usually family and friends. The beaches replace the position that the use the public transport since a proper timetable is missing and kunukus had in the fifties. 67 the network is limited. ‘Makambas’ on the other hand often go to wind and kite surf 68 Kids are brought to school and people continue their daily beaches to sport and to have dinner there with friends. Tourists activities. People start work (preferably in a building with air often stay on the boulevard, on their (cruise) ship or in their conditioning) early, around 7.30 am, and then go home to take a hotels. Expats have a more diver way of spending their time. Air conditioning break between 11.30 am and 13.30 pm during the hottest part of A striking conclusion is that population of Bonaire (Bonairians, the day to take a nap or a refreshing swim. Then they head back Makambas and tourist) do not interact much with each other. to work and finish around 5.00 pm. When you are driving your The tourists visit the island for its marine life, they do not visit car and see someone you know, people eagerly press the horn the kunuku as the kunukus are located in the (south) east and and wave to that person. (north) east which is not a suitable place for diving and it is The local bars or the so-called ‘sneks’ open around 9.00 am and a place where you could easily get lost. For a ‘makamba’, the not much later the elderly (and unemployed) men gather under kunuku is often not a place to go to as they could not easily a tree to chat and to drink coffee or beer. The local bars and own a kunuku themselves and there is no reason to go there. sneks are often owned by Chinese families and also offer cheap Bonairians on the other hand do not like the marine life that food. Benches and chairs (especially underneath trees) in the much, they go to the beach to relax and rather stay in the shade public space are very important and are used intensively. Every or go to their kunuku than go sunbathing and diving. Bonairians street seems to have a ‘snek’ and after dinner (around 7.00 prefer the village Rincon above Kralendijk as they perceive it as pm) more people head to these bars for a drink with friends and a touristic destination. Makambas and tourists on the other hand Chapter 5: Everyday life on Bonaire Chapter 5: Everyday neighbours. mostly prefer Kralendijk over Rincon as it has little facilities and Nightlife in Kralendijk is not widespread, there are a number of activities and it is for them ‘just’ a village that they cross when pubs that are owned by Makambas which are visited by young they head towards the National Park. The population of Bonaire Illustration 39 - 40 | Illustration 41 - 42 | locals and tourists. has different locations to stay at and use for recreation. Maiky Snek, a climax for The boulevard, central for the those who love local food and nightlife and a food event on Bonairians having a family one the squares event on their kunuku 5.4 Local food 5.6 Carnival and other festivals The local people have a valuable understanding of their As described by De Meyer and MacRae (2006), “african traditions environment which was at first inhospitable to the settlers and of songs and dance developed within the slave communities. slaves (De Meyer and MacRae, 2006). This has influenced the These songs and dances evolved into festivals and have survived Iguana and goat stew Bonairian kitchen and customs. to become an important part of life and culture on Bonaire” Keeping goats is a family tradition and originally happened on (De Meyer and MacRae, 2006. P.13). The masquerade (which is the ‘kunuku’. Bonairians also kept fish for private consumption in celebrated on the 1st of January) is the biggest national festival dams on their kunuku and went fishing in the sea to provide for on Bonaire held to celebrate a new year. During the festival, their families. The entire family worked on these kunukus in order there are all kinds of performances where everyone dresses up in to provide food during the rainy season. Within the strong family costumes and masks (Groenenboom, 2009). Another festival is ties food and drink plays an important role. Bonairian ‘cuisine’ is the typical Dutch ‘Sinterklaas’, the meaning of the festival is that 69 like the population of Bonaire: a mixture. The dishes are based a saint (Sinterklaas) gives presents on the 5th of December to all 70 on ingredients that were available to the people: goat meat young children. and fish. Some traditional dishes are Funchi (Corn-Meal Mush), Carnival is also an occasion that the Bonairians like to celebrate Sopi di yuana (stewed iguana), yamboo (fish soup), and stoba and it has colourful parades both for children and adults. The di kabritu (stewed goatmeat) (Ditzhuijzen, 2007). Restaurants ‘Simadan’ is a traditional festival which finds its origin as a Carnival such as ‘Rose Inn’ (Rincon) and ‘Maiki Snek’ (East Playa) still celebration of music, song, and dance to mark the sorghum Sinterklaas serve these dishes. The local fruit trees Tamarind and Lamoenchi (maisi chiki) harvest. Sorghum is one of the crops that grows on provide fruits which are used to make refreshing juice. the island and (in former times) provided the people with food. Simadan The festival is held in Rincon and each year the villagers give part of the harvest away to the church which distributes it to the poor Dia di Boneiru 5.5 Small scale markets (Ditzhuijzen, 2007). On the last Sunday of the month a Culture market is held at Another festival located in Rincon is ‘Dia di Rincon’ (30 April) Regatta the Mangasina di Rei (the warehouse of the King) in Rincon. In and ‘Dia di Boneiru’ (6 september) in which food and drinks addition to selling local foods and drinks the market consist of Animals and are important. There are markets and a parade in traditional food free access to the outdoor museum, selling local art, plants and clothing, as a Bonairian version of the Dutch Kingsday. Bonaire’s seeds, presentations and lectures on various topics, music and most prominent sporting event is the annual ‘Regatta’, which is a Souvenirs dancing. Furthermore, there is a monthly agricultural market at sailing competition. The Regatta is considered to be so important Chapter 5: Everyday life on Bonaire Chapter 5: Everyday ‘Kriabon’ which is the farmer cooperation. Animals, plants, food that schools, government offices and businesses are closed and and other items related to agriculture are sold at this market. everyone is at the waterfront to watch the boats. When the tourist season is open, there is a daily market in the centre of Kralendijk where the products of salt, jewellery and Illustration 43 - 44 | other souvenirs for tourists are being sold. Illustration 45 - 46 | Local food iguana stew Local festivals and the monthly market at ‘Sinterklaas’and ‘Dia Di Mangazina di Rei in Rincon Boneiru’ 5.7 Conclusion The people on Bonaire can roughly be divided in four groups: expats, Bonairians, Makambas and tourists. Many people head to work by car and start working (preferably in an air-conditioned area) early, around 7.30 am, and then go home to take a break between 11.30 am and 01.30 pm during the hottest part of the day to take a nap or a refreshing swim. Then they head back to work, and finish at 05.00 pm. The local bars or the so-called ‘sneks’ play an important role in everyday life. Nightlife in Kralendijk is not widespread, social life happens on the street during the evening and night. The people 71 spend their free time at different locations. Bonairians snorkel, 72 swim, windsurf and like to watch baseball and soccer from the stadium, and barbeque on the beach or at their kunuku. The makambas (‘white’ Dutch people) can be divided into four subgroups, namely expats, pensionados and fortune seekers and they spend most of their time at home or at the beach resorts and cafes. Tourists stay at their resort or go sightseeing along the island and go diving or do other activities during the day. In the evening, they often head to the bars and restaurants at the boulevard in ‘Playa’. The population of Bonaire (Bonairians, Makambas and tourist) do not interact much with each other and they all have different locations where they stay at and use for recreation. Agriculture on the kunuku played an important role in the Bon- airian tradition as it provided many families with food and meat which made it possible for people to provide for themselves relatively cheaply. The Bonairian ‘cuisine’ is like the population Chapter 5: Everyday life on Bonaire Chapter 5: Everyday of Bonaire: a mixture. The dishes are made of ingredients that where available: goat meat and fish. Traditional dishes are Funchi (Corn-Meal Mush), Sopi di yuana (stewed iguana), yamboo (fish soup) and stoba di kabritu (stewed goat meat). The local fruit Tamarind and Lamoenchi are used to make juices. Singing and dancing became an important part of life and culture on Bonaire which is reflected in the many festivals, such as the masquerade, Sinterklaas, Carnival Simadan Dia di Rincon and Regatta. Besides the markets on the boulevard that are held for the cruise tourists, agricultural markets are held twice a month where animals, seeds, traditional food and drinks are sold. These markets serve as a meeting points for farmers where they share their knowledge, advice and experience. 6.0 The landscape

8974 This chapter about the landscape analysis of Bonaire addresses several layers of the current landscape. Due to an extensive map analysis, fieldtrips, literature review and talks with experts I was able to understand the landscape. As underlined by Kerkstra en Vrijlandt in the dissertation of Duchhart, understanding the landscape is for a landscape architect crucial as the “landscape is the visible result on the surface of the earth of the interactions between man and nature” (Duchhart, 2007. P16).

6.1 Landscape analysis In this chapter the transformation of the origin of the island towards the island we see today will be explained. First the Volcanic rock genesis of the island (geology) will be elaborated, including a formation clear separation and relation between the volcanic rock formation and the limestone terraces. This geology determines the Limestone current land use and character of the landscape. Due to natural processes and the influence of human beings, the island has transformed over years towards the island we see today. In the case of Bonaire the driving force today is tourism. In the past there were other driving forces that have changed the landscape, such as large scale logging, Aloë vera cultivation, salt mining and eventually agriculture. The model illustrates the natural processes (nature) that are the foundation for tourism attractions. It is based on the landscape approach and provides an understanding of the current structure and land use. The tourist route was an aim imposed to me by the DRO and is a pecuniary planning incentive. However, developing a route requires knowledge and know-how of the area, therefore I have used the landscape based design approach or Duchhart model (as described in chapter 2.0) as a way of analysing the area.

The picture displays the northern part of Kralendijk and shows a variety in landscape units and functions that are linked to this units. 6.2 Geology 1 2 Bonaire was created 100 million years ago through undersea volcanic activity. Sixty million years ago it solidified and deposited rocks rose above the sea level, creating the hilly landscape in the northwest of the island. Limestone terraces formed in a period of sea level rise and fall/ 3 4 or the island itself, wherein coral could grow in shallow water and shaped terraces. The process of the limestone formation creation is displayed in the drawings on the next page (illustration 48).

5 6 75 76

7 8 Illustration 47 | Geological map of Bonaire

9 10 Chapter 6: The landscape

Illustration 48 | Development of the limestone terraces that surrounds Bonaier today The terraces are often separated by clear cliffs, which are formed by the waves and indicate the former water level. The limestone is characterized as a sharp material wherein the pattern of coral is still recognizable. Around the island another reef has formed Illustration 49 - 50 | which the current coral reef of Bonaire and the protected BMP as Patterns of coral in the described in chapter 2.0 and 4.0. limestone and eroded middle limestone terrace

0 1 3 6 km 6.3 Geology The northern part of the island is by far more undulating than the The soil of Bonaire can roughly be divided into Washikemba southern part of the island. The mountain peak of the Brandaris formation, limestone and saliñas. The Washikemba formation (241 m) is the highest point of the island and is located in the is the result of weathered volcanic rock originating from north, the lowest point is the saltpan (4m) which is positioned volcanic eruptions. The name Washikemba originates from in the south. The red circle in the map shows a stiff elevation the Washikemba formation, which is the oldest geological unit in the north west side of Kralendijk, which is also known as the of Bonaire. The Washikemba formation is also present in the sequence of lower, middle and higher terrace. east of the island where the project area is located at. Due to the fact that the Washikemba formation has a fertile top layer called Basalt or Diabase (clayey to sandy) it retains water. This characteristic makes the area suitable for agriculture. The soils of 77 Washikemba can be found in the north and east. 78 The formation of Limestone is evident in the three, relatively flat terraces on Bonaire, which refers to a period of changing sea level. Saliñas are low-lying bodies of water, such as a salt marsh, Illustration 51 | Illustration 52 | spring, pond or lake, and it has a high saline content. Soil map of Bonaire Landscape elevation map of Bonaire Chapter 6: The landscape

0 1 3 6 km 0 1 3 6 km 6.4 Hydrology Because rainfall is seasonal and the bedrock is largely Bonaire and the Leeward Islands have a very complex hydrology porous limestone, the island has few reliable sources of fresh due to their small size and geological structure. The water groundwater and no standing or running fresh water outside the retention capacity of the soil is poor so most rainfall quickly runs rainy season. As Bonaire is an island with limited fresh water off into permanently or temporarily floodedsaliñas or directly into reservoirs, there is a fresh water shortage during most months the sea (Roos, 1971). Any water falling on exposed limestone of the year. Retaining the rainwater is therefore important for swiftly percolates through the rock into the ground water and both (rain depended) agriculture and flora and fauna. Over eventually discharges into the sea as displayed in the illustration centuries, a pattern of kunuku fields, roads,rooien , dams and below. Bonaire is situated in the semi-arid belt stretching tanki’s (Papiamentu for a lower located area to store water) along the northern coast of South America. With an average has developed, together with a variety of half open and closed temperature of 27.5 ° C, and almost constant wind from 6 to 7 vegetation. The semi-arid climate supports short and thorny 79 m / s blowing from (north) east direction, the area has a uniform scrubby vegetation. Due to the hard living conditions (e.g. 80 temperature. The climate is characterized with a low amount of drought, soil and wind) trees grow slowly and stay low. The rainfall and a large surplus evaporation. The rain season lasts vegetation that grows in saliñas and along the coastal shore is from October to January (Augustinus, 2005; Tourism Corporation salt-philic for example the mangroves and shoreline purslane (a Bonaire, 2014). succulent plant). The vegetation is more drought resistant on inland, after heavy rain leafs return to the trees and shrubs and some of the trees start blooming. The extensive system of water streams characterizes the Washikemba formation. Rainwater falls mostly during rainy season and is transported through gullies towards the dams or saliñas. Saliñas are low-lying bodies of water, such as a salt marsh, spring, pond or lake, and have a high saline

Chapter 6: The landscape concentration. These saliñas are filled with rainwater that Illustration 54 | originates from mountains and higher areas, which flows down Principle drawing when there is heavy rainfall. water structure. Water Most of the gullies follow a natural flow from high to low and are streams stream into the salina the result of soil that has been eroded through salt and CO2 of which eventually flows into the the rainwater. sea. Dams are situated along the waterstreams to slow down the stream and retain water. Illustration 55 - 56 | saliña filled with water in rainy season and dry saliña outside rainy season.

Illustration 53 | Geohydrological situation in a schematic cross- section over Kralendijk (west to south), Red arrow indicates infiltration, blue surface runoff When zooming out on the water structure, the water catchment Cultural gullies and dams are built closer to cities and roads for a becomes clear as displayed in illustrations 54 and 60. As water structured and uniform water flow towards low lyingsaliñas. The flows from high to low these water catchments end insaliñas dams are used to accommodate the surface runoff from gullies or other water outlets that eventually leads to the Caribbean into dams. The system of dams is extensive in order to retain as sea. This causes damage to the coral reefs, as in addition to much water as possible for dryer periods. Most dams in the rural water also nutrients and mudflows into the ocean. The capacity area are man-made and constructed of soil. Stone dams are built of saliñas, water streams and dams are therefore of great closer to cities and main roads to retain the water as long as importance for the future of the dive industry. This causes possible and structure the water flow. Dams were originally used problems especially near Kralendijk (which has a relatively high- in rainy season for fish breeding, fruit and vegetables cultivation paved surface) in periods of heavy rainfall. (such as pumpkin and watermelon). Due to the neglect of dams 81 and the unpredictable rain season this is not happening any 82 more. Though retaining the rainwater is important, the earlier mentioned ‘traditional’ water management practices of the rural Illustration 60| Extensive stream system on area, such as dams, have largely fallen into disrepair, reducing Bonaire drains into larger the fresh water retention even further. water bodies before it flows Drought and excessive use has contributed to the desiccation and into the sea salinization of the natural wells. This water can now only be used to drench the goats. De Meyer and MacRae (2006) explain that the wind driven wells which tap into subterranean water basins are scattered around the island and none of them provide fresh water any more. Most are showing signs of nutrient enrichment and/ or salt-water intrusion. Therefore drinking water is supplied through the desaliñastion of seawater by a combined power and Chapter 6: The landscape desaliñastion plant operated by WEB. The POP includes projects Illustration 57 | to check the stage of the wells with windmills and dams as well to Principle drawing repair them. watersystem when the system does not work optimal Illustration 58 - 59 | Dam retains the water in the rural area longer before it follows its way to the salina and makes agroculture possible and the dam is filled by waterstreams running from high to low.

