Ancient Philosophy I

FIRST EDITION The Liberating Art of Philosophy

A Foundational Anthology

Written and edited by Ross Reed

Missouri University of Science and Technology

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3970 Sorrento Valley Blvd., Ste. 500, San Diego, CA 92121 To Brian Glenn Ressler (1961–2018): A friend to all. To John Ellsworth Winter (1926–2019): A mentor to many. Both patient, humble, and reﬂective leaders of women and men. Thank you. Contents

Introduction ix

Unit I: Ancient Philosophy 1

Chapter 1. Ancient Philosophy I: What Goes Around Comes Around 3 1.1 Selections from Symposium 4 By Plato 1.2 Selections from Euthyphro 6 By Plato 1.3 Selections from Phaedo 8 By Plato

Chapter 2. Ancient Philosophy II: What’s with These Guys? 11 2.1 Book II (Virtue of Character) from Nicomachean Ethics 14 By Aristotle

Chapter 3. Ancient Philosophy III: Epicureanism 27 3.1 Letter to Menoeceus and Principal Doctrines 29 By Epicurus

Chapter 4. Ancient Philosophy IV: Stoicism 35 4.1 Selections from Enchiridion 37 By Epictetus

Unit II: Medieval Philosophy 45

Chapter 5. Medieval Philosophy: More Fun than You Can Imagine 47 5.1 Selections from Proslogion, from The Devotions of St. Anselm 49 By Anselm

v Chapter 6. Medieval Philosophy II 55 6.1 Selections from Scivias 57 By Hildegard of Bingen

Chapter 7. Medieval Philosophy III: Even More Fun (Shocking but True) 67 7.1 “The Existence of God,” from Summa Theologiae 69 By Thomas Aquinas

Unit III: Modern Philosophy 77

Chapter 8. Modern Philosophy (It’s Not What You Think) 79 8.1 “Meditations 1–3,” from Meditations on First Philosophy 82 By René Descartes

Chapter 9. Modern Philosophy II 105 9.1 Selections from Leviathan 108 By Thomas Hobbes

Chapter 10. Modern Philosophy III 121 10.1 “The Effect Which an Early Association of Ideas Has Upon the Character,” from A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 123 By Mary Wollstonecraft

Chapter 11. Modern Philosophy IV 131 11.1 Selections from A Treatise of Human Nature 134 By David Hume

Unit IV: 19th Century Philosophy 143

Chapter 12. Nineteenth-Century Philosophy I 145 12.1 Selections from On Liberty 148 By John Stuart Mill

Chapter 13. Nineteenth-Century Philosophy II 161 13.1 “The Concept of Anxiety,” from Concept of Anxiety: A Simple Psychologically Orienting Deliberation on the Dogmatic Issue of Hereditary Sin 166 By Søren Kierkegaard

vi P The Liberating Art of Philosophy Chapter 14. Nineteenth-Century Philosophy III 171 14.1 “Estranged Labor,” from Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 178 By Karl Marx

Chapter 15. Nineteenth-Century Philosophy IV 191 15.1 Preface from On the Genealogy of Morals 195 By Friedrich Nietzsche

Unit V: Contemporary Philosophy 203

Chapter 16. Twentieth-Century Philosophy I 205 16.1 “Bad Faith,” from Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology 212 By Jean-Paul Sartre

Chapter 17. Twenty-First-Century Philosophy I 229 17.1 “Depression, Anxiety, Powerlessness and Irrational Belief in Unlimited Individual Possibility as a Consequence of Ubiquitous Systemic Terror,” from the International Journal of Philosophical Practice, vol. 4, no. 4 233 By Ross Channing Reed

Unit VI: Eastern Philosophy 249

Chapter 18. Chinese Philosophy: Taoism (Or Daoism) 251 18.1 Sections 1–22, from The Tâo Teh King (Daodejing) 254 By Lao Tzu

Chapter 19. Asian Philosophy: Buddhism 263 19.1 Selections from The Dhammapada: A Collection of Verses: Being One of the Canonical Books of the Buddhists 266 By Friedrich Max Müller

