Download Download

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR INNOVATION EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

ONLINE ISSN: 2411-2933 PRINT - ISSN: 2411-3123

INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIVE RESEARCH FOUNDATION AND PUBLISHER (IERFP)

Volume- 5 Number- 8

August Edition International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-8, 2017 About the Journal

Name: International Journal for Innovation Education and Research

Publisher: Shubash Biswas International Journal for Innovation Education and Research 44/1 Kallyanpur Main road Mirpur, Dhaka 1207 Bangladesh. Tel: +8801827488077

Copyright: The journal or any part thereof may be reproduced for academic and research purposes with an appropriate acknowledgment and a copy of the publication sent to the editor. Written permission of the editor is required when the intended reproduction is for commercial purposes. All opinions, information’s and data published in the articles are an overall responsibility to the author(s). The editorial board does not accept any responsibility for the views expressed in the paper.

Edition: August 2017

Publication fee: $100 and overseas.

Editorial

Dear authors, reviewers, and readers

It has been a month since I was given the privilege to serve as the Chief Editor of the International Journal for Innovation Education and Research (IJIER). It is a great pleasure for me to shoulder this duty and to welcome you to THE VOL-5, ISSUE-8 of IJIER which is scheduled to be published on 31st August 2017.

International Journal for Innovation Education and Research (IJIER) is an open access, peer-reviewed and refereed multidisciplinary journal which is published by the International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher (IERFP). IJIER aims to promote academic interchange and attempts to sustain a closer cooperation among academics, researchers, policy makers and practitioners from a wide range of disciplines, which contribute to state of the art in science, education, and humanities. It provides a forum for the exchange of information in the fields mentioned above by welcoming original research papers, survey papers, and work-in-progress reports on promising developments, case studies, and best practice papers. The journal will continue to publish high-quality papers and will also ensure that the published papers achieve broad international credibility. The Chief Editor, appointed by the Associate Editors and the Editorial Board, is in charge for every task for publication and other editorial issues related to the Journal. All submitted manuscripts are first screensed by the editorial board. Those papers judged by the editors to be of insufficient general interest or otherwise inappropriate are rejected promptly without external review. Those papers that seem most likely to meet our editorial criteria are sent to experts for formal review, typically to one reviewer, but sometimes more if special advice is needed. The chief editor and the editors then make a decision based on the reviewers' advice. We wish to encourage more contributions from the scientific community to ensure a continued success of the journal. We also welcome comments and suggestions that could improve the quality of the journal.

I would like to express my gratitude to all members of the editorial board for their courageous attempt, to authors and readers who have supported the journal and to those who are going to be with us on our journey to the journal to the higher level.

Thanks, Dr Eleni Griva Ass. Professor of Applied Linguistics Department of Primary Education University of Western Macedonia- Greece Email: [email protected]

Paper ID Title Page 771 Simulation of aircraft navigation L410 UVP - E20 1-7 Authors: Rudolf Volner 774 An Exploratory Study of the Qualities that Distinguish Potential from Realized 8-19 Innovators Authors: Denis Leo Greene, Maria Vidos Hunt 776 Bibliometric Analysis of Scientific Production Related to Tick Control 20-28 Authors: Luana Brito Oliveira, Suzana LeitÃ£o Russo 781 Teachers' Understanding of EYL Principles and Their Ability To Apply the Principles 29-42 in Teaching Practices: A QUALITATIVE STUDY AT ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN BANDUNG, INDONESIA Authors: Suharno Suharno 783 Effects of Home - Based Parental Involvement Practices in Promoting Quality of 43-63 Education in Public Day Secondary Schools in Igembe Sub County, Meru County – Kenya Authors: ESTHER THUBA, Justus Nephat Kathuri, John Mariene 787 Parental socialization styles as a predictor of suicidal ideation in high school 64-74 students Authors: Ana Laura Jiménez Martínez, Sidney Torres González, Esteban Jahaziel Muñoz Gómez, Miriam de la Caridad Acosta, Jaime Rodríguez Gómez, Verenice Zarahí González Mejía 791 Special Education LIBRAS and LFS, an Interactive Translator for Brazilians and 75-94 French Authors: Maicon Herverton Lino Ferreira da Silva, Augusto José da Silva Rodrigues, Cristiane Domingos Aquino, Marcelo Mendonça Teixeira 792 Visual Strategies Learning Objects to Teach Written Text Cohesion to the Deaf 95-110 Using Sign Language as Scaffo Authors: Cayley Guimarães, Matheus Aquino, Sueli F. Fernandes 794 Designing a Supplementary Reading Using Cultural Language Learning Approach 111-128 (CLLA) Authors: Hermayawati Setiadi

Simulation of aircraft navigation L410 UVP - E20

Rudolf Volner LETS FLY s.r.o., International Airport Ostrava, Mošnov 403, Czech republic Abstract The article describes the basics of navigation procedures for air transport. The specialization is characterized for defining the application for L 410 aircraft. The modeling is based on the classical algorithm design of the given problem. Keywords - simulation, modeling, navigation, L410

I. INTRODUCTION Navigation is a generic name for procedures whereby you can locate your location (or the position of another moving object) anywhere on the globe, the sea, or generally in some space (even more generally in a situation) and find the path that is most appropriate to the chosen criteria (for example, the fastest, the shortest, etc.). Aerial navigation is the doctrine of aircraft management on scheduled routes and the determination of geographic positions in flight. Pilots determine the geographic location of their aircraft in flight in different ways and use different navigation methods to guide planes on scheduled routes. Pilots of aircraft use only some of the following methods with respect to aircraft equipment:  Comparative orientation,  Navigation by calculation,  Radionavigation,  Combining navigation methods.

Flight visibility (commonly referred to as “VFR flight”) is a way of managing a flight allowing flight in compliant meteorological conditions. The pilot manages and navigates the airplane in the flight from the cabin view. Instrument Flight (commonly referred to as “IFR Flight”) is a flight management mode even when weather conditions are poor when VFR is not available. The pilot controls such an aircraft on the basis of the instrument data, not the cabin view.

II. BASIC INPUT PARAMETER When flying the plane certain courses (HDG) and true airspeed (TAS) affects wind (W/V) direction of flight (you know him on the left or right side) and speed of flight to Earth (slowing or accelerating). At a

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 1 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 certain direction of the wind to the aircraft course (in the direction of the wind or upstream) of the flight, the aircraft is borne from the set rate and when the wind direction is perpendicular to the left or right side of the aircraft, there is no deceleration or acceleration of the aircraft. Air angle between the vector (HDG/TAS) and a position that is outlined Ground vector (actual track TK/GS) is the angle of drift (drift). Angle of drift (drift) is:  The right (Starboard) - plane flies to the right of the specified routing,  Left (Portboard) - plane flies to the left from the prescribed route.

Size drift angle depends on the size and direction with respect to the course (HDG) of the aircraft. At the end of Air vector we connect the direction and speed of wind (Wind vector). Combining Air starting point and an end point of the vector Wind vector receive real track (Track-TK). From the size of the vector obtained Ground line speed (GS) and the angle of drift. If there is two of the above three vectors (Air, Ground, Wind vector) can be determined, third, either graphically - Fig. 1 or calculation (the classic solution of the triangle) and on the navigation ruler.

Fig. 1 Graphical vector triangle solution

It follows that the vector triangle has 6 elements:  Course Plane (Heading - HDG),  True airspeed (True Air Speed - TAS),  Wind (Wind Direction - W),  Speed (Wind Speed - V),  The track, which plane flies against the earth´s surface TR (Track - TK),  Line speed at which the plane flies toward the earth´s surface TR (Ground Speed - GS). If we know four of them, we can calculate the missing 2.  Detecting the position of aircraft - There are three basic ways of positioning the aircraft to ground: o Visually detect the location - mainly in VFR flights, o Using radio navigation aids including radar and satellite navigation systems, o Use astronavigation that but in aviation used very rarely.

 Radio focus - Focusing via the terrestrial VHF Direction Finder (VDF) - When an aircraft transmits a radio signal (radio communication), field sight is able to determine the direction from which the signal comes and the focus after adjusting the position of the pilot complains goniometer. As the radio waves propagate along ortodroma, can not be drawn in the right direction Mercator's map, but must be corrected by the conversion angle. Lambert projection for this correction need not be performed.  Speed Measurement - One of the most important parameters for navigation is speed. The atmosphere in terms of the pressure and density of the heterogeneous, both values decrease with height. The air is compressible, which affects the speedometer reading. The speed of measurement is based on the principle of measuring dynamic pressure Pitot tube. The measured dynamic pressure is changed with the speed of the aircraft, first, second, with the change in air density. Changing the density of the air is the air temperature and the amount in which the measured speed. With increasing height, the air density decreases. So as to maintain the aerodynamic characteristics of an aircraft in the air it has a lower density from the ambient air to move faster mass (preserve the buoyancy, controllability, etc.). Speedometer indicates the speed of the aircraft itself, such as the plane flew to the ground. We distinguish several kinds of speeds: o indicated airspeed - Indicated Air Speed (IAS), o Fixed rate - Rectified Air Speed (RAS), or Calibrated Air Speed (CAS), o True airspeed - True Air Speed (TAS), o Mach number - Mach Number (M).  Measurement height above ground - As the Earth´s surface, in addition to the seas and oceans rugged and air pressure field varies in time and space, there is always a relative altimeter and depend on the pressure scale pressure measurement device. The actual amount of the Earth's surface to an accuracy meter is able to directly indicate only radio altimeter. Barometric altimeter indicates only the amount corresponding to the pressure level in terms of the International Standard Atmosphere - MSA (ISA), and only when certain settings. The height is measured by measuring the static pressure, which corresponds to the aircraft. Currently, the vast majority of countries around the world used the altimeter setting QNH. The definition says that it is the air pressure converted to sea level, so called stationary pressure to which is added pressure that will draw the air mass fictional column about the amount of which is identical with the altitude measuring points. In practice, this means that the pressure set on the scale of the device shown altimeter instantaneous height above mean sea level (Mean Sea Level - MSL). Determination of the height above the ground then lies in the deduction of the elevation from the meter reading. To navigate this means first of all finding the highlights of obstacles around the routes, ie. hills, towers, antennas, chimneys and more. When climbing to higher levels altimeter is reset to standard pressure, STD (resp. QNE). It´s pressure by MSA for the amount of 0 m, which is 1013,25 hPa. The altitude at which the adjustment altitudes is called the transition altitude. It is set for each airport, and is listed in the AIP.

III. SIMULATION MODELS The equations that define the navigation model:  calculate the flight path,  calculate the orientation Radio compasses,  simulation of track crossing waypoint,  calculating aircraft deviation from ILS glide path.

Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the flowcharts for simulating aircraft navigation options. The modeling of the aircraft's navigation features has to be solved depending on the type of the aircraft - its aerodynamic parameters, the engine units used (turboplant, jet), on the avionics equipment. The proposed flowchart is based on flight parameters of L410 UVP. Fig. 4 shows an example of a L410 UVP aircraft dashboard solution that is used in a simulator that allows pilot training for a given aircraft type. This solution is realized from the point of view of ergonomics and maintaining the closest approach to the reality of the given type of aircraft. Fig. 5 and 6 show examples of environmental visualization solutions for a given type of training (VFR, IFR) when used in simulated environments. The solution is to maintain the most realistic conditions for flight operations while training pilots.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The article was prepared within the project TA04031376 „Research/development training methodology aerospace specialists L410UVP-E20“. This project is supported by Technology Agency Czech Republic.

XT, ZT - Terminal coordinates, dM60- Distance of the aerodrome boundary, Fig. 2 Block diagram of simulation of aircraft navigation systems - part 1

M – beacon, marker, fMRT, fMRD, fMRB – signal beacons (markers), DM – distance from the runway

threshold, ΨR – focusing angle, PSR – focus of the radio compass Fig. 3 Block diagram of simulation of aircraft navigation systems - part 2

1-Artificial Horizon, 2-HSI, 3-Speedometer, 4-RMI, 5-Height Driver for Autopilot, 6-Altimeter, 7- Vertical Speed Indicator, 9-DME indicator, 10-Hour Fig. 4 Overall view of device layout - left side of the dashboard [6]

Fig. 5 Visualization settings for VFR flying [6]

Fig. 6 Visualization settings for IFR flying [6]

REFERENCES [1] Volner, R. a kol. Flight Planning Management, Akademické nakladatelství CERM. s.r.o. Brno, 2007, ISBN 978-80-7204-496-2, 630 str., [in Czech] [2] Volner, R. Modelovanie a simulácia, Verbum KU Ružomberok, 2014, ISBN 978-80-561-0165-0, 209 str., [in Slovak] [3] Vavroš, P., Volner, R., “Aplikácia modelovania a simulácie vo výcviku leteckých špecialistov”, Perner´s Contacts - Elektronický odborný časopis, pp. 186 - 195, 1/2015, ročník X, duben 2015, Univerzita Pardubice, ISSN 1801 – 674X, str. 195, [in Slovak] [4] https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let_podle_p%C5%99%C3%ADstroj%C5%AF [5] https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let_za_viditelnosti [6] Vavroš, P., “Aplication possibilities of the TL-410 Flight Simulator“, Bachelor Thesis, VŠB – Technical University Ostrava, Fakulty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Transport – Department of Air Transport, 2012 [12] Aircraft Industries, a.s., Aircraft flight manual for the L 410 UVP-E, Kunovice, 2005, book 1 [13] Aircraft Industries, a.s., Aircraft flight manual for the L 410 UVP-E, Kunovice, 2005, book 2 [14] Aircraft Industries, a.s., Aircraft flight manual for the L 410 UVP-E20 with H80-200 Engines and AV- 725 Propellers, Kunovice, 2013 [15] Aircraft Industries, a.s., Aircraft training book L 410, Kunovice, 2012, book 1 [16] Aircraft Industries, a.s., Aircraft training book L 410, Kunovice, 2012, book 2

An Exploratory Study of the Qualities that Distinguish Potential from Realized Innovators

Denis L. Greene Dept. of Psychology, Ottawa University, Kansas City, Missouri, United States

Maria V. Hunt (Corresponding author) Dept. of Psychology, Avila University, Kansas City, Missouri, United States

Abstract This study explored the similarities and differences between 36 accomplished and 36 hopeful innovators in a large midwestern city in the United States. Both groups reported a higher frequency of recognized ideas when creative thinking occurred in the morning and under conditions of a state of calm. Realized Innovators uniquely approached the ideation process by intentionally applying a set of processes they found reliably effective. Potential Innovators were less deliberate in their approach to idea generation and were more likely to pursue activities with weak associations to creative outputs. Keywords: innovation, ideation, idea generation, creativity, creative thinking

1. Introduction According to Powell and Snellman (2004), we exist in “a knowledge economy” where technological and scientific progress contribute to an organization’s success more than the availability of resources or a firm’s efficiencies. Knowledge has become as vital as roads in a nation’s infrastructure (Dijkgraaf, 2017). More than half of all economic growth currently stems from innovation (Flexner, 2017). When 1,500 international CEOs were asked to prioritize the three most important leadership qualities sought for future business success, 60% chose “creativity” over “integrity” and “global thinking,” which ranked second and third respectively (IBM, 2010). In the same period, creativity became an internationally- desired college and career-ready outcome that the United States government found imperative “to prepare 21st century students for a global economy” (National Education Association, 2014). The percent of university graduates trained in creative problem solving predict a business’ innovative performance (Kunde, A.W., Kirira, P.S., & Ngondi, 2017).

2. Literature Review Organizational-level innovation has been tied to knowledge acquisition and management (Liao, Chang, Hu & Yueh, 2012), which is a crucial part of an organization’s absorptive capacity (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990).

According to Carlo, Lyytinen and Rose (2012), three dimensions of absorptive capacity interact to markedly affect an organization’s base innovation. Knowledge diversity enhances an institution’s fitness to sense the environment, which leads to experimentation, which transforms into new knowledge. This is an essential formula to adopt, according to Lenart (2014) because an enterprise’s capacity “to “identify, assimilate, internalize and exploit new knowledge from internal and external sources” is strongly related to its numbers of patents, publications and new projects. An organization’s realized capacity for innovation rests on the absorptive capacity of its members (Zahra & George, 2002). There is a growing consensus that that innovation consists of two overarching processes: idea generation and idea implementation. Hammond and her colleagues (2011) separated idea generation from implementation in their meta-analysis because the generation of new ideas and solutions appeared more “preparatory” and implementation more “action focused.” Rozman and Kovac (2015) concurred that creativity and innovation should be considered independent because “the innovation process starts where the creativity process ends: with new and useful ideas.” After a review of 83 scholarly articles, Dorow and her co-authors (2015) concluded that “ideation” and “idea generation” were the same task or activity, required but not sufficient for the management of ideas throughout the innovation process. In their meta-analysis of individual-level characteristics linked to innovation in 88 studies, Hammond and her cohorts (2011) found four personal variables positively correlated to unique and valuable ideas: creative self-efficacy (r = .33), creative personality (r = .25), openness (r = .24), and intrinsic motivation (r = .24). Innovative employees were affected by three job-related elements: role expectations (r = .44), job complexity and autonomy on the job (both r = .32). Finally, three organizational characteristics supported individual-level creativity: supportive leadership (r = .29), adequate resources (r = .27), and a positive work climate (r = .23). Chen and his colleagues (2005) posit that the creativity expectation cues for employees to deliver on relevant outputs, one of the most consistent findings in creativity research, though Tierney and Farmer (2011) discovered a tipping point for the “be creative” effect in the workplace. As job demands became more complex and challenging, employees’ confidence in their actual creative capacity decreased, which reduced their creative performance. This shift in confidence would be significant because an employee’s belief in their ability to be creative is a key driver of innovation (Hu & Zhao, 2016). Increases in creative self-efficacy correspond with increases in creative performance, even six months after training, in organizational setting (Simmons, Payne, & Pariyothorn, 2014). Unfortunately, low creative self-efficacy is a real-world challenge identified by numerous educators, researchers, and business leaders (Plucker, Beghetto, & Dow, 2004). And this belief that one’s abilities are fixed adversely effects real-world problem solving (Katz-Buonincontro, Hass, & Friedman, 2017). Plucker and his colleagues (2004) identified “People are born creative or uncreative” as one of four false beliefs that maintain low creative self-efficacy despite a predominance of empirical evidence which establishes that creativity is a dynamic phenomenon that can be enhanced in school and work settings with right-fit interventions (Patterson, 2009; Tierney & Farmer, 2011; Simmons, Payne, & Pariyothorn, 2014; Cadle, 2015; Corazza, 2016; Beghetto, in press). While most of us will not rise to “Big-C” creativity eminence, Sternberg (2012) contends that creativity is within every person’s reach via little-c or everyday creativity, mini-c or creativity present in the learning

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 9 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 process, and Pro-c or the creativity that results from the progression from little-c to Big-C. Whether one aims for incremental or radical creativity, Simonton (2013) advocates that individuals approach the process as “an act of free will” navigated in two stages. First, generate a set of original ideas, and second select the useful ones. Glaveanu (2012) finds that creativity supports improvisation and ultimately innovation after it becomes “a practiced type of activity.” After 40 years of research focused on “Big C” creative genius, Simonton (2016) realized that three “everyday thoughts and behaviors” predicted creative outcomes: the novel nature of the idea, the utility of the idea, and an individual’s prior knowledge about the utility of the idea. Consistently creative people routinely searched for anomalies (“problem finding”), intentionally inhibited conventional ideas and solutions (“rational suppression”), and used their imaginations and/or explored behaviorally (“mind wandering). After four decades of case studies, the first author realized that similar methodologies personified the high- performing innovators he had interviewed in the corporate world. The current study evolved from an interest in investigating these observations more rigorously.

2.1 Description of the Exploratory Approach Inspired by the work of Jordanous and Keller (2016), we chose to adopt a confluence approach to this exploratory investigation, constructing our idea generation survey based on the data that converged between the first author’s observations and empirical literature. To this end, we studied whether creativity was a habit (Glaveanu, 2012), checked whether more ideas led to greater creative productivity (Simonton, 2016), questioned whether the diurnal cortisol awakening response boosted creativity (Law, Evans, Thorn, Hucklebridge & Clow, 2015), considered the role that alpha synchronization might play in creativity (Weinberger, Green, & Chrysikou, 2017; Lustenberger, Boyle, Foulser, Mellin, & Frohlich, 2015), and looked at mechanisms that might be associated with self-generated , goal-oriented creative thought (Arreola & Reiter-Palmon, 2015; Benedek, Jauk, Beaty, Fink, Koschutnig, & Neubauer, 2016; Hennessey & Amabile, 2010). Following Jordanous’ (2016) lead, we adopted Rhodes’ Four Ps” perspective to take advantage of this studies unique ecological methodology. We recruited persons who had received public recognition, or press, to study the processes and products that might distinguish them from hopeful but unrecognized innovators. We were specifically interested in whether: (1) the frequency of recognized ideas mattered, (2) if certain times of day, (3) activities and/or (4) states of mind were more conductive to creative thought than others, and (5) whether creativity-oriented cognition had any links to a habit.

2.2 Research Questions Would a group of established and hopeful innovators differ in their responses to survey questions, the qualities and conditions they associate with creative ideation? Would any of the five variables predict an established innovator level of performance? Finally, did any meaningful relationships exist between the five variables and innovative thinking?

3. Method 3.1 Participants Seventy-two businesspeople from a large Midwestern city in the United States agreed to participate. Individuals were recruited and enrolled into one of two groups according to criteria that Carson, Peterson and Higgins’ (2005) found unrelated to self-enhancement: the amount of “press” received for creative accomplishments. Individuals were termed “Realized Innovators” (N = 36) if they were mentioned in one of the top 50 newspapers in North America (30 men and 6 women). Individuals were labeled “Potential Innovators” (N = 36) if they were interested in innovation but had no public recognition (22 men and 14 women).

The list of Realized Innovators was compiled from a record people referenced as enterprising and successful in the city newspaper over a year’s time in 2016 (N = 47). Eleven failed to respond to a telephone invitation to participate while 36 returned the phone call, agreed to contribute and completed the interview. Realized Innovators included CEOs and high performing employees from a broad range of business industries (e.g., financial, design, engineering, information technology, medicine, education, athletics, law, literature and the arts).

An initial Potential Innovator register consisted of individuals who signed up to attend an innovation seminar created by the first author and provided their email to stay abreast of research developments (N = 352). An electronic message was sent to the distribution list explaining the study and offering a SurveyMonkey link to the investigation. Ninety-nine subscribers agreed to participate and 96 completed the survey. Potential Innovators included mid-level employees from a comparable range of industries as Realized Innovators.

3.2 Measures A 5-item survey was created with questions that merged the empirical literature and the first author’s case study observations. Accepting that public acclaim by field experts is a practical and relatively bias-free means of assessing achievements (Carson, Peterson & Higgins, 2005), we sought information about participants’ frequency of recognition for innovative ideas. Interested in the impact of diurnal circadian rhythms and particularly the cortisol awakening response, we asked about the time of day recurrently associated with idea generation. We measured several cognitive and behavioral processes that met our literature-aligned-with-observation criterion, asking participants to select “all that apply” to a set of activities and states of mind that regularly accompany their resourceful cognition. Finally, we explored whether creative habits existed by asking the degree to which participants rigidly adhered to a regular time, place and/or procedure to think innovatively.

3.3 Procedure Anticipating that the Realized Innovator group might not respond to an emailed invitation to participate in the study, the first author called each member of the sample to describe the research and explain why they

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 11 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 were personally selected for input. Appointments were made for a telephone interview following informed consent. While the question and answer session was designed to be completed in 10 minutes, the average interview lasted 40 minutes because the researchers did not impose a time limit and the participants appeared eager to expand on their answers. All members of the innovation seminar’s email subscribers received an electronic message that described the study, provided contact information for questions, and offered a link to the informed consent page on SurveyMonkey. Of the group of 96 individuals who completed the survey, a sub-sample of 36 participants was created via online sampling software (www.randomizer.org) to balance the membership in the Realized and Potential Innovator groups.

4. Results To explore the similarities and differences between Realized and Potential Innovators, the authors contrasted each group’s responses to the five survey questions. Next, we studied the variables that might predict membership in each group. Finally, we searched for any cognitive and/or behavioral activities that might accompany the idea generation stage of innovative thinking.

Research Question 1: Compare and Contrast Each Group’s Response to Survey Questions First, we transformed the frequency figures into a dummy variable to generate interval numbers. “Weekly” answers were assigned a 5, with 4 attached to monthly, 3 to quarterly, 2 to annually, and 1 to “rare” recognition. Realized Innovators had a frequency mean score of 4.67 (s = .54), which approached weekly recognition, compared to 3.11 (s = 1.56) of Potential innovators, which was closer to quarterly. Analyzing the data via an independent sample two-tailed t test, we found that Realized Innovators scored significantly higher than Potential Innovators on the frequency with which they had original ideas, t(70) = 5.71, p = .000. Because participants could check all that applied, each time variable was examined separately using a two- sample chi-square analysis. No hour variable produced significant differences between the groups except for the 10:00pm hour when Potential Innovators (N = 11) reported more insights than Realized Innovators (N = 1), χ2 = 10.0, p =.003. Perceiving more similarities than differences between the groups, we combined the Realized and Potential Innovator samples to establish if there were time-based trends in innovative occurrences. First, we transformed the hour-level data into variables traditionally recognized as periods of the day: beginning of day (5:00-8:59am), morning (9:00am-Noon), afternoon (12:01-5:00pm), early evening (5:01-8:00pm), late evening (8:01-11:00pm) and end of day/nighttime (11:01pm-4:59am). Then, to be as parsimonious as possible in our assumptions, we maintained the dichotomous value for the dummy variable, which was coded 1 for presence or 0 for absence of innovative ideas in the specified period. Table 1 presents the frequency of innovative incidences for each time category. Cochran Q test results indicated that at least two of the six variables were significantly different from each other, Cochran Q = 69.08, p = .000. The McNemar post-hoc test established that all participants experienced more novel and useful ideas at the start of the day and the morning when contrasted to the afternoon, early evening, late evening, and the end of day/nighttime categories.

Table 1. Frequency of Innovative Ideas Occurring at Different Times of the Day Presence Absence Frequency Proportion Frequency Proportion

n = 72 100% n = 72 100% Beginning of day 44 61.11 28 38.89 Morning 21 29.16 51 70.84 Afternoon 7 9.72 65 90.28 Early Evening 5 6.94 67 93.06 Late Evening 14 19.44 58 80.56 End of day/Nighttime 15 20.83 57 79.17

Of the nine surveyed activities associated with participants’ behavior prior to insightful idea generation, only one separated the groups. As Table 2 suggests, Realized and Potential Innovators were as likely to have state-of-the-art ideas immediately upon awakening, while alone at home and work, during exercise, driving, doing mundane activities, amid nature, or waking up with an answer in the middle of the night. Potential Innovators were more likely to experience insight “in discussion with others,” χ2 = 6.54, p = .025. As an interesting contrast, zero Realized Innovators indicated they generated novel ideas during this activity.

Table 2. Activities Associated with the Realization of Innovative Ideas Realized Innovators Potential Innovators

n = 36 n = 36 Yes No Yes No χ2 p Discussion with others 0 36 6 30 6.545* p < .05 Alone at work 8 28 13 23 1.68 Alone at home 13 23 11 25 .250 Right after waking 11 25 17 19 2.10 During exercise 10 26 9 27 .071 Middle of the night 1 35 2 34 .348 In nature 2 34 5 31 1.42 Mundane activities 6 30 10 26 1.29 While driving 5 31 12 24 3.77

We performed separate chi-square analyses on each of the 15 quality of mind variables the groups experienced immediately prior to realization of an innovative idea. Table 3 describes the data and chi- square results. Realized Innovators reported more creative ideas while in a calm state of mind, χ2 = 4.96, p = .026. Potential Innovators recounted more innovative ideas while thinking analytically, χ2 = 14.4, p = .000 and feeling sleepy, χ2 = 3.96, p = .047.

Table 3. Qualities of Mind Experienced by Realized and Potential Innovators Immediately Prior to the Realization of Innovative Ideas Realized Innovators Potential Innovators

n = 36 n = 36 Yes No Yes No χ2 p Analytical 0 36 12 24 14.40*** p < .000 Nagging 4 32 4 32 .000 Questioning 16 20 10 26 2.17 Urgent 0 36 2 34 2.06 Methodical 1 35 5 31 2.91 Calm 28 8 19 17 4.96* p < .05 Dreaming 4 32 5 31 .13 Anticipating 10 26 5 31 2.11 Meditative 11 25 9 27 .28 Curious 4 32 10 26 3.19 Agitated 0 36 2 34 .51 Frustrated 0 36 2 34 2.06 Sleepy 1 35 6 30 3.96* p < .05 Ruminating 7 29 5 31 .40 Unaware 0 36 1 35 1.01

Examining the last question via an independent-samples t-test, a statistically significant difference emerged in the degree to which each group was deliberate in their approach to innovative thinking, t(70) = 10.18, p = .000. Realized Innovators described considerably more intentionality in the set-up and management of their insight-oriented reasoning with a mean score of 88.92 (s = 14) as compared to Potential Innovators who obtained a mean of 32.11 (s = 30).

Research Question 2: Do Any of the Five Variables Predict “Realized Innovator” Group Membership? In the next phase of the analysis, we explored whether we could predict membership in the Realized group because they were the group we wanted to truly study. To that end, we conducted a binary logistic regression with the three variables that differentiated Realized Innovators from Potential Innovators: frequency of innovative ideas, calm state of mind, and deliberate approach to original thinking. As established in Table 4, the model forecast membership in the Realized Group with 93% accuracy. The statistically significant predictive variables were frequency of innovative ideas (Wald χ2 = 7.25, p = .007) and their deliberate quality of habit (Wald χ2 = 12.86, p = .000). The calm state of mind did not add statistically to the regression model.