0 1 3 6 km 6.5 Landscape unit map This area can be divided into the kunuku areas of Rincon and Washikemba Soil is just one of the layers that creates the landscape we live Kralendijk, and the Washington Slagbaai National Park. Bonaire volcanos in. When looking more carefully at the map of Bonaire, and com- was originally divided into estates named after countries and bining geomorphology, occupation, hydrology, vegetation, land cities of the world. use and current tourist map, the landscape unit map (illustration The sloping valleys are the kunuku areas that are located around 61) becomes visible. The main domains can be divided into sub- the village of Rincon and east of Kralendijk. units with their own functions, appearance, and characteristics. Washington Slagbaai National Park is located in the North of An elaboration of the landscape unit map is provided in Appendix the island and is characterized by its steep hills and dirt roads. I. The landscape unit map can roughly be divided into three main Washington Slagbaai National Park is the first nature sanctuary domains: Washikemba volcanos, limestone terraces and salty of the Netherland Antilles. It was established in 1969 and covers an area of 5.643 hectares. The park is maintained by the nature Washikemba marshes. Slagbaai 83 organisation Stinapa and is accessible for tourist after paying National Park 84 Illustration 61 | an entrance fee and for tourists with a dive tag (fee charged for Landscape unit map of the preservation and protection of natural areas, including the Bonaire. Saltpans in the south, coral reefs). This large park offers a landscape with mountains, steep hills characterize the beaches and coastal cliffs. The name ‘Washington Slagbaai’ refers National Park in the south, to the time where goat breeding happened on large scale when capital Kralendijk on the the goats where slaughtered, salted and dried on the bay before lower terrace and close to they were shipped to Curacao. An inland lake called Goto meer cities the undulating vertile Goto meer grounds for agriculture contains one of the largest populations of Caribbean flamingos in Southern Caribbean. The sloping valley is located around the village of Rincon and its kunuku fields. Due to the fact that it is part of the Washikemba

Chapter 6: The landscape formation it is a fertile (boulder clay to sandy) valley that retains water more than the limestone formation and is therefore suitable for agriculture. The Leeward Islands have through their small size and geological structure a very complex water management. Underground, particularly in areas of limestone, a Kunuku area constant interaction takes place between the heavily mineralized or brackish groundwater that floats as a kind of lens on the surrounding and underlying seawater. Bonaire has a semi-arid climate, meaning that it is a region that receives precipitation below potential evapotranspiration. As Bonaire is an island with limited sweet water reservoirs, there is a (sweet) water shortage during most of the months. Retaining the rainwater is therefore crucial for both (rain dependent) agriculture and the flora and fauna. This happens partly in a natural manner through natural water streams or gullies and partly through cultural interventions such as dams. Illustration 62 - 64 | National Park, the kunuku area and Lake Goto

0 1 3 6 km Limestone The terraces visible on the island today are former coral, reefs The salt-philic vegetation is due to their shelter, crucial for fauna Shoreline terraces that arose above the sea level as a result of the rise and fall of in the Caribbean Sea as the mangroves are the ‘delivery rooms’ the sea level and / or the island itself, most recently during the for fishes and birds. ice ages. This is evident in the three relatively flat terraces on The shoreline of Bonaire has a very open, and divers landscape. Bonaire. The lowest terrace covers the entire southern tip of Steep cliffs characterize the north, east, and part of the west, the island and parts of the east and north coasts. The terraces the rest of the island has beaches that are covered with fossilized are often separated by clear cuestas (cliffs). The limestone is coral. Because of the tides, a lot of driftwood and waist washes Lakes characterized as a sharp material wherein the pattern of coral is ashore. Many tourists and artist create art towers with the Higher terrace still recognizable. materials they find. The higher terrace is the oldest terrace formed and visible above The lakes can be characterized by their open landscape and Kralendijk in the west side of the island. This terrace is relative purple colours. The salt industry became an important source of 85 small in size compared to the lower and middle terrace. income for the people on the island from the mid-17th century. 86 Middle terrace The middle terrace is the second youngest terrace that is visible. But the lakes have ecological value as flamingos build their nests The terrace is also located around the Washikemba formation. in the nature reserve. Some lakes still have kept their original This formation is subject to erosion, therefore it is descending, seize but many have been enlarged throughout years. making the middle terrace of limestone (which is a harder material than the Washikemba formation and therefore less subject to erosion) visible as a ridge in the landscape. 6.6 Conclusion Lower terrace The lower terrace is the youngest visible terraces on Bonaire Bonaire was created 100 million years ago by undersea volcanic and therefore the terrace closest to the water. Due to the sea activity. The limestone terraces who surround the island are level changes the limestone formation cliffs are contrasting with formed in a period of relatively sea level rise and fall/ or the the sea that surrounds the lower terrace. The lower terrace is island itself, wherein coral was able to grow in shallow water and characterized by erosion, current by its blowholes, nature bridge shaped the 3 terraces.

Chapter 6: The landscape and inlets (boka’s). Furthermore, it is flat and has many parts of The landscape of Bonaire can roughly be divided into three: the coral that have been raised by tsunamis and storms, creating a Washikemba formation, limestone and saliñas. The Washikemba Salty marshes kind of empty moon landscape on the north and east coasts. formation has a fertile top layer called Bassalt or Diabase (clayey Illustration 65 - 70 | to sandy) and retains water, making these areas suitable for Mangrove inland bay, coastal The salty marshes are mostly located in the south of the island agriculture. Saliñas are filled with rainwater that originates from shore and water inlet saltpan. and consist of natural and cultural marshes. These marshes are mountains and higher areas. Lower terrace, eroded middle of economical and natural value, as the salt industry is one of the The island has few reliable sources of fresh groundwater and terrace and higher terrace oldest economies of Bonaire. no standing or running fresh water outside the rainy season. Water retention is therefore important which can be seen in the extensive system of rooien (waterstreams), dams and tanki’s in the agricultural area and close to cities. The Washikemba formation can be divided into sloping valleys and steep hills, the area with steep hills is the protected National Park. The sloping valleys are the agricultural areas (kunukus) located in the east of Kralendijk and above Rincon. Three terraces are visible on the island regarding the limestone, respectively higher, middle and lower terrace, all formed during different periods of coral growth. Limestone is a rocky land of depositional and erosional terraces. The different terraces are visible through steep ridges in the landscape. The salty marshes are mostly located in the south of the island and consist of natural and cultural marshes. 7.0 Tourism analysis

10388 In this chapter the findings from interviews, map analysis, fieldtrips, photo analysis and talks with inhabitants is elaborated. First, the current tourist map will be analysed in order to find out what the locations of the attractions are and if they are also represented the rural area. Then a photo analysis is executed in order to find locations that have the interest of people, which resulted in a large amount of photographs, which are classified in umbrella themes. In addition to this research, the findings from the fieldtrips, interviews and talks with the inhabitants have contributed to an edited version of the current tourist map, which will be discussed together with the perspectives of different stakeholders regarding the development of ecotourism.

7.1 Activities on the island Besides the well-marked diving spots, there are multiple locations Dive that provide visitors a great scenery and diversity in landscapes. Also monuments of the colonial times, museum and the trade Mangrove of local products can be found scattered around the island. This became transparent with the help of map analysis, literature Kayak research, fieldtrips and interviews and photo. The west coast with its shallow coastal shore is best suited for diving and snorkelling. Mountain bike and hiking trails are located in the (hilly) outback. It is possible to kayak in the mangrove forest and to wind and kite surf. As a consequence of the Bonaire National Marine Park (BNMP) wildlife, for example fish, dolphins and sea turtles, is Bird spotters easy to spot around the island. The mangrove forest has unique flora that is known as breeding grounds for fish and in large extent contributes to the existence of the coral reefs. Saliñas have a salty soil that influence the vegetation that is present here and they form a distinctive flora thereby attracting water birds such as flamingos. As a consequence the island is also a beloved place for bird spotters, especially after a rainy season when the saliñas are filled with water. For divers Bonaire is already a paradise! The map displayed in illustration 71 is the current (freely Illustration 72 - 73 | available) tourist map distributed by the tourist agency, therefore Visiting the farm of Arletta it is the most frequent used and known map of Bonaire. When Small local bars carefully looking at the current tourist map of Bonaire, it is apparent (as expected) that the water related activities dominate the map as Bonaire has 87 diving sites. Most of the facilities are located along the south west coast in the urban area of Kralendijk, Rincon and Lac where most of the diving spots and touristic facilities are located. Illustration 74 - 75 | Sun bathing at the beach 89 Sailing and boattrips 90

Illustration 76 - 77 | Boulevard caves with Indian inscriptions Chapter 7: Tourism analysis Chapter 7: Tourism

Illustration 78 - 79 | Saltpans Windsurfing

Illustration 80 - 81 | Cultural heritage Spelonk and lighthouse. Swimming and horsback riding

Illustration 71 | Current tourist map 7.2 Google Earth analysis As the main aim of this research is to develop a tourist route in Groups Topic Photos on Google maps the Washikemba area of Bonaire that is attractive both for the Landscapes Landscape overview 215 tourists and the residents, then it is worth analysing what people National park 45 find interesting and worth visiting. Google Earth is used as a Kunuku/ Rural area 15 method (see 3.2) to examine the qualities of the island through Saltpans 282 the eyes of tourists and inhabitants. In illustration 51, places of Coastal Landscape 245 interest that are frequently captured in pictures and posted on Sunset 65 Google are displayed by topic. It was to be expected that diving Windmills 13 and marine life are first in rank, followed by the urban areas, the Salinas 13 sceneries, saltpans, sunsets and the National Park. Further, many Oil industry 6 91 92 historical buildings such slave huts and plantation buildings, and Neighborhoods 220 Table 2 | water related activities, flora and fauna are pictured in the photo- Harbour 77 Illustration 82| graphs. It is worth mentioning that in general only tourists upload Types of scenery and number Types of scenery and number Radio towers 7 photos on Google Earth, since many people are either posing on of photos that people upload of photos that people upload Scenes Water/ waves/ sea 21 to Google Earth to Google Earth the photos or photographing holiday destinations and activities. Art 13 Boat wracks 3 Car wracks 1 Boats 75 Dead trees 12 Recreation Diving/ Snorkeling 12 Relaxation 11 Mangrove/ Kajak 18 Water related activities 28 Chapter 7: Tourism analysis Chapter 7: Tourism Residence accommodation 291 Beaches 35 Other sources of recreation 33 Boulevard 60 Cruiseships 45 History Colonial times 140 Lighthouses 38 Water mills 26 Historical buildings 64 Atmosphere Waiste 3 Culture/ colours/ habits/ party 29 Karko 14 Nature Coral/ Fishes 875 Goats 4 Donkeys 33 Water birds and flamingos 72 Lora’s and Trupia’s 5 Vegetation 30 Lizards and Iguana 8

0 1 3 6 km 7.3 What is actually there The fact that there are small recreational initiatives in the rural The current tourist map above (illustration 71) displays a outback became visible after extensive fieldwork which included comprehensive range of activities, attractions, facilities and many interviews and field visits. An updated version of the trails. Many of these recreational elements of interest are hidden, current tourist map is displayed in illustration 83 (including the are not indicated and are poorly accessible. An example is the outcomes of the field visits, interviewees, map and Google Earth mountain bike trails, which are marked with stones that have analysis). The map gives an overview of the attractions on the been painted in blue. However, many stones on the trails are island, including the activities in the rural area such as bird missing, a clear starting or end point as well as a proper map (or watching spots, former (Aloë) plantations and historical buildings, other system) that would mark the route is lacking. Therefore the horseback riding, a golf courses, local restaurants, interesting trails are suitable only for the locals or accessible with a guided vegetation and locations with a great view or scenery. It can be tour. concluded that many activities and attractions are not visible 93 Another remark to this map is that it is out-dated since it has neither for the locals or the tourists, which is unfortunate as they 94 not been updated since 2005. Also, many small recreational are worth mentioning and visiting. After interviewing multiple initiatives have not been included on the map because they stakeholders it turned out that for many smaller attractions are funded by large (mainly water related) companies and advertisement by companies is too expensive and not lucrative enough. With the help of Tripadvisor, Facebook, Twitter, mouth- Illustration 83| organizations on the island, such as hotel chains and diving to-mouth advertising and local (free) newspapers small(er) Updated touristic map after schools. Attractions that are clearly visible on the map are interviews, fieldtrips, and restaurants and highly exploited attractions, such as the ferry companies try to reach the public. Google Earth analyse service. Another point worth to address is the large amount of cultural historical elements that have been neglected. Many of these elements are located in the rural landscape due to the naturalizing of the cultural planes and the fact that these buildings have lost their function and many of the elements are only visible for the trained eye or for people that have been living

Chapter 7: Tourism analysis Chapter 7: Tourism there for a long time. The local cuisine and tour guides by locals are also very little displayed but offer possibilities for exploitation.