Chapter 20. Philosophy Of The Ancient Near East: The Epic of Gilgamesh 279 20.1 Tablet I from The Epic of Gilgamesh 282 By William Muss-Arnolt

Bibliography 289

Contents P vii Introduction If You Think Thinking Is Bad, Try Not Thinking and See Where It Gets You

ince I haven’t the faintest notion of how to begin an introduction to an introduction, S I’m just going to dive right in. For starters, philosophy, as a discipline—that is to say, the art of thinking about all aspects of living and dying on planet earth, and then thinking about that thinking—is nearly 3,000 years old, and it’s been practiced all over the world, so, as you might well imagine, there’s an almost unlimited number of texts out there for reading, rumi- nation, study, digestion—thousands of which could be life changing. This means that what you are going to read in this book is a very small segment of what you could be reading. My intention, of course, in choosing these few texts is to pique your curiosity so that you won’t be able to help yourself, and you’ll simply have to read more. If that turns out to be the case, I’ll guide and direct you so that you can find more. Reading philosophy could even become a bad habit, but a bad habit you can be proud to share with others. Really, what could be better? If you already know the answers, there’s no point in doing philosophy. Philosophy is expressly reserved for those who, admittedly, don’t know all the answers. You might think, then, that it’s for everyone. I think you would be right. But, like anything else, you can’t make someone think independently. The whole notion is so oxymoronic it’s laughable. It’s like forc- ing someone to get into shape, or go on a diet, or get therapy. Recalcitrance will be rewarded with absolutely no progress whatsoever. So, you could read the texts in this book, but thinking about them and applying them to your life? That’s on you. Face it, no matter what he or she tells you, every philosopher is out to change the world. But they can’t do it without your help. Once you catch the feeling of what goes on when you philosophize, even for a glimpse, a shudder, a fash, you’ll be all in, for there’s nothing more exhilarating than the experience of an expanding mind. I could write all day about why you should get on the love train, but it wouldn’t necessarily be anything more than the sound of verbiage in the night, a tree fall- ing in an empty forest. What matters is getting engaged in the process for yourself, taking the

ix journey meant only for you that only you can take to places you haven’t yet dreamed about and never knew existed. It makes no sense at all. Until it does, that is. It’s like trying to tell a stranger ’bout rock n’ roll.1 The contents of this volume include some of the most important writings you could ever read—especially if you’re just starting out. The major issues and topics in the history of philosophy will be front and center, so you won’t have to wander off into the tall grass, weeds, and dark forest—unless you want to. You’ll notice that almost every chapter has links to readings that are in the public domain—which means that you can follow the links to another location where you can read the source for free. Readings that are contained in this book, for the most part, are excerpts of longer works that are not yet in the public domain. We’ll be using a combination of both of these types of readings. What will we cover? As you can see from the table of contents, we are going to do a whirl- wind tour of Western philosophy from Socrates and Plato in the fourth and fifth centuries BCE up through the modern era and then go back and look at some Asian and Ancient Near Eastern philosophies from China, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iraq: Lao Tzu, the Buddha, Vasubandhu, and the Epic of Gilgamesh. When you engage in the process of philosophy, you are exhibiting active concern for yourself, your fellow travelers, and the planet. What better way to spend your time? My intention is not for you, as a reader, to merely read the thoughts of the philosophers. My intention is for you to philosophize for yourself, to actually do philosophy so that you may, through the process, come to ever increasing comprehension of yourself and the world around you. Thank you for your time, your thoughtfulness, and your tenacity.

1 The Lovin’ Spoonful, “Do You Believe in Magic?” This song was written by John Sebastian, produced by Erik Jacobsen, and released on the Kama Sutra label in 1965.

x P The Liberating Art of Philosophy TIMELINE 3000 600 500 400 300 200 100 1/1(C.E.) 100 200 300 400 500 600

The Epic of Gilgamesh Epictetus (C.A. 50–130 C.E.) (Anonymous, Third Mellennium B.C.E.)– 3000 through 2001 B.C. Vasubandhu (4th Century C.E.) - 301 to 400 A.D.

Epicurus (341–270 B.C.E.)

Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)

Plato (427–347 B.C.E.)

Socrates (469–399 B.C.E.)