Table 4. Predictors of Membership in the Realized Innovator Group β S.E. Wald χ2 df Exp(β) p

Frequency 1.78 .66 7.25 1 5.90 .007 Calm -1.40 1.22 1.32 1 .247 .251 Deliberate .10 .027 12.86 1 1.103 .000 Constant -13.59 3.99 11.59 1 .000 .001

We conducted a similar binary logistic regression using the three variables unique to the Potential Innovator group: engaging in innovative thought in the evening, thinking analytically, and while sleepy. As noted in Table 5, the variables that predicted membership in the Potential Innovator group with 76% accuracy was their creative thinking in the evening (Wald χ2 = 4.035, p = .045) and association with a sleepy state of mind (Wald χ2 = 5.529, p = .019). The analytical thinking variable did not add to the model.

Table 5. Predictors of Membership in the Potential Innovator Group β S.E. Wald χ2 df Exp(β) p Evening -1.36 .68 4.04 1 .256 .045* Analytical -21.78 11230.2 .000 1 .000 .998 Sleepy -2.68 1.14 5.53 1 .069 .019 Constant 24.80 11230.2 .000 1 5.9E+10 .998

Research Question 3: What is the Relationship Between Five Variables and Recognized Ideas? Finally, in our search for the cognitive and behavioral variables most associated with innovative thinking, we considered the Realized Innovator’s top three processes. They were having original ideas in the morning, feeling calm, and deliberately approaching idea generation. Using frequency of innovative ideas as the dependent variable, we conducted a multiple linear regression that reached statistical significance, F = 6.10, p = .001, accounting for 18.4% of the variance in the adjusted R2. Table 6 presents the beta weights for each variable. The modest prediction stems from the calm and intentional variables and not the morning variable, which had close to a zero correlation to frequency of innovative ideas (r = -.05).

Table 6. Variables that Predict Frequency of Ideas in Pooled Groups Standardized Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients β S.E. β t p Morning .094 .32 .033 .293 .770 Calm .765 .33 .261 2.29 .025 Intentional habit .013 .004 .347 3.09 .003 Constant 2.56 .411 6.23 .000

As an afterthought, we explored the efficacy of the methodologies uniquely used by Potential Innovators. Using Realized Innovators’ frequency of ideas as the dependent variable, we performed a linear regression using the four unique qualities and conditions they associated with creative output: evening thinking time,

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 15 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 discussion with others, analytical cognitive process, and sleepy state of mind. The results did not reach significance, F = .223, p = .80, suggesting little relationship between the four characteristics used and recognized output.

5. Discussion This study explored whether established innovators (person) utilized methodologies (process) or contexts (press) that were advantageous for the generation of innovative ideas (product), particularly compared to hopeful innovators. Distinctions emerged in our sample groups’ practices and procedures that suggest favorable and irrelevant characteristics. Regarding our first research question, three attributes defined our Realized Innovators. They had a higher frequency of acknowledged outputs, they were creative in a state of calm, and they were methodical in their approach to innovation. Potential Innovators presented larger within-group differences though, as a group, they generated ideas in the evening, felt insightful when sleepy, found “discussion with others” helpful, and felt the analytical state of mind helped. Both groups felt morning hours yielded stronger innovative ideas compared to any other time of the day and both groups selected the state of calm as the quality of mind most conducive to innovative thought. All other variables were statistically insignificant. When membership in the Realized Innovator group was treated as a dependent variable to establish an answer to our second research question, two variables predicted inclusion in the established group with 93% accuracy. First, Realized Innovators gained frequent recognition for their creative ideas and, secondly, they routinely applied a time, place and procedure to guide their generation of ideas. Logically, one must repeatedly produce good new ideas to gain frequent recognition, which results in a greater volume of ideas over time. This validates Simonton’s (2013) belief that, to enhance creative performance, one must create choices to choose among choices. Established innovators pursued a habitual approach to ideation deliberately, frequently and methodically as corroborated by the ease in which they described a time, place and procedure when asked if they wanted to add comments. Though easier for participants to comment when speaking to someone on the phone in contrast to typing “additional comments” in a survey, it is interesting to note that 100% of Realized Innovators elaborated on their answers compared to 18% of our total responding population (N=99) of Potential Innovators. Taken together, this exploratory investigation reinforces Mel Rhodes’ (1961) contention that “the 4 Ps of creativity act in unity” and creativity must be pursued in a holistic context. In our study, volume of ideas was the product, recognition one aspect of press, intentional habit was the process, and Realized participants the embodiment of the creative person. When viewed through this 4 Ps lens, our results suggest that approaching idea generation through a deliberate practice may be a great equalizer for those of us not born with eminent genius.

7. Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research Though three variables predicted membership in the hopeful innovator group with 76% accuracy, there was a substantial variability of responses in our Potential Innovator sample. This detracts from our ability

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 16 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 to draw meaningful conclusions about our budding innovators, though one possible supposition is that the Potential Innovator’s approach was not routinely applied and/or did not result in recognized innovative output. In our final analysis, two methodologies explained 18.4% of the variance associated with the frequency of recognized ideas, which were the defining attributes of Realized Innovators: the deliberate use of a habit and a calm mental state. The unique qualities of Potential Innovators were unrelated to the actual production of innovative ideas, suggesting that their belief in their chosen methodology and innovation might have been recognition of “a fortuitous response” (Simonton, 2016). One of the limitations of this study stems from its self-report nature and differing approach to data collection. We could estimate the accuracy of our Realized Innovator’s frequency of ideas because we knew something about their actual output while we had to rely on the self-awareness of Potential Innovator participants regarding their frequency of “recognized” ideas. We are less confident about their “frequency” variable’s value as a result. We also do not know the degree to which we may have elicited additional or different information from Potential Innovators had we interviewed them versus recorded their responses online. We recommend that future research address these issues.

8. Conclusion Overall, our results endorse further research contrasting individuals with high and low innovative achievement to define the processes that lead to valuable and bold ideas.

9. References Arreola, N.J., & Reiter-Palmon, R. (2015). The effect of problem construction creativity on solutions creativity across multiple everyday problems. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 10(3), 287-295. Beghetto, R. A. (in press). Creativity in teaching. In J. C. Kaufman, J. Baer, & V. P. Glăveanu (Eds.). Cambridge Handbook of Creativity Across Different Domains. New York: Cambridge University Press. Benedek, M., Jauk, E., Beaty, R.E., & Fink, A. (2016). Brain mechanisms associated with internally directed attention and self-generated thought. Scientific Reports 6, Article number 22959. Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/articles/srep22959 Cadle, C.R. (2015). A completion mindset: Bridging the gap between creative thinking and creativity. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity and the Arts, 9(2), 172-177. Carlo, J.L., Lyytinen, K., & Rose, G.M. (2012). A knowledge-based model of radical innovation in small software firms. MIS Quarterly, 36(3), 865-895. Carson, S., Peterson, J.B., & Higgins, D.M. (2005). Reliability, validity, and factor structure of the Creative Achievement Questionnaire. Creativity Research Journal, 17(1), 37-50. Chen, C., Kasof, J., Himsel, A., Dmitrieva, J., Dong, Q., & Xue, G. (2005). Effects of explicit instruction to “be creative” across domains and cultures. Journal of Creative Behavior, 39(2), 89-110.

Cohen, W.S., & Levinthal, D.A. (1990). Absorptive capacity: A new perspective on learning and innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35, 128-152. Corazza, G.E. (2016). Potential originality and effectiveness: The dynamic definition of creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 28(3), 258-267. Dijkgraaf, R. (2017, June). Knowledge is infrastructure. Scientific American Mind, 28(3), 8. Dorrow, P.F., Davila, G., Varvakis, G., & Vallejos, R.V. (2015). Generation of ideas, ideation and idea management. Navus, 5(2), 51-59. Flexner, A. (2017). The usefulness of useless knowledge. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Glăveanu, V.P. (2012). Habitual creativity: Revisiting habit, reconceptualizing creativity. Review of General Psychology, 16(1), 78-92. Hammond, M.M., Neff, N.L., Farr, J.L., Schwall, A.R., & Zhao, S. (2011). Predictors of individual-level innovation at work: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 5(1), 90-105. Hennessey, B.A., & Amabile, T.M. (2010). Creativity. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 569-598. Hu, B., & Zhao, Y. (2016). Creative self-efficacy mediates the relationship between knowledge sharing and employee innovation. Social Behavior and Personality, 44(5), 815-826. IBM Institute for Business Value (2016). Redefining competition: Insights from the Global C-suite Study- The CEO perspective. Retrieved from http://www-935.ibm.com/services/c-suite study/ studies/ceo-study/ Jordanous, A., & Keller, B. (2016). Modelling creativity: Identifying key components through a corpus- based approach. PLOS One, 11(10), 1-27. Retrieved from http://journals.plos.org/plosone/ article?id= 10.1371/journal.pone.0162959 Katz-Buonincontro, J., Hass, R.W., & Friedman, G. (2017). “Engineering” student creativity in a probability and statistics course: Investigating perceived versus actual creativity. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/aca0000118 Kunde, A.W., Kiria, P.S., & Ngondi, G. (2017). University-industry collaboration and innovativeness of firms: Evidence from Kenya Innovation Survey. International Journal for Innovation: Education and Research, 5(3), 1-10. Law, R., Evans, P.H., Thorn, L., Hucklebridge, F., & Crow, A. (2015). The cortisol awakening response predicts same morning executive function: results from a 50-day case study. Stress, 19(6), 616-621. Liao, S., Chang, W., Hu, D., & Yueh, Y. (2012). Relationships among organizational culture, knowledge acquisition, organizational learning, and organizational innovation in Taiwan’s banking and insurance industries. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(1), 52-70. Lenart, R. (2014). Operationalization of absorptive capacity. International Journal of Contemporary Management, 13(3), 86-98. Lustenberger, C., Boyle, M.R., Foulser, A.A., Mellin, J.M., & Frohlich, F. (2015). Role of frontal alpha oscillations in creativity. Cortex, 67, 74-82. National Education Association (2014). Preparing 21st century students for a global society: An educator’s guide to the “Four Cs”. Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/ A-Guide-to-Four-Cs.pdf

Patterson, F., Kerrin, M., & Gatto-Roissard, G. (2009). Characteristics & behaviours of innovative people in organizations: Literature review. A paper prepared for NESTA Policy and Research Unit. Retrieved from https://www.nesta.org.uk/sites/default/files/characteristics_behaviours_ of_innovative_people.pdf Plucker, J.A., Beghetto, R.A., & Dow, G.T. (2004). Why isn’t creativity more important to educational psychologists? Potentials, pitfalls, and future directions in creativity research. Educational Psychologist, 39(2), 83-96. Powell, W.W., & Snellman, K. (2004). The knowledge economy. Annual Review of Sociology, 30(1), 199- 220. Rozman, R., & Kovac, J. (2015). Individual and organizational creativity and innovation: Their management. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, 4(2), 39-50. Simmons, A.L., Payne, S.C., & Pariyothorn, M.M. (2014). The role of means efficacy when predicting creative performance. Creativity Research Journal, 26(1), 53-61. Simonton, D.K. (2013). Creative thoughts as acts of free will: A two-stage formal integration. Review of General Psychology, 17(4), 374-383. Simonton, D.K. (2016). Simonton, D.K. (2016). Creativity, automaticity, irrationality, fortuity, fantasy, and other contingencies: An eightfold response typology. Review of General Psychology, 20(2). 194-204. Sternberg, R.J. (2012). The assessment of creativity: An investment-based approach. Creativity Research Journal, 24(1), 3-12. Tierney, P., & Farmer, S.M. (2011). Creative self-efficacy development and creative performance over time. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(2), 277-293. Weinberger, A.B., Green, A.E., & Chrysikou, E.G. (2017). Using transcranial direct current stimulation to enhance creative cognition: Interactions between task, polarity, and stimulation site. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11, Article 246, 1-9. Retrieved from http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/ 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00246/full Zahra, S. A., & George, G. (2002). Absorptive capacity: A review, reconceptualization, and extension. Academy of Management Review, 27(2), 185-203.

Copyright Disclaimer Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Bibliometric Analysis of Scientific Production Related to Tick Control

Luana Brito Oliveira, Suzana Leitão Russo Universidade Federal de Sergipe Brazil Abstract Ticks are distributed all over the world and significantly affect human and animal health. Increasing public health concern with tick-borne diseases requires the strategic control of ticks in animals that transmit diseases to humans. The aim of this article is to present a bibliometric analysis of the scientific production related to tick control, using bibliometrics as an instrument of analysis to measure scientific activity. To identify the studies, a search was made on four Scopus databases, Web of Science, Medline / Pubmed and Science Direct. Of 1764 publications, only 480 were analyzed after the exclusion of certain productions according to previously defined criteria. It was pointed out that the identified studies have great relevance for the control of ticks, considering that scientific publications are important markers of the activity of production and development of the field of knowledge. Keywords: Ticks; control; bibliometrics; publications; scientific production; bibliometric analysis.

1. Introduction Ticks parasite a wide range of hosts and have different lifestyles from one species to another. In the world there are more than 800 species of ticks that have already been identified (Péter; Brossard, 1998). All species require obligatorily vertebrate blood and have a significant degree of specificity and can use alternative hosts, including man (Massard; Fonseca, 2004). Controlling these parasites and ectoparasite diseases they transmit is extremely difficult. Currently, control of pet infestations is mainly based on acaricides in the form of baths, sprays, shampoo, collars and etc ... (Péter & Brossard, 1998). However, ticks and tick-borne diseases continue to be a major concern (Bowman; Nuttall, 2004). Given this assumption, it is fundamental to leverage information on the subject by promoting and disseminating the intellectual structure of its scientific productions related to tick control, through a bibliometric analysis of publications in the area. Bibliometric analysis can be used to provide real and concrete data on trends and priorities around the world. In addition to assessing newspaper quality, mapping global trends in research productivity and quality, and evaluating interdisciplinary alliances (Bliziotis et al., 2005; Soteriades et al., 2005). This article aimed to evaluate the scientific publications related to tick control in order to identify the characteristics of the work, such as authors contributing to the theme, period of publications, countries, periodicals in which the works are published, among others. For this, bibliometric techniques were used, which employ quantitative methods in the search for an objective evaluation of scientific production.

2. Theoretical Review The ticks are arthropods of the class Arachnida, order Acari and families Ixodidae and Argasidae considered of economic importance and for public health. All species require blood supply of vertebrates to complete their development and have a significant degree of specificity and can use alternative hosts, including man (Massard; Fonseca, 2004). Globally, ticks transmit a number of pathogenic organisms such as protozoa, rickettsiae, spirochetes and viruses, which are any other group of arthropod vectors, and are among the most important vectors of diseases affecting cattle, humans and pets. (Ghosha; Azhahianambia; Yadav, 2007). Ticks can also cause serious toxic conditions such as paralysis and toxicose, irritation and allergy (Jongejan; Uilenberg, 2004). The control of ticks is largely based on the use of acaricidal drugs (Brito et al., 2006). It is extremely difficult to control ticks and the diseases they transmit. The indiscriminate use of these acaricides poses significant problems (emergence of resistant strains of ticks, pollution, cost, etc.). There is, therefore, a great interest in the development of alternative methods of control (Péter; Brossard, 1998). It is recommended to implement existing methods for vaccination against tick-borne diseases, as well as intensified research for the development of new vaccines against a variety of ticks and pathogens (Jongejan; Uilenberg, 2004). Tick-borne diseases greatly affect human and animal health throughout the world, and vaccines are an ecological alternative to acaricides for their control (Contreras; De la Fluente, 2017).

3. Methodology The methodological approach of this research is characterized as descriptive and exploratory, with a quantitative approach and makes use of bibliometric techniques. Bibliometry is a technique for measuring production indices and disseminating scientific knowledge (Fonseca, 1986). Its central point is the use of quantitative methods (Araújo, 2006) that make it possible to analyze the development of a field of science in order to identify its characteristics, such as: the chronological growth of scientific production; The productivity of journals, authors and institutions; Collaboration between researchers and institutions; The impact of publications; The analysis and evaluation of sources diffusing works and frequency of keywords (Bufrem ; Prates, 2005; Chan et al., 2007). For the survey and research a bibliometric analysis was performed in the Scopus, Web of Science, Medline / Pubmed, Science Direct databases accessed from the Capes Journal Portal on March 20, 2017. The following term "tick And control "searched in the bases in the" title "field the number of documents retrieved in this search is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Number of articles found in databases Data base Search Expression Result Scopus “tick” and control 633 Web of Science tick* and control 649 Medline/Pubmed tick and control 344 Science Direct “tick” and control 138 Total 1764 Source: Own elaboration based on data from the databases. 4. Analysis After the bibliographic search in the databases, the identified documents were exported to Microsoft Excel, where the selection process began. As inclusion criterion, studies with a control method for ticks were considered. Studies with themes from other areas and that did not deal with tick control according to Figure 1 were excluded.

Figure1. Flowchart of the selection process - Source: Own elaboration.

4.1 Distribution of articles per year Figure 2 shows the temporal distribution of the 480-identified works. It is noticed that, although the studies on the subject began in 1927, that is to say, 90 years ago, most of the publications represented took place

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 22 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 from 1992. It is identified that the control theme for tick received more attention in the last 25 years.

Figure 2. Distribution of articles per year - Source: Own elaboration.

4.1.1 Analysis of the journals with the highest frequency of publications In the sequence, we analyzed the periodicals with the highest frequencies of published articles on the subject. Figure 3 presents the ten journals with the largest number of publications (10 articles or more), totaling 196 articles, representing 40.8% of the total number of articles. They stand out among the journals Veterinary Parasitology and Journal of Economic Entomology.

Figure 3. Periodicals with higher frequency of publications - Source: Own elaboration.

4.1.2 Most cited authors From the citation counts received it was possible to obtain the most cited authors in the articles analyzed. We selected the 11 authors who had the highest number of citations. They are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Most cited authors Author Number Quotations GEORGE, John. E. (United States) 238 POUND, Joe Mathews (United States) 223 SAMISH, Michael (Israel) 158 DRUMMOND, Roger O. (United States) 102 SONENSHINE, Daniel E. (United States) 101 MILLER, John Allen (United States) 98 WHETSTONE, Thomas M. (United States) 83 ALLAN, Sandra A. (United States) 58 NORVAL, R. Andrew I. (United States) 58 GLANDNEY, William J. (United States) 55 BITTENCOURT, Vânia Rita Elias Pinheiro (Brazil) 54 Source: Own elaboration.

4.1.3 Coherence Density Diagram VOSViewer is a free access computer program used to create maps based on network data, it was used to construct a co-authoring density diagram. The visualization of the collaborative research network (or network of co-authors) involving the most productive authors. The intensity of the colors indicates the density of the authors, ranging from blue (lower density) to red (higher density). The closer the red color is to the die, the greater the degree of occurrence. We can see in Figure 4 that DE LA FUENTE J. is the author of higher co-authorship.

Figure 4. Coherence density diagram - Source: Own elaboration using VOSviewer software.

4.1.3 Keyword Occurrence The occurrence of the keywords is presented in figure 5, used by the authors of 480 articles. The map is

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 24 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 composed of 5 clusters, which are represented by different colors. Each constituent element of the network, called the node, is one of the 43 keywords that had at least 3 occurrences between them, with 276 links.

Figure 5. Occurrence of keywords - Source: Own elaboration through VOSviewer software.

You can see that in the center of the map is the keyword "animal", whose symbol is the largest of all the other keywords, indicating that it is the one with the highest occurrence. This keyword comprises group 1 (in red color), which counts on another twelve words, among them tick, animal disease, infestation, female, parasitology and others. The grouping 2 (green) with 9 keywords acaricide, acaricides, amitraz, biological control, ivermectin, amblyomma americanum, boophilus microplus, tick-borne diseases and control has a lesser connection among the other clusters. The grouping 3 (blue) with seven keywords shows the relationship tropical administration, boophilus, cattle diseases, cipermethrin, nonhuman, pyrethrins, tick infestacions. In cluster 4 (yellow) is composed of six keywords, which indicate a more focused discussion on cattle, cattle diseases, cattle tick, insecticides organothiophosph, organophosphate insecticide, tick control. Finally, group 5 (pink), which has six keywords and calls attention to the words insecticide, ticks, insecticides, animals, fleas and parasitoses that suggest the actual physical space around the theme.

4.1.4 Rank distribution of journals In Figure 6 the SCimago Journal & Country Rank, which includes periodic indicators, the distribution rank of the journals was evaluated, the best quartile being selected (values from a series dividing it into four equal parts) and 107 Q1, 51 Q2, Q3 and Q4.

Figure 6. SCImago Journal Rank: distribution of articles - Source: Own elaboration.

Of the 41 journals identified in SCimago Journal & Country Rank the countries of origin of the publications were selected, totaling 186 articles, the Netherlands leads the list with a frequency of 82 published articles, representing 44% of the total amount, followed by the United States with 24 Articles, 27.9% of the total amount. There is a concentration between these two countries, accounting for 71.9% of the publications on the subject, while the remaining 28.1% are distributed among 14 countries. Figure 7 shows the sixteen countries with the largest number of publications.

Figure 7. Countries of the periodicals - Source: Own elaboration.

5. Conclusion In general, tick control is of great importance to both human and animal health. This article proposed to perform a quantitative bibliometric analysis of related scientific publications on the subject of tick control.

With the results obtained in the bibliometric analysis, a total of 480 articles selected after the criterion of inclusion of the documents indexed in the bases Scopus, Web of Science, Medline / Pubmed, Science Direct found a greater attention of the academy from 1992 with 19 Publications, with a growth in the number of publications mainly between the years 2014 and 2016 demonstrating a great interest in the area in the last 25 years. The studies are from researchers concentrated in the Netherlands, the United States, Australia and the United Kingdom, and the authors of those countries contribute the most, with the greatest amount of published works. It is hoped that the results presented in this article will contribute to the dissemination and awareness of the importance of tick control and contribute to the growth of research on the subject, especially in Brazil where there are few publications in journals.

6. Acknowledgement The research is financed by the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES).

7. References

Araújo, C. A., 2006. Bibliometrics: Historical Evolution and Current Issues, In Question, Porto Alegre, 12, p. 1-32. Bowman, A.S. and Nutall, P.A., 2004. Ticks: Biology, Disease and Control, Parasitology, 129, p.1. Brito, L.G., Netto Silva, F. G., Oliveira, M.C.S., & Barbieri, F. S., 2006. Bio-ecology, medico-veterinary importance and tick control with emphasis on bovine ticks, Rhiphicephalus (Boophilus) microplus. Porto Velho: Embrapa Rondônia, p.21. Bufrem, L. and Prates, Y. Registered scientific knowledge and information measurement practices. Science of Information, Brasília, 34, 2, p. 9-25, 2005. Available at: . Accessed on: 20 jun. 2017. Chan, B. L., Milani Filho, M. A. F. and Martins, G. A. 2007. Use of correspondence analysis for a bibliometric approach: relationship between the thematic area and the theoretical platform. In: Meeting of the National Association of Post-Graduation in Administration, 31., 2007, Rio de Janeiro. Anais ... Rio de Janeiro: ANPAD. Conteras, M., and De La Fuente, J. 2017. Control of infestations by Ixodes ricinus tick larvae in rabbits vaccinated with aquaporin recombinant antigens. Vaccine, 35, 9, p.1323-1328. Fonseca, E. N. (Org). Bibliometrics: theory and practice. 1st ed. São Paulo: Cultrix, Ed. Of USP, 1986. 144. Ghosh, S., Azhahianambi, P. and Yadav, M.P. 2007. Upcoming and future strategies of tick control: a review. J Vector Borne Dis, 44, p.79-89. Jongejan, F. and Uilenberg, G. 2004. The Global Importance of Ticks. Parasitology, 129, 14, p. 1-31. Massard, C.L. and Fonseca, A.H. 2004. Ticks and trans-mitigate diseases, common to man and animals. The Veterinary Hour, 135, p.15-23. Medline / PubMed (via National Library of Medicine). Available at: . Accessed on: 26 jun. 2017. Péter, O. and Brossand, M. 1998. Lutte contre les tques. Médecine et Maladies Infectieuses, 28, 4, 1, p.

383-386. Portal Capes. Available at: . Accessed: 19 Jun.2017. Vosviewer. Visualizing scientific landscapes. Available at: . Accessed on: 23 jun.2017. Science Direct. Available at: . Accessed on: 25 jun.2017. Sciverse Scopus. Available at: . Access: 23 jun.2017. Web of Science. Available at: . Accessed on: 26 Jun.2017.

Teachers’ Understanding of Eyl Principles and Their Ability To Apply The Principles in Teaching Practices:

Suharno Suharno Department of English Education Indonesia University of Education (UPI) Bandung, Indonesia Abstract The study reported here concerned EYL teachers’ understanding of EYL teaching and learning principles and their ability to apply those principles in classroom practices. Closely related to teachers’ understanding and ability, methods and techniques of teaching were elaborated. The reseacher involved participants from state Elementary Schools. Teachers’ understanding of EYL principles, teachers’ ability in applying those principles, and methods and techniques of teaching were the three main questions addressed in this study. The data were collected through class observations, interviews, questionnaires, and field notes. Analysis on corpus data revealed that (1) the participants posed various degrees of understanding of EYL principles and ability in applying the principles; some of which shared by all participants, some by a number of participants, and some by none. (2), The findings also discovered that educational background and the length of teaching experience did not say much to make a participant’s performance better than the others’, but professional development. Those who actively developed themselves professionally performed better than those who did not. The study recomends that all aspects relatable to EYL instruction provides rooms for EYL teachers’ professional development. EYL instruction calls for careful anticipation and execution, otherwise it may spoil the innitially intended objective of early English instruction in elementary school.

INTRODUCTION English instruction, which is a compulsory subject in Junior High School to university, has failed to equip Indonesian people with decent communication skill using the language. This failure is also voiced by noted scholars like Alwasilah (2000.p20), Dardjowidjodjo (2000,p.27), and the government that uses the term “lack of success” to indicate the failure (Kemdikbud, 2013) This failure has led to a shift in the people’s attention to elementary school. It is believed that if the teaching of English starts earlier, the result may be better. In this context, Liando (2000: 1) asserts that it is needed to consider the implementation of teaching English from the early level of education, i.e. in primary school, in order to attain better results in the students’ English proficiency in higher level of education. Realizing the growing power of English, parents, particularly in big cities in Indonesia demand earlier instruction of English. They are worried that their children cannot prevail in the stiff competition in finding a job in later years since they are not equipped with this foreign language ability. In the last ten years, English for Young Learners has been a highly demanded subject by parents. Often times, parents ask an

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 29 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 elementary school to assure that English is taught there before sending their children to the school. Not wanting to lose the existing students and attracting more, elementary schools, especially in big cities, teach English despite unreadiness in all aspects of its instruction. In response to this great demand of English instruction in elementary school, the government, through a ministerial decree, has officially included the language as a local content subject in elementary school curriculum since 1994. However, after years of instruction, the result is still far from being satisfactory. This undesirable result is accounted for lack of sufficient professionalism in the field that cannot be addressed only to teachers but also other aspects that are interrelated. Regarding this, Alwasilah (2000) blames decision maker bureaucrats who are short of professional anticipation. When elementary school was allowed to teach English as a local content, very inadequate professional EYL teachers were available. As a result, EYL was, and has been taught by amateur teachers who teach English because they like the language, or are assigned by headmaster, not because of professionalism. This failure in bureaucrats’ professional anticipation has brought about domino effects in other important aspects of EYL instructions such as schools, teachers, materials and other aspects in support to this instruction, making the situation worse. Lacking of professional EYL teachers in elementary school has resulted in EYL instruction that is not based supposedly on sound theories and principles of EFL teaching for young learners. Not knowing those theories and principles, EYL teachers do not apply methods, approaches, and techniques of teaching in accordance with those theories and principles. They teach children based on their previous learning experience dominated by grammar and vocabulary. Mostly due to lack of professionalism, teachers in elementary schools teach English in a similar way as teaching foreign languages in secondary schools, whose teaching aims are quite different. While in elementary school, teachers employ teaching methods that are fun for students as well as being educational, secondary school classrooms tend to have more formal setting, which can be stressful. One tendency is for these teachers to fall into the formal teaching of grammar and vocabulary as well as doing a lot of translation between English and Indonesian. Besides lacking knowledge in theories and principles of EFL learning for young learners, EYL teachers are also short of understanding in EFL curriculum, textbooks, teaching and learning strategies, and evaluation, that are essential for the success in EFL learning. First, as EYL teachers do not have knowledge in EFL curriculum for children; they do not understand how materials are sequenced. They sequence the materials as prescribed in the textbooks. Second, they cannot choose EFL textbooks that are appropriate for teaching children. Third, teachers’ limited knowledge in teaching and learning strategies makes the teaching and learning process not optimal. Finally, short understanding in teaching evaluation will result in inability to measure students’ achievement after they have completed the lessons. Concerning with this, Alwasilah (2002) assumes that the fact that EYL teachers are not professional is actually understandable for several reasons. First, they are not prepared to teach EYL. They are not equipped with knowledge of child psychology, EYL teaching and learning theories, and most importantly, they do not have any experiences. Second, EYL teachers are adults, therefore; they tend to employ adults’ framework in their instruction. Third, there is no obvious requirement of qualification for EYL teachers.