Illustration 84 - 85| Field visit and guided tour Pricture Kats, 2014 Neglected former plantation

0 1 3 6 km 7.4 Ecotourism development on Bonaire This means that much of the supplies arrive by boat or plane on As explained in chapter 3.0, development of ecotourism has a regular basis. According to SNP and NBTC Holland, this should priority due to the fact that the island has profiled and branded change in order to strengthen the aim of being sustainable as Improvement the tourist sector over the past decade as ecotourism (Hunter, according to them, agriculture should be visible and land that of the 1997; Zuidgeest, and van Maarseveen, 2011; Openbaar Lichaam is mainly used for agriculture can be an attractive landscape for selfsufficiency Bonaire, 2012; Tourism Corporation Bonaire, 2014). Therefore tourists. it is interesting to have insight on the perspectives of different According to the travel agencies, ecotourists prefer small- stakeholders regarding ecotourism development on Bonaire. scale, high quality and luxury accommodations. Ecotourists Interviews with Dutch travel agencies that focus on sustainable are described as highly educated persons that behave socially tourism to nature destinations all over the world (hereinafter responsibly. Examples of this socially responsible behavior are: referred to as SNP and NBTC Holland) and the Hotel and Tourism the way of traveling and awareness of consumption. Ecotourists 95 Association on Bonaire hereinafter referred to as BONHATA) are searching for core values, such as identity, authenticity, local 96 were conducted to research how tourism could (in their opinion) dishes and restaurants, crafts and customs. According to NBTC contribute to positive development of a destination. Also, in order Holland, ecotourists like to discover an area in different manner, to get an indication of the wishes and needs of a ‘sustainable’ by foot, by horse or by bicycle. They like to travel away from tourist and to understand the opinion of different stakeholders the usual track, away from mass tourism and more towards the on tourism on Bonaire and to get insight of what type of tourism small-scale high quality location and service in a local context. Possibilities development would fit on Bonaire. The elaborated interviews Bonaire is a relatively expensive holiday destination compared with SNP, NBTC Holland and BONHATA are displayed in Appendix to Curacao and Aruba as the flight tickets are more expensive III. In addition to the interviews, field visits to kunukeros and as are the prices of goods. This creates a certain expectation entrepreneurs that are dependent upon tourism or have plans to for the accommodation and quality of the landscape scenery. invest in facilities for tourism have occurred. Therefore, ecolodges and setting of the lodges itself should be According to the travel agencies, the sustainable character of of high quality. However, high quality ecolodges as described by Bonaire is mainly expressed by the protection of the reefs and SNP, NBTC Holland BONHATA, are lacking today, according to the

Chapter 7: Tourism analysis Chapter 7: Tourism controlling of diving and snorkeling with the divers’ fee. This is travel agencies. The landscape is described by SNP and NBTC perceived as very positive but they do see many things on the Holland to be monotonous and barren, hot landscape with cactus island that can be improved, for example, the use of renewable and thorny bushes with some free roaming goats. Consequently, energy and the improvement of accommodations (e.g. water use the travel agencies see Bonaire as a destination for snorkelers and energy production). and divers and not yet as a destination for ecotourists. However, Among other things mentioned was the self-sufficiency of BONHATA as well as NBTC Holland and SNP are convinced that Bonaire. Though Bonaire profiles itself as an eco-destination they there is a market for this type of luxury ecotourism for Bonaire. Illustration 86 - 87| is to a great extend dependent on Venezuela, the United States On the other hand, they emphasize the lack of infrastructure, Examples of luxury ecolodge and the Netherlands for food. recreational routes that display the character and identity of the Pictures: tripadvisor.com and island and facilities in the landscape are missing, such as benches Illustration 88 - 89 | tripadvisor.com and places with shade. Ecolodge on Bonaire On Bonaire one ecolodge is situated in the kunuku area. The 7.5 Conclusion property is fenced to keep the goats out and make it possible for The current tourist map indicates that there are diving spots nature to regenerate. The vision of the owner is to let the nature on multiple locations and there are also several locations on the property regenerate so the damage of the free roaming with beautiful landscapes sceneries. Also, monuments from goats to the surrounding landscape becomes more visible. The the colonial times, museums and local products can be found green ‘oasis’ of the kunuku is in contrast with the surrounding scattered around the island. The shallow coastal shore of the barren and excavated cacti landscape. The ground of the property west coast, makes this area well suited for diving and snorkelling, is covered with grass, shrubs and trees. and explains the large amount of water related activities that are The owner is (and his customers are) to a great extend self- located here. Mountain bike and hiking trails are located in the sustainable in food production thank to agriculture, fish farming (hilly) outback. It is possible to kayak in the mangrove forest and and animal husbandry for meat. Additionally, rain water is to wind and kite surf. As expected (since Bonaire is known for its 97 collected in a large tank and power is generated by solar energy. water related activities) the water related activities dominate the 98 The owner of the lodge underlines that eco-tourism is a niche map. Most of the facilities are located along the south west coast market on the island which is slowly extending. He has plans to in the urban area of Kralendijk, Rincon and Lac, where most of extend his ecolodge in the future but explains that the market the diving spots and touristic agglomerations are located. It is can be easily saturated. striking that there are very few activities in the rural that have From other interviews (interviewee D and H) and talks with local been mentioned. Further research will show that the rural area entrepreneurs a conclusion can be drawn that they are willing does contain activities worth visiting. to invest time and money in ecotourism. Examples mentioned Regarding the Google Earth analysis, it was to be expected were the following: building ecolodges, guided tours on property, that the topics related to diving and marine life are ranked first craft workshops and selling local fruit and vegetables. However in the quantity of photos, and are followed by photos of the Lack of there is a lack of resources and knowledge about what is possible urban areas, the sceneries, saltpans, sunsets and National Park. communication concerning the context and regarding the rules and regulations. Further, many historical buildings, such slave huts and plantation Further, the professionalism and commitment differs per local buildings, and water birds and water related activities are

Chapter 7: Tourism analysis Chapter 7: Tourism entrepreneur and there is a vast difference in the level of pictured in the photos. ambition. Due to the lack of communication between the different The results of the analysis has resulted in an update of the stakeholders (local entrepreneurs, DRO, BONHATA, NBTC Holland current tourist map, which shows the attractions on the island, and SNP) a shared target scenario is also missing. All these including the activities in the rural area, such as bird watching constraints make it difficult to implement the ideas and these spots, former (Aloë) plantations and historical buildings, issues are discussed in the project ‘sustainable agriculture by horseback riding, a golf course, local restaurants, interesting kunukero and youth’ as displayed in the flowchart of the POP vegetation and locations with a great view or scenery. Many project in chapter 1.0. activities and attractions are not visible neither for the locals or the tourists as advertising is too expensive and not lucrative Illustration 90 - 91| enough. They have however potential for exploitation. Further, Self sufficient in food supply there is a large amount of culture historical elements that have been neglected and are therefore not usable or visible to tourists. 8.0 In between conclusion

115100

Starting points This section links the understanding of the landscape, the socio-physical organization, the challenges and qualities of the landscape together with the route. The problem tree (illustration 92) displays the incentive behind this research: developing routes in the rural area of Washikemba, to diversify the touristic product as a consequence of the declining coral reefs worldwide. The coral reefs are currently declining due to several factors (overfishing, damage due to diving and water related activities, climate changes and the eutrophication of the coastal region). Bonaire needs to change its strategy regarding tourism. In illustration 92 on the following pages, I have attempted to display the factors that influence the climate change. As this thesis is written from a landscape architectural perspective I will focus on the factors that contribute to climate change and which I as a landscape architect (locally and in-directly) can influence by proposing design interventions (through routing) that steer sustainable development. Therefore I will focus on the ‘eutrophication of the coastal region’ and, in particular, the topics of ‘erosion’ and ‘water retention’.

Fossilized coral which has washed ashore and forms the beach West coast The west coast (and, in particular, Playa or Kralendijk) has kunukus) and its socio-physical position becomes visible and developed developed over years with a focus on the tourists. As many of possible for experience. the activities and facilities are located on the west coast, then As chapter 7 further elaborates, the rural outback contains this is also the place where tourists spend most of their time. many landscape qualities, attractions and activities even Inland Even though tourism brought prosperity to the island (e.g. jobs though these are scattered around the area. The route needs unexploited and facilities) it also meant that people (farmers) moved to to connect the culture- social and natural qualities and make the city and left the countryside, which in turn created a loss them visible, possible for experience and accessible. Improving of social cohesion and full dependency on the import of goods. the accessibility of the rural area with the help of a trail could Further, the rural area has hardly received any support from bring the different users together. Tourism could serve as a government and other organisations, which has leaded to the tool to improve the economic situation of the inhabitants in the dilapidation of landscape and agriculture elements that provide rural area and secure cultural heritage of Bonaire that has been 101 the landscape of (cultural-social and natural) value. Many of the neglected for years. Furthermore, the route would be a cultural 102 landscape elements that support agricultural practises, such as interest for the tourists and locals as it would reflect a significant dams, tankis and watermills, have fallen in disrepair. Today the part of Bonaire’s (cultural) history. Already in colonial times Different users rural area is used as a landfill, it is (illegally) excavated and free the kunuku played an important role for the supplementation on different locations roaming goats intensively use the area. This has consequences of the daily needs of families, this remained unchanged also for the regeneration, erosion and quality of the landscape on after the abolition of slavery but disappeared with the increase the island as well as for the landscape underneath the water as of the tourism industry on the island. Today very little people climate change also increases the possibility of extreme weather actively use and produce on their kunuku, but there are many events, including droughts and peak periods of rain. Since many new technologies that can contribute to the self-sufficiency of the of the dams have fallen into disrepair and saliñas are under urban island. The role of the rural area can again become important for pressure, the water retention capacity has decreased creating the existence of Bonaire as it diversifies the role of the tourists difficulties in times of heavy rainfall when nutrients run in the and brings together different users, functions and qualities. sea. Last, the route could improve and protect the vulnerable places No access From the data gathered it can be concluded that different users and the landscape elements (qualities) that the area holds. As (makambas, Bonairians and tourists) use different parts of the meaning and function of the area will be acknowledged and Chapter 8: In between conclusion the island, they do not reinforce each other. The tourists visit improved it could positively influence the maintenance of the the island for the quality of the marine life and water related area. Challenges such as pollution, (illegal) excavations, larceny activities. One of the consequences of this unilateral tourism is and destruction of goods, degradation of landscape elements that they do not visit the kunuku as these areas are located in and the quality of nature by free roaming goats and donkeys can the (south) east and (north) east of the island. eventually be overcome. The kunuku is not a common place to visit for a ‘makamba’ as they cannot really own a kunuku themselves, furthermore is it an Out of talks with local entrepreneurs and interviews can be area where you can easily get lost. This is also the reason why clarified that the perspectives of different stakeholders regarding tourists do not visit the area, next to the fact that diving is not ecotourism developments differ substantially. The Hotel and possible in this area. That people are not visiting the area is due Tourism Association on Bonaire and the travel agencies in the to (among other reasons) the lack of accessibility, which is a pity Netherland are convinced that there is a market for ecotourism as many possibilities offered by the island are not utilized and on the island however, the current state of ecolodges on experienced today. The rural area could add an extra dimension Bonaire is not sufficient. The stakeholders emphasize the lack of to the holiday mood of tourists as it contains (in addition to infrastructure and routes that display the identity of the island. great sceneries and landscape elements) also a possibility to Further, are facilities such as local restaurants, places that experience cultural heritage and landscape narratives. A route provide people of shade and a high diversity of nature missing. that contains these qualities would be of added value both for the Additional to this, core values such as authenticity, crafts and tourists and the locals, especially when the rural landscape (e.g. customs mentioned as wishes and needs of a ‘sustainable’ tourist, in which the island does not comply to. Local entrepreneurs are willing to invest (time or money) in ecotourism, for example Illustration 92| by building ecolodges on their property. However the level of Problem tree, with focus on water retention and erosion ambition differs substantially between the local entrepreneurs, prevention the Hotel and Tourism Association on Bonaire and the travel agencies in the Netherland. Additional to this, local entrepreneurs have a lack of resources and is shared future scenario and communication between the different stakeholders missing which, makes it difficult to implement the ideas

103 104 Chapter 8: In between conclusion PART IV IGNITING THE RURAL AREA

IGNITING THE RURAL AREA One of the hiking trails has been further detailed with proposed design interventions supported by theory to improve the accessibility, workability and experience for users of the trail. Chapter 11 explains the strategic extension of the current recreational network to steer sustainable development in the future via routing in the rural area. 9.0 Routing Washikemba

123108 For a large part, the research in the previous chapters has been a research for design. Earlier chapters have focused on landscape architectural theory and the findings of the study that gives insight on Bonaire as an island. The research was conducted to better understand the landscape (system) and everyday life of the people on Bonaire, including the history, the role of tourism, local food and habits. This chapter will focus on the analysis of the project area Washikemba where DRO had the practical assignment to develop hike, car and mountain bike trails, the area between roads Kaminda Lagoen and Kaminda Lac is displayed in illustration 94. 9.1 Routing in the Washikemba area Multiple research methods (map analysis, Google Earth photo analysis, fieldtrips and interviews) have been used to discover the attractions and interesting points in the area. Triangulation of the findings by driving, testing, and discussing the route and points of interest with stakeholders has changed the trail during the process. The proposed routes (as displayed in chapter 9.4) have been presented to the DRO staff. Chapter 9.5 explains related aspects concerning the routing. After the fieldtrip the route and the landscape analysis is reviewed with a theoretical lens to search for points of Points of improvement. The proposed design interventions of chapter 10 interest focus on interventions in the Washikemba valley, a location where development is most likely. In this chapter design has been a tool for research. Chapter 11 explains in phases the strategic extension of the current recreational network. As explained earlier in the chapter that explained the methods, the landscape analysis is a tool to understand the landscape and to discover the points of interest of an area. These points of interest and attractions form the points of departure for the route to connect. Local artists often use waiste that washes ashore as a source of inspiration for their art As Lynch (1960) has theorized, the physical form of The Google Earth photo analysis givens and idea of the photos environmental images can be classified into five types of that are uploaded by people at the project area, illustration elements: paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks. Lynch 96 shows a brief overview of the photos uploaded on Google further describes paths as the channels along which the observer Earth. In the map below, the locations where people have moves from one point of reference (landmarks or points of tagged their photos have been indicated. These photos are all interest) to another. The Washikemba area is analysed from a assembled into topics, as displayed in illustration 95 and table Tourist stay lower scale level to find the points of interest, as displayed in the 3. The topics in the Washikemba area are mainly connected to close to the coming chapter. the coastal shore and scenery, the mangrove with its fauna and main roads the rural cacti landscapes with saliñas. A striking conclusion that can be drawn from this research is that the people that 9.2 Points of interest in the Washikemba area have posted the photos have mostly visited areas that are easily When looking at the project area on the current tourist map it 109 accessible by roads. Another conclusion is that they have also 110 seems that the rural area does not contain many things to do photographed elements that are part of the (inner) rural area. or see except Lac Bay. The map shows a difference in the colour Illustration 93 - 94 | They have not photographed ‘inside’ the rural area. In addition Abstract representation green, the dark green represents elevations in the surrounding to this map analysis, multiple interviewees that know the area theory Lynch) landscape which is indicated by the light colour green. have been questioned in order to understand what they perceive 1* Points of interest in the Furthermore, the dotted line symbolizes a kayak tour along the to be the qualities of the Washikemba area. The interesting landscape coastal shore and are neighbourhoods and former plantations points mentioned by interviewees are the (former) estates and 2* Route guides people marked on the map from one point of interest to remnants that remind the Aloë production, caves, the hill Bara di another Carta and plateaus of Washikemba. Other things mentioned were Illustration 95 | the saliñas, the mangroves, the flora and fauna, the viewpoints Types of scenery and number on plateaus, the empty coastal shore with ‘Boka’s’ and Lagoen of photos that people and the systems of the kunukus as well as the tranquillity of the uploaded to Google Earth in area. Washikemba Table 3 | Pictures uploaded on Google earth Nr Topic Quantity Chapter 9: Routing Washikemba Chapter 9: Routing 1 Remnants 5 Cliffs 2 Scenery 1 Cacti Landscape 2 2 Coastal Shore 15 Scenery 3 3 Coastal shore 4 Cliffs 3 4 Coastal shore 1 Golf course 1 5 Mangroves 4 Karko shelfs 14 Scenery 7 6 Mangroves 7 7 Mangroves 5 Dead trees 3 8 Urban area 42 9 Salina 1 Illustration 94 | Scenery 2 Project area Washikemba 0 1 3 6 km Cacti landscape 7 Illustration 96 | Photo collage images uploaded on Google Earth