Siddhartha Gautama Buddha (C.A. 563–483 B.C.E.)

Lao Tzu (6th Century B.C.E.) – 600 B.C.–501 B.C.

Historical Periods and Events Heroic Age of Greece: 15th–13th Centuries B.C.E. Fall of Troy: 13th Century B.C.E. Dark Ages of Greece: 12/11th–8th Centuries B.C.E. Archaic Period: 8th–6th Centuries B.C.E. Golden Age of Athens: 5th Century B.C.E. Beginning of the Hellenistic Age: 4th Century B.C.E. Roman Republic: 509–27 B.C.E. Roman Empire: 27 B.C.E.–476 C.E. (Fall of Rome) Golden Age of Rome (Augustan Age): 27 B.C.E.–14 C.E. 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000

Anselm (1033–1109)

Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179)

Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274)

René Descartes (1596–1650)

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)

Mary Wollstonecra (1759–1797)

David Hume (1711–1776)

John Stuart Mill (1806–1873)

Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855)

Karl Marx (1818–1883)

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900)

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) Unit I Ancient Philosophy

Socrates Plato Aristotle the best of all things epiglottal the big triumvirate of ancient Greece the power of whom shall never cease they teach us to look a smidgen deeper voilà! you find that you’ve got a keeper these are the dudes you’ve just got to read believe me people it’s not all a screed and then there’s the Stoics and the Epicureans almost as good as the Hyperboreans thinking for yourself is not that bad it’s better than findin’ out you’ve been had give it a shot and you’ll see what I mean don’t diss it posthaste don’t make a scene give yourself a chance to drink it all in you’ll never go thirsty and you’ll sport a grin Chapter 1 Ancient Philosophy I What Goes Around Comes Around

he birth of Western philosophy is often traced back to the Greek thinker Thales of T Miletus (624–546 BCE). Many other thinkers followed in rapid succession: Anaximander (ca. 610–546 BCE), Pythagoras (ca. 571–497 BCE), Heraclitus (ca. 500 BCE), Parmenides (ca. 485 BCE), Zeno (ca. 465 BCE), Anaxagoras (ca. 500–428 BCE) and Democritus (ca. 460–370 BCE)—just to name a few. Certainly, there were those who philosophized before this, but they have been lost in antiquity. Finally, we arrive at the giants: Socrates (469–399 BCE), Plato (427– 347 BCE), and Aristotle (384–322 BCE). Rather than accept the myths and tales of those before them, these early philosophers did what has become the hallmark of philosophers ever since: they questioned; they looked for evidence; they doubted the veracity of every truth that couldn’t hold up to rigorous scrutiny. These early philosophers weren’t content with the standard expla- nations. They wanted to know—and no area of inquiry was outside of their purview. All aspects of human experience, then, fall within the domain of philosophy. As you read through the writings of these early thinkers, what might stand out to you is the stark contemporaneousness of the questions being asked and the amazing relevance of texts that are thousands of years old. What do the ancients think about? They think about the same key issues that we grapple with in the twenty-first century: love, death, justice, morality, hap- piness, the good life. Their journey, it appears, is, after all, our journey. It is a journey that we inevitably take as members of a unique self-refective species. Let us, then, forge ahead and begin with the greatest thinker of all time.

3 READING 1.1

Selections from Symposium By Plato

Plato (427–347 BCE): Symposium Plato was Socrates’s (most famous, to say the least) pupil—so it is not surprising that Socrates shows up as a character in almost every one of Plato’s dialogues (Socrates does not appear in Laws). In fact, Socrates is the central character in the works of Plato. When we say “dialogue,” we mean this quite literally. Plato wrote what are essentially plays—replete with characters and scenes. What is interesting is that Plato not only wrote dialogues but also that, barring a few “epistles” (letters), he wrote only dialogues. When you learn that Plato does not appear as a character in his own dialogues, you will realize the curious nature of these famous writings. It is often said that Plato was suspicious of the arts, given that in his “ideal” city, as described in his best-known dialogue Republic, artists are censored and attacked. It would be rather odd if this were, in fact, Plato’s own view, considering the fact that as a writer and playwright, he was himself an artist. Most of what we know about Socrates comes from Plato’s writings, but we do know enough about Socrates from other sources to know that what comes out of Socrates’s mouth in the Platonic dialogues doesn’t always refect the views of the historical Socrates. While Plato was more of a system builder, Socrates was more of a skeptic. But don’t take my word for it. Keep reading, and you’ll see what I mean. If you know anything about the historical Socrates, you might remember that he was sentenced to death in 399 BCE, at the age of 70, by the democratic Greek city-state of Athens for corrupting the youth and not believing in the prevailing gods (see Plato 1892a, 2c–3c). After some time under house arrest, Socrates drinks the poison hemlock and so executes the capital punishment levied against him (see Plato 1892b). And so ends the life of the