Finally, non-formal private educational institutions conducting English course seem to be much more ready and professional than EYL teachers in general (Alwasilah, 2002). The six elementary schools where we carried out this study are among many elementary schools in Bandung that offer English in all grades. The instruction here is basically to accommodate parents’ demand for this foreign language. However, the problems (as mentioned above) that exist in other elementary schools exist here. Four schools are handled by six teachers in which none of them are real English teachers. To ensure a success in foreign language learning, the characteristics of how children learn have to be profoundly taken into account in teaching and learning processes. Besides, the teaching and learning processes should also be appropriated with cognitive development of the children. Abe (1991) mentions that from around the age of two, children have an advantage over adults in acquiring languages. In relation to this, Brown(2001:87) adds that children are effortless second language learners and are far superior to adults in their eventual success as long as the characteristics and intellectual development of children are taken into account in teaching. Therefore, to successfully teach children a second language requires specific skills and intuitions that differ from those appropriate for teaching adults. Regarding this, some experts in second/foreign language teaching have illustrated the characteristics of children and children's cognitive development as follows: Scott (1990), Hudelson (1991), and Musthafa (2002) assert that children in primary or elementary setting generally learn by way of physical activities (learning by doing). This means that they learn through hands- on experiences and through manipulation of objects in the environment. Harmer(2001) states that children's understanding comes not from explanation, but from what they see and hear, and crucially, have chance to touch and interact with. This fact pedagogically implicates that children in language classes need to be active; they have to be engaged in activities of which language is a part; they need to be working on meaningful tasks and use language to accomplish these tasks. Furthermore, Children are fond of playing and moving (Brown, 2001); they cannot be expected to sit still and do certain activities for a long time (Sugeng, 1999). The other characteristic is that children have relatively limited attention and concentration span (Brown, 2001; Harmer, 2001; Alwasilah,2000; and Sinaga 1996). Unless activities are extremely engaging, they get bored easily, losing interest after ten minutes or so (Harmer, 2001). Therefore, activities should be short and varied to allow a change of mood on the part of the children (Sinaga, 1996 and Alwasilah, 2000: 96). Sinaga(1996) suggests to limit the activities to ten minutes at the most. Regarding short attention and concentration span of children, Sinaga (1996) suggests some items to consider when teaching children. First, one thing has to be taught at a time. Children are able to deal with one thing at a time without difficulty. Teaching a lot of things to them at once may cause frustration and failure, not only on the part of the students but also of the teacher. For that reason, the syllabus should be arranged in such a way that every lesson does not have so many things in it. If it does, they should be done separately and step by step. Brown(2001) further adds that short attention span comes into play when children have to deal with material that to them is boring, useless, and difficult. Since language lessons can at times be difficult for children, teachers' job is to make them interesting, lively and fun. There are several things teachers can do

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 31 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 to make the lessons interesting, lively, and fun. First, because children are focused on immediate here and now (Musthafa, 2002 and Brown, 2001), activities should be designed to capture their immediate interest. Second, lessons need a variety of activities to keep interest and attention alive. Third, a teacher needs to be animated, lively and enthusiastic about the subject matter. Then, a sense of humor will go along way to keep children laughing and learning. Finally, children have a lot of natural curiosity; therefore, a teacher has to make sure that he taps into that curiosity whenever possible, and he will thereby help maintain attention and focus. Musthafa (2002) suggests several activities relevant to the nature of EFL learning for children which have elements of fun. Those activities are story-telling, games, TPR (Total Physical Response), using songs, rhymes, finger plays, repeated shared reading, LEA (Language Experience Activities), sociodramatic play/role play, and small group or pair work. These activities should be impressed upon children that they are not learning a subject but are having fun with foreign language. In this way, realization of language skills should be by-product of these fun activities. Sugeng (1999) claims that Fun English comes out of two basic assumptions in modern language education—communicative teaching and active learning. In communicative classes, the students are conscious about what they are actually doing by using the foreign language. When saying “How are you doing”, for example, they have to know exactly what they are saying, to whom, and why they are doing so. In other words, the students say the sentence not simply out of rote learning, but the situation makes it essential to do so. Brown (2001:57) assures that meaningful learning will lead toward better long-term retention than rote learning. They are not parrots that utter words without knowing what they are actually mean, aren’t they? Children have their own world which is far different from that of adults (Musthafa, 2002; Abe ,1991; Sugeng, 1999; Sinaga, 1996; and Brown, 2001). The difference lies primarily in the contrast between the child's spontaneous, peripheral attention to language forms and the adult's overt, focal awareness of and attention to those forms (Brown, 2001). Regarding this, therefore, an EYL teacher has to pay attention to; first of all, he has to avoid grammar explanation and rules stated in abstract terms; and he has to repeat difficult concepts and pattern more often than that of teaching adults. Moreover, language needs to be context-embedded. Language in abstract, isolated, unconnected sentences will be much less readily tolerated by children mind (Brown, 2001). Another characteristic/principle is that children learn best as a community of learners in non-competitive environment (Musthafa, 2002). This principle implicates that individual competition should be avoided. Scott (1990) adds that children also learn in social contexts, in groups where some group members more than others. Therefore, instead of individual competition, an EYL teacher has to encourage collaborative activities. Next characteristic is that children learn best when learning is kept whole, meaningful, interesting, and functional (Musthafa, 2002). Children tend to learn holistically in the forms of scripts such as "eating in a restaurant, going to school, take a bath," etc.. Brown (2001) says that a whole language approach is essential. If language is broken into many bits and pieces (words, phrases, paragraphs as analytical units), students will not see any relationships to the whole. Children will find things meaningful, interesting and

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 32 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 functional when they can relate these things with their needs and personal experiences (Musthafa, 2002). Concerning meaningfulness, children should be given opportunities to make their own choices. They will relate these choices with their personal wants and needs then it becomes meaningful for them. Another characteristic is that children need to have all five senses stimulated. The activities should strive to go well beyond the visual and auditory modes (Brown, 2001) An EYL teacher has to project hands-on activities to go a long toward helping children internalize language. Additionally, children should have a great deal of exposure to, engagement in, and suport for the language they are learning (Musthafa, 2002) This means that children should be given ample opportunities to hear and see the language being used for communicative purposes particularly in context of learning a foreign language. Moreover, Scott (1990) and Hudelson (1991) posits that language acquisition occurs through learners figuring out how the language works, through learners making and testing out hypotheses about the language. It means that children need opportunities to use and experiment with the new language. Mistakes are human and inevitable part of language learning. Successful language learners, in their realistic appraisal of themselves as vulnerable beings yet capable of accomplishing tasks, must be willing to becomes “gamblers” in the game of language, to attempt to produce and interpret language that is a bit beyond their absolute certainty (Brown, 2001). As for children learning a language, they should be allowed to make many trials and many errors in the learning process, instead of expecting them to say prescribed sentences. For example, a student saying “I not know” while shaking his head, showing it has meaning for him, is initially more important for him than being told by the teacher that correct one is “I do not know.” To encourage risk-taking, a language teacher should be able to create an atmosphere in the classroom that encourages the students to try out language. In communicative classes, where students are not overly criticized for their ungrammatical expression and sentences, children learn the language more easily and pleasantly. With reference to children intellectual development, Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, states that there are stages of intellectual development. All children go through identifiable stages of cognitive development: 1) Sensorimotor Period (birth to approximately two years), in which children tend to explore the world physically and grasp things; 2) Pre-operational Thought (approximately two to seven years old). This stage marks the beginning of language and vocabulary, and also the first learning of “good” and “bad”; 3) Period of Concrete Operations (approximately seven to eleven years) when children need reference to familiar actions, objects, and observable properties; and 4) Formal Operations (approximately eleven to fifteen years) when children can reason with concepts, relationships, abstract properties, axioms, and theories (Reilly & Lewis, 1983). However, it should be noted that the Peagetian cognitive development is not a monolithic concept and should not be seen as a set of limitations. The ages represent averages and cannot be considered as static. Dahar citing Philip (1996) asserts that there are some factors that influence their intellectual development, among others are maturation, physical experience, logical-mathematical experience, social transmission, and equilibration or self-regulation. Therefore, it is possible, then, for a nine-year-old child to be in the pre- operational stages of development, while six years old may have advanced to concrete operations (Fisher and Terry, 1977).

Students at the three schools investigated are mostly categorized as the period of Concrete operation in which, according to Fisher and Terry (1977), are able to reason and no longer dominated by their perceptions. They have the ability to concrete experiences, the development of social awareness and interaction. They learn best when they are actively involved in their own learning, but they still have difficulty in understanding many verbal and symbolic abstractions (Fisher & Terry, 1977). The pedagogical implication of the intellectual periods above is that English should be presented developmentally appropriate with the students’ intellectual development. The material should be various, plentiful, and concrete. The students should be given direct experiences and concrete objects that can be seen, handled, touched, and talked about (Alwasilah, 2000:96). Another characteristic is that children are often innovative in language forms but still have a great inhibitions; thus, an EYL teacher should be patient and supportive to build students’ self-esteem, also elicit as much oral participation as possible from students. Finally, in communicative language learning, active learning is essentially required. The two concepts, communicative teaching and active learning, are like two sides of the same coin. In active learning, the students themselves assume a more central role in classroom activities. In modern education systems, in which active learning is a characteristic, the student is responsible for learning, not the teacher. In classes where active learning is a major factor, the teaching process becomes democratic, enabling students to be active and creative, giving them more motivation to learn. In short, the principles of EYL teaching and learning elaborated above can be summarized into 21 principles as follows: 1. Children have their own world that is far different from that of adults. The different lies primarily in the contrast between child spontaneous, peripheral to language forms and adult’s overt, focal awareness of and attention to those forms. To successfully teach children a second language requires specific skills and intuitions that differ from those appropriate to adults. 2. Children have their own culture and learning preferences. 3. Children learn by way of physical activities(learning through hands-on experiences, learning by doing). They believe that physical activities can help the students internalize the language they are learning. 4. Children have relatively short attention and concentration span; unless activities are extremely engaging, they can easily get bored, losing interest after ten minutes or so. 5. Children learn with the motive of meeting immediate goals (here and now principles), therefore activities should be designed to capture their immediate interest. 6. Children should have a great deal of exposure to, engagement in, and support for the language they are learning. 7. Children learn naturally. As part of their development, children are always active exploring their environment and accumulating knowledge and experiences. From this exploration children construct their understanding of how things work, including the language they use both as a system as well as a tool for communication. 8. Children know a lot literacy before schooling.

9. Every child can learn in his or own pace provided that they have exposure to, engagement in, and support for the things they learn from the culture they are a part. 10. Children learn best when learning is kept whole, meaningful, interesting and functional. Children will find things meaningful, interesting, and functional when they can relate these things with their needs and personal experiences. 11. Children tend to learn holistically, in the forms of scripts; children find it difficult when the language is broken down into pieces (e.g. words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs as analytical units). 12. Children learn best when they make their own choices. They will relate these choices with their personal wants and needs and it becomes meaningful for them. 13. Children learn best as a community of learners in non-competitive environment. 14. Children learn best by talking and doing in social contexts. 15. Rules stated in abstract terms should be avoided. 16. A teacher should be a language model for the students, therefore overuse of native language and translation should be avoided. 17. Children need to have all five senses stimulated. 18. Non-verbal language is important because children will indeed attend very sensitively to the teacher’s facial features, gestures and touching. 19. Children are often innovative in language form but still have great inhibitions. They are extremely sensitive, especially to peers. Teachers need to help them overcome such potential barriers to learning. 20. Children have a need for individual attention and approval from the teacher. 21. Children often learn indirectly rather than directly—that is they take in information from all sides, learning from everything around them rather than only focusing on the precise topic they are being taught.

However, in this research, only ten principles out of twenty-one principles mentioned above were investigated. They were principles numbers 1, 3, 4, 6, 10, 11, 13, 16, 19, and 21.

RESEARCH METHOD Qualitative research method was employed. The data were collected through class observations, interviews, questionnaires, and field notes. The class obeservations were conducted four times for each participant. The interviews were held five times following each class observation. Field notes were taken to record interesting teaching events uncovered in class observation checklist. Those were then followed up in the interview after class observation. Besides, lesson plans, teaching materials, supplementary exercises, games, pictures and realia were also collected as data. In this research, data analysis was immediately carried out after class observation checklist and interview transcriptions were available. The less data, the easier to deal with (Alwasilah, 2002) so that data analysis was soon completed after each class observation and interview. Second class observation and interview

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 35 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 were conducted after he had completed data analysis and write a report of the first class observation and interview. The third class observation and interview were conducted after data analysis of the second class observation and interview, and so on and so forth. Data gathered through questionnaires was also immediately analyzed to see the patterns of the participants’ answer. Questionnaire part one was to find out teachers' understanding of teaching English in general. The participants were presented with statements to which the participants had to respond whether they always, often, seldom or never do the activities listed in the questionnaire in their teaching and learning process as English teachers in general. The statements/questions in the questionnaire encompassed: preparation, greetings in English, how to begin the lesson, the use of teaching aids and realia, review, questions to begin a lesson, non-verbal language, how to contextualize language form, function, and vocabulary, grouping students, giving feedback, motivating students, etc. The data were analyzed based on the tendency of participants answers. High score would mean positive understanding, while low score would mean negative understanding. Questionnaire part two was to find out participants' understanding of EYL principles in particular. The participants had to respond to the statements seeking agreements or disagreements with the principles. Similar to questionnaire part one, the data were analyzed based on the tendency of participants' responses to the statements. The data from questionnaires and class observations were also analyzed using Likert scale (Oppenheim, 1982: 133-141) to find comprehensive information concerning participants' level of understanding of certain principles or the whole principles in general and their ability in classroom applications.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION The findings on participants' understanding and ability can be summarized in the following table:

No Principles Findings T U T A 1 Children' spontaneous, peripheral to language form. VX VX 2 Learn by way of physical activities VX 3 Short attention and concentration span VV VX 4 Exposure, engagement , support VV VX 5 Learning is kept whole, interesting and functional. VV VX 6 Learn holistically in the form of scripts. XX XX 7 Learn best in non-competitive environment VX VX 8 Teacher should be language model. VX VX 9 Help students to overcome potential barrier in learning. VV VV 10 Learn indirectly rather than directly. VX VX Note: VV = shared by all participants VX=by some of the participants and XX = shared by none. TU=teachers' understanding, TA= teachers' ability

The research had also revealed some other findings that were appealing to discuss: First, Educational background did not say much in the teachers’ understanding of EYL teaching and learning principles and their ability in classroom applications. P5 who did not have English and teaching background, was evidently better than P1, who had teaching background, and P2 and 3 with English literature background. Second, teaching experience was neither the determining factor to make ones’ performance better then the others’. P4,5, and 6, who had two to five years of EYL teaching experience, had observably better performance than P3 who had 9 years of EYL teaching experience. Third, other factors were apparently more influential to determine that teachers had better ability than the others. The factors were whether or not the teachers actively developed themselves to be professional ones by, for instance, attending trainings, seminars, workshops, and reading EYL-related books. The teachers who were active in their professional development were evidently better than those who weren’t. From the interviews and questionnaire, it was revealed that P1,2,3 had never attended trainings, seminars, workshops, nor enriching their knowledge by reading EYL-related books. And finally, class size, facilities, and teachers’ creativeness, were potentially the factors that, to some extends, hinder the teachers to optimally perform in their classroom practices. These research findings implicates that all aspects relatable to EYL instruction—teachers, headmasters, educational institutions, LPTK, Local government, and the Department of National Education--should appropriately reciprocate these findings by carrying out necessary measures to improve the quality of the instruction in the future.

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

Conclusion First of all, participants display different degree of understanding of English for Young Learners teaching and learning principles. This understanding fall into three categories: first, understanding of the EYL principles that are shared by all participants; second, those shared simply by some of the participants; and the third, those shared by none. With different degree of understanding, four principles of EYL teaching and learning principles are shared by all participants. Those principles are: Children have their own culture and learning preferences; learn by way of physical activities, have relatively short attention and concentration span, should have a great deal of exposure to, engagement in, and support for the language they are learning, learn naturally, know a lot of literacy before schooling, can learn in his own pace, are often innovative in language form but still have great inhibition, and have a need and approval from the teacher. Ten principles of EYL teaching and learning are shared by three participants but are not shared by the other three participants. Those principles are: Children have their world which ia far different from that of adults; learn with the motive of meeting immediate goals; learn indirectly; learn best when learning is kept whole, meaningful, interesting and functional, as a community of learners in non-competitive environment, by talking and doing in social contexts; and need to have all five senses stimulated. Moreover, teacher should avoid explaining abstract concepts, be a language model, pay attention non-verbal language.

All participants do not have sufficient understanding of the two principles. They are: children, first, learn holistically, in the form of scripts; and second, learn best when they make their own choices. Secondly, teaching methods employed by some participants meet the characteristics of Grammar Translation Methods meanwhile some others, on the other hand, employ various methods that can fall into four categories: The Direct Method, Communicative Language Teaching, The Natural Approach, and Total Physical Response (with limited used). Thirdly, some participants employ teaching techniques which are unvarious and monotonous falling into controlled techniques category. Some other participants, on the other hand, employ various techniques falling into all categories as proposed by Crookes & Chai (1991:52-54) in Brown (2001):, controlled, semicontrolled, and free. Last but not least, teachers’ understanding of EYL principles as presented previously are not transferable to their ability in classroom practices. Some participants can not apply most of the principles even if they share understanding of nine out of twenty one principles under investigation. They can relatively apply only three of those principles. They are: first, non-verbal language is important; second, children are often innovative in language form but still have inhibition; and the third, children need for individual attention. Some other participants, on the other hand, can apply most of the principles investigated in their classroom practices, eight of which with relative ability and ten with a very good ability. These participants can not apply only two principles investigated.

Recommendations From the conclusion presented above, there are some general items to recommend regarding the teaching of English at elementary school and private educational institutions conducting Teaching English for Young Learners. These recommendations are addressed particularly to EYL teachers, headmasters, Dinas Pendidikan Kota/Provinsi (Municipal and Provincial Chapters of Education Affairs), LPTK(teacher’s colleges), and The Department of National Education. To yield a good result, Teaching English for Young Learners(TEYL) needs to be professionally managed and executed, otherwise, it will be counterproductive to the initial objectives of this instruction. TEYL, therefore, calls for careful anticipations on the parts of all aspects related to it. First, EYL teachers should realize of their professional development. It is essential that they keep improving themselves by reading books related to TEYL such as TEYL principles, methods and techniques of TEYL, child psychology, class management, assessment, etc.; attending seminars, workshops, and trainings to keep abreast with the latest development of TEYL; developing their creativity in, for example, making use of teaching aids and realia to help their students learn better. Second, headmasters or school managements should carefully select English teachers in the sense that they have to select those who meet the qualification to be English teachers for children: those who have good proficiency in English and TEYL. Additionally, they have to encourage and facilitate the teachers to develop their professionalism as EYL teachers. Third, in compliance with the spirit of local autonomy, some educational aspects are now under control of local government. This circumstance gives local government opportunity to improve the quality of

education in each respective region. In accordance with this, it is urgent that local government recruit qualified EYL teachers to be posted in elementary schools. Moreover, it should facilitate EYL teachers for their professional development by conducting programs necessary for it. Fourth, LPTK should proactively respond to the demand of professional EYL teachers by carrying out seminars, workshops, and trainings so that it can facilitate EYL teachers’ professional development. Furthermore, it is essential that LPTK open a program to produce professional EYL teachers. Finally, The Department of National Education should have professional anticipation before issuing a policy concerning education. It should, for example, prepare qualified teachers, curriculum, facilities, textbooks, etc. so that problems can be anticipated and the objective of early English instruction can be reached. This study has investigated only six teachers, so the findings cannot thoroughly reflect the real picture of EYL teachers’ understanding and ability in applying EYL teaching and learning principles in general. Therefore, more studies with more and various samples are encouraged to further reveal the real picture of EYL teachers’ understanding and ability in their field, thus giving opportunity for accurate anticipation to enhance the quality of this English instruction.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Abe, Keiko(1991) Teaching to Children in an EFL Setting. English Teaching Forum. Vol.XXIX. (4) October 1991. Alwasilah, A. Chaedar (2000) Perspective Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris di Indonesia: Dalam Konteks Persaingan Global. Bandung: CV Andira.

------.2002. Pokoknya Kualitative: Dasar-Dasar Merancang dan Melakukan Penelitian Kualitative. Bandung: Pustaka jaya. ------Perspective Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris di Indonesia Dalam Konteks Persaingan Global. Bandung: CV Andira. ------2001. Language Culture and Education: A Potrait of Contemporary Indonesia. Bandung: CV Andira. ------2001. Language, Culture, and Education: A Portrait of Contemporary Indonesia. Bandung: CV Andira. Arnold, Jean.(1999).Affect in Language Learning. Edinburg: Combridge University Press. Ashworth & Wakefield.(2005) Teaching the World’s Children. English Teaching Forum (43) Number 1. Brown(2001)Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. Second Edition. New York: Pearson Education Company. Brumfit, C and Mitchel, R (Ed.) (1990) Research in the Language Classroom. Hongkong: Modern English Publications. Canale and Swain. (1980) Approaches to Communicative Competence. Occasional Papers, 14. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Cantony-Harvey, Gina. (1987) Content-Area Language Instruction. USA: Addison-

Wesley Publishing Co, Inc. Crandall, JoAnn (1994) Content-Centered Language Learning. Washington DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics. ED367142. Curtain, H.A. and Pesola, C.A. (1988) Languages and Children – Making the Match: Foreign Languages Instruction in the Elementary School. Massachusetts: Addison – Wesley Publishing Co. Dardjowidjojo (1997) Bahasa Asing sebagai Bahasa Pengantar dalam Sistem Pendidikan. Paper in Kongres bahasa Indonesia VII, Jakarta, October, 26-30. 1998. Depdikbud. Dardjowidjojo, Soenjono, (2000). ‘English teaching in Indonesia. English Australia Journal 18(1):21-30. Depdikbud. (1997) GBPP ( Garis-Garis Besar Program Pengajaran ) Bahasa Inggris untuk Sekolah Dasar. Jakarta: Depdikbud. Dockett & Fleer. (2000 )Play and Pedagogy in Early Childhood: Bending the Rules. Australia: Harcourt Australia Pty Limited. Ellis, Rod (1988) Classroom Second Language Development. UK: Prentice Hall International ( UK ) Ltd. ------1997. Second Language Acquisition. New York: Oxford University Press. Fisher, Bobbi. (1991) Joyful Learning. New Hampshire: Heinemann. Fisher, J.C. and Terry, A.A. (1997) Children’s language and the Language Art. USA: McGraw-Hill. Frazier & Deferville & Tai (1996) Reach Out. Singapore: Prentice Hall ELT. Genesee & Upshur (1996) Classroom-Based Evaluation in Second Language Education. New York: Cambridge University Press. Graham & Procter (2003) Songs and Chants. Hongkong: Pearson Education North Asia Ltd. Hamied, Fuad Abdul (1987) Proses Belajar Mengajar Bahasa. Jakarta: Depdikbud. ------2000a. Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris: ‘Conditio Sine Qua Non’ untuk Menyiasati Arus Persaingan Global. Pidato pengukuhan jabatan Guru Besar Tetap dalam Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris pada FPBS UPI. Bandung: Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia. ------2000b. TEFL – Related Policy Issues in Indonesia. Paper in TEFLIN the 48th International Conference, The Collection of Papers on Reading – Writing and Learner’s Autonomy. Jakarta: TEFLIN the 48th International Conference. Harmer, Jeremy (1985) The Practice of English Language Teaching. England: Longman Press. Hatch, Evelyn M. (1983)Psycholinguistics: a Second Language Perspective.Massachusetts: Newbury House Publishers, Inc. Hingle & Linington (2005) English Proficiency Test: The Oral Component of Primary School. English Teaching Forum (43) Number 1. Huberman, A.M. and Miles, M.B. (1994) An Expanded Sourcebook: Qualitative Data Analysis. USA: Sage Publications, Inc. Kasihani (1996) Teaching English to Young Learners in Indonesia. National Seminar: The Development of TEFL in Indonesia. Kemdikbud. (2013). Konferensi pers hasil UN SMP - sederajat tahun ajaran 2012/2013. Jakarta: Kemendikbud.

Klein (2005)Teaching Young Learners English Teaching Forum (43) Number 1. Krashen, Stephen D. & Terel, Tracy D. (1988). The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd. Latha.(2005) A Reading Programme for Elementary Schools. English Teaching Forum (43) Number 1.

Liando, Nihta V.F. (2000) Some Perspectives in Improving English as a Foreign Language Program in Indonesian School. Paper in TEFLIN the 48th International Conference, The Collection of Papers on Reading - Writing and Learner’s Autonomy. Jakarta: TEFLIN the 48th International Conference. Linse, Caroline (2005) The Children Response: TPR and Beyond. English Teaching Forum: Volume 43 Number 1. Lynch, Brian K. (1996) Language Program Evaluation: Theory and Practice. New York: Cambridge University Press. Mathew, Alan, et. Al. (1985) Practical Tehniques in Languages Teaching: “ At the Chalkface “. Britain: Edward Arnold Maxwell, Joseph.A.(1996) Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach. California: Sage Publication Inc. McMillan, J.H. (1992) Educational Research: Fundamentals for the Consumer. New York: Harper Collins Publisher, Inc. Merriam, S.B. (1988) Case Study Research in Education: a Qualitative Approach. California: Jossey-Bass Inc. Publisher. Murdibjono.(1996) Teaching English to Young Learners Using Stories. National Seminar: The Development of TEFL in Indonesia. Musthafa. (2000) Sociodramatic Play and Literacy Development: An Instructional Perspective. Department of English. The Indonesia University of Education. Bandung. ------.1994. From Home to School: Promoting Early Literacy for Schooling. The Ohio State University. Columbus. ------.2000. Let Children Play into Readers and Writers of Their Own Worlds (Play to Promote Early Literacy). Bandung. ------.2002. EFL for Young Learners.CREST. Bandung. ------2002. Teori Perkembangan Anak Usia Dini (AUD) dan Implikasinya Pengembangan dan Penulisan Buku Bacaan Anak. Presented in Penulisan Buku Ajar Bagi Dosen Program D-2 PGTK Se-Indonesia Direktorat Pendidikan Tenaga Kependidikan, Directorat Jenderal Pendidikan Tinggi Depdiknas. Yogyakarta.

------.2004.Multiperspective Articles on Early Childhood Education: Guidance and Counseling Studies. The Indonesia University of Education Bandung. Nunan, David. (1991) Language Teaching Methodology. UK: Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd. ------1995.Designing Task for the Communicative Classroom. New York &

Australia: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge ------1998. The Learner-Centered Curriculum: A Study in Second Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press. Oppenheim (1968) Questionnaire and Attitude Measurement. London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. Reilly, R. R & Lewis, E. L. (1983) Educational Psychology: Application for Classroom Learning and Instruction. New York. Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. Richards, J.C. and Rodgers. T.S. (1986) Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. USA: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J.C.(1988) Beyond Training. USA: Cambridge University Press. Rivers, Wilga M. (1985) Communicating Naturally in a Second Language. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Richards (2001) Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sadtono, E. (1987) Antologi Pengajaran Bahasa Asing Khususnya Bahasa Inggris. Jakarta: Depdikbud. Scott & Ytreberb (1990) Teaching English to Children. Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd. Shaaban (2005) Assessment of Young Learners. English Teaching Forum: Volume 43 Number 1. Sinaga, Matias (1996) Teaching English to Children (as Opposed to Adults).National Seminar: The Development of TEFL in Indonesia. Stern, H.H (1983) Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. London: Oxford University Press. Sugeng.Feb(1999) Fun Plays Key Role in Teaching English to Kids. The Jakarta Post Van Lier, L. (1989) The Classroom and the Language Learner. London: Longman. Ward, Sheila. (1985) Using Songs. In Mathews, Spratt 7 Dangerfield (ed.). At the Chalkface: Practical Techniques in Language Teaching. Britain: Edward Arnold.

Effects of Home - Based Parental Involvement Practices in Promoting Quality of Education in Public Day Secondary Schools in Igembe Sub County, Meru County - Kenya

ESTHER THUBA, Prof. Justus Nephat Kathuri, Dr. John Mariene KENYA METHODIST UNIVERSITY Kenya Abstract Universally, institutions of learning are charged with the task of producing quality human resource which can adapt to the ever-changing global environments. Secondary schools provide the youth with opportunities to acquire human capital that enable them to pursue higher education and also improve their knowledge and skills. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of home - based parental involvement practices in promoting quality of education in public day secondary schools in Igembe Central Sub County, Meru County- Kenya. Convergent design was used. This study comprised 28 principals, 266 teachers, 6912 students and 144 parents’ representatives. This made a total target population of 7312 subjects from the public day secondary schools of Igembe Central Sub County. Out of this target population, a sample of 8 principals, 48 teachers, 32 parents and 352 students, making a total of 440 subjects, was drawn using both probability and non-probability sampling procedures. The researcher collected both qualitative and quantitative data using interview schedules for principals, questionnaires for teachers’ and students’, parents’ focus group discussions and document analysis guide. The results obtained led to the conclusion that improving home based involvement of the parents can lead to improvement in children’s school attendance, homework completion, improved learning behaviors and even better learner’s discipline. This indicates that parents’ involvement in education of their children at home is a powerful force in enhancing the quality of education offered in public day secondary schools. The study recommends that parents be enlightened on the home-based activities that either directly or indirectly affect the quality of education that their children receive so that they may know how to invest their energies and resources to improve education in their children’s schools. It was also recommended that parents should monitor their children’s security in addition to the improvement of home- school relationships.