111 112 Chapter 9: Routing Washikemba Chapter 9: Routing When combining the findings from the fieldtrips, analysis of 9.3 Strengths and weaknesses Many activities the current tourist map, photo analysis and interesting points The challenges and qualities mentioned in chapter 1.3 are also and attractions mentioned by interviewees in a map, a conclusion can be drawn present in the rural area of Washikemba. Illustration 98 provides that the project area does contain multiple attractions and an overview of the challenges and the locations where they occur. points of interest but apparently people cannot find their way to Illustrations 99 - 104 gives examples of the challenges observed these destinations or have no knowledge of their existence. The in the project area. Waste has been dumped next to many roads findings from the fieldtrips, analysis of the current tourist map, and there are also many legal and illegal excavations taking place photo analysis and interviews are combined in illustration 97. all over the rural outback. The roads that are intensely used (e.g. There are saliñas which have an attractive landscape and by trucks heading towards the stone crush site) are well paved environment for (water) birds and different types of vegetation. and held in good condition throughout the year. Many other roads There are two riding schools, a petting zoo, a golf course, caves in the kunuku area are in bad condition, with holes in the road 113 and multiple places where local food is served. Among these are overgrown with thorny vegetation. The roads that cross the 114 attractions, multiple former plantations are present (either the saliñas are often impassable during rainy seasons, other roads ruins of the former plantations where the vegetation reminds us are made of basalt which flushes away in times of heavy rainfall, of the past, or renovated plantation buildings) and there are also creating holes and (unpredictable) water pools. Further, there many places that offer visitors a great scenery or top view over is a garbage belt located in the northern part of the area which the rural area, for example the rural cacti landscapes, hill Bara leaks into the surface water. The rural outback contains landscape di Karta or plateaus. Further, there are multiple mountain bike narratives and historical buildings and elements. Many of them tracks which are marked with blue stones. are related to the colonial past, which creates opportunities for tour guides. Furthermore, there are bird nesting and foraging areas that are interesting for bird spotters and nature admirers. According to Kent and Elliott (1995), the landscape features most frequently examined are natural ones: vegetation, water, hills, etc. Illustration 97 | Illustration 98 | Points of interest and Strengths and weaknesses in attractions in the Washikemba the Washikemba area Chapter 9: Routing Washikemba Chapter 9: Routing area

0 1 3 6 km 0 1 3 6 km Cultural features are generally considered of secondary 9.4 Landscape analysis zoomed in importance and are sometimes examined primarily for their The landscape unit map (illustration 106) has been built from Illustration 105 | potential negative impacts, e.g. billboards and junkyards. different layers: the geological division, geomorphology, soil, Triplex model that forms the The Washikemba area contains both landscape features with human involvement and land use. The landscape unit map Landscape Unit map a ‘narrative’ and remnants of history that are interesting to explains why things happen in particular places and is an experience but also cultural and natural challenges that people elaboration on the landscape analysis displayed in chapter need to confront as they are not sustainable in any way. Saito 6.0. Due to an extensive map analysis, fieldtrips, literature theorizes about the appreciation of landscape in everyday life review and talks with experts I was able to gather data and of people by stating that “the general public tends to be more put this map together. Time, influence from natural and human attracted to the unfamiliar and the spectacular” (Saito, 2008. forces, has changed the landscape the way we see it today. The P.61). The area shows many aesthetic elements that could transition between limestone terrace and Washikemba formation Geology 115 contribute to an aesthetic experience, but as many challenges has enlarged (and become more visible) due to centuries of 116 are created by locals (and their activities) and many locals erosion. Long periods of sun, wind, water, and human influence are familiar with the landscape, then the inhabitants might have made the distinct boundary between limestone and the not be aware of this ‘scenic wonder’ that surrounds them and Washikemba formation to become faded. On maps this is visible they might not care about it. As Saito further elaborates, “one by the diversity in the amount of clay, sand or gravel that is effective way of ensuring a positive aesthetic experience of a deposited. In the field these transitions are clearly visible in the Geomorphology particular environment is for us to be participants in some way, form of plateaus and steep ridges with caves. These caves are which generates our affection and attachment” (Saito, 2008. interesting points as goats and sheep use them for shelter, as P.101). Users can be participants by observing the area, which well as a final resting place. Furthermore, Indian inscriptions can Lynch explained by stating that “people observe... while moving be found there. Alongside the clear plateaus you see the reddish through it, and along these paths the other environmental soil of the Washikemba formation debouch through narrow elements are arranged and related”. (Lynch, 1960. P.47)It is interruptions in the plateaus on the bleach limestone. Also, the therefore important that Bonairians need to see the beautiful amount of stones and rocks on the surface differs per location as Soil landscape that is part of their everyday life because “if we are well as the type of land use and vegetation. aesthetically attracted to certain creatures, we tend to care about Illustration 99 - 104 | The Washikemba area has a fertile clayey soil what is known Chapter 9: Routing Washikemba Chapter 9: Routing Waste dump, excavations, their fate and are inclined to protect them” (Saito, 2008. Pp.59- for its water retention capacity and was originally used for erosion, intimid fisherman 60). Education and explanation of what is there to see and what agriculture. This is the reason why many remnants of former village, cultural heritage makes it worth preserving, is essential for the future of the rural (Aloë) plantations can be found there. For the production of crops spelonk and flamingo’s close area, for the island of Bonaire and for the Bonairians. it is important to retain the water as long as possible, especially to mangrove since water is scarce and rainy seasons unpredictable. Therefore, Human involvement a large system of dams is built throughout the years to the retain rainwater. The dams are preferably built on a plain of the slope and perpendicular, at right angles on the water stream or rooi to create a water surface as large as possible. Eventually the rooi drains in a saliña or, in the case of the Washikemba area, also (via the mangroves) into the sea. Outside the rainy seasons kunukeros (local farmers) use wells to pump water (with the Landuse help of a windmill). Today, agriculture does not play a significant role in the society anymore as tourism has become the economic pillar of the island, creating many jobs. Consequentially, the goods are imported, people have moved to Kralendijk and many landscape elements, such as dams and watermills, have fallen into disrepair. In addition to the large amount of watermills that have fallen into disrepair, there are also many wells that have become brackish by excessive use. Today the Washikemba area 9.5 Designing the route is used as a foraging area for goats and donkeys. The coastal The aim of the POP and ROB project was to reactivate and shore has multiple bays that were created by decades of erosion transform the rural area to a more attractive region both for caused by the tide and waves. These inlets were originally used locals and tourists. In order to reach this aim, the accessibility by fishermen to go to the sea, as well for the transport of goods needs to be improved by developing hiking, car, and mountain that where produced on the kunukus to the other islands. In the bike trails in the Washikemba area. The trails in the Washikemba project area there are three bays, Lagoen, Boka Suplado and Lac, area should contain interesting points both for tourists whereas the latter is covered by a large mangrove forest. The and residents, as well as locations that can be improved. Diabase intrusion forms the highest point in the area, displayed Furthermore, the routes should be supported by the local in the hill Bara di Carta. The rest of the area is rather flat and is population. Therefore, triangulation is used as a method to test characterized with thorny bushes, cacti and some trees. Between and discuss the route and points of interest. This has resulted in 117 the lower terrace and sea steep edges have formed and these a car trail that guides visitors along the (landscape) sceneries, 118 Illustration 106 | steep edges are also visible between the lower and middle historical buildings of the local entrepreneurs and farmers Landscape Unit map terrace, the terraces are flat and have very little vegetation. The (kunukeros), landscape elements that reflect the agricultural lower terrace has flats that fill themselves with rainwater and background of the region and open up the dialogue to meet together with the saliñas become interesting birdwatching spots the challenge that the rural landscape is facing as displayed in Illustration 107 | during rainy season. illustration 109. In illustration 108, the typically (agricultural) Abstract representation landscape elements of the rural area that are situated along the theory Lynch) 1* Points of interest in the route, such as dams, cacti fences, windmills and native trees, are landscape displayed. Furthermore, such landscape sceneries as the nature 2* Route guides people bridge, saliñas, Boka Suplado, the hill Bara di Karta and the from one point of interest to former Aloë plantation are incorporated into the trail. Examples another of the natural and cultural challenges along the route are: waste 3* A node arises where paths dump and illegal excavations. The natural and cultural challenges cross along the route are displayed in illustration 109. Also, many elements that give (cultural, social and natural) value

Chapter 9: Routing Washikemba Chapter 9: Routing to the landscape are vanishing without the interferece of people. Examples include soil and surface water pollution, removal of the deposited coral on the coastal shore and the predating of (mainly) goats and sheep on trees. Both the challenges and changes along the trail are displayed in illustrations 99 - 104. On the car trail there are small breaks intertwined, including farmer visits, hikes and mountain bike points, viewpoints and a place where local food and drinks can be sold. Lynch (1960) theorizes about the physical form of environmental images that can be classified into five types of elements: paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks. These elements are always reintegrated into the whole image, in the case of this research, the rural landscape of Washikemba.

0 1 3 6 km The field visits, landscape analysis, input of interviewees together Illustration 109 | with the outcomes of the Google Earth ‘hotspots’ resulted in the Proposed routing along selection of the points of interest as well as other locations that challenges and qualities could be improved (as displayed in illustrations 108 and 109). A path or, in the case of this research, a car route guide users from one point of interest to another as displayed in illustration 124. Paths are the channels along which the observer moves (Lynch, 1960) and in this research I will refer to ‘paths’ as routes. Points of interest are described by Lynch as landmarks. Lynch (1960) has described landmarks as reference points as “simple physical elements which may vary widely in scale”. (Lynch, 1960. 119 P.78). The route will guide visitors from one ‘landmark’ (point of 120 interest) to another.

Illustration 108 | Proposed routing along agricultural elements, sceneries and local entrepreneurs

0 1 3 6 km Illustration 110 - 115 | Chapter 9: Routing Washikemba Chapter 9: Routing Self sustainable farm, estate Washikemba, Boka Suplado vegetable garden, kunuku with local juices and the hill Bara di karta

0 1 3 6 km Part of the challenges can be overcome with suitable equipment, others need political interventions, cultural changes and sustainable landscape designs. The latter will be my design challenge during this research. However, since the route should contribute to the cultural, economic and environmental Sustainable development in order to create a sustainable landscape, then the design route should also address the points of improvement. interventions Lynch and Hack (1984) have underlined the role of a designer in this process by stating the following: “The designer is concerned with what it is like to act in a place, to move through it, and to experience it” (Lynch and Hack, 1984. P.57). The journey that 121 the visitor makes while driving the car trail has been attempted 122 to be expressed in words, based on the landscape unit map and analysis of the current attractions and activities in the project area. As the map shows, the route enhances many attractions and points of interest. The route follows the existing roads but the surrounding landscape is considerably different. When turning of the road Kaminda Lagoen, the kunuku area with its reddish 0 1 3 6 km soil and thorny bushes and cacti opens up. The route continues, passing the former Washikemba plantation through the open saliña that has different vegetation than its surroundings Illustration 116 | and attracts many water birds in rainy season. It continues Routing through a variety of towards the empty rocky coastal shore. The coastal shore is a landscape types creating contradiction from an enclosed landscape to the empty coastal interesting points shore with endless viewpoints. It follows the coastal shore for a Illustration 117 |

Chapter 9: Routing Washikemba Chapter 9: Routing couple of minutes, passing the middle terrace (the Washikemba Routing along the points of plateau) that rises from the surrounding flat landscape. It then interest and attractions heads back to the inland, crossing the narrow opening in the middle terrace, towards the kunukus and along the remnants of an Aloë plantation. The road continues towards the kunukus, passing the hill Bara di Karta. A small hike towards the hilltop Bara di Karta gives the user a panorama overview of the island. The route continues and flows through thekunuku area. The cultivated agricultural area is characterized by cacti fences and fences that indicate property boundaries and protect the crops against the free roaming goats. Eventually the vegetation becomes rougher with thorny bushes and cacti again indicating the middle terraces which explain the transition from reddish to white soil. At the end of the route there is the possibility to take a break at the local restaurant ‘Mikey snek’, to have a picnic underneath the fruit trees or to go horseback riding at one of the riding schools.

0 1 3 6 km As mentioned earlier, the points and the trail itself has changed The route opens up the rural landscape for tourism and offers multiple times as a result of the driving, testing an discussing hiking, car, and mountain bike trails. with stakeholders. A point of discussion during these meetings But besides accessibility, there are also other important things was the question whether or not the route should contain that a route must provide. Loidl and Bernard (2014) underline the challenges of the landscape as well as the beautiful the need for repeating elements in the landscape to make the characteristics and components of the countryside. trail recognizable as “design is coherence, coherence is achieved After testing and discussing the points of interest and the route, when position and appearance share common features, and Testing and the car trail (as displayed in illustrations 117 and 118) was similarities in terms of ideas and themes are given. Within the discussing presented to a large share of the DRO staff. design process, shared appearance and position are derived from repeating material and formal characteristics or from positional similarities” (Loidl and Bernard, 2014. P.173). Thus it 123 is necessary to repeat the elements in order to create a uniform 124 and recognizable landscape. The route has been discussed Furniture and with stakeholders but the group was also involved with the signs development of the benches and signage along the trail. In Illustration 118 | the meeting, examples of benches and signage both from the Proposed routing in the Caribbean and the Netherlands (among others ANWB) where Washikemba area presented to give an indication of the possibilities. It became clear that thievery is a problem. Therefore other places on Bonaire (National Park Washington Slagbaai) served as an example since along the trail in the park local fabricated and easily recognizable elements in local colours were explicitly chosen in order to prevent vandalism. This has been a successful concept as very little signs have been replaced so far. Therefore it has been decided to use signs similar to the National park. The name or a description of the points of interest is written on the

Chapter 9: Routing Washikemba Chapter 9: Routing signs. The names refer to the information written on the backside of the map displaying the new tourist route. The local company Illustration 119 - 121 | Wild Conscience eventually got the tender, and has facilitated the Discussing the proposed signs and furniture displayed in illustrations 122 and 123. The routing with local signs and furniture are vandalism-proof, easily recognizable and Illustration 122 - 123 | stakeholders, map with notes, were chosen through discussion and negotiations. testing the trails Recognizable elements and 0 1 3 6 km Picture B.Antoin, 2014 furniture along the route Picture: wild conscience.nl In addition to the car trail, multiple hike and mountain bike routes were in the plans in order to make the area more attractive and accessible for a broad range of users. The addition of a hike and mountain bike route gives options to the user to change from one form of transport to another. This has been described by Lynch as ‘nodes’. “Nodes are points, the strategic spots... into which an observer can enter, and from which he is traveling. They may be primarily junctions, places of a break in transportation, a crossing or convergence of paths, moments of shift from one structure to another” (Lynch, 1960. P.47).

125 These ‘nodes’ have been described by Brinkhuijsen (2008) as 126 leisure transfer points by which is meant places where people can exchange one means of transport to another.