Plato, Symposium, trans. Benjamin Jowett, 1892.

4 most celebrated philosopher of all time. Even in death, the life “lesson” was loud and clear. Perhaps this is why Plato did not appear as a character in his own dialogues. Think about it. Now a bit about the Symposium. The Symposium is Plato’s great dialogue on love. It is a late-night—in fact, an all-night—dinner (read: drinking) party hosted by the poet Agathon in which the guests have decided to give speeches on love. There are seven orations, given by Phaedrus, Pausanias, Eryximachus, Aristophanes, Agathon, Socrates (recounting the words of Diotima), and Alcibiades. The result is some of the most beautiful and renowned imagery regarding love that has ever been written. Following dinner, drinks, and a libation to the gods, the guests get down to the chosen subject of love. You may want to look at the questions at the end of this reading before you dive in.

Thinking About the Following Questions

1. Give a general overview of each speech on love: that of Phaedrus, Pausanias, Eryxima- chus, Aristophanes, Agathon, Socrates (Diotima), and Alcibiades. 2. Which of these seven philosophies of love do you find most appealing? Why? 3. Note the views expressed regarding homosexuality. Why is homosexuality regarded by some as the highest form of love? 4. Discuss the views expressed regarding the practice of a love relationship between a mentor (man) and his pupil (boy). What is the given rationale for such a relationship? 5. Is monogamy natural or unnatural? Can one love two people at the same time? 6. What does love tell us about human nature? 7. Can human life hold meaning without love?

Chapter 1 Ancient Philosophy I P 5 READING 1.2

Selections from Euthyphro By Plato

Plato: Euthyphro Here’s a brief plot summary of this short dialogue: Socrates bumps into Euthyphro outside the entrance to the Athenian law courts, both having business there. Socrates has just been indicted by Meletus—someone he does not know—on two charges: (1) corrupting the youth (through philosophizing) and (2) not believing in the prevailing gods. Euthyphro, a professional priest and theologian, is at court to prosecute his own father for murder, believing that he, the son, is on the moral high ground. In this Platonic dialogue, Socrates questions Euthyphro about the nature of piety (which we might translate as devotion, duty, moral rectitude, goodness, or righ- teousness). How do we know that we are in the right in the face of the gods? How do we know that the gods are in the right? How do we know that our own self-assessment is correct? Could we be radically wrong about what is, in fact, right and wrong even about ourselves? Throughout his conversation with Socrates, Euthyphro’s belief in his own piety appears to remain unshaken. Thus the questions are left open for the reader. There is a central question posed in Euthyphro:

The point which I should first wish to understand is whether the pious or holy is beloved by the gods because it is holy, or holy because it is beloved of the gods. (Plato 1892a, 7 [10a])

To paraphrase: Do the gods love something because it is right, or is it right because the gods love it? What’s the difference? In the first case, morality is independent of the gods. It may preexist them, or it may simply exist as a parallel reality. The point is that in the first case, the behavior

Plato, Euthyphro, trans. Benjamin Jowett, 1892.

6 of the gods can be called into question in the name of independent moral norms. Don’t like a god who commands genocide? You would be able to condemn such a god in the name of an independent moral code—a code that didn’t get its legitimacy from the fact that the gods have signed on. In the second case, the gods are the authors of the moral code, so they can’t be called into question in the name of that code. If they break the code, that’s their preroga- tive. If they change the code, they can do that too. The point is that in the second case, if the gods are tyrannical, no one can issue a moral condemnation, since the only game in town, morally speaking, is whatever the gods have going, since they determine right and wrong in the firstplace .