Keywords: Home-based involvement, Human capital, Parental involvement, Public day secondary school, Quality of Education

1. Introduction Home-based involvement denotes the kind of interaction that parents can have with their children at home with an intention of enhancing their education and consequent school performance. This kind of

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 43 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 involvement demands that parents utilize their resources to support their children’s academic accomplishments. Parents can engage in various home-based involvement activities so as to help their children. For instance, parents can engage children in cognitively-stimulating activities at home, creating a conducive learning environment at home for their children, exposing children to community resources that enhance their educational experience or even getting involved with additional parenting activities like, monitoring the activities that their children engage in, varying from television watching to going out and the selection of friends (Bakker & Denessen, 2007; Harris & Goodall, 2007; Patrikakou, 2008). Home-school cooperation may be linked to better learning, healthy self-esteem and more positive attitudes and behaviour in life. According to DePlanty, Coulter-Kern, and Duchane (2007), strong relationships between home and school environments have positive effects on adolescents. To them, there are various parental activities that play a very important role in the social and emotional achievement of their children. These activities include communication between parents and children about school, helping the child with homework, setting school-related rules at home, and sharing with the child school-related aspirations of the parent. Furthermore, taking children to events and places that foster academic success (for example, museums and libraries), and creating a conducive learning environment at home (for example, making educational materials accessible, such as books, newspapers, educational toys;) are part of home-based involvement practices (Bakker et al., 2007; Hill & Tyson, 2009; Henderson & Mapp, 2002, and Jeynes, 2005). Universally, institutions of learning are charged with the task of producing quality human resource which can adapt to the ever changing global environments. Secondary schools provide the youth with opportunities to acquire human capital that enable them to pursue higher education and also improve their knowledge and skills. Education plays a significant role in leading to higher labour market productivity. Students develop knowledge, skills, and abilities ( human capital) during their secondary school education, that provide to them private benefits, as well as, social benefits to the larger society over their lifetimes (Haveman, Bershadker & Schwabish, 2003). Human capital development of any country is determined by access to quality basic education among other determinants. Among the many indicators of quality of basic education that students receive are higher successful completion of classes, lower drop-out rates, higher completion rates, higher grades and test scores, higher rate of transition to institutions of higher learning and improved enrolment in higher level programmes. Other indicators of quality of education associated with home based parental involvement include regular school attendance, better social skills and adaptation to the school environment, improved behaviour, increased social capital, a greater sense of personal competence and efficacy for learning, greater engagement in school work, and a stronger belief in the importance of education (Gonzalez, Doan Holbein, & Quilter, 2002; and Henderson et al., 2002). The Government of Kenya has made several strides towards the provision of quality education at all levels. The government’s strategy in the Basic Education Act 2013, the Sessional Paper No.14 of 2014 on Reforming Education and Training, and the National Education Sector Plan (NESP) 2013- 2018, emphasize the provision of quality basic education from early childhood to secondary education. The emphasis on improvement of quality of education mainly aims at improving; schooling and learning outcomes, relevant

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 44 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 skills, efficiency, and effectiveness in the use of available resources (Republic of Kenya, 2013a; Republic of Kenya 2013b). The government’s efforts to improve quality of education aims at producing Kenyans with global competitive skills which will then produce the manpower required to turn the country into a middle income status by 2030. The ultimate goal of quality secondary education is to develop the individual’s mental capacity and character for higher and useful living within the society (Republic of Kenya, 2008b). However, studies done on the status of secondary school education in Kenya have pointed out glaring gaps in the quality of education across the sector, especially in public day secondary schools. The quality of education in Kenya has stagnated even though there is increased access to education (Uwezo Kenya, 2012). It is for this reason that commitment to promote quality of education by all education stakeholders, parents included, is essential so as to facilitate changes in students’ intellectual capacities and skills, values, attitudes, habits and even mental health.

Research Question What are the effects of home-based parental involvement in promoting quality of education in public day secondary schools in Igembe Central Sub County?

2. Literature review The concept of Home Based Parental Involvement Parents’ genuine interest and active engagement in their children’s learning (OECD, 2011) by spending quality time with them give rise to improved educational outcomes. Consequently, the influence of the home environment to quality of education depends on parents’ guidance and encouragement to their children in learning (Bakker et al., 2007). Outside of the school, parents can create a rich learning environment which eventually contributes to better educational outcomes for their children (Jeynes, 2005). Moreover, parents can discuss possibilities for higher education with their children, stress the value of education in general, provide learning resources, and take their children to social events and places that contribute to learning (Hill et al., 2009). These interventions are crucial in enhancing quality of education offered in schools. Some parental and home life factors that impact students achievement include daily family conversations, monitoring of television viewing times and programmes, open displays of affection, learning to delay gratification, print and literacy activities that are engaging, and high parental interest in the child’s academic and character growth. These factors are high predictors of school success than socio-economic status. Other parental behaviours that support academic growth are high expectations and a structure for homework completion and school preparation (Bakker et al., 2007; Patrikakou, 2008). Dubois, Eitel, and Felner (1994) conducted a two-year longitudinal study of 157 adolescents who were aged 10-12 years in small public schools in predominantly poor and rural areas of Southeastern United States. They found out that home-based parental involvement activities had significant effects on student’s achievement. Some of the effects included nurturing children through warm and responsive parenting, as well as, assuming additional roles as their children matured. Parents would also discipline their children,

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 45 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 teaching them, modeling language, providing stimulating materials, and serving as managers of family routines and schedules (Brooks-Gunn & Markham, 2005). From the foregoing, it is evident that the home learning environments influence social development of children and are important factors contributing to quality of education at all the levels of learning (Bull, Brooking & Campbell, 2008; Kendall, 2007). A conducive home learning environment with a variety of educational resources and positive reinforcement of the value of education by parents is essential not only in making learning enjoyable and rewarding but also fundamental in intellectual and social development in children of all ages (Brooks-Gunn et al., 2005). In addition, this environment contributes to the standards that children set for themselves and their aspirations for education (Jeynes, 2005). Good parenting at home has positive effects on children’s educational achievement (Duckworth, Akerman, Morrison, & Vorhaus, 2009). Communication is a feature of this style of parenting which supports a child’s academic progress, places value on learning, and determines behaviours that are suitable for education achievement (Hoover-Dempsey, Walker, Sandler, Whetsel, Green, Wilkins, & Closson, 2005). Through communication, children can be aware of the expectations and educational aspirations of their parents. For example, parents can discuss subjects’ selection and choices with their children and also their aspirations after secondary school education (Pomerantz, Moorman, & Litwack, 2007). Osei-Akoto, Chowa, and Ansong (2012) investigated the extent of parental involvement in academic performance in Ghana using randomized cluster sampling of 100 schools from eight out of ten regions. They found out that majority of the parents (83%) hardly assisted children in homework. In Namibia, Guolaung (2010) conducted a qualitative survey study on the extent of parental involvement in students’ academic performance. The study involved seven parents of students who had achieved high grades in examinations. All parents involved reported very high level of involvement in their children’s education. This is an indication that parents can help their children in maintaining positive attitudes towards their own abilities and support them through problems at school (Henderson et al., 2002). Forming culturally aware school-family collaborations is important in that it helps schools to reduce cultural gaps, create diverse learning opportunities, improve ethnic and racial perceptions and attitudes, and foster interethnic friendships (Harris et al., 2007). As such, creating a positive home-school climate results to more learning opportunities and students can be better prepared to acquire knowledge, attitudes and skills necessary to interact positively and productively with people in a multicultural society. When schools and families work together to support learning, children tend to do better in school, stay in school longer and like school more. The degree of parental involvement in home based activities vary by parent to parent. Usually there is no general consensus on how parents can be engaged in the education of their children. Free secondary education in Kenya, which increased access to secondary school education did not sufficiently improve the quality of education. It is for this reason that the researcher sought to find out how home-based parental involvement can be used to improve quality of education in public day secondary schools of Igembe Central Sub County.

3. Research Methodology The study covered all the public day secondary schools in Igembe Central Sub-County, Meru County- Kenya. It was delimited to these schools since they are direct beneficiaries of government support in the provision of secondary school education. The informants were school principals, teachers, students, and parents of the selected schools. There are several other stakeholders whose role affect quality of education in public day secondary schools, but the study focused on home – based parental involvement activities only. Convergent (parallel) design which is a mixed methods design was used. In this design, the researcher collected both quantitative and qualitative data concurrently, analyzed both sets of data separately, and then compared the results with the intent of comparing two different perspectives on home - based parental involvement practices in enhancing quality of education in Igembe Central Sub County. The researcher laid emphasis on both Qualitative and Quantitative data (Hesse-Biber, 2010; Hesse-Biber and Johnson, 2015). Igembe Central Sub County has a total of 28 public day secondary schools. The target population in this study comprised of all the 28 school principals, 266 teachers, 6912 form one to form four students, and 144 PTA representatives, making a total of 7350 subjects. Igembe Central Sub County was curved out of Igembe North and Igembe South Sub-Counties. Schools belonging to Igembe Central Sub County have been under the management of either Igembe North or Igembe South Sub Counties’ Education officers depending on where the school belonged before 2013. Therefore, the researcher could only get information related to Igembe Central Sub County schools from the two mother- Sub Counties, though currently ( 2017), the Sub County has its own education officer. A summary of the target population is shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Target Population

No. of No. of No. of Total No. of Total No. of PTA Ward Schools principals Teachers Students representatives

Akirang'ondu 5 5 64 1459 32

Athiru Ruujine 6 6 42 1253 28

Igembe East 6 6 48 1322 24 Njia 5 5 40 1056 20 Kangeta 6 6 72 1822 40 Total 28 28 266 6912 144

Source: Igembe North and Igembe South Sub Counties’ Education Offices, (March, 2016)

This research employed both probability and non-probability sampling procedures to get informants. Probability sampling was done to ensure that each case in the population had an equal chance of being included in the sample. Non-probability sampling was used to select certain cases non-randomly in situations where very few cases were included in the sample (Orodho, 2009). Krejcie and Morgan (1970) suggest that if the researcher were devising a sample from a wider population of 30 or fewer, then he or she would be well advised to include the whole or the wider population. Therefore, all the principals were to be included as respondents as per Krejcie and Morgan’s table with respect to the 28 schools. The researcher further sampled principals of schools from the sub county that had done Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) examinations for four or more years consecutively. A total of eight principals from schools that had met this criterion were selected purposively and were interviewed. In addition, parents, who were class representatives from form one to form four of the selected schools participated in the study. In cases where some of the sampled schools had more than one stream, simple random sampling was used to pick only one parent to represent the class. Eight (8) focus groups of four (4) parents each were formed from the selected schools. A total of thirty two (32) parents formed focus group discussions. 48 of the teachers who were in session at the time of the research and were willing to participate in the study were conveniently sampled. Form three and form four classes in each selected school were the classes of the study since they had been in the school for a longer period. In addition, students at this level were expected to be concerned about the quality of education they received from their schools, hence, would have invaluable contribution towards addressing the research question. Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) table was used to determine the sample size of these students. Further, stratified random sampling was used to select both boys and girls from the form three and form four classes who were to respond to the questionnaire. To get these students from form three and form four classes, the researcher obtained class registers from the class teachers involved. This was used as a sampling frame. According to Orodho (2009), systematic sampling is used where lists of the members of population are available and arranged in some order. From the class registers, the researcher prepared separate lists for all boys and girls in form three and form four classes and then got a sampling interval (K) by dividing the population size by the sample size. The researcher then established a random start so as to take random samples of students from each subgroup in relation to their class and gender. A total of forty four (44) students per school were selected. The total sample size was obtained by summing up all the chosen samples of the informants. Generally, a total of four hundred and forty informants (440) were included in the sample. The researcher used various methods of data collection in the study to enhance the reliability of the research findings. Both qualitative and quantitative data was collected using students’ and teachers’ questionnaires, principals’ in-depth interview, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) guide for parents and documents analysis guide. During data collection, data was checked for completeness and gaps were immediately filled before leaving the research site. Ratification was sought from the respective informants in cases where gaps were identified. Furthermore, verification was done every evening in order to correct any irregular information provided. Thereafter, the instruments were serialized in readiness for data entry and analysis.

The quantitative data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 20.0 (SPSS 20.0), a computer software programme, to produce some basic statistics from the data: frequencies for categorical data and the mean and standard deviations for interval level data. The results obtained were presented in frequency tables, ANOVA tables, graphs and percentages. In addition, qualitative data analysis was done by summarizing recorded qualitative data into daily briefs after each interview or FGD session. Thereafter, the researcher went through the transcripts to identify sections that were relevant to the research questions. Analysis of qualitative data collected was done through thematic analysis. Thematic analysis is a qualitative analytic method which emphasizes, pinpointing, examining, and recording patterns (or themes) within data. The researcher read through data continuously identifying patterns, developed categories and codes. This helped to organize and describe data set in (rich) detail (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The original transcripts were reviewed continually throughout the analysis in an effort to ensure that an adequate and accurate picture of parental home based involvement in education and the experiences of the informants were revealed. Finally, a write-up containing informants’ views in relation to the research question were compiled.

4. Results and Discussion Table 2 gives a summary of the instruments return rate: Table 2: A Summary of Instruments Return Rate Number Number Return Category of Informants Instrument Used Sampled Completed Rate

Principals 8 Interview schedule 8 100%

Teachers 48 Questionnaires 41 85.40% Students 352 Questionnaires 315 89.50% Representatives -parents Focus group discussion 32 8 FGDs 100% association guide

Coding was done for the informants who responded to interviews and participated in FGDs as follows: SC stands for schools and the figure 1 the school number, hence, there were 8 schools. P1 - P8 stands for the principals in the respective schools. Similarly, PT1A stands for the first parents’ representative in school 1, respectively up to PT8D which stands for the fourth parent from the eighth school.

Characteristics of the Informants The informants targeted in the study included school principals, teachers, students, and parents who were PTA representatives. This section presents background data of the indicated informants:

The Principals Table 3 summarizes Principals’ characteristics: Table 3: A Summary of Principals' Characteristics

Teaching Number of Marital Highest academic Principal Age Gender experience (in years as a status qualification years) principal P1 48 Female Married Bachelor’s degree 24 5 P2 48 Male Married Master’s degree 22 10 P3 49 Male Married Bachelor’s degree 24 10 Diploma in P4 58 Female Married 33 12 Education P5 46 Male Married Bachelor’s degree 15 3 P6 48 Female Married Master’s degree 20 4

P7 50 Male Married Bachelor’s degree 24 12 P8 49 Female Married Bachelor’s degree 22 4

The Teachers A total of 41 teachers responded to the questionnaires. An examination of the data captured in Table 4.4 reveal that 43.9 % (18) of teachers involved in the study were aged between 25- 30 years. 24.4% were aged 31 to 35 years. The rest were above 35 years. Only 4.9% (2) of the teachers fell in age bracket of 46 – 50 years. The results indicate that all the age groups between 25 and 50 years were adequately represented. Table 4: Teacher's Age (in Years) Age group Frequency Percent 25-30 18 43.9 31-35 10 24.4 36-40 5 12.2 41-45 6 14.6 46-50 2 4.9 Total 41 100

With regard to the gender of the teachers who responded to questionnaires majority (61%) were male, while the rest (39%) were female. Hence, each of the gender was adequately represented as none was more than two thirds of the total number of informants as shown in Figure 4.1.

Male Female

Female 39%

Male 61%

Figure 1: Distribution of teachers by gender It was further established that a high majority of the teachers (61%) were married while the rest (39%) were single. Hence, the composition of teachers in regard to marital status was good for the study, especially as pertains to their views on parental involvement in their children’s education. The study established that all the teachers who responded to the questionnaires were trained. Majority of the teachers (75.6%) had a first degree qualification, 14.6% had diploma qualification, while 9.8% had post graduate qualification. This showed that more than four fifths of the teachers who participated in the study had a university degree an indication that the teachers in public day secondary schools were qualified professional teachers as shown in Figure 2:

80.0 75.6% 70.0

60.0

50.0

40.0

Percentage 30.0

20.0 14.6% 9.8% 10.0

.0 Diploma in Education First degree Master's degree certificate Education level

Figure 2: Teachers education level

The teachers involved in the study had remained in the teaching profession for a sufficient period of time to be able to comment on parental involvement practices that promote quality of education in public day secondary schools. Figure 3 shows a summary of this.

21-25 2.4%

16-20 9.8%

11-15 7.3%

6-10 29.3%

1-5 51.2% Teaching Experiencce (Years) Experiencce Teaching Percentage of teachers

Figure 3: Teachers’ teaching experience

Students’ characteristics From the research findings, it was established that out of 315 students who returned their questionnaires, 50% were boys, while 50% were girls. This means that gender parity was realized in as far as the students’ responses were concerned. Hence, the outcome of the study would be impartial in terms of views of either gender. The respondents were equally distributed amid the form three and form four classes, which were the classes of concern to this study. The students in these two classes were considered to have adequate stay in public day secondary schools and would be able to examine the quality of education in the aforementioned schools.

In regard to marital status of the students’ parents, a high majority of the students (75.6%) reported their parents’ married status, 9.2% stated widowed status, and 8.9% indicated never married status. In addition, 3.5% pointed separated status, 2.2% said they were orphaned while .6% indicated divorced status of their parents. This pointed to a significant number of the students whose parents were not living together as approximately a fifth of the students reported. On analyzing information about the type of family that students came from, the study revealed that 216 of the students (68.6 %) belonged to a nuclear family and lived with both parents. The study also showed that 58 students (18.4 %) lived with single parents, 34 students (10.8 %) lived in polygamous setups, while seven (2.2 %) of them were taken care of by guardians who were not their biological parents. From the FGDs, parents from SC2 and SC5 observed that some students in their schools were orphaned, others were from single parent families, while others were from polygamous families. They further noted that some of these students were committed, obedient and disciplined, though some attended school irregularly or dropped out altogether. PT2A also had this to say: Children of this school are so committed to their studies that they are always in school by 6.30am each school day. However, some are discouraged by the nature of problems they encounter at home since some have no parents and others have absent and / or irresponsible parents. Ninety percent of the students in this school come from extremely poor homes where parents cannot afford boarding school fees. The above finding revealed that learners’ family backgrounds varied. It was reported that some students joined school through support from their local churches, while others through non - governmental organizations (NGOs), self-help groups, CDF bursaries and their area member of parliament (MP). PT4C described the students in these words: Children are very obedient, disciplined and committed to studies but discouraged by parents’ behaviour. They are always punctual and commit themselves to private studies even late in the evenings. If you pass by the school in the evenings, you will find them there doing their private studies. PT1C, PT3A, PT3C, PT4B, PT5A, PT6B, and PT7D had similar sentiments. However, PT1A, PT2D, PT5D and PT8C had a different opinion. According to them, Most students are hardworking while others are negatively aggressive. For example, they fight, insult, and have no courtesy towards teachers and other students. This puts their schools’ discipline at stake. Some are however obedient. If students possessed such negative traits as described, this would most likely affect quality of their education. More information regarding the effects of students’ characteristics and quality of education they received was obtained from teachers’ questionnaire. From the documents analyzed, the researcher noted that there was irregular school attendance especially in form four classes. The school principals affirmed that there was chronic absenteeism from schools, especially after national examinations registration in the schools’ first term.

These students would only resurface towards the examination period. Having not studied throughout the year, such students perform so poorly in national examinations. From the students’ questionnaire on academic performance only 4.4% achieved A related grades (A, A-) while 41.3% achieved Bs (B+,B, B-), more than half of the students (53%) reported that they achieved C related grades (C+, C and C-), while 1.3% achieved D related grades ( D+,D, D-) as shown in Table 5. None of the students reported to have achieved an E grade.

Table 5: Students' Performance Cumulative Grade Frequency Percent Percent Mostly A related 14 4.4 4.4 Mostly B related 130 41.3 45.7 Mostly C related 167 53 98.7 Mostly D related 4 1.3 100 Total 315 100

The FGDs supported the fact that there was value addition in terms of their children’s ability to use positive social skills in their day to day life. According to parent PT3D; My daughter is in form two and I am happy that she has learnt the importance of cleanliness and neatness. When she is at home, I am always a very happy person. During her free time in the evenings and over the weekends, she sweeps the house and the entire compound. She has even planted some flowers in our homestead!

Parents’ characteristics The researcher had discussions with eight parental focus groups of four parents each. Generally, all the FGDs echoed similar sentiments on the parents’ characteristics. In addition, they mentioned extremely poor backgrounds of some students where parents could not afford the required school levies. The groups noted that such vulnerable and needy children were barely consistent in school attendance for they were usually sent home to get the said school levies. Most of the students’ parents were in the age bracket of 36-40 years (100 mothers and 49 fathers) and 41-45 years (61 mothers and 60 fathers) representing 51.3% and 34.6% of mothers and fathers, respectively. Only seven (7) mothers compared to twenty seven (27) fathers who were aged over 60 years, had children in secondary schools. Thirteen of the students involved in the study had no mothers, while 65 of the students had no fathers. This study revealed that 58.7 % (185) of the students’ mothers had no steady job but worked on a part time basis. It was also evident that a large percentage of the parents (75.6%) were self-employed. Only 2.2 % (7) of the mothers had full time jobs. 3.8 % of the students had no mothers while 19.7 % of students had no fathers. A small percentage of mothers and fathers (1.6%) were engaged in other jobs like casual labour. More fathers (4.8 %) were on a full time job compared to the mothers. 32.1 % of the students’ fathers worked on a part time basis, while 41.9 % were self-employed.

Additionally, some of the parents never attended school completely (34 fathers and 68 mothers. They were either illiterate or semi-literate. Eighty one fathers and 111 mothers had dropped out of school. In addition, 55 fathers and 68 mothers were primary school leavers. This showed that literacy level among parents of children in public day secondary schools in Igembe Central Sub County was quite low.

Home Based Parental Involvement Practices The kind of interaction that parents have with their children at home affect quality of education offered in public day secondary schools of Igembe Central Sub County. Parents engage in a variety of home – based activities to help their children. For instance, parents provide a home environment for their children’s learning, though at varied degrees. This is consistent with Jeynes’ (2005) views that parents can create a conducive learning environment which eventually contributes to better educational outcomes of their children. The researcher endeavoured to relate home based-involvement practices with both the students’ gender, and the various family types that the students came from, and their effects on quality of education that students received in public day secondary schools.

Relationship between home - based parental involvement and students’ gender A t – test was performed to assess the relationship between home based parental involvement and gender of the students. It was established that the mean home based parental involvement score of females was 54.08 (SD = 15.237) while that of their counterparts was 53.73 (SD = 17.453). This indicates that the home based parental involvement for females was higher than that of the males. However, the difference between the home based parental involvement scores between the genders was not found to be statistically significant as the p – value was greater than .05 (Table 7). Table 6: Home Based Parental Involvement and Gender Group Statistics Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Male 157 53.73 17.453 Home Based parental involvement Female 158 54.06 15.237

Table 7: Home Based Parental Involvement and Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of t-test for Equality of Means Variances Mean Std. Error F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference Equal variances 3.989 0.047 -0.183 313 0.855 -0.337 1.846 assumed Equal -0.183 306.9 0.855 -0.337 1.847 variances

not assumed

Relationship between home - based parental involvement and family type One way ANOVA was done to examine the relationship between home - based parental involvement and family type.

Descriptive statistics The home based parental involvement mean for nuclear family type was 55.63 (SD = 15.17, N = 217) followed by polygamous family type with a mean of 51.53 (SD = 20.19, N = 34). Single parent family type recorded a mean of 51.34 (SD = 15.66, N = 58), while other family types registered home based parental involvement mean of 29.33 (SD = 19.97, N = 6) as shown in Table 8

Table 8: Descriptive Statistics for Home Based Parental Involvement versus Family Type

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error

Single parent 58 51.34 15.66 2.06 Nuclear 217 55.63 15.17 1.03 Polygamous 34 51.53 20.19 3.46 Other 6 29.33 19.97 8.15 Total 315 53.9 16.35 0.92

ANOVA There is much difference between the two Mean Squares (1612.62 and 254.47), resulting in a significant difference (F = 6.337; p - value < 0.001) as shown in Table 9. Hence the means of home based parental involvement for nuclear, polygamous, single parent and other family types are not all equal. Table 9: Home Based Parental Involvement and Family Type

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 4837.87 3 1612.62 6.337 .000

Within Groups 79141.7 311 254.47

Total 83979.5 314

Table 9 shows the results of ANOVA test which reveal that family type has significant effects on home based involvement (P = 0.001 which is less than 5% level of significance). The model is, therefore, relevant and can be used to predict home based involvement of parents into their children’s education.

Post Hoc testing Multiple comparison procedures looked at all possible pairs of means to determine whether each individual pairing is the same or statistically different. The table ‘Multiple Comparisons’ shows that three out of six pairs vary: Single parent versus other family type (P - value < 0.05 which is lower than the significant. level of 0.05. Therefore, the family types vary in terms of contributing to home-based parental involvement. Nuclear family versus other family type, P value < 0.05, which is lower than the significant level of 0.05. These groups also varied in their home based involvement. Polygamous family versus other family type, P = 0.002, which is lower than the significant level of 0.05. These groups too varied as shown in Table 10. The study found out that parental involvement with their children at home varied from one family type to another. From the family background, students were socialized differently and this possibly explains parents’ behaviours that have an influence on the quality of education that their children received.

Table 10: Multiple Comparisons on Home - Based Parental Involvement and Family Type

(I) Type of family (J) Type of family Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Single parent Nuclear -4.282 2.358 .070 Polygamous -0.185 3.446 .957 Other 22.01149* 6.841 .001 Nuclear Single parent 4.282 2.358 .070 Polygamous 4.097 2.942 .165 Other 26.29339* 6.602 .000 Polygamous Single parent 0.185 3.446 .957 Nuclear -4.097 2.942 .165 Other 22.19608* 7.064 .002 Other Single parent -22.01149* 6.841 .001 Nuclear -26.29339* 6.602 .000 Polygamous -22.19608* 7.064 .002

Various informants’ views on the extent of parental involvement in home based activities Out of the 15 items posed to the students on home based parental involvement practices, 8 items registered a mean of between 3.62 and 4.22 meaning regular involvement, 6 items enumerated a mean of between 3.23 and 3.43 implying occasional involvement while one item recorded a mean of 2.49 inferring infrequent involvement. Reviewing high correlations among responses from the fifteen items led the researcher to use one summated scale in looking at home based parental involvement activities. The answers from the fifteen questions were summed to create a home based parental involvement scale as shown in Table 11.

Table 11: Students' Responses on Parental Involvement in Home Based Activities Std. Home based Item N Mean Deviation Parents ensure I go to school everyday 315 4.22 1.29 Parents talk with me about my future 315 4.05 1.34 Parents tell me importance of secondary school education 315 4.03 1.38 Parents talk with me about plans for college after secondary education 315 3.99 1.35 I talk to my parent about school 315 3.94 1.31 Parents discuss with me about work after school 315 3.86 1.38 I discuss grades on tests with parents 315 3.63 1.46 Parents provide personal effects for my comfort in school 315 3.62 1.55 I talk about my homework assignment 315 3.43 1.46 I get my parents home when I return from school 315 3.43 1.36 Parents help me plan for homework, chores and other responsibilities 315 3.37 1.48 Parents buy me relevant text books 315 3.31 1.45 I discuss news and talk about current events with parents 315 3.30 1.36 Parents limit television watching time 315 3.23 1.48 My parent(s) help me with homework 315 2.49 1.54

When describing the home activities of parents of her school, principal P6 said, Some parents lack responsibility towards their children. For example, some allow their children to live with relatives, especially grandparents from where they get to school. Child labour is rampant and more so to girls who are expected to do so much of household chores after a school’s day. These children lack basics at home, like beddings, lighting and even food.

Echoing sentiments from parent PT8A, majority of the parents were less concerned with their children at home. There was inadequate provision of food especially breakfast and supper, and lack of shelter all of which had very adverse effects on the learners’ education. He claimed that, Some children seek shelter from neighbourhood since their parents are less interested with them, especially after circumcision / initiation for boys and female genital mutilation (FGM) for girls. After such a rite of passage, parents consider their children as grown-ups who should fend for themselves. The study showed that students had no time to do their studies at home. Majority, especially girls were overburdened at home since they were expected to help with household chores like fetching water and firewood and even cooking. In addition, a lot of freedom, especially to young boys often misled them. For example, most school boys visited shopping centres in the evenings and spent better part of their evenings outside their homes. Some got involved in drugs, illicit sex, attending night clubs, betting and even chewing of “miraa” (khat). In such instances, issues not related to education were discussed. These young people

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 58 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 hardly got time to do schoolwork at home. Eventually, the students registered poor results which consequently made them drop out of school. Principal P8 reported that, Children in public day secondary schools have a lot freedom but misuse it, for instance, some watch television from dawn to dusk, use cell phones for chatting on WhatsApp, Facebook and Twitter. Some other students misuse religion, for example, youth gatherings as excuses to exit the home. This permissiveness has negative implications on quality of education that they get from day secondary schools. This practice was contrary to research findings by Bakker et al., 2007; and Patrikakou (2008) who suggested that some parental behaviours such as daily family conversations, monitoring of TV viewing times and programmes, as well as, a structure for homework completion and school preparation, were high predictors of academic success than socio- economic status. According to principal P5 some students are lured by “bodaboda” (motor cycle) operators, especially girls – offered “lifts” to school. On the other hand boys get ‘squad’ (a turn to ride passengers in the motor cycle and get something in return) in “bodaboda” business which they saw as lucrative instead of wasting time in education. This failure of parents to monitor and control the movement of their children to and from school contributed largely to high dropout rate and irregular school attendance. PT5C and PT7A were of the view that the level of involvement of parents with their children’s education at home depended on the setting of the family. For instance, some parents gave duties to their children like cleaning the house, cleaning utensils, cooking and other chores around the home. In some other families, children helped at home, especially during the holidays in chores like digging, fetching water and firewood, and cooking (PT2C PT3D and PT8C). Such engagements enabled parents to monitor their children’s behaviour and company as they worked in their homes. Such children were likely to display good behaviour and excel both academically and socially. Bakker et al. (2007), was of the same opinion that the contribution of the home environment to education quality depends on how parents guide and encourage their children in learning. The research showed that even for parents who made an effort to be involved in many home-based activities with their children, majority were not able to help with homework. Parents reported that they frequently found themselves unable to help their children with homework because they did not understand the topics. The principals’ interviews also established that parents showed little concern about their children’s homework. Because of this, holiday assignments were shoddily done. From the principals’ interviews: Some parents feel intimidated by their children’s school work and feel inadequate in helping with their studies. This is because majority of the parents are either illiterate or semi-literate. Due to this challenge many parents do not get involved with their children’s homework. The principals felt that children from such families were demotivated since they got little support from their families. Similar sentiments had been highlighted from a study by Jeynes (2011) and Chen (2011), who observed that, parents may be less confident being involved in their children’s education since subject material becomes more challenging as their children progress through secondary schools.