The route has been approved by DRO and marked in the Illustration 124 | Washikemba area by many volunteers after leaving the island. Abstract representation Furthermore, study groups and volunteer groups were set up theory Lynch) to clean and maintain the area, as well to support farmers and Abstract representation initiatives. An external party has developed a new touristic map theory Lynch) as displayed in the next page this map is distributed to the tourist 1* Points of interest in the offices and stakeholders involved. In additional to this, a website landscape (explore-bonaire.com) and a documentary about the Washikemba 2* Route guides people area was created. from one point of interest to another 3* A node arises where paths Chapter 9: Routing Washikemba Chapter 9: Routing cross Unfold the Touristic map

Illustration 125 | New touristic map available for free Illustration 126 - 127 | Recognizable elements and furniture along the route (image by wild conscience.nl) On 26 June the route was officially opened by the mayor of Bonaire and renamed ‘Bara di Karta’ trail.

127 128

Illustration 128| Article in the local newspaper about the opening of the route Chapter 9: Routing Washikemba Chapter 9: Routing 10.0 Sustainable development of the Washikemba area

145130 In the following chapter the starting propositions and locations for further development will be elaborated, together with the proposed design interventions.

10.1 Theoretical perspective on the route As described earlier is the landscape analysis conducted to understand the landscape as well to recognize the spatial and physical qualities and challenges of the area, The development of the route (via signs, promotion, websites and new tourist maps) is the first step in making the area accessible (and for the rural landscape to become a destination for leisure). The routes are based on attractions that are already visible. As explained in chapter 9.2 there are locations that can be improved in order to make the area more accessible, workable and more open for experience. Routing is a design intervention and a tool that landscape architects can add or use to develop an area. But as the theory in chapter 3 displays, accessibility is just one of the conditions in order for an area to become a destination for leisure. With the theoretical background in chapter 2, the designed route in chapter 9.0 is analysed. As Brinkhuijsen (2008) explains in her dissertation, setting and facilities are also major conditions in which landscape architects have a steering role. Only opening up the area by improving the accessibility with routing that connects the current points of interest, is evidently not enough to develop the rural landscape in a sustainable manner. Barnett (2013) explains that the points of interest (or as I call them, assemblages) are the locations that have potential to develop. With design interventions the One of the nodes along the car trail. development of these points can be steered in a sustainable dangerous because it coincides with strong contemporary trends manner. In this way routing (and tourism) can contribute to towards large scale investment” (Hough, 1990. P.211). Hough Shape environmental, economic, social and cultural development of an further elaborated that “doing as little as possible, or economy possibilities area. of means, involves the idea that from minimum resources Facilitating interventions on strategic points could make the and energy, maximum environmental and social benefits are route (and therefore eventually the rural area) more appealing, available”. Amplifying that change can be brought on by a extend the duration and comfort of the visit of the users and providing a direction, by capitalizing on the opportunities that the could generate further cultural, economic and environmental site or social trends reveal, or by setting a framework from which development. The impact of the intervention (in the case of this people can create their own social and physical environments research, cultural, economic and environmental development) and where landscapes can flourish with health, diversity, and has been described in chapter 2.0 as an ‘incentive’ and is a way beauty. This is in fact the aim of the interventions, to steer the 131 for a landscape architect to improve matters. Designing the natural, economic and social development of the rural area while 132 interventions forms therefore the second step in creating a more maintaining the characteristics of the landscape and culture. interesting and workable landscape. In the search for an incentive that shapes the conditions for development Briedenhann and Wickens (2004) theorizes that These interventions can be implemented by the DRO and differ in to search for an element that could encourage entrepreneurial priority, scale impact. They can be finances with money from the opportunity, ancillary services or a diverse range of optional umbrella project ‘Wilderness Protection Caribbean Netherlands’. activities is the use of local sustainable materials encouraged. Some of these locations need more attention or financing than Birdwatching spots, art galleries, artist cafes, local food markets, others in order for them to be ignited, therefore the phasing of viewing points, local cuisine restaurants or meditation places the interventions is displayed later in this chapter. The spatial are just some examples of what lies within the broad range of design principles of van der Lee (2014) as discussed in chapter possibilities. As the landscape is constantly changing or as Corner 2.6 give a landscape architect a steering role in sustainable explains, it is “open to interpretation and transformation” (Corner, development and will be used as guidelines in the design process. 1991. P.130), then we cannot exactly predict what is going to I share the belief of Nassauer that in settled landscape, happen and therefore possible future perspectives and growth urban or countryside, people expect to see the look of human models will be given in the end of chapter 10. Shape intention . Because human intention means that there are Urry has argued that “tourism is an essentially visual activity, opportunities frequent returns, maintenance, purpose and care, and the in which the objects of the gaze are here just to be seen” (Urry, creation of understanding and awareness. “Where the landscape 2002. P.964). When eco–tourism is used as a catalyst to develop Chapter 10: Sustainable development Illustration 129| communicates this intention by the way it looks, people are the rural area, elements that attract tourist such as landmarks Abstract representation likely to understand and find it aesthetically pleasing” (Nassauer, could be added to create destinations and therefore a more theory Lynch) 1995. P.199). Nassauer describes in the aforementioned article attractive environment for tourists. Breiby theorizes about 1* Points of interest in the that care can be displayed in mowing, flowering plants and trees, the preferences for nature and different types of landscapes, landscape wildlife feeders and houses, bold patterns, trimmed shrubs, including dimensions such as ‘clean environment’, ‘interesting/ 2* Route guides people plants in rows, linear planting design, fences, architectural beautiful/dramatic landscape’ and ‘silence/ tranquillity/ from one point of interest to details, lawn ornaments, painting and foundation planting. peacefulness’. In the same article it is stated that the art and another Though I share the belief of Nassauer that a human intention architecture in nature is especially underlined as a dimension for 3* Along the route challenges creates awareness and understanding, I also believe in the visitors as land art would help the tourist to see the landscape (e.g. lack of accessibility and Genius of a place. Therefore, given the characteristics of the from new angles (Breiby, 2013). workability) appear. 4* Challenges can be project area the interventions will be subtle and functional, overcome with design explaining the narrative of the landscape, as it concerns a interventions rural landscape with a rich (agricultural) history. Furthermore, 5* Points of interest can sustainable and, where possible, local products will be used develop into destinations or to create a design that ‘fits’ the site. As remarked by Hough, landmarks. “a hunger for the control of large- scale form is all the more 10.2 Points of departure The water system is displayed in the principal drawing of As the aim was to create a sustainable landscape by creating a illustration 130. In a working system, the dams in the rural are synergy between nature, agriculture and tourism and to improve retain water from the water streams (‘rooien’) that flow from and preserve the quality of the countryside for future generations high points to low points. The streams eventually end in the low some points of departure have been picked out from the policy lying waterbody, the saliña. The principal drawing of illustration documents, literature study, previous analysis and position as a 131 displays a water system that does not works optimally. When landscape architect. dams are eroded, broken or vanish, less water stays in the area. During periods of heavy rainfall, the water flows quickly and Complementarity approach towards the realization of projects uncontrollably towards the saliña. The saliña has not the capacity in the POP to retain all the water and therefore flows into the sea. - Restoring scenic elements for the convenience of agriculture 133 (vegetation, dams and watermills) to prevent and reduce erosion When the local water system would be optimized, less (or even 134 and improve the accessibility of fresh water. no) rain water would flow into the Bonaire National Marine Park. - Making landscape narrative visible and more open for This would also create (besides less suffocation of the coral) experience. benefits for farmers (more access to sweet water), interesting - Retaining the rainwater as long as possible. micro nature reserves (by increasing the amount of surface - Minimal (small-scale and low-impact) interventions that fit the water) that influences the growth of different vegetation and scene. attracts animals. And lastly, it would create a more attractive - Experiencing the diversity of the landscape. recreational landscape both for locals and tourists. As mentioned - Creating a uniform and recognizable landscape. earlier, agriculture does not play a significant role in the society - Using sustainable and local material. anymore since tourism has become the economic pillar of the - Cooperating with local artists island, creating many jobs in the city. As a consequence today the goods are imported, people have moved to Kralendijk and In chapter 1.4 it is explained that multiple projects are drawn many landscape elements, such as dams and watermills, have and submitted within the POP to create more sustainability on the fallen into disrepair. A map analysis has been executed to get island. These projects are: strengthening the entrepreneurship, insight in the current and past state of the dams in the project sustainable agriculture, preventing and reducing erosion and area, as displayed in illustrations 135 and 136. There is no digital lastly, improving the accessibility to fresh water. All these projects overview of the current dams, therefore Google Earth has been serve to transform and reactivate the (rural) area in a sustainable used to compare the dams that are currently visible in the field. Chapter 10: Sustainable development manner. However, the projects are all linear and do not intertwine with each other. When approaching the projects in a more complementarity manner, the probability of success will increase Illustration 130 - 131| as the projects could reinforce each other by enhancing or Principle drawing watersystem when the system emphasizing the qualities of each other. This has been signalised does (or does not) works by Kats (2014) who links problems, such as flooding in the optimal residential areas, erosion and sedimentation on the reefs, with Illustration 132 -134| the deterioration of the local water system in the rural outback. Salina in the residential area Illustrations 132 - 134 displays what happens with extreme flows in sea, nutrients flow weather events. These extreme weather events are bound to in the sea, flooding in the happen more frequently due to climate change. Since many of residential area the dams have fallen into disrepair and saliñas are under urban Picture M. Smal, 2014 pressure, the water retention capacity is decreased and more nutrients will flow into the sea if nothing is made to prevent it. In 1956 (illustration 135) the project area contained Points with potential to development approximately 86 dams, today this number has fallen to 60 When analysing the Washikemba area more in-depth, the (illustration 136). In addition to the decreased number of dams, subdomains as mentioned in chapter 6.4 can be further many of the dams that are still visible on Google earth are in bad subdivided into sub-subdomains. The landscape unit map condition (eroded or broken). combines the geological, geomorphological, soil, human As clarified in chapter 4, the rural outback has provided the involvement and land use layers in the Washikemba area. island inhabitants food for years. Today Bonaire is (almost) fully Subtle differences in the map could indicate striking alterations dependent on importing goods but it is aiming to become more in the field and create places of interest. Interesting points are self-sufficient, therefore the rural area with its dam structure created by the complexity that arises between the interaction of needs to be revitalized. The project ‘Wilderness Protection horizontal and vertical layers (biotic, abiotic, occupation, cultural, Caribbean Netherlands’ could contribute to the restoration of the political or social system) of a landscape with the addition of time 135 dams, fences and other elements to perpetrate agriculture and it and makes things (developments) happen at particular places. 136 could also contribute to the training of farmers. Barnett (2013) explains that interesting points are created on Illustration 137| Illustration 135| locations of transitions between these different landscape types Points of interest with Dams in project area based ana layers. The map displays many locations where layers meet potential to develop, within on land use map 1956 and so (theoretically) form points of interest, these are indicated the Washikemba area with a square in illustration 137.

Illustration 136| 0 1 3 6 km Chapter 10: Sustainable development Dams in project area based current Google Earth image

0 1 3 6 km 0 1 3 6 km Barnett explains that the points of interest have potential to 10.3 Analysis of the Washikemba valley develop. The development of these points can be steered in a Washikemba valley is an area located on the East coast of sustainable manner with the help of design interventions. Barnett Bonaire. Two hike and mountain bike routes and the car trail (2013) however, does not explain what the interventions should are located at the project area. Besides the main road and part enhance, he only states that designers can establish ‘initial of a route network the Washikemba valley also forms a point of conditions’ by adding complexity and then letting other forces departure both for hikers and mountain bikers. Given the climate take over. The complexity has increased by adding another conditions and distances it is plausible that people gather around layer ‘routing’ to the existing landscape. The routing consists a point of departure and park their car or other forms of transport both of mountain bike, hike trails and a car track. These trails here. It is a rather flat area with a small incline towards the cross on multiple locations along the route and provide users of saliña which is localized in the centre of the area. The car track moments where they can stop the car and change in their way of leaves the winding roads of the countryside and heads towards 137 transport. Lynch (1960) describes a point where multiple routes the rough coastal shore, crossing a saliña (saliña Washikemba) 138 meet a ‘node’, Brinkhuijsen (2008) calls it a ‘leisure transfer and passing the former Washikemba estate. The estate was one point’. Illustration 138 displays the points of interest that have of the biggest Aloë plantations on Bonaire, after years of neglect the potential to develop along the route as this is the location it has been bought by a private person and recently renovated. where multiple routes meet. Multiple points that have potential to It has however no assignment. Rumours persist that the house is develop within the project area are displayed in illustration 137 haunted and ghosts visit it regularly. and 138. The choice for the area of further detailing with design Saliña Washikemba is the lowest location in the plan area interventions that steer sustainable development and improve the and contains the water that has flowed into it from the higher accessibility for users, is based on the analysis of the points with grounds in rainy season. The saliña eventually ran in the Boka the potential to develop on both the landscape unit map, and the Washikemba and into the sea. The edges, especially from the nodes that are created with the new touristic routes. The area to side of Boka Washikemba, are subject to erosion. Outside rainy improve with design interventions (hereinafter referred to as the season the saliña is an empty open space with a few trees that Illustration 140 - 141| Washikemba Valley current Washikemba valley) will be elaborated further in this research. tolerate the salty soil and periods with a high water level. During routing. The Washikemba valley (illustration 139) is located along the rainy seasons the saliña transforms into a body of water which is Location Washikemba Valley route, it is an area where multiple routes cross and consist of a about 270 meters wide and hard to cross by car or other forms of on Google Earth map high complexity in landscape layers. transport as the soil turns into mud.