Thinking About the Following Questions

1. Why is Euthyphro so certain that he is right in seeking the prosecution of his own father? 2. What is the essential characteristic that makes all pious (good) actions pious? Does ei- ther discussant provide a conclusive answer? 3. Analyze Euthyphro’s initial claim that piety (goodness) is that which is loved by the gods. 4. Analyze Euthyphro’s later claim that the gods love piety (goodness) because it is pious. 5. Can the views expressed in questions (3) and (4) coexist? Why or why not? 6. Do Euthyphro’s views concerning the prosecution of his father change as a result of his dialogue with Socrates? 7. Could Euthyphro be seen as a fanatic or fundamentalist? Explain. 8. Describe your feelings about the Socrates depicted in this dialogue. Is he likable? Annoy- ing? Brilliant? Buffoonish? 9. Can you think of other philosophical positions regarding the relationship between the gods and morality that are not expressed in this dialogue? 10. Is the central question of this dialogue a question that can be answered? If so, what is your answer, and how do you know? If not, how can you know, in any case, the morally correct course of action? Or is there no morally correct course of action? 11. What do you find most important or valuable about this reading?

Chapter 1 Ancient Philosophy I P 7 READING 1.3

Selections from Phaedo By Plato

Plato: Phaedo In this dialogue, also known in antiquity as “On the Soul,” Phaedo gives an account of the last day of Socrates’s life. It is a day of conversation with friends Phaedo, Simmias, Cebes, and others in the jail at Athens (Plato was said to be absent due to illness). The discussion revolves around the nature of the soul, the afterlife, and the true function of philosophy. As the dialogue unfolds, Socrates expresses more fully his views on the afterlife and the nature of the soul. The views Socrates espouses in the Phaedo certainly seem to run contrary to the views he expressed during his trial and recorded in the Apology. Possibly, the former only amplify the latter. Whatever the case, we must remember that the author of both dialogues is Plato, not Socrates, and that the dialogues are, in the end, works of philosophical art. In his discussion with friends, Socrates reveals what is for him the true nature of philosophy. A lifetime of the practice of philosophy, he maintains, has prepared him to face his own mortality. The extant evidence, such as it is—this being the testimony of others—would suggest that this was indeed the case. As the dialogue winds down and evening approaches, Socrates complies with the sentence given to him by the court by drinking the poison that will ensure his death. He appears to embrace his departure from this life. Phaedo notes in the dialogue that from his perspective as an eyewitness, Socrates died without fear and was never a man to be pitied. What is it about the practice of philosophy that could serve to prepare one to face one’s own mortality?

Plato, Phaedo, trans. Benjamin Jowett, 1892.

8 Thinking About the Following Questions

1. What is Socrates’s demeanor as he approaches his impending death? Be as specific as possible. 2. In the context of this dialogue, what is death? 3. Socrates argues (72c–e) the following: If everything that dies remains dead, soon there would be no life. Therefore, life comes from death. Do you find this argument convincing? Why or why not? 4. Discuss Socrates’s claim that all learning is recollection. On what basis does he make this claim? Do you think there is evidence to support his claim? What are some of the implications of this perspective? 5. If all learning is recollection, must the soul exist prior to its embodiment? Why or why not? 6. Discuss the concept of the transmigration of the soul. What is the origin of the soul? Where does it go after disembodiment? 7. Socrates makes a distinction between knowledge derived from sense perception and knowledge derived from cognition. Which mode of knowing gives us knowledge of un- compounded, absolute truth? 8. What proof does Socrates/Plato provide that the soul exists both prior to embodiment and after disembodiment? 9. In what ways is philosophy the practice of death and dying (78a–e)? How can it serve to help us face our own mortality? 10. Immediately prior to his death, Socrates reminds Crito not to forget to pay Asclepius the customary rooster for the healing that he, Socrates, was about to receive. Comment on Socrates’s implied assertion that life is one long illness.

Chapter 1 Ancient Philosophy I P 9