Other parents felt that secondary school students were mature and responsible enough, hence, needed freedom to do their homework assignments. In addition, some other parents were very busy fending for the family and hardly had time to supervise or help their children with homework. From the FGDs, it was clear that parents are the main determinants of their children’s behaviour at home and subsequently at school. According to PT4B, parental involvement at home included activities like, buying paraffin to be used for lighting, providing personal effects’ to the children, allowing children time to socialize with others, giving pocket money, buying clothes, providing food and also offering advice on who to befriend and giving counsel on expected behaviour. The study showed that parents mostly showed their support by being financiers of their children’s education (though sluggish), offering security, providing basic needs and school uniform. It was, however, noted that parents relaxed when it came to disciplining their children and would opt to report discipline problems to the teachers for they expected them to be more powerful.

Effects of Home - Based Parental Involvement Practices on Quality of Education To most parents indicators of quality education included students’ academic performance, good discipline, improved relationships among people, reduction in poverty levels, and improved economic welfare of community members. When asked of their views on quality of education offered in their schools, some parents considered performance in examination as an indicator of quality of education. To them quality of education was poor in most public day secondary schools since most students performed poorly in national examinations. The parents held that none of the students from their schools ever scored A related grades since their schools began. On average, it was reported that most students got C related grades, a few B related grades, and others grade D and below, though not many scored grade E. It was also reported that school dropout was still prevalent in these schools. Other parents, however, considered education to be of high quality if children were disciplined, and the school was well developed, with good infrastructure, qualified teachers and adequate teaching and learning resources. The school principals considered quality education as that which added value to the learner. To the principals, the indicators of quality education included, feedback from those who have absorbed students from their schools, good discipline, quality grades, uptake in higher education institutions, students of high integrity, honesty and were preferred products in the job market. Principal P1 testified; Our students are very good, virtuous and disciplined, and are quite complimented by the public. Some are in gainful employment working as teachers, nurses, others in the disciplined forces, and prison wardens, among others. The research revealed many parents’ opinions that the education of their children was the sole responsibility of schools and teachers. A small percentage of parents believed that they too had a responsibility in ensuring quality of their children’s education. The study found out that the quality of home learning environment was very important, socially and even cognitively. It was concluded that parents could be directly involved in learning activities at home by taking an active interest in what their children engaged in after a school day. However, many argued that they could not help with their children’s homework assignments as they were challenging. Majority of the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 60 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 parents had been described as illiterate by the schools’ principals interviewed; with many having dropped out of primary school; and some having never attended school at all. This fact might rightfully have limited the extent of involvement of such parents in their children’s school work. However, other home based practices like parents supervising the behaviour of their children, allocating and supervising chores, as well as, creating a conducive environment for studying, was seen to impact positively on the children’s discipline and study habits; which would see improvement in quality of education as a reinforcement to what they would get in school.

Conclusion Education is a vital tool for our country’s development. Therefore, to involve parents in their children’s education is extremely important. The purpose of the study was to explore home based parental involvement practices in promoting quality of education in public day secondary schools in Igembe Central Sub-County, Meru County-Kenya. From the study, it was noted that home-based activities of the parents were significant to quality of education offered in public day secondary schools. Furthermore, it was clear that all parents could be involved in their children’s education regardless of their children’s gender, family type and other background variables, as long as they knew the importance of their involvement. Furthermore, improving home based involvement of the parents can lead to improvement in school attendance, homework completion, improved learning behaviours and even better learner’s discipline. This indicates that parents’ involvement in education of their children at home is a powerful force in enhancing the quality of education offered in public day secondary schools.

Recommendations From the findings, most parents consider education to be important for their children though ignorant of the benefits of their involvement in secondary school education. Consequently, the following were derived from the study; a) Parents should be enlightened on the home based activities that either directly or indirectly affect the quality of education that their children receive so that they may know how to invest their energies and resources to improve education of their children. b) Additionally, teachers should encourage parents to supervise their children’s schoolwork, because children waste valuable time at home instead of doing their homework assignments. c) Parents should assume the responsibility of protecting their children by monitoring when they get to, and from school.

References Bakker, J. & Denessen, E. (2007). The concept of parent involvement. Some theoretical and empirical considerations, International Journal about Parents in Education, 188-199.

Braun, V. and Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. Brooks-Gunn, J., & Markham, L. (2005). The contribution of parenting to ethnic and racial gaps in school readiness. The Future of Children, 15, 139-168. Bull, A., Brooking, K. & Campbell, R. (2008). Successful home-school partnerships. Report prepared for Ministry of Education by New Zealand Council for Educational Research. Chen, D. (2011). School-based management, school decision-making and education outcomes in Indonesian primary schools. Policy Research Working Paper Series 5809. Washington, DC: The World Bank. Deplanty, J., Coulter-Kern, R., & Duchane, K. (2007). Perceptions of parent involvement in academic achievement. The Journal of Educational Research, 100(61), 361- 368. Dubois, D. L., Eitel, S. K., & Felner, R. D. (1994). Effects of family environment and parent-child relationships on school adjustment during the transition to early adolescence. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 405 - 414.

Duckworth, K, Akerman, R, Morrison Gutman, L & Vorhaus, J. (2009), Influences and leverages on low levels of attainment: a review of literature and policy initiatives. Institute of Education, University of London. Gonzalez, A., Doan Holbein, M. & Quilter, S. (2002). High school students’ goal orientations and their relationship to perceived parenting styles. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27, 450 - 470. Harris, A. & Goodall, J. (2007). Engaging parents in raising achievement: Do parents know they matter? Research report, University of Warwick. Haveman,R.H., Bershadker, A., & Schwabish, J.A. (2003).Human capital in the United States from 1975- 2000: Patterns of growth and utilization. Kalamazoo, MI:W.E.Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. Henderson, A.T. & Mapp, K. L. (2002). A new wave of evidence: The impact of school, family and community connections on student achievement, Annual synthesis. Austin, TX: South West Educational Development Laboratory. Hesse-Biber. S. N. (2010). Mixed Methods Research: Merging Theory with Practice. The Guilford Press; New York. Hesse-Biber, S. N. & Johnson R. B. (2015). The Oxford Handbook of Multimethod and Mixed Methods Research Inquiry. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hill, N. E., & Tyson, D. F. (2009). Parental involvement in middle school: A meta-analytic assessment of the

strategies that promote achievement. Developmental Psychology, 45(3), 740-763. Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., Walker, J. M. T., Sandler, H. M., Whetsel, D., Green, C. L., Wilkins, A. S., & Closson, K. (2005). Why do parents become involved? Research findings and implications. The Elementary School Journal, 106, 105-130. Jeynes, H. W. (2011). Parental Involvement and Academic Success. New York: Taylor & Francis Group. Jeynes, H. W. (2005). The effects of parental involvement on the academic achievement of African American youth. Journal of Negro Education, 74(3), 260-274. Kendall, N. (2007). Parental and Community Participation in Improving Educational Quality in Africa: Current Practices and Future Possibilities. International Review of Education, 53(5-6), 701-708. Krejcie & Morgan (1970). Determining Sample Size for Research Activities- Educational and Psychological Measurement. Sage Publications. OECD. (2011). Building a high-quality teaching profession: Lessons from around the world. Orodho, J. A. (2009). Elements of Education and Social Science Research Methods. Maseno - Kenya: Kanezja Publishers. Osei-Akoto, I., Chowa, G. & Ansong, D. (2012). Parental involvement and academic performance in Ghana. Youth save Research Brief, CSD publication No. 12- 42. Patrikakou, E. N. (2008). Power of Parent Involvement: Evidence, Ideas, and Tools for success. Academic Development Institute. Pomerantz, E., Moorman, E., & Litwack, S. (2007). The how, whom, and why of parents’ involvement in children’s academic lives: More is not always better. Review of Educational Research, 77(3), 373– 410. Republic of Kenya, (2013a). The Basic Education Act. Nairobi: Government Printer. Republic of Kenya, (2013b). National Education Sector Support Programme. Nairobi: Government Printer. Republic of Kenya. Laws of Kenya (2008b). The Education Act, Chapter 21. Nairobi, Kenya: Government Printer. Uwezo (2012). Are our Children Learning? Literacy and Numeracy across East Africa. Nairobi: Uwezo, HIVOS/Twaweza.

Parental socialization styles as a predictor of suicidal ideation in high school students

Ana Laura Jiménez Martínez Medicine School, Montemorelos University, Nuevo León, Mexico.

Sidney Torres González Medicine School, Montemorelos University Nuevo León, Mexico.

Esteban Jahaziel Muñoz Gómez Medicine School, Montemorelos University Nuevo León, Mexico.

Miriam de La Caridad Acosta Medicine School, Montemorelos University Nuevo León, Mexico.

Jaime Rodríguez Gómez Education School, Montemorelos University Nuevo León, Mexico.

Verenice Zarahí González Mejía Medicine School, Montemorelos University Nuevo León, Mexico

Abstract Introduction: According to the World Health Organization, suicide is the second leading cause of death in the 15-29 age group. The family plays an important role in the development of adolescent mental health. It is believed that the style of parental socialization with which they were educated may be a protective or risk factor for developing problematic behaviors. Objective: To know if there is a significant difference between the types of maternal vs. paternal parental socialization and if they are predictors of suicidal ideation in students of Ignacio Carrillo Franco (ICF) Preparatory School, May 2017.

Material and methods: Observational, transversal, prospective study. The studiend population was the high school students ICF. The parental socialization styles of both parents were measured using the ESPA- 29 scale and the suicidal ideation (Roberts scale) of the students. Descriptive and inferential statistics were performed using ANOVA and multiple linear regression with the IBM SPSS Statistics 20 program. Results: There were 144 students, aged 15-17 (m16.31 ± SD 0.68). The maternal parental socialization style (Negligent vs Authoritarian Games-Howell m: 1.84, SD 0.57, Sig .011) shows significant difference vs paternal and maternal axes Acceptance/Implication (t: -2.85, Sig .005), Coercion/ Imposition (t 3.35, Sig .001), maternal dysplication (t 5.913, Sig .000) and paternal (t 3.343, Sig 0.001) are predictors of suicidal ideation. Discussion: The mother plays the most important role in the suicidal ideation of adolescents; since according to their parental style they are the most predicted.

Key words: Styles of parental socialization, suicidal ideation, adolescents.

Introduction Suicidal ideation is defined as a concern on the part of the individual that is expressed in the form of thoughts about ending one's life that are introduced without reason; which includes feelings of being tired of living, the belief that it is not worth living, the desire not to wake from sleep, and that can be conceptualized as the first phase of a behavior that ends with the individual’s life. 1.12

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), suicide is the second leading cause of death in the 15-29 age group. In South America, suicide rates are highest among young people.3

According to statistical data on suicide in Mexico published by INEGI (National Institute of Statistics and Geography) in 2011, 5,718 suicides occurred, of this total 4621 were men and 1095 women. In the state of Nuevo León these figures corresponded to 218 people; with 174 male cases and 44 female cases. By age group,10-14 years represented 11.4 of above-mentioned total, 15-19 years 9.1%, and the group of 20-29 years 31.8%; which represents a higher proportion in adolescents.4

Parental socialization styles can generally be defined as a constellation of attitudes that are communicated to the child, and which together create an emotional climate constituted by the expression of the behavior of both parents.11 These, according to Baumrind's contribution in 1971 have been categorized into four models. First, the Democratic (Authorizing) style stands out: it is characterized by demonstrating control and restriction of the behavior of the children through clear norms and limits; promoting autonomy and independence is favored; communication is effective and bidirectional, show balance in affection and support with control and democracy.5, 6

The second model is the Authoritarian; with which parents exercise a specifically restrictive and severe control, try to have absolute control of their children's behavior and attitudes, develop a one-way communication, lack emotional support and sensitivity.

A third model is permissive, it is the opposite of the one described above, where parents avoid using behavior control, are lenient and do not set restrictions. Communication is ineffective and unidirectional, they are tolerant, maintain great flexibility in following up rules. The fourth model is the Neglectful one that denotes the absence of demands and responsibility of the parents towards the behavior of their children and there is lack of control and support.5, 6

Describing the relationship of parenting styles to the final outcome of risk behaviors, it has been defined that the children of Authorizing parents have good academic performance and behavior, stronger relationships and low levels of problem behaviors or risk factors. Not so the children of Authoritarian parents, who demonstrate as well as the children of Authoritative parents good school performance, however these have low levels of self-esteem and exhibit more aggressiveness and substance use. When parents demonstrate a permissive (forgiving) parenting style, their children are sociable, but have poor school performance and are prone to risky behavior and substance use. For this reason, children who show greater risk and vulnerability behavior are those of negligent parents due to their characteristic of low acceptance and support to their children.7

The family plays an important role in the development of the child's mental health; it is believed that the style of parental socialization with which they were raised may be a protective or risk factor for the development of problematic behaviors.3 The unsatisfactory family environment for adolescents is related to an increase in suicidal ideation.8

The study of the styles of parental socialization and its relation to suicidal ideation gives us an overview of this problem, taking into account the fact that the adolescent population is one of the most vulnerable given the increase of suicide in adolescents.

The author of this work aimed at answering the following question: Is there a significant difference between the types of maternal vs. paternal parental socialization types and are these predictors of suicidal ideation in Ignacio Carrillo Franco high school students in the period of May 2017?

Material and methods An observational, analytical, cross-sectional, prospective study was performed. The study population included students from Ignacio Carrillo Franco High School (ICF) in Montemorelos, Nuevo León. All enrolled students who gave their consent were included at the time of data collection. The exclusion criteria were; being over 18 years old and being absent on the day the survey was applied. The criteria of

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 66 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 elimination were refusal to participate on the survey day and the returning of an incompletely completely answered instrument.

For the collection of the data the Scale of Styles of Parental Socialization in Adolescence (ESPA 29) of the authors Musitu and García was used. The identification sheet included gender, age and religion. To know the type of parental socialization of the participants, the instrument was used; which assesses the performance of the father and mother through 29 situations (13 negative - 80 possible responses and 16 positive - 32 possible responses). In the different scenarios it was evaluated with a scale of 4 points (1, never, 2, sometimes, 3, many times, 4, always) that estimates the frequency in qualitative terms of each parental performance.

The styles of parental socialization in turn are defined by two dimensions that are: Acceptance / Implication and Coercion / Imposition. From these dimensions, the means of each group were used to name the style of parental socialization in the 4 styles of parental socialization to be studied, Authoritative (high acceptance - implication and high coercion - imposition), Indulgent (high acceptance - implication and low coercion - imposition), Authoritarian Low acceptance - involvement and high coercion - imposition) or Negligent (low scores in both dimensions), the 4 styles of parental socialization to study.

In the same way for the proper study of the axes; the instrument subdivides them into 7 subscales which are: Affection ("Shows me affection"), Indifference ("Is indifferent"), Dialogue ("Talks to me") and Displication (" Does not care") that define the axis of Acceptance /Implication. Verbal Coercion ("Argues with me"), Physical Coercion ("Hits me") and Deprivation ("Deprives me of something") for the axis Coercion / Imposition.

ESPA 29 has been shown to have a high internal consistency in the 7 socialization scales of the father and the mother independently. The highest coefficient of consistency corresponded to the "affection" scale of the mother (0.943) and the lowest to the "displeasure" of the father in problematic situations (0.820). Thus, a factorial analysis has been carried out where the theoretical structure of the two-dimensional model is satisfactorily confirmed.9

For the evaluation of suicidal ideation, the 1980 Roberts Suicidal Ideation Scale was used, adapted for the Mexican population by Mariño, Medina, Chaparro and González in 1993; composed of four reagents: R1: I could not go forward, R2: I had thoughts about death, R3: I felt that my family would be better off if I were dead, R4: I thought about killing myself. Which evaluated the occurrence of symptoms in the last week. 1: 0 days, 2: 1-2 days, 3: 3-4 days, 4: 5-7 days. The scores are from 4 to 16; where at higher scores, greater suicidal ideation exists. It has reliability in Mexican adolescents of α: 0.78, α: 0.83, α: 0.88.21.10 In this study a sampling by judgments was made because the population is small was included to all students that fulfilled the inclusion criteria, reason why it the sample size was not calculated.

The null hypotheses were: a) there is no significant difference between maternal vs. paternal parental socialization and suicidal ideation. B) The styles of parental socialization are not predictors of suicidal ideation.

For statistical analysis, the data were transcribed in the Microsoft Office Excel program, and later transferred to the IBM SPSS Statistics 20 statistical package. Descriptive statistics were obtained from the mean and standard deviation of the quantitative variables, as well as the frequencies as percentages of the rest of the variables. For the inferential statistics, ANOVA and multiple linear regression were used.

Data collection was carried out by the researchers. The pertinent permits were obtained from the educational institution and the instrument was applied to the students during established class time. The study was carried out according to the Helsinki declaration and according to the General Health Law regulation, in the field of health research: in Title II, Chapter I, Article 17, it was considered without risk, since it is a study that only involves answering an instrument. The student was not subjected to any physical, social or legal risk because the data will be totally confidential, solely for statistical use.

Results The studied population consisted of 144 ICF high school students, where 54.2% (n = 78) were men and 45.8% (n = 66) women. The age range comprised 15-17 years (m16.31 years, SD 0.684). According to their religion, 87.5% (n = 126) were Seventh-day Adventists, 7.6% (n = 11) Catholics and 4.9% (n = 7) belonged to another religion. As for the styles of paternal parental socialization the most frequent was the Authorizative with 27.8% and the maternal was the Indulgent with 32.6%. The rest of the parental socialization styles in percentages are described in table 1.

Parental socialization Paternal Maternal styles Frequency Percent (%) Frequency Percent (%) (n) (n) Authoritative 40 27.8 35 24.3 Authoritarian 32 22.2 32 22.2 Negligent 35 24.3 30 20.8 Permissive 37 25.7 47 32.6 Total 144 100 144 100 Table 1. Styles of paternal and maternal parental socialization.

The 59% (n = 85) suicide ideation score scored 4 points and 2.8% (n = 4) 12 points, indicating that there is a low suicide risk in this student population. See graph 1. Graph 1. Scale frequency of suicidal ideation score.

Inferential statistics ANOVA was used to search for the difference in suicide ideation scale score between maternal and paternal parental socialization style. It was found that paternal socialization style does not exert a significant difference (F1.729, Sig 0.164); however, the style of maternal parental socialization was statistically significant (F 5.718, Sig .001, Leven Sig test), so the null hypothesis is rejected. See table 2. Mother´s parental style N Mean and Standard Deviation Authoritative 35 m 4.89 ± 1.53 S.D. Authoritarian 32 m 6.41 ± 2.88 S.D. Negligent 30 m 4.57 ± 1.35 S.D. Permissive 47 m 4.96 ± 1.73 S.D. Total 144 m 5.18 ± 2.03 S.D. Table 2. Score of suicidal ideation and style of maternal parental socialization.

Of maternal parenting socialization styles, the Authoritarian vs Negligent style shows difference, which is obtained through the Test Games-Howell m: 1.84, DE 0.57, Sig .011 as seen in Figure 2. Therefore, students with Authoritarian mothers presented greater suicidal ideation than the children of Neglecting mothers.

Graph 2. Suicidal ideation score means according to maternal parental socialization style.

According to the multiple linear regression analysis, the axes of socialization that predict suicidal ideation are Mother's Acceptance / Implication (Standardized coefficient beta -.234, t: -2.85, Sig .005), thus the lower this axis is, the more predictive will be of suicidal ideation; and Mother's Coercion / Imposition (Standardized coefficient beta .281, t 3.35, Sig .001); where the highest Coercion / Imposition predicts suicidal ideation; however, the paternal axes were not significantly predictive (see Table 3). In the maternal variance analysis, the value of F obtained is 12,895, Sig. 000, therefore the null hypothesis is rejected and there is a real effect of these axes on the suicidal ideation score.

Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. Coefficients Coefficients B Std. Error Beta (Constant) 5.550 1.366 4.062 .000 Father's Coercion / .163 .228 .060 .714 .477 Imposition Father's Acceptance .162 .287 .046 .566 .572 / Implication

Mother's -.967 .338 -.234 -2.859 .005 Acceptance / Implication Mother's Coercion / 1.118 .333 .281 3.355 .001 Imposition

Table 3. Regression models showing significance of maternal axes

According to the subscales of the two axes of styles of parental socialization; the regression model indicates that the predictors of suicidal ideation are Mother's Dyslexia (Standardized Coefficient beta: .465, t 5.913, Sig .000), Physical coercion of the mother (Standardized coefficient beta .315, t 3.616, Sig .000) and the Father's Indifference (Standardized coefficient beta .291, t 3.343, Sig 0.001). As well as the analysis of variance test, the value of F obtained is 16.30, Sig .000, therefore the null hypothesis is rejected. This model accounts for 26%, indicating a small effect size (see Table 4). In this way it is possible to show that adolescents who are exposed to indifferent behaviors of the father and mother, as well as the use of corporal punishment by the mother tend to present higher scores of suicidal ideation. Subscale R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of Square the Estimate Physical coercion .507b .257 .245 1.834 of the mother Father's .530c .281 .264 1.811 Indifference Mother´s .523d .274 .262 1.813 Indifference Table 4. Value of R squared according to subscales.

Graph 3. Distribution of students by suicidal ideation score according to the father's and mother's displeasure. Discussion Parental socialization styles influences adolescent behavior. In the evaluation of this population it was found that the maternal parenting Authoritarian style exerts significant difference in suicidal ideation, which compared with the father did not yield significant results. However, when contrasted with other populations of adolescents studied, such as African-Americans and Caucasians, who had depressive symptoms, it was found that the authoritarian parental style was a buffer of suicidal behavior, which shows us that the results will depend on the population chosen.7

In the same way, we found that the style of parental socialization of the Negligent type (characterized by the absence of demands) was the one that generated a high score of suicidal ideation. Not so in the study described above where it was reported that greater flexibility of limits had a greater suicidal ideation.7 In the German population it was found that having a negligible parental style represented a risk of a suicide attempt of 1.5 times; contrary to that found in this study, where the style of parental socialization Negligente presented or lower score of suicidal ideation.

According to the model of regression found to be higher, there will be a higher suicide ideation score in adolescents whose mothers present a higher coercion / imposition, so that adolescents whose parents exert greater parental acceptance, expression of physical affection and friendliness have less suicidal ideation. However, this study in Chile includes whether or not adolescents present depression, finding that young people without depression had more protective factors related to the style of parental socialization, so it is

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 72 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 suggested that in the future it may be studied if the participants in the research study suffer from depression.12

In Mexico, the role of the style of parental socialization and its influence on suicidal ideation in a similarl school population has also been studied, which reported the father's role in suicidal ideation in terms of communication and affection; in contrast with the present study, which did not faind significant difference in the style of paternal socialization, nor as predictor variable, according to the axes of said styles. Nor do we find significant results according to gender; other than previously reported. However, the importance of maternal parenting characteristics as a predictor of suicidal ideation is emphasized.13

We can say that the mother plays the most important role in the suicidal ideation of adolescents; however, they contrast in that the style of parental socialization of the Negligent type was the one that mostly predicted suicidal ideation.14

The styles of parental socialization exert a great influence in the suicidal ideation of its adolescent children. It is vitally important to emphasize the responsibility that falls on the mothers, since according to their style they are the ones that most predict the suicidal ideation. The indifference of both parents and the use of physical punishment by the mother function as predictors; so it is necessary to work towards improving parental behaviors in order to reduce suicidal ideation in this case. Despite not having found a significant contribution of the father in this population, it is necessary to work together with the adolescents, because the family has a great impact on the life of the adolescent.

In future studies, factors that favor paternal nonparticipation in some specific adolescent developmental behaviors must be sought, with a goal of pursuing personal growth, more consistent and with better results in adult life; since suicidal ideation can be easily prevented by promoting healthy parental socialization styles and the development of family communication.

References 1. Morales S, Armijo I, Moya C, Echávarri O, Barros J, Varela C, Sánchez G. Percepción de cuidados parentales tempranos en consultantes a salud mental con intento e ideación suicida. Avances en Psicología Latinoamericana 2014; 32(3): 403-417. 2. Sarmiento S, Aguilar J. Predictores familiares y personales de la ideación suicida en adolescentes. Psicología y Salud 2011; 21(1): 25-30. 3. Organización Mundial de la Salud. Suicidio. Disponible en: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs398/es/ (accessed 27 Septiembre 2016). 4. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía. Estadística de suicidios de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos 2011. (Base de datos en Internet). México: INEGI; c2013. Disponible en: http://internet.contenidos.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/productos//prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvine gi/productos/continuas/sociales/suicidio/2011/702825047436.pdf.(accessed 27 Septiembre 2016).

5. Iglesias B, Romero E. Estilos parentales percibidos, psicopatología y personalidad en la adolescencia. Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica 2009; 14(2): 63-77. 6. Raya FA. Estudio sobre los estilos educativos parentales y su relación con los trastornos de conducta en la infancia. Tesis doctoral. Universidad de Córdoba; 2008. 7. Greening L, Stoppelbein L, Leubbe A. The moderating effects of parenting styles on african- american and caucasian children’s suicidal behaviors. J Youth Adolescence 2010; 39: 357-369. 8. Palacios JR, Andrade P. Influencia de las prácticas parenterales en las conductas problema en adolescentes. Investigación Universitaria Multidisciplinaria 2008; 7: 7-18. 9. Musitu G, Garcia F. ESPA 29: Escala de estilos de socialización parental en la adolescencia, 2 ed. Madrid, España: TEA Ediciones, S.A.; 2004. 10. Sánchez JC, Villarreal ME. Ideación suicida en adolescentes: un análisis psicosocial. Intervención Psicosocial 2010; 19(3): 279-287. 11. Donath C, Graessel E, Braier D, Bleich S, Hillemacher T. Is parenting style a predictor of suicide attemps in a representative sample of adolescents? BMC Pediatrics 2014; 14: 113. 12. Florenzano R, Valdés M, Cáceres E, Santander S, Aspillaga C, Musalem C. Relación entre ideación suicida y estilos parentales en un grupo de adolescentes chilenos. Rev Med Chile 2011; 139: 1529-1533. 13. Pérez A, Uribe JI, Vianchá MA, Bahamón MJ, Verdugo JC, Ochoa S. Estilos parentales como predictores de ideación suicida en estudiantes adolescentes. Psicología desde el Caribe. Universidad del Norte 2013; 30(3): 551-568. 14. Sarmiento S, Aguilar J. Predictores familiares y personales de la ideación suicida en adolescentes. Psicología y Salud 2011; 21(1): 25-30.

Special Education: LIBRAS and LFS, an Interactive Translator for

Brazilians and French

Maicon Herverton Lino Ferreira da Silva (Corresponding author) Dept. of Education, UniGrendal University, USA.

Augusto José Rodrigues da Silva Center for the Sustainable Development of the Semi-Arid, Federal University of Campina Grande, Campina Grande-PB, Brazil.

Cristiane Domingos Aquino Department of Applied Informatics, Rural Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife-PE, Brazil.

Marcelo Mendonça Teixeira Department of Applied Informatics, Rural Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife-PE, Brazil. Abstract A new social conscience is created, which will be used by a net society, at local and global levels, crossing both informatics and education contexts. So, this work proposes the construction of a tool for communication between listeners and speakers through the Brazilian Sign Language (LIBRAS) and the French Sign Language (LFS), making a simultaneous translation between the Brazilian written language and the French written language integrated through a web application, with the aid of the recognition of signals by techniques of image recognition and use of webservices. In addition, it raises a bibliography of the struggle of disabled people, the importance of non-verbal communication in human life, as well as an analysis of several translators available in the electronic mean, raising their strengths and weaknesses by comparing them in standard color, structure and navigation used. At the end of the study, a general evaluation is carried out on the application of a questionnaire to the users and a case study with TRADUZ. Keywords: Communication; Image Recognition; Sign; Translation.