Illustration 138 - 139| Chapter 10: Sustainable development Nodes in the current trail with potential to develop. The area to improve: Washikemba valley node zoom in

0 1 3 6 km The inner area is characterized by a clayey (fertile) reddish 10.4 Interventions in the Washikemba Valley soil known as the Washikemba formation. This is also known For the intervention it is important to notice that every location as the kunukus or agricultural plots. Low thorny bushes and needs to be rediscovered and designed on multiple scale levels cacti set the scene. The more under layer that has a more (as well on the site when implementing the intervention). greyish (dry rock) colour is known as the limestone terraces Therefore the next paragraph will start with an analysis of and is located more towards the coastal shore. In the plan area the location. This is carried out in order to add quality to the two terraces are represented, the middle and lower terrace. location and create a design that ‘fits’ its surroundings as Years of weathering has eroded the middle terrace which is well as to make subtle implementations without harming the characterized by steep ridges in the landscape. These ridges, landscape which could have economic, social or natural benefits also known as the Washikemba plateau, rises around 3 to 4 since the landscape should be improved, instead of harmed. As meters out off the ground. Due to the winds trade and soil that Relph has explained about the genius of a place: “Genius Loci 139 has been transported from the saliña, some of the red clayey cannot be designed to order. It has to evolve, to be allowed to 140 soil has accumulated on top of the limestone which explains why happen, to grow and change from the direct efforts of those some thorny bushes are able to grow there. The lower terrace who live and work in places and care about them” (Relph, 1993. is located next to the coastal shore. Very little vegetation can P.103). Nassauer explains that designing ecosystems in such a Illustration 142 | survive in these extreme circumstances (salty winds, shallow manner that people will recognize their beauty and maintain it Washikemba Valley analysis rocky soil and very little water), therefore only cacti and moss appropriately may depend upon including design cues of human characteristics grows on these plains. intention. This means that a place is under the care of a person (Nassauer, 1995). The interventions hereinafter mentioned (and detailed) facilitate parking (1), improve the accessibility for users with the existence of a dam (2) and viewpoint (3). The location of the interventions are displayed in illustration 143 . As the interventions are Illustration 143 - 144| located in public space and improve the current routing, as well Locations for interventions to as the water retention capacity of the area, it is plausible that improve the hiking track. these interventions would be regulated by DRO, for example, Location in Washikemba with resources from the umbrella project ‘Wilderness Protection Valley Caribbean Netherlands’. Chapter 10: Sustainable development 1 1

3 10.5 Parking and crossing the Washikemba Valley Facilitating a parking that provides people (and their vehicles) The car trail crosses the Washikemba valley, which is shade improves the utility of the car trail for the users, as well characterized by thorny bushes and cacti, and passes the as it creates a place with shade where to rest. This has been Washikemba estate and saliña. It depends on the season indicated by SNP, NBTC Holland and BONHATA in chapter 7.4 whether or not the valley can be crossed. As explained in as crucial facilities for tourists in recreation. The location of this previous paragraphs, multiple routes are implemented in the intervention is indicated with 1 in illustration 146. The valley is Washikemba valley and also multiple routes start from the valley, undulating creating a stable water level in the lowest area of the among others, a hike route. In addition to the cars that use the saliña. However, this lowest part floods in periods of severe rain, car trail the pedestrians and mountain bikers also encounter flushing mud and nutrients towards the Boka and into the sea. difficulties when crossing thesaliña. During rainy season, the The edge of the saliña is in a dry state for a large part of the valley transforms into a large body of water, which makes the year and is therefore used as a car trail There are other paths 156141 valley difficult to cross. The location displayed in illustration 143 on the higher grounds that can be used by cars when the soil of 142 and 145 enhances a leisure transfer point by which is meant a the saliña is saturated. And as Lynch (1960) explains, paths are point where people can change from one means of transport to the channels along which the observer moves from one point another (Brinkhuijsen, 2008), in this case, from car to hiking. of reference (landmarks or points of interest) to another. In the This has been described by Lynch as ‘nodes’. “Nodes are points, case of this location the next point of reference is the viewpoint. the strategic spots... into which an observer can enter, and from For people that follow the hike or mountain bike trail there is no which he is traveling. They may be primarily junctions, places of alternative or facility that improves the accessibility to reach the Illustration 145 | a break in transportation, a crossing or convergence of paths, viewpoint which is at the other side of the saliña (indicated with Illustration 146 | Site analysis Washikemba moments of shift from one structure to another” (Lynch, 1960. 3 in illustration 146). With a design intervention on the location Indication parking and Valley intervention parking P.47). Given the climate conditions and distances it is plausible indicated with 2 in illustration 146 the accessibility of pedestrians crossing Washikemba Valley and crossing the saliña that people gather around a point of departure and park their car and mountain bikers can be improved and the locations can be or other forms of transport there, therefore this assemblage point developed into a destination or landmark. has priority to develop into something more than a parking spot. Chapter 10: Sustainable development

0 20 50 100 200m 0 20 50 100 200m Implementation Parking Illustration 149 - 151 | Illustration 147 | Design parking after 15, 30 and Since Bonaire is known as an island with balmy climate with 40 years Measurements parking lot many sun hours and a temperature that easily rises above 30 degrees, people park in the shade where possible. The valley contains very little trees under which can be parked; therefore other measures should be taken in order to create shade. A construction made of shade canvas and sandblasted iron poles is proposed to be implemented in the area. It is proposed to 15 years 30 years 40 years use sandblasted iron poles as this robust material withstands salty wind for a long period of time and is often used in similar (private) situations. The shade canvas (displayed in illustration 143 153) is easy to obtain at the local farmer cooperation ‘Kriabon’ as 144 it is often used to build greenhouses and it is a relatively cheap Illustration 148 | The shade canvas is fastened material. to iron poles that differ The calculation for the parking lots is carried out for larger cars in height, this creates a as driving the car trail is only recommended by four wheel drives. playful and varied picture. One single parking lot (displayed in illustration 147) is 5.5 meters The minimum height of the long and 3.5 meters wide, the shade canvas should hang at least poles is 2 meter so cars can 2 meters above ground level. park easily underneath, and provides users of shade. The parking provides at least 8 cars of shade When more money is available for the interventions, it opens Illustration 152 - 153 | Chain to control rain water up the possibility to use different material, such as HDPE (high discharging. density PolyEtheen) which is waterproof (illustration 154). The Picture: pinterest.com rainwater that falls on the HDPE canvas can be collected and used Shade canvas as roof cover as irrigation water for the planted trees. A chain attached to the parking. lowest side of the shade canvas controls the rain water discharge Illustration 154 | Chapter 10: Sustainable development and prevents soil eroding due to water runoff as displayed in Idea design parking illustration 152. Picture: hooverconcepts.com

In order to create a parking lot that facilitates shade for cars and creates opportunities for trees to grow, a shade study is conducted by building a model (as displayed in illustrations 155- Illustration 155 - 157 | 157) and using Sketchup. Shade study model approx. 09.00 - 11.00 am 14.00 pm Illustration 158 | As the reddish soil turns into mud during rainy season, the soil Location cross section in on the parking lot (and roads to the parking lot) needs to be design. hardened. The local material Basalt is proposed to be used as a Illustration 159 | groundcover. Cross section parking in a natural setting. The parking is a node in the recreational network and provides visitors (and their cars) of shade.

145 146 Illustration 160| Basalt to hardening the soil Picture: K. Metselaar 2015 Chapter 10: Sustainable development

A A’ Illustration 161 | Atmosphere parking in the landscape after 15 years. The dam ensures that the water is retained longer in the salina and does not flow into the sea. This creates a rewetting of the nature and an 147 enrichment of the 148 ecological values.

Even though vegetation grows very slow on the island, the aim Illustration 163| Illustration 162 | The sail of the parking is to eventually provide a possibility to park under trees in a Atmosphere parking in lot provides the parked the landscape after 30 natural setting as displayed in illustration 164. The advice is not cars and planted trees years. to plant seedlings, as vegetation grows slowly and the amount of of shade, and creates an As rainwater is trees needed for the parking is little. When planting trees that are enjoyable place for rec- Chapter 10: Sustainable development retained longer in the older, it is expected that the aim to park underneath the trees is reants to rest. The park- Washikemba valley, established earlier. ing could therefore also the biodiversity will functioning as a point extend by the natural of departure (for both regeneration of the guided tours as non- seed bank, which is guided tours). From here present in the soil. This recreants can gather creates a more divers to hike or go mountain landscape for recreants biking. After a hike or as different vegetation bicycle tour recreants will grow, and attracts can continue their jour- other types of fauna. ney by car. The planted trees are protected against herbivores by an electrified fence. The shade canvas protects the bark of the trees of shade, and recreants can water the trees. Illustration 164 | Idea Parking long timeframe. Illustration 165 - 166| Furthermore, it is necessary to protect the trees against The topographic location of the parking together with the Cacti fence and thorny herbivores. Bonairians use local material to protect crops from principle of dams can be used to create micro- catchments for branches against fence herbivores, such as cacti fences and gauze laid out with thorny the planted trees as proposed by Duchhart (1989). The parking as a boundary for branches (displayed in illustrations 165 - 166. is located on a slight slope, and the rain water follows the level herbivores differences (from high to low) through which rainwater gathers to the lowest point. The micro- catchment is reinforced with stones, preventing soil erosion. When the first water catchment is filled with water, the rain water continues it topographic journey towards the next water catchment.

149 150

Illustration 169 - 170| Principle drawing water runoff by natural slope. Principle drawing water runoff filling water catchments These techniques are relatively cheap, according to interviewees, a cacti fence costs between 6 and 15 dollars per m2 and the netting approximately 50 dollar per 100 m2. But as there are so many goats on the island and food is scarce, goats eat even Illustration 167 - 168| cacti fences. Also, the iron gauze is not resistant against the salty Principle drawing power eastern wind. Therefore a more sustainable solution needs to be fence on solar energy. found. A possible solution is to use solar energy to power a wire An irrigation plan is another thing that should be established; Power fence on solar fence (displayed in illustrations 167 and 168) as Bonaire has however, the methods and opinions about planting and irrigation energy many sun hours per day. differ substantially on the island. A method used for a local Pictures: tractorsupply.

Chapter 10: Sustainable development tree planting project is drenching the planted trees every week com and valleyfarmsupply.net (preferably more than once) for the first year. The second year watering is repeated once a month. After the second year the trees should only be watered once a month in rainy season so trees get used to the semi-arid climate conditions. After 4 years of watering, the trees do not need any more attention. Locals often use the shade of the existing trees to plant new trees, but as there are no existing trees, other forms of sun protection need to be established. In the same manual of Duchhart (1989), examples of sun protection are given. Given the circumstances, shade canvas is proposed to protect the trees against the sun. In addition to the proposed canvas to protect the trees against the sun, the proposed parking lot also creates shade for the trees. The topographic location (salty eastern wind and a likely possibility for overflows) must be taken into account for the selection of trees. Implementation Dam As explained in chapter 10.3, the rural area has contained many dams, however due to years of neglect and erosion many of these dams have seized to exist. When (re)constructing dams and spillways both up and down the stream, the water retention capacity of the inland and along the coast will be enlarged. This would have the effect that more (sweet) water is available for agriculture, vegetation and animals which is benefitual for the quality of nature and the self-sufficiency of farmers. In addition, less erosion and sedimentation will flow into the sea during extreme rainy periods, preventing coral from suffocation. 151 This improvement of the watershed management (dams and 152 spillways) could in addition to their water retaining function also have an ecological and recreational function. Concerning the ecological benefits, water catchment can be combined with the planting of trees, creating a green oasis in a rather parched landscape. This could again have benefits for the biodiversity. When viewed from a recreational perspective, the saliña is very hard to cross for pedestrians and mountain bikers and cars. For cars an alternative route is provided, for pedestrians and mountain bikers this is not the case. Therefore, creating a passage as shown in the design on the next page would improve the accessibility of the area and bring users from one point to another. In addition to accessibility, the dam would contribute to a greener (and therefore a different) scenery and would form an attraction as it would also add excitement to the hiking or bicycling trail. The proposed dam will be approximately 5 meters wide, including 2 meters for better walking and cycling conditions on top of the Chapter 10: Sustainable development dam. The design vision of the dam includes a human dimension and a point of departure so that the interventions should be small minimal and should ‘fit’ the surrounding landscape. Furthermore, the dam is designed from the perspective that the current dams upstream contribute to the retention of sediment (and water). The (reconstruction and) development of more dams upstream Illustration 171 | will result in a more gradual discharging and longer retention The dam is situated of water and sediment. It is expected that when the dams perpendicular to the course are situated upstream, the proposed dam downstream (in the of the saliña. As the water Washikemba valley) can be of a ‘smaller’ scale. level of the saliña differs The dam retains the water at the side of the inland, due to substantially throughout upward seepage and spillways, water logging also occurs on the the season (as displayed other side of the dam. Creating a moisty environment for flora to in illustration 145), the construction of the dam starts grow. The dam meanders and changes in direction to connect the on the slope of the saliña at current hike trail. This connection with the current trail is created floodplain level. by steppingstones, providing the users of a different experience. Constructing a dam is a relatively large (and visible) intervention Illustration 175 | when regarding the empty disposition of the saliña during many Basalt to fill the gabions. months of the year, therefore the dam would follow the relief Pictures: aliexpress.com of the saliña (as displayed in illustration 172) and would have a maximum height of 70 cm. This is recommended since the saliña is only temporarily filled with water and so the dam will form a large share of the scenery when a visitor enters the Washikemba valley. According to Loidl and bernard (2003) for humans, a scale of around 0.5 to 1.5 meters is perceived as comfortable as people can safely sit or walk on dams of this height and most people can see over them. The length of the dam depends on 153 the exact topographic location, but will have a minimum of 270 154 meters according to the floodplain edges visible on Google Earth. The height of the dam will have a maximum of 0.7 meters in the The usage of local rocks as a boundary for water has benefits lowest (deepest) part of the saliña, where multiple spillways (on as it support the local economy (labour and procurement of a height of 0.6 m) are situated as well (illustration 173 and 174). material) and has relatively low transport costs. The gabions will be filled with (preferably) local Basalt rocks and Almost halfway the dam a bypass will be located which will be reinforced with a concrete foundation on the bedrock, at would give the users the possibility to change direction and the sea side the dam is reinforced with a pressure deflecting wall. head towards an existing route via steppingstones. These steppingstones have a height of 0.5 meter above the surface (illustration 176). Illustration 172 | Principle drawing dam follows relief salina

Illustration 176 | Measurements steppingstones Illustration 173 | Measurements and Chapter 10: Sustainable development construction dam.

Illustration 174 | Measurements spillway Illustration 177 | Location cross sections in design. Illustration 178 -179 | Cross section crossing saliña. The dam makes the area accessible during rainy season and retains the water. Cross section, dam and bypass by steppingstones gives users the possibility to change direction

155 156

Water is collected in the low laying saliña, nature to regenerate Illustration 180 -181| which attracts water related fauna and creates a unique scenery Atmospheres crossing saliña for recreants to experience. In a ‘rare’ heavy downpour, the with dam. After a period of B B’ saliña enters outside its usual water line through which water heavy rain, the water level infiltrates and enriches surrounding nature directly. rises. Chapter 10: Sustainable development

C C’ 10.6 Viewpoint Washikemba Plateau The viewpoint at the Washikemba Plateau is the third and last detailed intervention. The Washikemba Valley is a rather flat plain with a great diversity in landscape. One of the hiking paths scrapes the Washikemba Plateau which gives a certain enclosure for the hiker. The plateau rises 3 to 4 meters above the surrounding area and separates the middle and lower terrace which differs besides age also in appearance and atmosphere. The middle terrace is characterized by thorny bushes and cacti that grow on a shallow soil. The lower terrace is an empty rocky shore, only scarcely covered by moss. 157 158

Illustration 180 -181| Location viewpoint in the Washikemba Valley Site analysis plateau

Illustration 180 -181| Elements landscape panorama. Indication viewpoint. Chapter 10: Sustainable development Illustration 182| Implementation Viewpoint Washikemba Plateau The saliña covers a large area and attracts water birds and other Design Washikemba plateau) Experiencing the landscapes diversity in the surrounding area fauna during rainy season and the plateau provides visitors great The stairs bridged the level could add another dimension of adventure to hiking in the scenery views without disturbing the animals. Furthermore, the difference of the (between area (especially by locals) is known for its great sunsets, which middle and lower) terrace valley. As the plateau is about 3 to 4 meters high (depending on could add another experience and introduction to the area for and improves the accessibility the location) and the edges are rather steep, it is necessary to of the hiker to reach the create facilities to enter the plateau. The plateau gives a 360° the visitors. Thanks to the staircase, the user will be able to get plateau. A wooden deck panoramic view of the surrounding area, due to the flat landscape a panoramic view of the surrounding landscape. The wooden guides the visitor from and vegetation which can be seen from the plateau. Therefore (impregnated) platform attached to the sand blasted staircase the edge of the plateau vertical elements, such as the hill Bara di Karta and lighthouse will end on the plateau and consists of two compartments, towards the centre. Spelonk, stand out. the first provides access to the plateau and the second is an observation tower that rises about 5 meters above surface level. 159 Sandblasted iron is proposed as this robust material withstands 160 Illustration 183| salty wind for a long period of time, whereas the stairs need Atmosphere Washikemba a stable foundation and are therefore anchored with concrete plateau) to the ground. The minimum width of the stairs is 1.20 m The Washikemba plateau (ergonomiesite.be). The height should be determined when provides users of a great implementing the intervention, together with the amount of the overview on the coastal shore steps to reach the plateau. and is accessible via a stair that lands on the plateau.