1. Introduction According to Teixeira (2012) A new social conscience is created, which will be used by a net society, at local and global levels, crossing both informatics and education contexts. Increasingly People with Disabilities (PwD) have been fighting for equal rights and against prejudice. In the same context, there are the hearing impaired, who have been seeking for technologies to facilitate

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 75 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 communication and social interaction. Some tools such as, dictionaries and translators are available in the electronic mean seeking to meet their needs as the growth of the population of disabled people brings motivation to academics and scientific studies, in order to provide society a fairer, more dynamic and facilitated interaction. However, PwD have been fighting for their rights and for a fairer society. Hegardless, in the evolution of social relations, such people have already been treated as invalid, disabled, exceptional, in Brazil, PPNEs, PNEs and at the dawn of the 21st century assume the designation of Disabled Persons - PwD (NUNES et al., 2008). A demonstration of the significant increase in the teaching of students with special needs was recently presented by Bari et al. (2016) “The study found that teachers accept the implementation of early intervention programs in preschool special education, but they agreed to state early intervention aspect should be included in the curriculum of the National Preschool Special Education as a guide or reference teachers carry out early intervention”. Therefore, to assist a PwD, Assistive Technology also known as Technical Assistance (TA), a relatively new term, is used to identify the features and services that contribute for providing or expanding functional abilities of PwD or with reduced mobility with the purpose of promoting inclusion and independence. Among the TA resources, there are those that help in the teaching-learning process, allowing not only inclusion but better learning and interaction with other individuals. According to Schirmer et al. (2007), TA should be understood as the "user's resource" and not as a "professional’s resource" or of a specific field of performance. This characteristic differentiates TA from other technologies such as educational technology. In this aspect, the present work aims to construct a communication mechanism so that speakers, listeners, and hearing with disabilities can communicate using the Brazilian (LIBRAS) and French (LFS) sign languages through an application that interprets signals using Recognition of images and simultaneous translations between written language and sign language, at the end the results of the evaluation by the users will be exposed.

2. Theoretical Reference 2.1 PwD and the Importance of Signal Translation Tools It is no new that people with disabilities fight for their rights and for a more just society. Backed by law, they began to grow into a more conscious society with a view of equality. The development of computer translation tools, as well as easy-to-access dictionaries available on the web seeks social integration and communication between auditory PwD and speakers from different countries, making dialogue between them favored by the advent of technology and globalization of the current world, thus contributing to the knowledge and strengthening of the bonds between these individuals (SILVA, 2011). Thus, Martins et al. (2016) affirms that in the process of social inclusion it is praiseworthy to ensure the development of activities that motivate and encourage PwD to interact, making them less exclusionary and providing them more opportunities to access the goods and services they need. Second Guimarães, Aquino & Fernandes (2017) “Secco & Silva (2009) present an environment in Libras,

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 76 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 based on problem-solving strategies, to teach Libras: but it requires that the learner already know Libras (a strange contradiction)”. However, a proposal of Secco & Silva (2009) presented elements of a primary work, and this work continues as future work, then any reference to traditional past work is updated by this present article. Therefore, the proposal of this work seeks not only the growth of possibilities between communication of deaf people of Brazil (BR) and France (FR), but also the social integration between speakers and hearing PwD of these countries, providing an application where they will be able to communicate without the need of searching for other means or tools that are difficult to access. This tool proposes in its varied applications to bring together advanced computing and web dynamism to provide a high quality content and entertainment translator for both deaf and speakers.

2.2 Related Works: Dictionaries Available on the Market In this section, some translators that are available in the electronic mean are presented, searched through the WebPages: Google, Bing and Cadê for the specific terms to the subject: Dictionnaire de la Langue des Signes Française for translators in French and Tradutor da Língua Brasileira de Sinais for translators in Portuguese. In addition, the choice of dictionaries was based on the prioritization of tools that were linked in some way to a government institution, association or representative body of the PwD in the respective country. Because these bodies usually provide dictionaries with a lot of information and particularities of each country that are useful for building a robust tool.

2.2.1 LSF Sur Le Web The LSF Sur Le Web dictionary (2003), highlighted among the various dictionaries available to the society, was created by the DESS - Sensory Technologies and Physical Deficiency, from University of Paris. Its goal is to give everyone easy access to PwD, giving them the opportunity to consult hundreds of signals, translated from French to LFS.

Figure 1. LSF Sur Le Web Dictionary. LSF Sur Le Web Dictionary its a dictionary that allows you to watch videos in LFS.

As for the colors, as shown in Figure 1, the LSF Sur Le Web dictionary the website does not have a good

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 77 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 standard, as there is predominance of black color, which refers to sadness, anguish and renunciation (ROYS, 2010). In addition, there is no good design pattern, no visibility, conceptual model and feedback. However, it presents affordances and good mapping.

2.2.2 Dico Complet LSF Figure 2 presents Dico Complet LSF (2010), which does not have a reference formed about its organization and/or creator, being therefore only mentioned here its aesthetic characteristics of interface and ergonomics, as well as the amount of words of the translator and the amount of signals, it has about 1784 videos that translate from French to LSF.

Figure 2. Dico Complet LSF Dictionary. Dico Complet LSF Dictionary its a dictionary that allows you to watch videos in LFS.

It presents appropriate colors with light tones conveying tranquility, security and peace to the user, as stated in the study of color psychodynamics. The good use of the mapping allows the translation of French to LFS through word selection.

2.2.3 Web LSF Lexique The LSF Web Lexique dictionary (2010), Figure 3, was created by four LFS professors from the National Institute of Deaf and Youth of the Ministry of Health and Solidarity of France. Professors support teaching of LFS for students and professionals who work with external audiences and who wish to learn sign language. They are also responsible for the dissemination of LFS news in intraschool life (educational activities, etc.) and have extra regional concerns from France the rest of the world.

Figure 3. Web LSF Lexique Dictionary. Web LSF Lexique Dictionary its a dictionary that allows you to watch videos in LFS.

LSF Lexique Web features attractive shades with stimulating colors that bring peace, tenderness and user security. The website features three research themes: alphabetical order, by word, and by hand geometry, expressed in accessible standards for children, young people and adults.

2.2.4 VLibras The result of a partnership between the Ministry of Planning, Development and Management (MP) and the Federal University of Paraíba (UFPB), VLibras, Figure 4, consists of a set of open source computational tools, responsible for translating digital content, (text, audio and video) for the Brazilian Sign Language (LIBRAS), making computers, mobile devices, and web platforms accessible to deaf people (VLIBRAS, 2016).

Figure 4. VLibras Suite. VLibras its a dictionary that allows you to watch videos in LIBRAS.

VLibras is a suite of tools used in automatic translation from Portuguese into Brazilian Sign Language. You can use these tools on both computer desktop and smartphones and tablets, available for Android and

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 79 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 iOS (VLIBRAS, 2016). It is ergonomic and has good usability and also features soft colors, which conveys peace and tranquility during its use. It is worth mentioning that there are several projects with the visibility of VLIBRAS, as the translator created by UDESC/CEAD - State University of Santa Catarina - Distance Education Center, in 2002 (inactive), which had a standard search for words in Portuguese, as well as VLIBRAS, the video corresponding to the selected word translating Portuguese to LIBRAS through the selections of words or excerpts.

2.2.5 VLibras Among the sign language dictionaries stands out the Digital Dictionary of the Brazilian Sign Language, created by the National Institute of Education of the Deaf (INES, 2010), presenting an easy-to-use and adaptable structure for people of all ages.

Figure 5. Dictionary of the Brazilian Sign Language. Digital Dictionary of the Brazilian Sign Language its a dictionary that allows you to watch videos in LIBRAS.

The DDLBS simultaneously translates Portuguese/Brazilian Sign Language. It contains illustration, movement description, grammatical class, region, hand configuration and acceptance. As can be seen in Figure 5, it presents light colors, which refer to peace and good mood of the users.

3. TRADUZ (Proposal) TRADUZ proposal is structured as shown in Figure 6, where speakers who know Portuguese, French, Brazilian Sign Language or LFS will be able to communicate with hearing PwD that know one of these languages and vice versa. For example, a speaker who knows French can communicate with a hearing PwD that knows LFS.

Figure 6. TRADUZ stakeholders: possibility of communication. Model of communication between speakers and deaf people in Brazil and France.

3.1 Methodology During the course of this work bibliographic surveys were carried out on translators of the Brazilian Sign Language (LIBRAS) and the French Language of Signals (LFS), with comparative analysis; A tool layout based on the results of the comparative analysis of LIBRAS and LFS translators was constructed in order to fill all unmet needs in the analysis results; Communication between webservices and the application of the translator were carried out; Finally, algorithms and image recognition techniques were used to perform the recognition of signals made through a camera. TRADUZ has two basic functionalities. The first one, it is able to translate a written word (typed) into a sign whether it is in French or in Portuguese. And the second one, it uses a camera connected to the computer to perform LIBRAS signals and translate them to Portuguese, French and LFS. One of the features of the proposed translator is composed of webservices, where when typing a word in the search field, as shown in Figure 7, the translator sends this word to Google Translator in a hidden way (without the user noticing) and depending on the language one is browsing (Portuguese or French), Google API returns to the text translation. Consequently, the video signal for this word will be searched in one of the dictionaries selected for analysis in section 2.

Figuire 7. Example of TRADUZ functionality. Explanatory area for insertion of text (speakers portugueses and french) and for recording of symbols (deaf, portugueses and french).

3.2 Methodology The system architecture consists of a communication between the user, an interface (browser) and an API2 from Google Translate. The translation process can be seen in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Translation architecture. Working model of the TRADUZ tool.

3.3 Signal Recognition Techniques: Ciratefi Complementing the translation process it was chosen the CIRATEFI technique for the signal recognitions by images. The CIRATEFI technique was developed by Kim and Araújo (2007) and optimized by Nobre and Kim (2009), researchers from the University of São Paulo. The authors point out that current algorithms for image recognition require high computational power and sophisticated hardware for better performance, such as the Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) that allows the programmer to access and change hardware factory settings using FPGA. The word CIRATEFI refers to three filters CIFI, RAFI and TEFI, and according to Nobre (2009): “The first two filters, Cifi and Rafi are the slowest. The last filter is about 7 times faster than the first filter and 13 times faster than the second filter. In this sense, this work is focused on the resolution of the first two filters in hardware. On the other hand, the third filter would integrate a complete solution based on coprocessing FPGAs and conventional processing. "(NOBLE, 2009).

3.3.1 Cifi Filter (Circular Sampling Filter) Cifi filter (circular sampling filter) calculates the average of the grayscale pixels of the A and Q images and, through these circles, finds the exact locations of the pixels that are close to this average situated at a defined distance ‘r’. According to Nobre (2009), to extract the attributes of the image to be analyzed Q, a 3D image is created where k represents the gray level of the image and Cis (x,y,r) the circular sampling, as expressed in Equation 1.

퐶푎 [푥, 푦, 푘] = 퐶𝑖푠퐴 (푥, 푦, 푟푘), 0 ≤ 푘 < 퐴 푒 (푥, 푦) ∈ 푑표푚푎𝑖푛 푄 If the correlation between pixel (x, y) is greater than t (acceptance limit) the pixel is characterized as a first phase candidate (SILVA, 2011). In Figure 9 it is possible to visualize the result of the Cifi filter (b) and the circular projections executed on the standard image A (a).

Figure 9. Cifi filter result indicating in magenta the candidate pixels in the first phase. Image processing filter.

3.3.2 Rafi filter (Radial Sampling Filter) The Rafi (radial sampling filter) reevaluates the first phase pixels by promoting the probable pixels in different rotations for the second phase and discarding the others. Thus, the standard image A depicted radially in Figure 10 (a) can be applied over the image to be analyzed Q, where the gray level average of the pixels located on the radial lines will define the pattern for correlation between the first phase pixels, that applying to the image A at several angles, the pixels of the radial lines will be compared with the pixels of the image Q and thus obtain the probable angle of rotation that best positions the match (ARAÚJO, 2009). The probable rotation angle for each pixel can be calculated from Equation 2.

푚−1 푅푎푠퐴푛푔퐴,푄(푥, 푦) = 퐴푅퐺푀퐴푋푗=0 [|퐶표푟푟 (푅퐴[푥, 푦], 푐푠ℎ𝑖푓푡푗(푅푞))|]

ARGMAX is the operator that returns the displacement j related to the angle of rotation that maximizes Coor (correlation proposed by the author). The complete calculations on how to obtain the best angle for each pixel candidate of the second phase to a better match can be found in Araújo (2009), as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10. Rafi filter result. Image processing filter.

3.3.3 Tefi Filter (Template Matching Filter) The third filter, called the Tefi filter, is a conventional template matching algorithm, invariant to brightness and contrast, which is applied to the candidate pixels of the second phase using the scales and angles determined respectively by Cifi and Rafi (NOBRE, 2009). Thus the template matching by brute force is accomplished. Therefore, given (x, y) a second phase pixel with probable scale i = CisPSA, Q (x, y) and probable angle j = RasAngA, Q (x, y), then Tefi computes the correlation of A on the scale, angle and subimage of Q around the pixel (x, y). If the absolute value of the correlation is above the limit of acceptance delimited, it is considered that there is an instance of the standard image A in the image to be analyzed Q with the center of the distance from A in (x, y) (ARAÚJO, 2009). The example of a Tefi filter is shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11. Tefi filter result indicating the located pixels. Image processing filter.

3.3 Use of CIRATEFI for signal recognition in TRADUZ The signal recognition functionality using image recognition techniques was added to TRADUZ due to the need for greater human-computer interaction, providing something unprecedented among computational translators and following W3C principles and standards. With this, the structure was set up in order to make TRADUZ dynamic and in the web environment, which makes it difficult and often compromises in a considerable level the image recognition process. However, application optimization techniques have been developed to reduce the lock between the user and the processing server. When finding the searched object, the CIRATEFI algorithm creates an "output image" that has a red color circumference, indicating the location of the found object. If it does not find the object, the algorithm generates the identical image to the image that it was requested to compare (KIM; ARAÚJO, 2007).

3.4 Capturing signal for recognition in TRADUZ Capture of alphabetic signals from A to Z, as well as words, is performed using a platform that gains access to privileges to use the user's camera in the web environment. Thus, as shown in Figure 12, the user clicks GRAVAR (record), when the signal capture begins, and from this, when the user clicks the stop button, the captures of the camera images will be closed. Afterwards the user clicks on RECONHECER (recognize) and from there Ciratefi takes action.

Figure 12. Signal capture screen using camera. Capturing signal for recognition.

In this perspective, tests performed with the algorithm revealed that it works effectively, where comparing the technique to conventional template matching algorithm, CIRATEFI is about four hundred and seventeen times faster (KIM; ARAÚJO, 2007). Therefore, Ciratefi will use the alphabet images from A to Z according to the user's choice or, as shown in Figure 13, the user chooses the option to record the signal by word; an image bank with words will be used to compare user images that were preconfigured with a 1.3 Megapixel webcam.

Figure 13. TRADUZ main screen in Brazilian layout. Platform TRADUZ in Brazilian layout.

It is possible to observe in Figure 14 an example after the capture of a signal generated by the user choosing the option of recognition by letter.

Figure 14. Letter A (LIBRAS) was recognized by Ciratefi in 0.012 minutes. Recognition of signal in TRADUZ.

3.5 Capturing signal for recognition in TRADUZ After image capture by the previously mentioned application, an algorithm (Figure 15) was generated to reduce the size of the image and turn it into gray scales, in order to speed up the recognition process of the sign in the image and decrease the response time from server to user. The resizing was performed to speed up the recognition and interruption process by recognition in the algorithm that starts Ciratefi. On the other hand, gray scaling strengthens the robustness and simplicity for recognition using Ciratefi. This technique does not have an open source code, not even an output configuration file with information about when it found the object searched or if it did not; It only provides an executable followed by configuration files.

Thereby, the method implemented to analyze when the researched object was found was to perform a mapping and pixel location of the red color, analyzing in the grayscale image the colors red, green, and blue, where RED> 130, GREEN <100 and BLUE <100 on the RGB scale. Thus, by scanning the image, the first pixel from left to right, from top to bottom of the output image is analyzed and, upon being found, the application stops searching and goes to the next letter to be analyzed. It is observed in Figure 15 the representation of the function in PHP language that verifies if the pixel has red color shades or not.

Figure 15. Function for checking the red pixel in an image. Recognition of red color for identify automatically the signal.

From this the secondary algorithm stores the recognized letters while controls the Ciratefi flow. In Figure 16 TRADUZ flow can be analyzed for the recognition of signals with optimization.

Figure 16. Signal recognition flowchart using image recognition techniques. Flow of TRADUZ.

4. Results 4.1 TRADUZ Avaluation Two types of evaluation were performed: the first was to measure the accuracy of the Ciratefi algorithm. For this purpose, the degree of correctness was measured when a user represented the signals made before a camera. The second was to verify the usability criteria according to the Human Machine Interface standards. Finally, questionnaires with information about the use of the tool were applied to evaluate and obtain clear results regarding to the developed translator tool. TRADUZ evaluation was performed to verify the degree of accuracy when applied to the image recognition technique in signals made in front of a camera by a user, and also the usability, navigability and ease of use of the tool were verified through a questionnaire. In addition, a case study was carried out to verify the level of agreement with the recognition of signals by images and a questionnaire was applied by the author to the TRADUZ users in the city of Serra Talhada - PE and Triunfo – PE, cities located on northeast Brazil, in 2016.

4.2 Case Study For the case study with words, a base was generated with ten random words, each of them having X frames according to their degree of need. This assessment was made by the author using the operating system Windows Seven on an Intel Core i3 CPU with 2GB of RAM and a 1.3 megapixel camera with a solid color T-shirt. After processing each word, one can analyze how many images were correctly recognized by the Ciratefi algorithm, with the support of pixel map methods, reduction and optimization of the recognition process. It was also tested the recognition based on the alphabet from A to Z.

4.3 Results of TRADUZ Application From the users who were undergone to the use of TRADUZ, 54.54% had special hearing needs and the rest of them were Portuguese speakers. In addition to that 37% of them had higher education degree (or were current graduating), 36% elementary education, and 28% high school. According to users, the colors used in TRADUZ are in accordance with their satisfaction, once 100% said they liked the colors of the tool. Similarly, TRADUZ is easy to use, once 100% of users said there was no problem using the translator. Subsequently with the results of the evaluation it is noticed that 98% of the words were recognized and found correctly and only 2% were not, being the words selected randomly by the users and inserted in TRADUZ. From the questionnaire applied, it was possible to verify if the user has difficulty navigating TRADUZ, and 100% of the users reported that they did not have difficulty navigating it, besides 9% of users reported that they could not communicate with a PwD from France, and 91% reported that they succeeded. Moreover, navigation in TRADUZ was also evaluated without the need for texts. Of the evaluated ones, 100% answered that they would be able to navigate with no problems. At the same time, an open-ended question about the tool's strengths and weaknesses was made available in

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 88 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 the questionnaire, thus realizing that users were satisfied, specifically the hearing PwD who wrote in LIBRAS their emotions expressed as happiness and joy, showing the importance of the dictionary availability to the community.

4.4 Comparative Analysis and Used Methods The methodologies used as basis for this study are: image recognition, bibliographical literature review, color psychodynamics, and man-machine interface ergonomics studies, in order to extract as much of the existing applications as possible, these methodologies will be presented below. Thus, studies of ergonomics and man-machine interface will serve to improve the application and make it more dynamic to the user. In addition, the structural principles, content and ease of navigation of the selected dictionaries were analyzed with the purpose of extracting the best functionalities and qualities of each one, applying some methodologies that served as a basis for the construction of TRADUZ. Among these methodologies, were used the standards Table 1 of the W3C - WWW CONSORTIUM, an international organization that studies and disseminates web design patterns, as can be seen in the Web Content Accessibility Recommendations (WCAG) 2.0 released in 2008 (W3C, 2010).

Table 1. Summary of key W3C recommendations. PRINCIPLE RECOMMENDATION SPECIFICATIONS PRINCIPLE 1: View - RECOMMENDATION - Alternatives in Text: Sensorial: If the purpose of the Information and user interface Provide alternatives in text for any non-text content is not textual, essentially components must be presented content, thus allowing for it to be changed to creating something sensory specific, to users in a way that they can other forms more suited to the individual's then the alternatives in text must perceive; need, such as extended print, Braille, speech, provide at least a descriptive symbols or Simpler language. identification of non-textual content.

PRINCIPLE 2: Operable - The Recommendation - Keyboard Accessible: user interface and navigation Make all functionality available from the components must be operable; keyboard. Recommendation - Navigable: Provide ways to help users navigate, find content, and determine where they are. PRINCIPLE 3: Understandable - The Recommendation - Predictable: Make web information and operation of pages appear and work predictably. the user interface must be understandable; PRINCIPLE 4 - Robust - Recommendation - Compatible: Maximize In content implemented using Content must be robust enough compatibility with current and future user markup languages, elements have to be interpreted concisely by a agents, including assistive technologies. start and end tags, elements are variety of user agents, embedded according to their including assistive specifications, elements can not technologies. contain duplicate attributes, and all IDs are unique except when the specifications allow for these characteristics. Principles to be considered by PwD tools. Finally, the study of color psychodynamics was used as a method to analyze the dictionaries, which is to analyze the psychological sensations that colors cause to the human being (FREITAS, 2007).

4.4.1 Results from Analysis Based on the analysis of the dictionaries through the applied methodology, a form was created, Figure 17, that demonstrates a comparison between the dictionaries with their advantages and disadvantages.

Figure 17. Comparative analysis between translators. Results of reviews of the available dictionaries.

As can be seen, most dictionaries do not follow the W3C standards or have a mechanism by which an individual who does not have knowledge of written languages (Portuguese and French) can navigate the dictionary, since most links, text input fields, or even headings and footnotes do not have an explanation in sign languages. For navigation improvement, Silva et al. (2017) suggests the following mechanisms: 1. Virtual Keyboard: creating a virtual keyboard that allows user which has as his/her native language LIBRAS / LFS and / or Portuguese / French, to choose in their language the composition of the letters (symbols) of a word, thus facilitating access by non-listeners who do not know the written language; 2. Videotext: explaining what each text contained in the site means, but being careful not to pollute the virtual environment; 3. Images: using images that resemble the action that the user must perform, or that the user executed; 4. Signal Recognition: Using image recognition algorithms to analyze the signals made by the deaf in front of a camera. Therefore, the requirements for the construction of TRADUZ arose from this analysis, trying to fill in the gaps that can help and assist the navigability of the user within an accessibility tool.

5. Limitations Found 5.1 TRADUZ Avaluation Among the limitations found it is worth noting the use of signal recognition technique in digital images, since it did not have open source. Thus, adaptations were necessary to perform the signal recognition using the camera.

In the LIBRAS aspect, it has a differentiated semantics of the Portuguese language, which often does not allow the French translation with precision and understanding. In addition, it was not possible to evaluate the tool with listeners and PwD from France due to the difficulty of going to this country. On the other hand, the tool was used by PwD, and LIBRAS and Portuguese speakers from Brazil, being possible to observe the slowness in the presentation of the videos in LFS caused by the excessive size of the file which in an Internet connection without bandwidth it limits the transfer rate between the server and TRADUZ. Furthermore, it was also perceived the need of making TRADUZ available to be downloaded and not stored for execution directly on a server and to be accessed through an electronic address, as in the beginning it was the purpose of the work because the method of signal recognition uses a technique that requires a lot of computational power, and with many connected users, the server might not support the connections and would make it impossible to use it. Another limitation that can be used as future work is the ability of the tool to work as a mobile app on devices running Android or iOS.

6. Conclusions This work reached its goal which was to carry out and develop a tool to aid people with hearing disabilities, making them able to learn a new sign language and also compare LIBRAS with the French Sign Language. As benefits, it can be mentioned the possibility of the community on having a new method to mediate communication between Portuguese and French speakers, such as LIBRAS and LFS, even with the purpose of a non-simultaneous translation, stimulating learning through practice and the use of the tool. However, this tool needs to improve on technological aspects, such as using image recognition algorithms that allow a 3D analysis of the movements made by the user. Also, it can be evaluated by a greater number of PwD from Brazil, and also be tested by French users. As future works, it is suggested that an algorithm to help image recognition could be developed, which in turn may be able to recognize the movements and capture an approximate sequence of the images and classify them for the image recognition algorithm use, once users must wait for the signal to be captured so that it can represent another signal and follow the constant communication. It is worth mentioning the importance and contribution of this work to social integration and technology expansion for the population, providing methods and tools to help human beings communicate with each other, among two countries with similar sign languages, but still culturally different, even though not yet mediating all the conversation between the interlocutors.

However, not only academic centers should be engaged in social integration work through new technologies. Private and public companies can support more projects that open doors for new applications to emerge and help people to have a better quality of life.

7. References Araújo, S. A. (2009). Casamento de padrões em imagens digitais livre de segmentação e invariante sob transformações de similaridade. Doctoral Thesis, Escola Politécnica, University of São Paulo, São Paulo. doi:10.11606/T.3.2009.tde-18122009-124219. Retrieved 2017-08-18. BARI, SAFANI et al. EARLY INTERVENTION IMPLEMENTATION PRESCHOOL SPECIAL EDUCATION STUDENTS IN MALAYSIA. International Journal for Innovation Education and Research, [S.l.], v. 4, n. 7, p. 130-155, july 2016. ISSN 2411-2933. Available at: . Date accessed: 12 sep. 2017. da Silva, M. H. L. F., da Silva Rodrigues, A. J., da Silva, J., Neto, C., Vilar, G., Barbosa, R. F., & de Brito Rocha, M. F. Aplicação das Plataformas de Stewart na produção de Objetos de Aprendizagem em 3D para a educação médica. Revista Espacios. Vol 38, ano 2017, número 20, página 17. Retrieved from: . Dico Complet LSF: Tradutor completo sobre a Língua de Sinais Francesa (2010) [Online]. Available: . Cited 12 Out 2016. Freitas, A. K. M. D. (2007). Psicodinâmica das cores em comunicação. São Paulo: ISCA Faculdades. INES. (2010) Instituto Nacional de Educação de Surdos. [Online] Available: http://www.ines.gov.br/dicionario-de-libras/main_site/libras.htm. Cited 29 Out 2016. Kim, H. Y., & De Araújo, S. A. (2007). Grayscale template-matching invariant to rotation, scale, translation, brightness and contrast. In Pacific-Rim Symposium on Image and Video Technology (pp. 100-113). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. LSF Sur Le Web: Dicionário para web da Língua de Sinais Francesa. (2003). [Online]. Available: . Cited 03 Nov 2016. Guimarães, Cayley; Aquino, Matheus; Fernandes, Sueli. Creating Learning Objects in Libras and written Portuguese. International Journal for Innovation Education and Research, [S.l.], v. 5, n. 7, p. 1-23, july 2017. ISSN 2411-2933. Available at: . Date accessed: 20 aug. 2017. Martins, K. P., Costa, T. F. D., Medeiros, T. M. D., Fernandes, M. D. G. M., França, I. S. X. D., & Costa, K. N. D. F. M. (2016). Internal structure of Family Health Units: access for people with disabilities. Ciencia & saude coletiva, 21(10), 3153-3160. Nobre, H. P. A. Geração automática de módulos VHDL para localização de padrões invariante a escala e rotação em FPGA. Dissertação (Mestrado em Microeletrônica) - Escola Politécnica, University of São Paulo, São Paulo. [Online]. Available: . Cited 13 Jan 2017. Nobre, H. P., & Kim, H. Y. (2009, April). Automatic VHDL generation for solving rotation and scale- invariant template matching in FPGA. In Programmable Logic, 2009. SPL. 5th Southern Conference on (pp. 21-26). IEEE. Nunes, E., Luz, C. S., Anjos, D. T., Gonçalves, A. C., de Figueiredo, L. A., de Almeida Zampaulo, R. (2008). Inclusão social de Portadores de Necessidades Especiais (PNEs) e a prática do turismo em áreas naturais: avaliação de seis cavidades turísticas do Estado de São Paulo. Pesquisas em Turismo e Paisagens Cársticas,

Campinas, vol. 1, nº1, pp. 77-88. Roys, K. (2010) Non-verbal Comunnication. [Online]. Available: . Cited 12 de Jan 2017. Schirmer C. R., Browning, N., Bersch, R., Machado, R. (2007) Atendimento Educacional Especializado– Deficiência Física. São Paulo: MEC/SEESP, vol. 1, pp. 130. Secco, R. L., Silva, M. H. L. F. (2009) Proposta de um Ambiente Interativo para Aprendizagem em LIBRAS Gestual e Escrita. Simpósio Brasileiro de Informática na Educação - SBIE. Anais do SBIE. Teixeira, M. M. (2012). As faces da comunicação. Munich: Grin Verlag. VLIBRAS. (2016) O que é o VLIBRAS? [Online]. Available: . Cited 12 Jan 2017. W3C – www consortium. (2010) Web Design And Applications [Online]. Available: . Cited 12 Dez 2016. Web LSF Lexique. LSF Dico. (2010) [Online Available: . Cited 12 Out 2016.

Copyright Disclaimer Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Visual Strategies: Learning Objects to Teach Written Text Cohesion

to the Deaf Using Sign Language as Scaffold

Cayley Guimarães (Corresponding author) Dept. of Design, UTFPR, Rua Lourenço Pinto, 410/615 80.010-160. Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.

Matheus Aquino Dept. of Design, UTFPR, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.

Sueli F. Fernandes Dept. of Education, UFPR, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil. Abstract Language is a special activity, and it’s through/via/with language that we develop intelligence, knowledge, and culture. Language is what makes us human beings. Language and its meanings allow for interactions among members of the society to partake in the same culture. People are more than legal citizens: the sense of belonging creates identity, in a process mediated by language. Deaf people have little to no access to the oral language; thus, they have difficulties to share in the national literature, media, popular culture, traditions, myths, folklore, among others. In order to build this identity, the Deaf1 need to learn the written modality of the Oral language from the culture in which they are immersed. Unfortunately, very few research and resources are dedicated to such task. This research proposes a Learning Object that uses Sign Language (the natural language of the Deaf) to teach text cohesion. Keywords: Deaf Education; Learning Object; Deaf Education;

1. Introduction Language is vital to the human brain, and it is paramount to the process that allows human beings to develop intelligence, create knowledge, make sense of their environment. Language is used to generalize concepts, express ideas, thoughts and feelings. From birth, the human baby is immersed in an environment that provides the necessary conditions for cultural development, and language is part of such endeavor as it incorporates social and cultural functions, mediated by language (Vygotsky, 1974; Bakthin, 1988). Such is not the case for the Deaf children born to non-Deaf parents. In order for the same process to occur, the parents must use Sing Language, the natural language of the Deaf. This is not a simple process: first and foremost, there must be an acceptance and understanding that being Deaf is just a different way of

1 This research uses the convention from Deaf Studies, and use the word Deaf (capital D) to refer to members of the Deaf community.

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 95 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 experiencing human life. Usually, when a Deaf child is born to non-Deaf parents, she is subjected to medical opinions that try to treat deafness as a disease to be removed. This creates a delay in exposure to Sign Language, and the Deaf child is isolated: she has no linguistic model from which to learn, no other Deaf children with which to comprehend the world and to create meaning (Fernandes, 2012; Skliar, 1999; Sánchez, 1991). Being isolated from a natural linguistic environment that would be conducive of intellectual development via social practices mediated by language is only the first barrier the Deaf faces. It is not enough to conquer this first hurdle, given that the Deaf find themselves in another peculiar situation in which they are not completely isolated, but might as well be because the consequences are as dire: the Deaf are then immersed in a context in which the oral language is the language of choice to create and disseminate knowledge and information. This presents a challenge for the Deaf – they have no access to the oral language, and thus have difficulties to learn a language from the hegemonic society. They can speak, but learning to do so is an imposition, a new form of prejudice, colonialism and exclusion. The alternative is to learn the written modality of the oral language – but that only recently came to be accepted and used (Hoffmeister, 1999; Johnson, Liddel & Eting, 1989; Lodi, 2012; Fernandes, 1999). According to Hall (2000), modern society is going through structural changes, where social relations are extracted from interactions and their restructuration in time and space and differences. As such, the identity of the Deaf will always be a socio-historical construct (i.e. a phenomenon intrinsically determined by the nature of the social relations that are established between the Deaf and the non-Deaf) according to Najarian, (2008). The Deaf movement has a long history of fights and struggles to have access to and to have the right to use their natural language and culture. And this research aligns with the Bilingual Literacy educational approach for the Deaf (Kyle, 2005): the Deaf has the right to use Sign Language to access social and cultural knowledge (Nover, 1998). The Dear have the right to learn content in a language over which they can have fluency, with utmost respect to social, cultural, educational, pedagogical aspects of the Deaf condition. But it is also of great importance that the OL should be taught to the Dead, via adequate methods (i.e. the written modality of the oral language, using Sign Language to scaffold such learning) (Hoffmeister, 1999; Johnson, Liddel & Eting, 1989; Lodi, 2012; Fernandes, 1999). Scaffolding refers to a variety of instructional techniques used to move students progressively toward stronger understanding and, ultimately, greater independence in the learning process (Alber, 2011). Bilingual Literacy occurs when social practices of the use of both languages (the Sign Language, and the written modality of the oral language) make appropriation more effective, pleasurable, and accessible, for communication and information purposes, in a way to allow the full exercise of citizenship in different cultures (Vygotsky, 1974; Bakthin, 1988). The Deaf are willing and engaged in a process to learn the written language as a second language. But only recently, and scarcely, such concern has entered the academic and research agenda (Johnson, Liddel & Eting, 1989). Mostly, the approaches used to try to teach the Deaf to read and to write are based solely on the oral language, with weak results that are few and far between. Additionally, the Deaf suffer prejudices in school, where they are judged as less capable than their non-Deaf peers. There isn’t a political agenda, nor there are pedagogical materials to support such efforts by the Deaf to learn. Most studies claim to teach the oral language as a meaning of communication, but language goes beyond mere communication, as they serve other important functions into other realms such as literacy, interactions, identity and citizenship (Gnerre, 1984; Rojo, 2006; Ewoldt, 1985). This research presents a framework with which to inform the design of Learning Objects to teach written text cohesion to the Deaf: the explanation of the subject is in Sign Language, thus providing the Deaf with

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 96 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 a tool that can be used to further learning, granting some extra support and independence. Given that culturally, deafness is not viewed as the absence of hearing but the presence of vision, the proposed learning object relies on the visual aspects of the text and the accompanying illustration to teach the Deaf in a manner that is more natural to the nature of their language. The main goal is to create visual environments where the text is explained in Sign Language (Koch, 2013); then it is presented with illustration; then an animation shows the learner the referent and the references within the text that are used to create the cohesion. Learning Objects can be defined as a “web-based interactive chunks of e-learning designed to explain a stand alone learning objective” (Churchill, 2007). This research chooses to use text cohesion as a theme, of popular folklore legends, because the cohesion structures in both languages vary differently, thus making it a difficult subject for the Deaf to learn. The remainder of this article briefly discuss the need for bilingualism when it comes to the education of the Deaf; then it presents some (un)related approaches. The framework is described and its initial validation presented. Results show that the use of the Learning Object increased the understanding of written text.

2. Hegemonic Narrative About the Deaf A master narrative of audio-deficiency has long and historically represented the Deaf people. This hegemonic discourse relegates them to a mandatory consensus of the clinical-pathological approach, in which deafness is to be removed, and deaf are considered not capable to live what is considered a normal life. This perverse narrative dictates that the only form accepted for the Deaf is to learn the oral language (which is almost impossible, due to their undeniable condition). Those who do not master the oral language are thus excluded (Fernandes, 2012). Fernandes (1999) says that Deaf students are relegated to an educational situation that puts them in extreme disadvantage. This disadvantage materializes in the power and knowledge relations that are instituted within the classrooms, given that the Deaf always occupy, in such linguistic practices, the role of the error, the inefficiency, the ever present lack of knowledge. The Deaf are actively pursuing the learning of reading and writing the oral language, but they are marginalized by arbitrary evaluation methods suitable for the hearing for example, and inaccessible to the Deaf. Such atrocious pathological view and imposition of the oral language have brought about communication approaches that create confrontations between the Sign Language and the oral language, whereas there should be none if both were to be equally respected. Instead, the oppressive methods do not provide for learning of knowledge, for example. The limitations imposed on the Deaf preclude them to create a sense of self, mainly because the family and the school limit their opportunities for social interactions because of the communication focus of language. That is, the oral methods want the Deaf to learn the oral language, neglecting the learning of Sign Language, and the learning of content in Sign Language (such as math, biology or any other subject). But language is more than communication: it is interaction, it fosters power, creates meanings, it incorporates ideological and socio-political opportunities for cultural processes. Language acquisition happens naturally, when the conditions are right: take the non-Deaf children, for example. When she is surrounded by social and rich linguistic environment, they will acquire the oral language and will begin her journey into intellectual development and learning (Fairclough, 1989; Wills,

1981; Motschnig-Pitrik & Standl, 2013). She will be able to create superior mental functions. Vygotsky (1974) says that the main trajectory of the child psychological development is that of progressive individualization (i.e. a process that originates in the social relations, mediated by language). Such is not the case for the Deaf: Sign Language is not commonly used. Most hearing parents do not learn of it until the Deaf child is in her early teens. And only then they allow her to associate with other Deaf and learn Sign Language – but, by then the damage is already done. The lack of Sign Language acquisition prevents the Deaf access to human knowledge and full exercise of citizenship: according to MacNamara (1982) language is basilar for power relations, and is the greatest barrier that blocks access to power. The Especial Education Programs talk about inclusion, but Kleiman (1995) states that this term has invaded our discourse, without the proper understanding of what kind of inclusion we are talking about, and how it should be achieve, and by which means. Additionally, continues the author, there is a need to acknowledge the real conditions in which the Deaf are oppressed, lest we are under penalty of transforming the school into another place of exclusion: how to conciliate such disparate objectives (i.e. to impart the same knowledge) in a class environment with different needs of different pedagogical methods? It has become apparent that a school for the Deaf, with Bilingual Literacy is the policy of choice, because it deals with more than a new praxis, but entirely new pedagogical approaches (Skliar, 1999). For example, differently than mere alphabetization (a process that requires access to the sound and its association to the written symbols – which is highly dependent on the oral language, and thus inaccessible to the Deaf), Bilingual Literacy is the method of choice (Cagliari, 2012). The Deaf can acquire the written language without the emphasis on the relation sound-letter (Skliar, 1999). The Deaf can acquire the written form of the oral language by the use of adequate methodologies that take into account the visual aspects of the Deaf culture, and strategies in Sign Language. As it turns out, adding to the already strenuous task of having to learn another language, the oral language, the Deaf is faced with an arduous process, which requires formal and systematic pedagogical and educational policies (i.e. instructions on grammar, lexical knowledge etc.). But even though the written form is somewhat related to the oral language, they do present some specificities that allow both systems to be autonomous, and thus accessible to those who do not have audio capacities. This allows the Deaf to become non-alphabetized reader (i.e. they can dominate the written form of the oral language without having to know the sounds). In order for that to happen, visual strategies should be provided in the Learning Object for the Deaf. A new approach is in order; otherwise we are left with traditional strategies that limit the Dead to formal, inadequate processes of robotic/repetitive/mechanical instructional methods that are removed from the informational dimension (Fairclough, 1989; Wills, 1981; Motschnig-Pitrik & Standl, 2013).

2.1 Current State of Affairs Guimarães et al. (2013) conducted a field survey with 260 educators in the public system of the state of Paraná, Brazil. The findings were very contradictory: the majority reported both that they do not have proficiency in SL, but that they adopted the BL. This is an example of the master narrative of the Especial Education Program policy in the country. Such programs say that all students with different deficiencies

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 98 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 should be put together in the same classroom. What this program failed to provide was the necessary means for this to happen. This way, most part of the Deaf in Brazil are in classes where the oral language is mandatory, and where from the Deaf it is expected that she acts as a non-Deaf, and never learn to read and write due to educational practices that do not contemplate their real needs and abilities. The sad part of this equation is that the Deaf do not share the same socio-ideological horizon with the non-Deaf due to their different educational experiences. That which is said in class is hard to be understood by the Deaf (Bellugi et. al, 1984; Volterra & Erting, 1984). Guimarães et al. (2015) found that the narrative of the educators was that of the “hearing” Deaf: “The Deaf who has speaking conditions should work on it because they are going to live with hearing people and their alphabetization will be easier”. Others were adamant about the Deaf’s ability to learn: “We can affirm that the Deaf student will never achieve interpretation and production of writing in an integral manner”. Furth (1981) used Piaget (for whom the intelligence is based on motor and sensorial aspects, not linguistics) with little advancement in the learning process. Ferreiro e Teberosky (1988) based their methodology on the oral language, and the results reported showed that the children were able to learn how to “draw” words, the same results found by Gesueli (1988) and Cruz (1992). The lack of proper preparation and the total absence of adequate Learning Objects to aid the educators in their task has produced a discourse of pseudo bilingualism in which the Sign Language is subordinate to the oral language of the majority. Botelho (2002) also talks about the problems of a reading material where the written text is translated to Sign Language, which affects negatively the interpretation by the Deaf, by reducing the lexical, syntactic and semantic complexities of the languages involved. Several authors (Hoffmeister, 1999; Johnson, Liddel & Eting, 1989; Lodi, 2012; Fernandes, 1999) say that the learning of the written system of the Sign Language, such as SignWriting (Sutton, 2006), which is based on a system of pictogram representation with visual spatial signs, also help the Deaf to learn. But Hall (2000) called for a ideological model, which implies the need to revise questions that are pertinent to the teaching and learning of reading and writing from its foundation, in a radical transformation of access to the written language, pedagogical organization and educational conditions. The proposed framework addresses this issue by providing examples of how a Learning Object should be created and made available to educators, as complementary material to teach text cohesion, less we are left with the Deaf not having access to the learning process.

3. Reading Text Using Sign Language It is important to point out here that the internalization process of language demands mental operations in a semiotic process. Meanings should provide a material excitement (be it sound, visual, tactile etc.) to be perceived, mediated by the social group and signified by the reader (Vygotsky, 1974). And this semiosis should not be limited to a reduced view of human capabilities as triggered only by the oral language. Semiose is the semiotic process by which one derives meanings. A text is a linguistic unit of meanings that result in the interaction between the writer and the reader. It may have a variety of sizes and conformations. It may be as long as one word or go up to thousands of words, and may bring pointers to its beginning and end. These pointers, usually, serve the purpose of providing

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 99 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 text cohesion. Although it is composed by words, phrases, periods, paragraphs or even bigger unities, the text is not defined by the sum of its parts. If the text lacks cohesion, for example, it may be ambiguous and hard to interpret. Lets exemplify text: a poem, a journal, a book, a label, a comic book, a bus stop sign all may contain some written form of the OL, together with other visual, pictorial information that are part of the code in which the message was transmitted, and the code in which the message should be interpreted. The text comes in several genres such as a scientific article, a book chapter, a newspaper clip, a charge, a graph, a dictionary entry, a bus stop sign, a label of a product, short stories, novels. So a text has an author, a reader, a goal, a subject, a material support, a manner in which it is written (i.e. its genre – such as short stories, fairy tales, poetry etc.). It is a complex semiotic sign, may expand on a theme, it may be an specific way to communicate, it is a process that mobilize cognitive operations, it is a place of interaction between social actors and of meaning construction (Cummings, 1979). Text comes from the Latin word TEXTUM, that means intertwined clothe. The meaning of the text will be determined by the interaction between author-text-reader. Cohesion keeps the text together. Cohesion means union, relation. In linguistics, it indicates the relation between words, expressions and phrases. They are the correct grammatical connections between elements of the text. It creates the bonds that link the various segments of the text: a text is cohesive when its parts are linked. A referential cohesion avoids repetitions of words in a text (by substitution – using a pronoun, an adverb etc.). Lexical cohesion uses synonyms, for example. You can achieve cohesion by ellipse and conjunction also. This research used folklore stories from the Brazilian culture to inform the design of learning object that uses visual strategies to teach text cohesion to the Deaf. Brazil has a vast folklore, such as popular parties like the Carnival, religious stories, ghost stories, games, jokes, and dialects – they form a rich popular culture that represents the social identity and it is part of the country. Brazilian legends are vastly influenced by the miscegenation of races from African and Indian origin, thus making this genre a good option to use. Legend in this context is a fantasy narrative that may combine historical facts with imaginary ones. This research designed three Learning Objects based on Brazilian Folklore legends. We are going to illustrate with the story of “Saci”. Saci is a being of the forest. He smokes a pipe, and has only one leg. He is mostly harmless, and enjoys playing pranks (e.g. hide objects, scare the cows). He moves around in a twister, and can be captured with a sieve. Figure 1 shows a still of the illustration in video that tells about the legend:

Figure 1 – Reference to the main character on the text. The system dynamically highlights the text, and points to the character to which the text refers.

Note on Figure 1 one that the referent is in green, and there is an arrow pointing towards the main character. At this point, the student is only familiarizing with the learning object. The learning object presents a video that first narrates the story of the legend, in Sign Language, so that the reader can have a general understanding of the text, its genre, etc. The reader can come back to this video any time she wants, for further understanding and clarification of any possible doubts. This visual strategy is used throughout the learning object, and has the goal of making the reader more familiar with the text.

3.1 Cohesion in Sign Language and Oral Language The choice of cohesion for the learning object is because it varies vastly: Sign Languages have other ways to narrate: it can use the space, where the character is placed, and it remains there, in a space-token, that is referenced by pointing, turning the body, gazing. The narrator can also create a classifier, that would them represent the character throughout the narrative. Additionally, in what provides for a very rich narrative, the narrator can incorporate the voice of the character in a process denominated subrogation (for example, the left side can be the Wolf, and the right side can be the little red hooded girl – and the narrator would turn body position, gaze, hand, posture, gestures to incorporate each character).

4. Framework to Teach Text Cohesion The proposed framework provides guidance to inform the design of learning object to teach text cohesion to the Deaf. It uses Sign Language in video, and animated illustration to scaffold the content of the text, the context, and the linguistic subject of cohesion. A lot of planning should go into choosing the subject, the theme, the genre of the text, and even, when deemed necessary, the text should be adapted, and presented with a glossary of meanings of words. In the oral language, there are several ways in which cohesion can be achieved (Halliday & Hasan, 1976). The framework comprises the visualization of the text, the explanation of the context, the teaching of the subject, the clarification of meaning of some unusual words, and the actual reading. This cycle should be repeated until the text is fully understood. The benefit of a digital learning object is that it gives the student independence to perform such tasks at her own convenience. Figure 2 shows the proposed framework.

Visualization

Reading Explanation

Glossary Subject

Figure 2 – Framework to inform the design of Learning Objects to teach text cohesion to the Deaf.

In a similar manner in which the non-Deaf learns to read and writing by the use of the oral language, the Deaf will require a systematic and intense interference, mediated by the Sign Language, in order to learn this new symbolic representation that will allow her to establish new meaning relations within her social circle. Next we explain some of the activities that take place in each phase of the learning object. It is important to mark a historical point here, to insist on the written form of the oral language, which is essentially visual and for which there is no sensorial impediment for the perception and cognitive process by the Deaf.

4.1 Visualization of the Text Sign Languages have a different structure than the oral language (Bolgueroni & Viotti, 2013) and it should be used to bring meaning to the written words. The Deaf should read the text several times. First, Sign Language should be used to help the Deaf to visualize the text. A video in Sign Language should tell, in a general manner, the overall meaning of the text, the general story being told, the theme of the text, its author, its origin, its genre (i.e. the learning object should provide clues, in Sign Language video, that would allow the user to become familiarized with the text before the actual reading. This process is similar to the pedagogical strategies of teaching non-Deaf to read). This video is the first interaction with the learning object, and the Deaf may play it as many times as necessary. In this manner, Sign Language is used as a language of instruction, teaching and culture. Sign Languade is used as a tool to provide additional motivating to the reader; to attract the learner to the context and content of the text. It will help the Deaf to internalize symbolic knowledge, necessary to appropriate writing acquisition, of visual, graphical nature, learned in the SL interactional practices, without the limitation of the oral language. Figure 3 shows a still of the Sign Language illustration and animation showing the “Saci”:

Figure 3 – References within the text: both the reference and the referent are highlighted.

For example, if the text is a legend, of Indian origin (as is our example), it should be explained to the Deaf that the Indians were the original inhabitants of Brazil; that they have a very rich history; that their folklore helps them keep traditions, tell about their heroes.

4.2 Explanation of the Text Sign Languages have a different structure than the oral language. Most narratives in Sign Language are visual, usually recorded in video. Therefore, an explanation of the structure of the text is in order. This process is akin to the one used to read and teach non-Deaf children: the reader shows images, details, answer questions among other activities that will help the child to understand better the text. Those strategies are not so directly and easily accessible via the oral language for the Deaf: they should be done in Sign Language in video. This practice (i.e. of explaining the text to the Deaf) allows for the Deaf to participate in the narrative, and to create an environment surrounding the text that is familiar to her and that makes sense to her. This atmosphere will entice the reader to the content of the text in a manner that is different from the pure and simple text (i.e. the text will begin to come to live). The use of Sign Language here should not be considered as a translation of the text, where each word is equated to a sign. Sign Language should allow the student to be able to explore the text, to try to recognize words they know, to try to make sense of new words, and to explore all sorts of information that is present.

4.3 Teaching Text Cohesion After this first overall introduction to the content of the text, then Sign Language should also be used to explain the subject matter of the learning object. The concept of cohesion should be explained and compared to how the equivalent effect is achieved when the narrative is in Sign Language. For example, the video in Sign Language should show the sentence, its referent and its reference, in a visual manner: “Joanna changed majors. She now studies Computer Science. Her parents approve of the decision. The girl is happier now”. Figure 4 shows a graph of the references used in the text:

SHE THE HER GIRL

JOANA

Figure 4 – Words for text cohesion. It can be a pronoun etc.

Instead of repeating the word Joanna every time, the text substitutes it for “she”, “her” and “the girl”. Note that in the written form of the language, those words may assume different grammar denominations. But they all make references to the same Joana. In Sign Language, as explained before, Joana could be placed on the space where the signing is happening (space token) and any reference to her would be by pointing, or gazing. Additionally, a classifier could be created to represent Joana (a sign, for example), and this classifier would be used to represent her. Additionally, the narrator could incorporate the character Joana (subrogate space) to narrate the story. The learning objects also teach about anaphora and cataphora. Figure

5 shows the Saci moving around in his twister, with such examples:

Figure 5 – Examples of different cohesion elements. It can be a direct or indirect object.

In linguistics, anaphora is when the reference returns back to the referent. And cataphora is the use of an expression or word that co-refers with a later, more specific, expression in the discourse. Some times, the cohesion is lexical (i.e. it uses a pronoun for example), and sometimes the reference in the oral language can be entire sentences. This also should be shown and explained to the reader. It is important for the student to understand how these mechanisms occur, mainly because they differ from the strategies from Sign Language (i.e. in Sign Language the narrator may use the space token, where she puts the character there and points to that region in space when she wants to make a reference to it; or she can incorporate the character – subrogate space – and then she will narrate the text using the voice of the character). Figure 6 shows a still of the learning object with such references:

Figure 6 – this print screen shows entire sentences as references.

The narrative runs along, and can have more text. Figure 7 shows both anaphora and cataphora, and different lexical grammar elements (e.g. pronoun, direct object):

Figure 7 – More complex examples.

4.4 Glossary Most of the learning process, the meaning of words and expressions may now be recognizable. Linguistic elements may become more accessible (such as narrative style, description, characters, actions, dialogs). Marks for the beginning of the text, as well as punctuation marks to show end of a unit may be observed. Reading is no longer a guessing game of fragments with no meaning. But still there may be some lexical element that is not known. Vocabulary is very important to the reader. It is fundamental that a glossary be presented, in Sign Language, translating and explaining certain words. Some times these words may require more than a translation, because their use in the text may be unusual, or a metaphor, for example. Educators should pay attention to elements that serve as aid and to those elements that may prove to be barriers. Figure 6 shows a still of the glossary video in Sign Language showing the sign for “SIEVE”:

Figure 8 – Sign Language for Sieve.

In the Saci folklore, the sieve is used to capture the Saci, whereas, it is used for several other things: to separate grains or a certain size, or to separate gold from pebbles in a river, for example. These various

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 105 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 uses of the word could be shown here; but it must be clear which meaning of the word is used in the text. It is time now to let the student engage in the reading of the text. An exercise paper should accompany this reading where the student should make notes about the cohesion elements she may have found, and compare her results with those presented by the learning object.

4.5 Reading By now, the learner has a general understanding of the text. She has seen the genre and structure of the text. The concept of cohesion has been explained. The possible words that will be used to reference a referent have been presented. The glossary has been translated and explained. The reader can now go to next phase of the learning object: reading. In this phase, the learning object will present the illustrated animation with the text, and visual strategies, such as colors and arrows will point the referents and references that make the text cohesive. The learning object then goes on to show all the text references. Given that the learning object is available to the student, she can play it several times until she understands the concept, and is able to make sense of the text. This will give her independence and additional material to study.

5. Use of the Framework A good reader may become a good writer: both processes are intertwined. Deaf students should be encouraged to practice reading and understanding the text. Educators should create opportunities for both activities, in different genres, different texts and contexts. Students should be able to compare different versions of the same story (to see different narrative voices, styles, vocabulary). The use of a text that could bring a practical result, such as a cake recipe the students could bake, or an e-mail to a family member they should write. Educators have used this methodology in paper for three semesters. The explanation in Sign Language was done in class, and the student would only have the text to read at home. This practice was considered adequate for teaching the basics of text cohesion. But the Deaf had a lot of difficulties understanding the real meaning of the concept and had problems identifying the referents and references within the text. The framework informed the design of three learning objects (i.e. three different stories, of the same genre). This extra material gave the Deaf independence to study the material at home, at her own pace. The learning object is a sequenced video, which allows the student to pause, return, replay, move forward at will. The recommended order is to see the Sign Language video presenting the text; then the explanation of the text; the teaching of the subject. The student can see the glossary, and then read the text looking for the elements of cohesion. The learning object will point them to the student, just as the teacher would tell non-Deaf people which elements are being used. This extra practice greatly improved their understanding of the subject and their grades on exercises where they were asked to point the referent and references from the text. In the studies performed to validate the framework and the learning, with followed Dolz & Schneuwly (2004): the framework was validated by a multi/interdisciplinary group of educators, Deaf teachers, psychologist to guarantee that the approach was consistent with the point of view of effective interlocution with literature in the area, thus fulfilling the criteria of social relevance an innovative learning object. Additionally, the research surveyed three educators and 10 students to validate the learning object qualitatively, who found that the learning object allowed for an efficient pedagogical practice, that it was

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 106 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 valid to the extant that it presented the students with cultural and social texts, with concrete use of Sign language as language of instruction. Ten Deaf students used the system for two weeks at home. They considered the learning object to be easy to use, and that it provided them with support material to really understand the text. Just like any pedagogical tool or methodology, this framework requires further, extensive research: with different students, contexts, genres, subjects (i.e. a related topic such as coherence, for example).

6. Considerations The historical and political view of deafness has dictated a medical-pathological approach that regards deafness as a deficiency to be removed. This oppressive system has resulted in a series of wrong pedagogical practices that are not conducive to learning. The Deaf have difficulties to acquire their natural language, the Sign Language, and the written modality of the oral language. The predominance of the oral language in lieu of the Sign Language has prevented the intellectual development of the Deaf, by the lack of language acquisition – thus deprived, the Deaf have little chance to develop superior mental cognitive functions. Reading and writing require a systematic approach, especially when teaching specific subjects within such activities, such as recognizing and using elements that give cohesion to the text. The proposed framework follows pedagogical steps that take into consideration the abilities of the Deaf to use visual resources: the illustration and animation play an important part of the learning object, because they are rich, colorful non-verbal tools to allow visual contextualization; and they can be used by the learner without the need of a teacher, thus increasing their independence and their control of their own learning. Preliminary results indicate great potential for the framework, and further studies are ongoing.

7. References Alber, R. 6 scaffolding strategies to use with your students. Edutopian. 2011.

Bakhtin, M. Questões de Literatura e Estética.. São Paulo: Hucitec, 1988.

Bellugi, U. et al. Enhancement of spatial cognition in deaf children. In: Volterra, V; Erting, C.J. (eds). From gesture to language in hearing and deaf children. Washington: Gallaudet University Press. 1994. P. 278- 298.

Bishop, J.M, L. Taylor, F. Froy. "Computer‐mediated communication use by the deaf and Hard-of- hearing", Kybernetes, Vol. 29 Issue: 9/10, pp.1078-1086. 2000.

Bolgueroni, T. & Viotti, E. Referência nominal em Libras. Todas as Letras, 15(1). P. 15-50. 2013.

Botelho, P. Linguagem e letramento na educação de surdos. Belo Horizonte: Autêntica. 2002.

Cagliari,L. C., “Algumas questões de Linguística na Alfabetização”, Univesp, São Paulo, p.72-83, 2012.

Cruz, M.C. Alfabetizando crianças surdas. São Paulo: PUC. 1992.

Churchill, D. Towards a useful classification of learning objects. Educational Technology Research & Development. 55(5). P.. 479-497. 2007.

Cummins, J., “Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children”, Review of Educational Research, 49(2), p. 222-251, 1979.

Dolz, J.; Schneuwly, B. Gêneros orais e escritos na escolar. Campinas: Mercado de Letras. 2004.

Ewoldt, C, “A descriptive study of the developing literacy of young hearing impaired children”, Volta Review, 87(5), p. 109-126, 1985.

Fairclough, N., Language and Power. Longman, Inc., NY, 1989.

Fernandes, S. É possível ser surdo em Português. Porto Alegre: Mediação. 1999.

Fernandes, S., Educação dos Surdos, IBPEX, Curitiba, 2012.

Ferreiro, E.; Teberosky, A. Psicogênese da língua escrita. Porto Alegre: Artes Médicas. 1988.

Furth, H. G. Pensamiento sin lenguaje. Madrid: Ediciones Marova. 1981.

Gesueli, Z.M. A criança não ouvinte e a aquisição da escrita. Campinas: 1988.

Gnerre, M. Linguagem, escrita e poder. São Paulo: Martins Fontes. 1994.

Guimarães, C. et al., “Pedagogical Architecture – Internet Artifacts for Bilingualism of the Deaf (Sign Language/Portuguese), 46th HICSS, Hawaí’I, p. 40-49, 2013.

Guimarães, C.; Pereira, M.; Fernandes, S. A framework to inform design of LO for teaching written Portuguese (L2) to Deaf children via SL (L1). In: IEEE HICSS 49. 2015.

Hall, S. A identidade cultural na pós-modernidade. Rio de Janeiro: DP&A. 2000.

Halliday, M.A.K.; Hasan, R. Cohesion in spoken and written English. London: Longman. 1976.

Hoffmeister, R., Famílias, crianças surdas, o mundo dos surdos e os profissionais de audiologia, In: C. Skliar (Org.) Atualidade da educação bilíngue para surdos. Mediação, Porto Alegre, 1999.

Jonhson, R., S. Liddell, C. Erting, “Unlocking the curriculum: Principles for achieving access in deaf education”. Gallaudet University Research Institute, DC, 1989.

Kleiman, A. B., Os significados do letramento: uma nova perspectiva sobre a prática social da escrita. Campinas: Mercado de Letras. 1995.

Kleiman, A. B., Leitura e interdisciplinaridade: tecendo redes nos projetos da escolar. Campinas: Mercado das Letras, 1999.

Koch, G.V. Introdução à linguística textual. São Paulo: Martins Fontes. 2013.

Kyle, J., “Beginning Bilingualism”, Ibero-American congress on bilingual education, Lisbon, 2005.