Chapter 10: Sustainable development Illustration 184 | Location cross sections in design. Illustration 185| Cross section Washikemba plateau, displaying the abruptly transition between Washikemba and terraces. The Washikemba plateau is accessible through a stair and provides 161 visitors of a panorama 162 view over the rural area Chapter 10: Sustainable development

D D D’ 10.7 Development perspective Illustration 186 | As explained in the beginning of this chapter, interventions can be Stage 1 in sustainable development of the rural realized on multiple (organizational) levels. The aforementioned area, DRO develops a car (and detailed) interventions, facilitating parking, dams and and hike and mountain bike viewpoints, are interventions that should be regulated by DRO. trails In the near future however, DRO has an important role in facilitating interventions that steer further economic, social or natural development as well. Some interventions can be financed by a single farmer, others need the support of a collective body of entrepreneurs or should be fully financed by the municipality. Also, some interventions would have more (public) support than 163 others, for example: surrounding the valley. This might cause 164 friction between politicians, nature organisations and farmers, as the local expression explains: every goat is a vote. Therefore, the phasing in the following chapter is flexible and does not requires to happen in a certain order. From the interviews it appears that the government should have a significant role in facilitating the materials and providing knowledge due to the social and economic context of the inhabitants. In particular, the small entrepreneurs or farmers find The second step is to improve locations to make the area more it difficult to invest in interventions (especially when they do not accessible, workable and open for experience, this is displayed pay off directly) and therefore need material or financial help in illustration 186. Facilitating interventions through strategic to generate further economic, social or natural development of points could make the route (and therefore eventually also the the rural area. As the aim was to steer development, it is worth rural area) even more appealing by extending the duration and to question how the rural area (with its flora, fauna, inhabitants comfort of the visit. and entrepreneurs) will benefit from tourism. In the following Within the POP the project ‘pilot dams and wells’ is included, by paragraph possible developments that happen in time will be implementing a dam in the saliña the water can be retained for a displayed. longer period of time and therefore less rain water flows into the The umbrella project ‘Wilderness Protection Caribbean sea. Chapter 10: Sustainable development Netherlands’ with the help of ecotourism should eventually generate further economic, social or natural development of the rural area. However, this is not possible at once but will happen in stages, the stages are explained in the following illustrations and text. As described in chapter 10, the development of the route (via signs, promotion, websites and new tourist maps) is the first Illustration 187 | step to make the area accessible (and for the rural landscape to Stage 2 in sustainable become a destination for leisure). This is displayed in illustration development of the rural 186 area: design interventions are proposed to improve the accessibility and workability of the area Illustration 188 | Illustration 190| Effect stage 2 in sustainable Stage 3: Upscaling of the development of the rural pilot dams and wells: More area: The proposed interventions (dams) on interventions increses the strategic points are proposed. water retention in the salina This creates possibilities for valley which increases agriculture, improvement the biodiversity. of the biodiversity and experience of users

165 166

In addition to enlarging the water retention capacity and the If more dams are functioning and new dams would be built on benefits that can be linked to this (e.g increasing biodiversity), strategic points, more water could be retained in and around the the dam makes the area more accessible and extends the current saliña. This would create the necessary conditions for (different) hiking network. vegetation to grow, provide users a different scenery and attract water birds and other fauna. Kunukeros can use the dams for the production of crops. The establishment of the dams needs to be determined in further research as the function of some dams will be to block and retain the water, while others will be used to steer agriculture. Chapter 10: Sustainable development

Illustration 189 | Effect stage 2 in sustainable Illustration 191| development of the rural Stage 3: Upscaling of the area: The proposed pilot dams and wells: More interventions create an interventions (dams) on extending of the current route strategic points are proposed. network This results into an extension of the water retention capacity of the system, in where more water is retained longer. Illustration 192 | 2.5 landscaps Upscaling of the pilot dams and wells: When facilitating parking that provides people (and their vehicles) of shade improves the utility of the car trail for users, as well as it creates a location with shade to rest, at the other side of the Washikemba valley. For users of the 167 trails this is another 168 possibility to have a break and see more from the surrounding landscape. Users have the possibility to come close to the kunuku landscape, which creates possibilities for The pilot creates possibilities to connect ecotourism development Bonairians to exploit with the kunuku. New hiking trails can be developed along the dams, whereof the population can benefit economically, for example, through agro tourism, the trade of local products and guided tours. Restoring and improving the systems of dams on large scale, and agreements about public and private land, it is therefore necessary to steer economic, social and environmental Effect upscaling of the pilot dams and wells: When new routes Illustration 194 - 195 | Atmospheres sustainable development. will be developed, possibilities for Bonairians are created to exploit agro tourism, for example the trade of drinks and food or development guided tours on their kunuku Chapter 10: Sustainable development

Illustration 193 | Effect upscaling of the pilot dams and wells: When (part) of the interventions would be public, routes along the traditional kunuku’s can be created and the current recreational network extended Another expectation of the effect on the developments of Fencing off the Washikemba valley touristroutes in the area is the exploitation of the former In order to enlarge the natural regeneration capacity of the area, plantation. As explained earlier in this chapter, the Washikemba and thereby restore the landscape qualities, it is proposed that plantation was one of the biggest Aloë plantations on Bonaire. the area is marked as a nature reserve. Therefore politicians After years of neglect it has been bought by a private person and and organisations need to appoint the Washikemba valley as been recently renovated. The house does not have an assignment part of the National Park and give the area the same status as it has been uninhabited for a long time. This might change as the Washington Slagbaai National park. If it obtains the in the future as the former plantation is located close to the same status as Washington Slagbaai National park, it could proposed parking and forms an attraction for the people using be managed by Stinapa Bonaire with a share of the revenue the trails. It is highly expected that the house wll get a function. collected through the divers fee and entrance fee of the National Examples of potential functions are the following: a visitors Park. This would further mean that the area could be kept closed 169 centre, hotel or museum. It is also hoped that it that it will form for goats and donkeys, as is the case in the National Park. As 170 part of the (new) route in the future. If so, then the house and, Saito explains, “we care about the fate of the scenic wonders of in particular, the garden and farmlands needs to be renovated. national parks and oppose any activities that would “disfigure” An example of how the Washikemba estate could look like is their appearance” (Saito, 2008. P.63). And “our prevalent scenic displayed in illustration 197. landscape aesthetics has consequences not only regarding the The estate has been recently renovated, when looking more fate of unscenic lands, but also regarding our protection and closely at the rest of the property in illustration 196, it seems management of scenic lands” (Saito, 2008. P.65). The natural that there are quite a few remnants of the Aloë plants. The regeneration of the area could be established with the fencing design (illustration 197) is based on the current structures of the area creating a more diverse landscape. It is expected and remnants of elements, references to Bonaire and Curacao, that the soil would consist of an extensive seedbank and that Illustration 196 - 197 | interviews and brief research about plantations. In the sketch the vegetation will germinate quickly after rainy season. Further, Analysis current situation remnants of the limekiln, Aloë oven and well have been repaired. dominant species could be removed in order to create better Washikemba estate The location of the kitchen, together with the slight slope towards circumstances for desired vegetation and specific vegetation that Design Washikemba estate the south of the property, explains the location of the vegetable is to be planted on strategic locations. garden. The avenue of trees, together with the fruit trees, is located in the Aloë fields and provide shade for the visitors. Illustration 198 | Fencing off the Washikemba Chapter 10: Sustainable development valley to steer natural regeneration. When the Washikemba would be appointed as part of the National Park, and the proposed dams are implemented more water would be retained for a longer period of time. When this area would be fenced, herbivores would not have the opportunity to eat the nature that tries to regenerate and it is expected that the area would have a more diverse character

0 10 20 40m 0 10 20 40m ‘Self-sustainable’ fence Further routing in the rural outback As explained earlier in this research, Bonaire is profiling DRO has set the aim to develop a route between the roads of Ka- itself as an eco-tourist friendly destination. This profiling is minda Lagoen and Kaminda Sorobon which would be feasible for also displayed in the umbrella project ‘Wilderness Protection a short period of time and provide a starting point for social and Caribbean Netherlands’ and the fact that politicians support cultural projects . The proposed route enhances many interest- and stimulate renewable energy projects, where possible. ing points within the project area that have potential to develop, Examples are the windmill park in the northern part of the island however; there are more points of interest located both inside and the use of solar panels. Private initiatives regarding the and outside the project area as displayed in chapter 7. These kunuku show that solar energy is a very lucrative source. Since points are not addressed in the current route. If the Bara di Karta Bonaire has an average of eight to nine sunshine hours of per trail becomes a success, a decision could be made to extend the day (klimaatinfo.nl, 2015), being self-sustainable is the most current trail. 171 viable option for Bonaire. The fact that generating renewable An indication of the potential future route network is displayed in 172 energy and integrating this in the design in a subtle way is illustration 151 which addresses elements that are of both cul- possible today can be seen in the reference project: Land Art tural and natural interest. Since Washikemba had priority for this Generator Initiative (LAGI) ‘Renewable energy can be beautiful’ research, the network is mainly focused on East Bonaire as this Competition Copenhagen 2014, submission Sails, an homage to is the area where most fieldwork was executed. Further research seafaring, in illustrations 148-150. The design for Copenhagen is needed to categorize the trails into hike, mountain bike and car serves as a source of inspiration for the rural area of Bonaire trails. Illustration 198 | as the shade canvas of the parking could be replaced with the Proposed expansion of the material proposed in the competition. The material used in the route network in the future competition captures light in its solar cells and is connected with a power grid that collects the power during the day and releases it in the evening to provide power for the area. If the canvas of the parking will be replaced, the parking lots will generate enough energy to electrify the fence that surrounds the natural area, securing that the goats stay outside. Solar energy could also be a solution to pump water from the wells. Illustration 199 - 201 |

Chapter 10: Sustainable development View reference project Copenhagen Principles capturing light in solar cells. Pictures: landartgenerator.org PART V REFLECTION

REFLECTION This final chapter will first fall back on the research questions and significance of this thesis. Followed by the discussion, and recommendations for further research 11.0 Conclusion

191176 In this MSC thesis in Landscape Architecture I have seen that the landscape qualities and characteristics serve as a starting point for the development of tourism. Discovering these landscape qualities and characteristics and improving the accessibility, workability and attractiveness of an area with design interventions are among some of the tasks that landscape architects do and are good at. If tourism on Bonaire is to be sustainable, it needs to contribute to sustainable development and it must be economically viable, environmentally sensitive and culturally appropriate. Therefore the Landscape Based Design Approach was used to understand which processes have shaped the landscape. The landscape system and their interrelations were investigated at three scales, namely the island Bonaire, project area Washikemba and the Washikemba valley.

First the supportive questions of the research are answered and thereafter these questions will lead to the answer of the main research question.

How does the landscape system works? The map study, fieldtrips, interviews and document study gives insight in how the landscape works. The sea that surrounds Bonaire has a great influence on the formation of the island and (today’s) economic pillars. Bonaire was created though an undersea volcanic eruption 100 million years ago, today this volcanic material is called the Washikemba formation and, due to its water retention capacity, has the best location for agriculture. Rooien (waterstreams), dams and tankis retains rainwater in the agricultural area that flows from the higher located areas before it flows into the saliñas. The limestone terraces that surrounds the island were formed during a period of relatively sea level rise or/ and fall of the island itself, wherein coral could grow in shallow water and shaped the 3 terraces that are visible on the Especially in the rural outback the sunsets are beautiful island and the current coral reef. Agriculture played a significant display the identity of the island. Further, facilities such as local role in society as it made inhabitants self-sustainable in the restaurants, places that provide people shade and a high diversity production of food, and created a sense of community feeling. of nature are missing core values. This changed with the emergence of dive tourism in the 60’s as From the interviews and talk with local entrepreneurs it can be people left the countryside to work in the city. concluded that local entrepreneurs are willing to invest (time or money) in ecotourism, for example, by building ecolodges on What are the qualities and challenges of the rural landscape of their property. However, the level of ambition differs substantially Washikemba? between the local entrepreneurs, the Hotel and Tourism The map study, fieldtrips, interviews, document study and Google Association on Bonaire and the travel agencies in the Netherland. Earth analysis has resulted in an overview of the challenges Additionally, local entrepreneurs are lacking in resources, and a and qualities in the Washikemba area. Qualities mentioned are shared future scenario and communication between the different 177 the coastal shore and scenery, the mangrove with its fauna and stakeholders is missing, which makes it difficult to implement the 178 rural cacti landscapes with saliñas. Furthermore, the (former) ideas. estates and remnants that remind of the Aloë production, caves, the hill Bara di Carta and plateaus of Washikemba are declared. What theoretical framework can steer the development of the Among other things are the mangroves, the flora and fauna, the Washikemba area in a sustainable manner? viewpoints on plateaus, the empty coastal shore with ‘Boka’s’ and A document study was conducted to create an overview of the Lagoen and systems of the kunukus as well as the tranquillity theories on sustainability, and sustainable tourism. Furthermore, of the area. Examples of natural and cultural challenges are: literature was reviewed to gain knowledge about what is waste dump and illegal excavations. Also, soil and surface water required for the development of (sustainable) tourism and to pollution, removal of the deposited coral on the coastal shore and understand the role of a landscape architect in the establishment the predating of (mainly) goats, sheep and donkeys on trees. of sustainable development and discovering of (landscape) qualities. The role of a landscape designer is first to understand Chapter 11: Conclusion What landscape elements have the interest of tourists and locals? the landscape and its organisations to achieve sustainability. The Google Earth photo analysis has displayed such water Especially since the landscape exists in many layers and systems related activities as diving, sailing and wind- kite surfing and that need to work in the same direction to be sustainable. the marine life (coral and tropical fishes) in its entirety are very This sense of understanding was obtained through a thorough popular among tourists. This is followed by the urban areas, landscape analysis. The second role of a landscape architect is to the sceneries, saltpans, sunsets and the nature of the national find the locations that have potential to develop. There have been park. Also, many historical buildings (slave huts, plantations, the theorizations on different levels of abstraction about (the role lighthouse of Spelonk) and flora and fauna are shown in photos. of a landscape architect in steering (sustainable) development (Barnett, 2013; Brinkhuijsen, 2008; Duchhart, 2007) but it What are the perspectives of different stakeholders regarding the comes down to the designing of interventions that improve the development of ecotourism in the Washikemba area? accessibility for users and the workability of the landscape to Talks with local entrepreneurs and interviews were conducted enlarge the economic value of an area. The proposed design to clarify the perspectives of different stakeholders regarding interventions could generate economic and social development ecotourism developments. According to the Hotel and for locals, as well as enlarging the biodiversity of the area and Tourism Association on Bonaire and the travel agencies in the providing a unique experience for tourists. The spatial design Netherland, nature tourists are searching for small-scale and principles of van der Lee (2014) have been used as guidelines to luxury accommodations in high quality settings. Also, they like steer sustainable development with design interventions. to discover an area in different manners, by foot, by horse or by bicycle and away from the usual track. The aforementioned parties are convinced that there is a market for ecotourism on the island, however; the current state of ecolodges on Bonaire is not sufficient. There is a lack of infrastructure and routes that What are the potentials for further development in the Relevance: Deming and Swaffield (2011) explain that The Washikemba area? American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) has set up The fieldtrip resulted in a new tourist map, which guides a list with key issues to research. Among those is the topic of visitors in various ways along many of the interesting points in sustainable design. Applied research is needed in the areas of the Washikemba area. These interesting points appear where landscape planning and environmental management. Also, this different landscape units meet and create a certain level of topic concerns soil erosion and sediment control. Furthermore, on complexity in the landscape. These points became visible after different levels of abstraction it has been theorized about steering combining the findings of the fieldwork, interviews, map study, (sustainable) tourism development, the role of a landscape Google Earth analysis and document study in the landscape architect in discovering (landscape) qualities and the potential unit map. The new route network is another layer added to the to develop locations. In this thesis an overview of the theories landscape and creates nodes where different paths cross. These (concepts) used in the field and their significance overlap and a 179 nodes have potential to develop as they represent meeting relation has been established which gives future researchers a 180 points where people can gather and change from one means of starting position. transport to another and they are the places where development is most likely. Along the route in the Washikemba area, three Landscape architectural significance:It has been theorized points fit the abovementioned criteria: first the location close on different levels of abstraction about what is required for to Lagoen, the Washikemba Valley, and at the bottom of the (sustainable) tourism development as well as the role that a hill, Bara di Karta. However, the proposed interventions in this landscape architect has in the establishment and discovering research enlarge the current route network, creating possibilities of (landscape) qualities together with the locations that have for other locations to develop. potential to develop and are spatial guidelines prepared for sustainable development. In this thesis, theory is applied on a The main research question in this study is: route which is improved by interventions that steer sustainable development. The sometimes rather abstract ‘tools’ and rules of Chapter 11: Conclusion What are crucial issues to consider in designing a route that theories have been translated into concrete tangible interferences stimulate ecotourism development and contribute to the that are understandable and visible for everyone. improvement of the landscape qualities in the Washikemba area, Bonaire? Social relevance: For Bonaire this research provides a practical answer to the by DRO proposed research question: how to design Understanding the landscape and its organisations is crucial a route that stimulates eco-tourism development and contributes to achieve sustainability. When the layers of the landscape to the improvement of the landscape qualities. It also provides (abiotic, biotic, cultural, political and economic) work in the a development direction with phasing that gives DRO a manual same direction, sustainability can be achieved. With the help of what steps need to be taken after implementing the route. a thorough landscape analysis this sense of understanding can Further, the thesis involves an extensive analysis that displays be achieved. The landscape analysis further displays the qualities the interrelationships between the systems. and challenges of an area. For the development of a (tourist) route, it is essential to research the landscape elements that are interesting both for tourists and locals and to guide users along these attractions and points of interest (with routing). Furthermore, offering facilities and settings to improve the accessibility and workability of a route and landscape is seen as major condition as well. Design interventions at strategic points can be used to overcome challenges and to enlarge the economic value of an area. and make agreements regarding the trail. After I left, Kris Kats took over the job and stayed in touch with the stakeholders. Eventually it appeared that the amount of conversations was not enough as many stakeholders dropped out when it came to implementing their plans. This is something to consider before starting a project, people are capricious. Further, triangulation by 12.0 Discussion persons is needed as everyone has its own truth, where possible, this information should be cross-checked with literature and experts. An example of information that was hard to cross-check was the amount of goats that roam free. As many people have different memories and experience about it, it was sometimes 181 necessary to make assumptions. 182 First, I will highlight general discussion points, including the The route has been discussed with stakeholders but as my validity, uncertainties and constraints of the research which supervisor and the experience of my colleagues indicated, many will then be followed by the impact of the route and then the of the inhabitants where ‘tired of talking’. It would have been discussion about the position of a landscape architect, methods of added value to discuss the route publicly, for example during and theories executed. a meeting with the members on the local farmer association Kriabon or at the monthly market at Mangazina di Rei. But A number of factors have to be taken into consideration within the three months’ stay on the island, there was too little regarding this research. Due to limited availability of data, time to gain the trust of the chairmen to talk with more farmers I partly had to build upon my own skills and experience, or to present it somewhere publicly. I do however believe that especially during landscape analysis. Much of the available data the project could have benefitted from more participation. I did was out-dated and represented on various scales. Therefore it change the ‘run’ of the route a couple of times after the route Chapter 12: Discussion was sometimes necessary to make assumptions. Even though was driven multiple times and after the conversations with the conversations with experts have occurred to cross-check stakeholders where held. It is probably is better to have more information, some assumptions might not be correct. informal discussions throughout the design process to let it Secondly, I stayed on the island for three months which is function in a more optimal manner, but considering the timeframe a relatively short time in view of the amount of work that this was not feasible. the interviews, field visits, landscape analysis and other Another method used was the Google Earth photo analysis. activities took. It took some time to getting in touch with the Though the method provided insight on the most popular places ‘right’ persons, becoming integrated in the culture and really and attractions on the island, I needed to keep in mind that understanding the island. tourists often photograph the attractive points and landmarks where the area is known to them. It is therefore reasonable Concerning the methods that have been used for this research, to believe that people refer to what is displayed in the tourism interviewing stakeholders forms an important part. I have talked brochures and booklets. It is worth questioning how open minded with interviewees to gain knowledge about various matters. and unbiased the tourists are. Surveying tourists would be an The stakeholders answer from their own perspective and they addition to the tourism analysis to verify the findings of the therefore never had a complete picture. Hence, this research Google Earth analysis and vision of the SNP, NBTC Holland and cannot be seen as entirely objective. However, I have spoken BONHATA, but it has not been carried out due to a lack of time. more than once with many of the stakeholders to cross-check the outcomes and increase the trustworthiness of the research. The direct aim of this research was to develop a touristic route Also, the findings were triangulated by driving, testing, and in the Washikemba area of Bonaire that would be beneficial discussing the route and points of interest with stakeholders; this both for tourists and residents. As this rural area is so much has changed the trail during the process. Eventually a meeting integrated in the culture and for many people serves as a location was organised in which stakeholders could share their opinion to escape from the hectic tourism orientated villages, it is worth questioning whether opening up the rural area for tourists might clarity about how to control the impact of an intervention is have implications for the tranquillity of the area and thereby also lacking. It is however recommended to open up the dialogue for the ‘escape space’ for the locals. This tranquillity, which is between landscape architects and representatives of other one of its main qualities, might decrease when many people start professions in order to establish these conditions and thoughts. using the area. Also, opening up the landscape so large amounts of tourists can explore the rural is contra dictionary to the small Some social issues that were addressed were the following: scale of the kunuku landscape, this might have implications for many kunukus are family owned for ages, today these plots are the road system. In addition to this, the POP project has the aim not always fenced which causes difficulties between private/ to let people return to the rural area, but this will not happen to public grounds. This makes routing outside the supposed paths a great extent until the basic needs of people will be provided disputable because the knowledge about which kunuku is still (e.g. power, water etc.). Furthermore, it is worth to question in use and to which extend is lacking. One of the proposed 183 whether or not projects within the POP will be viable without interventions to enclose the Washikemba valley is to make it part 184 financial support as today many resources are available within a of the National Park, this indicates that the area should be free timeframe. When financial support dries out, earlier projects have of herbivores (goats) to let the nature regenerate. This might shown not to be viable, creating dissolutions for stakeholders. create political conflicts as is explained by a Bonairian saying Therefore it is necessary to create benefits for the involved “every goat is a vote”. Some people might not be happy when stakeholders which are both long and short term. Another the foraging area of ‘their’ goats decreases. It is therefore crucial consideration of the POP is that it does not enhance a clear to create benefits for the involved stakeholders both for long and phasing or case projects, which is necessary to set goals both for short term, (financial) support to exploit tourism, a food program politicians and the involved stakeholders. or to recover dams on their property. Another social point to Another point to address is already mentioned by Barnett address is the jealousy of people. When people have benefits (2013), we (landscape designers) can shape circumstances for from the POP which results in a profitable business, people that development or as Barnett calls them ‘initial conditions’ and let have not these, become jealous. This social pressure could hold Chapter 12: Discussion other forces take over. But we cannot exactly predict what the back the starting entrepreneurs. development will be. An example to take into account is that What has become clear is that policy plans are very much when the route becomes a success, the government could decide important as it gives people a document from where the rights to invest in the route, for example, by tarmacking the road or and obligations can be positioned. However, enforcement of these other movements such as urban expansion, instead of investing obligations is perhaps even more important. This causes social in the proposed interventions. Not all the developments are difficulties as the community is small and people do not ‘blab’ to desirable, especially not when it would change the experience people they know by person. of people and identity of the rural area. But as described earlier by Barnett: “A landscape never reaches an achieved The ‘Sustainable tourism development guidelines’ of van condition – there is no final form” (Barnett, 2013. P229). As der Lee (2014) are used as a guideline for the proposed landscape architects we are good at discovering the locations interventions, not as an index for a design. It made me aware of that have potential to develop and shaping the conditions so the aspects that can be included and be part of the design rather development could occur, but as the landscape is constantly than functioning as a checklist to include or a blueprint design. changing we cannot exactly predict what is going to happen. These guidelines are based on a summarized description of the It is therefore important to anticipate the change, whether principles of sustainable tourism executed by van der Lee (2014). positive or negative. In this thesis the theory of Barnett among It is possible that when summarizing, translating and interpreting others and the outcomes of the landscape analysis are used the principles and other information has got lost, meaning that to specify the points of the intervention. In other research, the route is assessed by incorrectly or incompletely interpreted similar concepts (such as magnets by Harden and Castricum, principles. 2013 and Swarm planning by Roggema, 2012) have been used, The guidelines of van der Lee and the ‘rules’ of Barnett in relation but a clear term has not set which makes the application of with the route ‘fit’, however one is more abstract and vague the concepts not always easy. Furthermore, knowledge and than the other leaving space for the designer to interpret the theory differently. However, it is important to address that these 13.0 Recommendations ‘guidelines’ serve as a good starting positions for a designer. First will be reflected upon the critical research and recommended For the interventions it is important to notice that every location future research on both social, cultural and practical issues. needs to be rediscovered and designed on multiple scale levels. This i done in order to add quality to the location and create Future research a design that ‘fits’ its surroundings as well as to make subtle An important outcome of the assessment of the guidelines of van suggestions without harming the landscape and which could have der Lee is that the carrying capacity of the area needs further economic, social or natural benefits since the landscape should be research for flora and fauna as well as the experience of people improved, instead of harmed. The intervention should not reach when the trail would become a success and interventions would above the absorption level of the landscape, but again we cannot be implemented. precisely predict what is going to happen. Therefore it is written Furthermore, it is recommended to research the social impact of 185 in chapter 10 that it is important to notice that every location tourism development as more tourists in the area might harm the 186 needs to be rediscovered and designed on multiple scale levels tranquillity of the area. When people return to the kunuku area, and on-site. This is necessary to add quality to the location and then further research about possible social and cultural changes create a design that ‘fits’ its surroundings and steer economic, needs to be conducted as today’s needs substantially differ from social or natural development the needs of people back in the 60’s. Together with research In the research of van der Lee a principle aimed at spatial regarding the spatial implications of this is necessary as this development was added. Perhaps the rules filtered out of theory might influence the appearance of the area, either in a positive or used in this thesis (e.g. Barnett, Brinkhuijsen and Lynch) can negative way. be used to create a new cluster focus on the development of Though the route (and initiatives) has been discussed in three an area or ingredients of a leisure landscape. I would like to meetings, it appears it is necessary to check what has happened propose a spatial principal that could be used in some situations meanwhile. In my case, further implementation is acquired in order to keep and improve the qualities of the area as well by a project manager. He however faced serious challenges Chapter 12: Discussion as making them more open for experience for the visitors. This because, when it comes to implementation of initiatives, many spatial principle is called ‘recreational and tourism developments’ stakeholders dropped out. My recommendation is therefore and could include the facets such as ‘recognisability’, repeating that further research should be done about the role of the elements for coherence’, and ‘design interventions dependent participatory processes in the development of sustainable upon context’. tourism.

In addition to this advice, the POP contains many projects, which could benefit from each other when approached strategically and in an integral manner. Also, linking functions that could take care for maintenance in order to make it viable for the long term as well as placing concrete actions and pilots in a timeframe. Examples could be education or initiatives like ‘Bonaire Bon Doet’ that communally clean up the island. It is also recommended to link initiatives not only inside the POP or ROB but also in a wider context to involve more people and make initiatives more viable for the long term. An example is displayed in this thesis, linking tourism with water retention, nature conservation and agriculture. However, it is crucial to research the current dams and water streams, the water retention areas and sweet water wells as a thorough inventory about both the location and current state is lacking. This inventory should enhance a localization of the water retention areas, dams and water streams as well as give an estimation of the current status, volume, and position of the current water system, so locations for improvement and enlargement of the water storage capacity can be appointed. A historical reconstruction of the dam structure could give a clear understanding of the water system and provide the locations to be improved. For kunukeros it has priority to position the dams on the right location, to steer agriculture and have economic benefits. Therefore it is recommended to develop a pilot case with a farmer that has the intention to steer agriculture. Also, it is essential to research, which wells are still usable or need to be repaired (or closed off). This is essential as the water 187 is used as drinking water for the cattle and as irrigation water for 188 agriculture. When speaking in more practical terms, there is a great conflict in the research related to goats. The amount of free roaming goats differs considerably, extensive research is needed to investigate how many goats roam free and to know their owners. In addition, a practical and sustainable, (on both long and small timeframe) solution should be found for the way they are kept today as the diversity in vegetation (and thereby the appearance and quality of nature) has declined over the years. This is followed by an effective way of enforcement.

In addition to the earlier recommendation, it is also suggested to change the way government imposes new rules and regulations. Preferably, this would be carried out on two levels: regulatory and Chapter 13: Recommendations offering alternatives. Even though the ‘kunuku police’ is whittled down, it has priority to compose a new force, for example, ‘the rangers of Washikemba’ who work together with initiatives such as the earlier mentioned ‘Bonaire Bon Doet’ to clean, combat and maintain erosion. However it is important to enforce this in a positive, open communicative and participative way by not only controlling but also consulting the farmers and offering possible solutions. Last, due to the mostly explorative character of the design and research it is necessary to do more specific research and small scale design to make the implementation possible, an example of this is the potential of ecolodges. References Dehoorne, O., and Tătar., C. (2013). 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This master thesis explores how ecotourism can contribute to sustainable rural development. Routing throughout the rural outback of Washikemba, Bonaire makes the area accessible for users. Integral design interventions are proposed to tackle (local) social, economical and environmental challenges and will improve the experience of users.

MSc Thesis Landscape Architecture Wageningen University 2016

Author Andrea Hulsebosch +31621858727