Lodi, A.C.B., Letramento e minorias, Ed. Mediação, PA, 2002.

MacNamara, J., Names for things: a study of human learning. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1982.

Motschnig-Pitrik, Renate; Standl, Bernhard. “Person-centered technology enhanced learning: Dimensions of added value. Computers in Human Behavior 29. 4010409. 2013.

Najarian, C.G. “Deaf women: educational experiences and self-identity”. Disability & Society. V. 23 (2). 2008.

Nover, S., Andrews, J., Critical pedagogy in deaf education: Bilingual methodology and staff development. New Mexico School for the Deaf, NM, 1998.

Rojo, R., “Alfabetização e letramento: sedimentação de práticas e (des)articulação de objetos de ensino”, Perspectiva, Florianópolis, v.24, n.2, p. 569-596, 2006.

Sánchez, C. La educación de los sordos en um modelo bilíngue, Diakona, Mérida, 1991.

Skliar, C., Atualidade de educação bilíngue para Surdos, Mediação, Porto Alegre, 1999.

Sutton, V. Lessons in SignWriting. La Jolla, CA. 2006. Available at http://www.signwriting.org accessed at 04/04/17.

Volterra, V.; Erting, G.J. (eds). From gesture to language in hearing and deaf children. Washington: Gallaudet University Press. 1994.

Vygotsky, L.S., Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes, Harvard University Press, Boston, MA, 1974.

Wills, T. A.. “Social support and interpersonal relationships”. In M. S. Clask (Ed.), Prosocial behavior (p. 327). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 1991.

Copyright Disclaimer Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Research question

Results

Demonstrate the innovation

Designing a Supplementary Reading Using Cultural Language Learning Approach (CLLA)

Hermayawati Universitas Mercu Buana Yogyakarta, Indonesia Abstract This paper reports on a project findings concerning the design of a Supplementary Reading Book using Cultural Language Learning Approach ( CLLA). The project was conducted in Yogyakarta, Indonesia that generally aimed at designing supplementary reading materials using CLLA as a guide book for tourist guides who worked for Sonobudoyo Museum. The book is entitled “The Javanese Cultural Heritages Reserved in Sonobudoyo Museum (JCHRSM)”. This utilized a developmental research design, which consisted of three procedures, namely: (1) exploration, aiming to analyze the needs of the tour guides of Sonobudoyo Museum; (2) development, to design a supplementary reading guide book for the (candidate) tourist guides working for Sonobudoyo Museum; and (3) validation, to find the designed guide book accuracy. This study found: (1) The tour guides’ needs was JCHRSM using CLLA; (2) the designed book was matched with the tour guides’ needs; and (3) the designed guide book was judged accurate and compatible for Sonobudoyo tour guides. This was judged accurate since: (1) it was designed based on the results of the tour guide needs analysis and book’s content analysis as suggested by McDonough and McDonough; (2) the 12 times cyclical treatments resulted continually learning improvement on the trainees’ reading skills; and (3) the guide book validation through statistical analysis using Mean

Difference (Md) formula and One-shot study experimental design yielded significant gain score between the average score of pretest and post-test, i.e. 8.2>5.6. Besides, the result of FGD (Focus Group Discussion) also indicated that the supplementary reading guide book was recommended as an alternative reference especially for Sonobudoyo tour guides. Keywords: ELT; CLLA; developmental research; tourist guides; cultural heritages;

1. Introduction Globalization era has been currently affecting many aspects of human life development, including in English Language Teaching (ELT). Language teaching cannot be separated from culture teaching since language is a part of human’s culture. Similarly, culture and technology have constantly expanding in line with technological innovation and knowledge. Thus, the advance of knowledge and technology may affect cultural contact through community meetings in the coffee shops until on line contacts. Besides, the huge amount of migration by economic reasons may also result cultural exchange. Contacts of various communities with their varied cultures can result in blurring of cultural ownership. Such condition may affect on nation or community’s sense of belonging towards its cultural heritage and

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 111 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 trigger conflict of interest among the nations such as for instance, the claims of several songs, traditional dances and clothing as it had ever happened between Malaysia and Indonesia. This case may endanger the unity among the nations in the world. This issue can be solved among other, through English language teaching (ELT), since English is considered as a global language which is learned by most of the people around the world. ELT is possible to be conducted through the existence of English book, including supplementary reading in which content is relevant with the learners’ interests. English language learners can be categorized into two groups, namely those who are learning in the formal schools and in the non-formal boards or institutions. The latter group typically receives less attention from language educators. They are learners who are joining English training for certain interests, including the tour guides who were involved in this project.

Thus, this study attempted to facilitate the tour guides (typically who worked for Sonobudoyo National Museum) English training by designing a guide book that was considered appropriate with their needs in providing communicative services especially for the foreign tourists visiting the museum. The need on the reading materials as a guidance for the tour guides was urgent, since most of them could not communicate in English, whereas such competence was needed to provide communicative services concerning the cultural heritages stored in the museum.

2. Literature Review 2.1. Reading and Supplementary Reading Materials Reading is a part of language skills which is learnt through various types of discourses for the sake of getting new information available in the written discourses through the content comprehension. This type of language skill is useful both to enhance the readers language learning target, skill, and knowledge. Unfortunately, there is currently a limited number of reading modules available for ESL teachers to teach reading comprehension (Javed et al., 2015: 141) moreover, the availability of supplementary reading for the interests of tour guides. The researcher therefore, attempted to develop a supplementary reading book which was called ‘The Javanese Cultural Heritages Reserved in Sonobudoyo Museum (The JCHRSM)’ as a comprehensive guidelines and effective reading strategies as the basic of doing their jobs easily. The comprehensive guideline was performed by providing relevant questions related to the target knowledge to be taught, while the reading strategies were developed through the questions related to the learners’ ability in ‘scanning’, ‘referring’, ‘inferring’ and ‘skimming’ the linguistics learning target. In this case, all of the given discourses in the book were taught extensively, appropriately with the tour guides’ needs.

2.2 Culture and Cultural Language Learning Approach In general, the term “culture” is connected with the beliefs, values, mind-sets, and practices of a group of people. It includes the behavior pattern and norms of that group the rules, the assumptions, the perceptions, and the logic and reasoning that are specific to a group. In the 20th century, "culture" emerged as a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of human phenomena that cannot be attributed to genetic inheritance. Specifically, the term "culture" in American anthropology had two meanings, id est.: (1) the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 112 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols, and to act imaginatively and creatively; and (2) the distinct ways that people living differently classified and represented their experiences, and acted creatively. Hoebel (1982) describes culture as an integrated system of learned behavior patterns which are characteristic of the members of a society and which are not a result of biological inheritance. Every community or nation has its own unique culture. The distinctions are currently made between the physical artifacts created by a society, its so-called material culture, and everything else, the intangibles such as language and customs that are the main referent of the term "culture". Strictly speaking, culture is the result of the interpretation of the human mind to fulfill the purposes and activities of life (Ramli, 2017). In accordance with the relation between culture and language, Jiang (2010) concluded that language and culture are so closely inter-dependent that neither can be learned without the other. Language learning is normally considered to be a conscious process which consists of committing to memory of information relevant to what is being learned (Tomlinson, 1998: 4). While “culture is an intellectual expressions of human’s mind, thought, customs and physical artifacts created by society”. In a nutshell, it can be defined that Cultural Language Learning (CLL) is a conscious process in acquiring language being learnt through knowledge acquisition about culture of a certain language users’ community. Based on the several views of the aforementioned definitions, it can be synthesized that “Culture is an intellectual expressions of human’s mind, thought, customs and physical artifacts created by society”. This definition is used as the basic of designing the book’s title. The artifacts were created by the ancestors especially available in Yogyakarta, Indonesia such as: various kinds of wayang, batik, keris, gamelan orchestra, traditional wedding dress, and joglo house. They are considered unique and cannot be found anywhere else. They should be preserved and protected to avoid getting lost, extinction or claimed by other nations that may trigger conflict. Conserving cultural heritages may be realized through the existence of cultural reference books that can be read both by the young generation, other culture community and foreigners. For the sake of providing such kind of reference, supplementary reading materials are needed.

2.3 Reading Materials Design using CLLA In relation to supplementary materials design, Tomlinson (1998: xiii) stated that supplementary materials are designed to be used in addition to the core materials of a course. They are usually related to the development of skills of reading, writing, listening or speaking rather than to the learning of language items. Related to the definition as written above, supplementary reading may in this case, not only be used to enhance readers’ reading skills but also may enrich their insights either through formal or autonomous learning. This project was done to provide a supplementary reading book for the sake of helping the museum tourist guides in running their duties as information providers, since most of them could not communicate in English fluently. The alternative reading book was crucially needed to complete the available brochures that neither completely performed the various types of the artifacts stored in the museum, nor represented the complete information concerning to the museum. The designed reading materials were developed in contemporary, appropriately with the development of

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 113 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 current ELT concept and using Cultural Language Learning Approach (CLLA). In accordance with approach, Brown (1994:51) stated that an approach is theoretical positions and beliefs about the nature of language learning, and the applicability of both pedagogical settings (Theory of language and language learning). In this study, CLLA is an approach which focuses on the discourse content that contains knowledge about various kinds of Javanese cultural heritage (such as keris, gamelan orchestra, various types of wayang, Joglo house, traditional wedding dress, and dances) as currently provided in Sonobudoyo National Museum, where the artefacts have been collected and preserved.

Aim/Goals

Assessment Learning Materials

Learning Process

Figure 1. English Curriculum Principle (FGD TEFLIN, 2013)

The reading materials explored various kinds of discourses which aimed at improving the users’ reading skills and to cultivate their knowledge about Javanese culture all at once. Beside several considerations as written above, the book was also designed by referring to the concept of language teaching, which involves the four aspects of aim/goals, learning materials, learning process and its assessment as suggested by FGD TEFLIN (2013). Figure 1 shows the principle of English curriculum according to FGD TEFLIN. In the learning process, the participants were introduced to the vocabularies related to culture and the wares stored in the museum. Thus, the cultural language was learnt through the reading materials as an approach to develop participants’ reading skills through the vocabularies they have acquired, namely any words related to the existence of wayang, batik, keris, gamelan orchestra, traditional wedding dress, and Joglo house. The learning process involved 20 tourist guides who worked for the museum. They were involved to join English reading comprehension class for 14 meetings. At last they were assessed to find the data of their learning achievement progress, as one of the criteria to judge whether the designed supplementary reading book was appropriate with their needs and was able to enhance their reading skills for the sake of conducting their jobs as tourist guides of Sonobudoyo Museum easily.

3. Research Methodology 3.1 Participants As it has been mentioned earlier, this project was conducted in Yogyakarta, Indonesia and generally aimed at designing a guide book for tourist guides (also the candidates) in order to be able to provide normative information services for foreign tourists visiting Sonobudoyo Museum Yogyakarta, Indonesia and for other users. The book is called “The Javanese Cultural Heritage Reserved in Sonobudoyo Museum (The

JCHRSM)”. To gain the main research objective, this project involved 20 tourist guides who currently worked for the museum. As an early added information, though they ran their duties to provide communicative services especially for foreigners, ironically, most of them could not speak English fluently. So far, they served foreigners by a little speaking or, even, keeping silent.

3.2 Design Appropriately with the research’s objective, this study used a developmental research design which is also called research and development (R and D). In case of R&D, Gall & Gall (2003: 569) which was also referred by Sukmadinata (2007: 163), stated that educational R and D is an industry-based development model in which the findings of research are used in designing new products and procedures, which then are systematically tested, evaluated, and refined until they meet specified criteria of effectiveness, quality, or similar standards. The product is considered effective, qualified and standardized if it fulfills the three conceptual aspects of designing reading materials. The product effectiveness or compatibility was defined through interpreting the result of testing on the participants’ reading comprehension that was then, analyzed statistically to find its validity using Product Moment Correlation formula. The quality and the standard of the reading materials were judged through the content analysis as it was suggested by McDonough and McDonough (1997). Such criteria were used as the basic in judging the compatibility of the supplementary reading materials as the product of this project. The procedure of this project was inspired by Sukmadinata’s (2007: 190) research and development procedure who has simplified Gall & Gall’s (2003) ten procedures of conducting developmental research or research and development, namely: (a) research and information collecting; (b) planning; (c) preliminary product development; (d) preliminary field testing; (e) main product revision; (f) main field testing; (g) operational product revision; (h) operational field testing; (i) final product revision; and (j) dissemination and implementation into three procedures, namely: (a) exploration, (b) development, and (c) experimental or evaluation stage. Referring to the three stages of conducting research and development (R & D) as it is written above, this project was carried out into three procedures, namely: (a) exploration, aiming to analyze the vision and missions of the cultural heritage and the users’ needs towards the book’s content; (b) development, for the intention of designing a prototype in which content matched with the aim or the missions of the existence of cultural heritage and the users’ needs; (c) experimental or evaluation stage which was in the form of validation of the relevant stakeholders, to legalize the design accuracy. Within the exploration stage, the participants were interviewed to get the data related to their needs or their issues during their working times. Needs assessment (which is also called needs analysis) is the discrepancy between an existing set of conditions and a desired set of conditions which among others can be used to determine the deficits exist so that they can be addressed (Gall & Gall, 2003: 557; Cohen et al., 2000: 390). In this study, needs analysis was used to determine the deficits exist of the provision of a guide book for tourist guides and foreign tourist which meets the vision and missions and users’ needs (namely Sonobudoyo tourist guides) in the research setting.

The development stage consisted of 20 participants who were all involved in cyclical treatments in the form of reading comprehension training. The training was held for 14 meetings by utilizing the designed book as the materials to discuss. In the evaluation stage, they were tested especially on their reading skills acquisition related to their jobs.

3.3 Instruments As it is written above that this project was conducted through three procedures, namely: exploration, development and validation. The instruments used in this case were as follows. Firstly, at the exploration stage it employed structured interview for the intention of collecting information on the users’ needs in providing normative communicative services especially for foreigners visiting Sonobudoyo Museum. In principle, structured interview is like questionnaire that is administered orally and provided detailed data comparable across informants (Nunan & Bailey, 2011: 313). It is intended to control data reliability, by giving some similar questions addressed to every respondent or research subject to avoid data bias (Cohen et al., 2000). In this project, interview was addressed to all of the tourist guides working for Sonobudoyo Museum. In this case, 20 persons of tour guides were purposively involved as the research participants. Secondly, at the development stage, this study used documentation as the research’s instrument, observation as the data collection method completed with field note as the instrument to collect the data. Documentation was conducted by compiling all documents which were in the forms of the relevant books and brochures available at the library of the museum. Observation was done towards the process of English language training held for 14 meetings cyclically. The result of observation was noted in the field notes to analyze their contents, whether or not the available documents fulfilled the needs of the tour guides who especially provided communicative services for foreigners. Third, at the experimental or evaluation stage, the instruments used were test (consisted of pretest and posttest) and FGD (Focus Group Discussion) decision towards the appropriateness of the research product that is called: “The Javanese Cultural Heritages Reserved in Sonobudoyo Museum” (The JCHRSM). FGD is one of the research instruments which consist of a group of relevant interest or field guided by a moderator or facilitator aiming at discussing a certain issue in a lively and natural discussion amongst themselves for the sake of gaining an agreement for the issue solution. This tool is commonly used to judge an agreement or the disagreement through their various insights toward a certain survey findings that cannot be analyzed statistically (ODI, 2009). In this case, the FGD involved 8 (eight) relevant stakeholders such as: the office head and 5 staffs of the museum, a librarian and the author herself, as the researcher for collecting data. The group was given 10 (ten) items of questions related to their opinion towards ‘The JCHRSM’ through a structured interview. The results were then, analyzed by using Aiken’s V (See Figure 3) formula as suggested by Azwar (2016: 134-135). The next stage after collecting data using the above mentioned instruments was analyzing each data procedurally.

3.4 Data Analysis The data in this project consisted of primary and secondary data. The primary data were in the form of the results of: (in-depth) interview, documentation, cyclical observation, reading comprehension test and focus group discussion (FGD) validation consisting of the head and the relevant staffs and the author as the data collector. The FGD was involved to validate the understudied tourist guide book toward the appropriateness of the book’s content with the institution missions and the users’ needs. The secondary data were in the form of any books provided in the research setting (i.e. a national museum which stored and preserved various kinds of Javanese cultural heritage) and the understudied supplementary reading prototype especially designed for the tourist guides working for Sonobudoyo Museum. The gathered data was analyzed through the following activities. Firstly, the first primary data, such as the results of (in-depth) interview, documentation, cyclical observation and the FGD were analyzed using Aiken’s V formula (See Figure 3). The reading comprehension pre-test and post-test results were analyzed statistically using mean difference or gain score computations. Secondly, the secondary data i.e. the available documents were analyzed using content analysis of McDonough & McDonough Model (1997). The documents were analyzed descriptively and validated through peers’ debriefing (by checking the truth of the obtained data to persons who were not directly involved in the research) and tri-angulation theory. Peer debriefing, which is also called analytic triangulation, is the process whereby a researcher calls upon a disinterested peer, that is a peer who is not involved in the research project to aid in probing the researcher's thinking around all or parts of the research process. This probing includes, but it is not limited to, methodology, interpretation, and analysis of data. As such, it is regarded as one of a complement of techniques used to enhance the credibility and trustworthiness of qualitative research through the use of external peers. It is often compared to or paralleled with internal validity in quantitative research (ThễNguyịn, 2013).

Analysing Users Needs Institution Global Needs Data Needs

Peer Debriefing Interview with the Analyzing authorized sources Documents

Discourses Networking Designing Linguistic of Content Materials Aspects

Figure 2. Procedures on Data Analysis Model (McDonough & McDonough, 1997: 118)

The procedures on analyzing data in this research used the following stages. The first stage was needs analysis, that means analyzing the result of interviewing the participants (id est. the tourist guides) and the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 117 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 result of the content analysis of the provided documents using McDonough & McDonough (1997: 118) content analysis model. The available documents stored in the museum were mostly in the form of brochures which only performed several pictures such as keris, wayang, gamelan, Bedoyo dance, traditional wedding dress, and Joglo house, without any complete explainations concerning each of the heritage, whereas the more complete information related to the heritages may provide complete data that must be needed by the tourists, especially the relevant foreign researchers. The content analysis was addressed to all of the understudied variable, such as: (a) variable of the research participants’ understanding towards the content of the designed book and its characteristics; (b) variable of the participants’ issues in using the designed book as an alternative instrument to provide normative communicative services concerning with the existence of the cultural heritages stored in Sonobudoyo Museum; (c) variable of documentation and the training process held in Sonobudoyo Museum Yogyakarta; and (d) variable of the participants’ learning achievement assessment. The gained data, then, was analyzed descriptively by using Aiken’s V formula as shown at Figure

S = r – lo V = ∑ S ∕ [n (c - 1)] (1) (2) Figure 3. Aiken’s V Formula (Azwar, 2016) Notes: Lo= The lowest item score of validity (= 1) S = Scorer/Rater c = The highest item score of validity (5) n = The number of rater/s r = The score given by a rater V=Coefficient number of content validity stretching from 0.00 to 1.00

4. Findings and Discussion 4.1 Findings This part performs the answers of the three research questions as it was formulated at the beginning of this paper. As it is written previously that this project generally aimed at designing a needed book as an alternative reference for the tourist guides of foreigners for the sake of providing information services concerning with the cultural heritages reserved in Sonobudoyo museum. This was done since there was not any reference available in that site except brochures. Specifically, this study investigated: (1) the needs assessment of the tourist guides of Sonobudoyo Museum reading materials; (2) the type of the reading materials design needed by the tourist guides of Sonobudoyo; and (3) the appropriateness or the compatibility of the designed reading materials towards the tourist guides working for Sonobudoyo Museum. Having completed analyzing all of the gathered data using both content and statistical analyses as it was clarified previously, this study found the following information. Firstly, the needs of the tourist guides of Sonobudoyo Museum were reading materials which performed vocabularies related to cultural heritages available in the museum. The reading materials which was in the form of a handy book called “Javanese Cultural Heritage Reserved in Sonobudoyo Museum” (The

JCHRSM) was needed to help the tourist guides working for the museum. The book provides any information dealing with the cultural heritage content stored in the museum. Besides, to inform about the provided artifacts collection needs the mastery of knowledge related to each collection types. As it is written above that Sonobudoyo Museum preserves various kinds of artifacts especially Javanese cultural heritages such as: various types of wayang, batik, keris, gamelan orchestra, traditional wedding dress, traditional dances and Joglo house that are considered unique and specific for they cannot be found at other places except in Java Island, Indonesia. To introduce the available collections as mentioned above, the tourist guides as the main stakeholders should have acquired the “what”, “why” and “how” principles of the artifact collections. The “what” is related to the descent and the use of the artifact, the “why” is related with the philosophical feature and the “how” is about the procedures on producing the investigated objects. The book model was designed to fulfill such user’s needs i.e. by providing information that contains the three aspects as mentioned above. Secondly, the needed type of the reading materials design was a handy guide book which covered all of the cultural heritages information (presented using Cultural Language Learning Approach or CLLA in short). The JCHRSM was considered compatible either for the users (especially the tour guides who worked for the museum) or the vision and mission of the museum (that is, supporting Yogyakarta Province to realize its vision as a leading province in the fields of education, culture, and tourism in Southeast Asia in 2025. Sonobudoyo, which is located in Yogyakarta Province, must, of course, contribute such provincial vision among others through running of the missions in preserving its cultural heritages by storing the artifacts in the museum. To support the heritages preservation can be realized through the provision of the book which provides any information concerning with the heritages. As an illustration, the content of the designed book is presented at Table 1.

Table 1: The linguistic content of ‘The Javanese Cultural Heritages Reserved in Sono budoyo Museum (JCHRSM)’ The designed target skill Page Language content 1-3 Javanese Culture Heritages 3-5 Sonobudoyo Museum 6-7 Vision and Mission of Sonobudoyo Museum Reading Comprehension 7-40 Sonobudoyo Collections 41- 43 Traditional Javanese House (Joglo House) 44 The Clapper Caller Gods 44-55 Masks and Their Origins 56-60 Batik and Its Types 61-64 Bedhaya Dance

Table 1 depicts the book’s content which explores linguistic and its language target. It consists of 64 pages and includes various discourses, namely: Javanese Culture Heritages, Sonobudoyo Museum, vision and mission of Sonobudoyo Museum, Sonobudoyo Collections, Traditional Javanese House (Joglo house), The

Clapper Caller Gods, Masks and Their Origins, Batik and Its Types, and Bedhaya Dance. It was considered matched with the users, for the designed model was created by considering the deficits exist of the provision of a guide book for tourist guides and foreign tourists which really met the defined vision and missions of the cultural heritage museum. It also provides the “what”, “why” and “how” about various kinds and features of wayang, batik, keris, gamelan orchestra, traditional wedding dress, Joglo house and Javanese traditional dances. Such book’s contents were intentionally presented to enrich the readers’ knowledge about the existence of such valuable heritages. Besides, it is also possible to use as an alternative reference both for English language learners and/or teachers to facilitate English language learning using cultural language learning approach or CLLA in short. Third, the designed reading materials was judged compatible to be used as a guidance for the tourist guides who worked for Sonobudoyo Museum. This judgment was decided by considering the result of focus group discussion (FGD) decision concerning the compatibility of the book towards the users’ needs. The book was agreed to be used as guidance for the tourist guides of Sonobudoyo in providing information services for foreigners. By utilizing the book, they may run their jobs easily. The result of the FGD is illustrated at Table 2.

Table 2: The Result of FGD decision analysis using percentage point (Inspired by Hutchinson & Waters, 1994) No Statements Item Yes % No % The designed book (JCHRSM) is appropriate to be

used by the tourist guides working for Sonobudoyo 1 5 62.5 3 37.5 Museum. The designed book (JCHRSM) fulfills the tourist guides need on the lack of such handy guide book to 2 6 75 2 25 make them easier to handle their daily jobs. Audience /Users Audience

The designed book may be used as an alternative 1. reference to help the tourist guides to provide 3 6 75 2 25 communicative services especially for foreigners.

The aim of the provision of the book matched with

the vision and mission of the existence of 4 7 87.5 1 12.5 Sonobudoyo Museum. Aim/

Objectives The aim of the provision of the book matched with 2. the needs on the existence of non-brochures written 5 6 75 2 25 information about Sonobudoyo Museum.

The designed book performs the needed information concerning with the cultural heritages stored in 6 7 87.5 1 12.5 Sonobudoyo Museum. Content

The provided discourses support the users/tourist 3. guides language acquisition 7 8 100 0 0

The designed book is interesting, handy to carry around so that it is very helpful for the users to 8 7 87.5 1 12.5 provide information related to the cultural heritages stored in Sonobudoyo Museum.

Table 2 illustrates 8 (eight) questions addressed to the 8 (eight) FGD members. The questions were categorized into three aspects; they are audience/users, aim/objectives and content (inspired by Hutchinson & Waters, 1994). The ‘audience’ category consisted of 3 statements, the ‘aim/objectives’ category consisted of 2 statements, and the ‘content’ category which had 3 statements. The first item was supported by 5 members, while the second and the third were agreed by six members for each. The 4th (fourth) and the 5th (fifth) were agreed by 7 and 6 members for each, while the 6th (sixth), the 7th (seventh) and the 8th (eighth) items were supported by 7, 8, 7 members for each. Based on the computation result using percentage, it was found that the average percentage of the achieved data was 625: 8 members = 78.125% or 0.78 in the decimal number. Such coefficient number is categorized high.

To control the data analysis validation quality, the author intentionally carried on a triangulation. Conceptually, there are four types of triangulation. The first is ‘data triangulation’; in which different source of data (such as teachers, students, parents, et cetera) contribute to an investigation. Secondly, ‘theory triangulation’ is used when various theories are brought to bear in a study. The third is ‘researcher triangulation’, in which more than one researcher contributes to the investigation. Finally, ‘methods triangulation’ involves the use of multiple methods, such as interviews, questionnaire, observation schedules, test scores, and field notes. In this case, triangulation theories were used by considering that it matched with the investigated issue.

The theory used to compare in this study was the ‘pedagogical scaffolding’. According to Springer (2003) and Nunan & Bailey (2011: 2013), triangulation theory may include ‘project-based learning’, ‘pedagogical scaffolding and contingent language use’. Here, the alternative pedagogical scaffolding was the use of two scaffoldings of Hutchinson & Waters (1994) theory of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) materials design and McDonough & McDonough theory of Content Analysis. The results of utilizing those two theories were analyzed using percentage and Aiken’s V formula. Table 3 depicts the result of content validity computation using Aiken’s V formula.

Table 3: The Result of FGD decision analysis using Aiken’s V Formula (Inspired by Azwar, 2016) Number of Item Raters saying “Yes” V = ∑ S ∕ [n (c-1)] 1 5 0.60 2 6 0.75 3 6 0.75 4 7 0.89 5 6 0.75 6 7 0.89 7 8 1.00 8 7 0.89 ∑ V = 6.52 Coefficient average = 0.81

As it can be seen at Table 3, the coefficient average score data computation was 0.81. This data was gained from a number of raters (from the totally 8 FGD members) who answered ‘Yes’ (meaning agreed or supported the given statements within the structured interview). Based on the total gained score of 6.52 with the total FGD member of 8 persons, it means that the coefficient number of the product validity was 0.81. If it is compared with the first data, that is 0.78, the second computation result using Aiken’s V formula was higher (0.81 > 0.78). Even though there was a little different of the results but the score gap was not significantly different by considering that both of the coefficient numbers were around 0.8 that categorized high validity coefficient. As it is known that the validity coefficient number stretches from 0.00 to 1.00 (Arikunto, 2010). The judgment of the FGD then was used as the legalization of publishing the book.

4.2 Discussion 4.2.1. Cultural Language Learning Approach and Its Implementation It has been defined at the early part of this work, that Cultural Language Learning Approach (CLLA) is an approach which focuses on the discourse content that contains knowledge about various kinds of a certain community cultural heritage. In accordance with such concept, Hermayawati (2014) suggested language teachers, instructors and trainers who are part of education system to support the government policy in its effort to solve the people’s moral values degradation and for the sake of introducing local cultures towards young generation and foreigners aiming at preventing conflicts due to the wrong recognition on the available certain heritages. She proposed that any information (the what’, ‘why’, where’ and ‘how’) concerning with the chosen cultural heritages can be embedded within the discourses both as the linguistic and the knowledge learning targets simultaneously. Say as an example, the term ‘wayang’ (puppets)’ has a relatively broad connotation. This word may involve the ‘what’, ‘why’, ‘where’ and ‘how’ aspects that commonly accompany its existence. The ‘what’ term may involve the terms ‘dalang’ (puppeteer), ‘gamelan’ (orchestra), ‘niyaga’ (gamelan musician), ‘pesinden’ (Javanese singer), ‘lakon’ (story title). The term ‘why’ relates to reasons of the relevant community like this art. The term ‘where’ is connoted with the place of performing the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 122 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 show and/or the original descent of the term. And the ‘how’ relates to the way of playing or enjoying it. Similarly, with the existence of the other related terms such as: ‘keris’, ‘batik’, traditional wedding dress, ‘Joglo’ house, and ‘Bedhaya dance’ are described completely by including the ‘what’, ‘why’, ‘where’ and ‘how’ aspects. In a nutshell, all information related to the cultural heritages as written above may be used as the means of developing both the linguistic and knowledge of learners or users for such information need through the supplementary reading book content comprehension. CLLA is actually not only beneficial to use as an approach to enhance reading skill, but also can be used for the three other skills, namely listening, speaking and writing. But in this project, the main intention was to provide an alternative reference aiming to help the tourist guides jobs in running their duties. Here, the needed terms to fulfill were both information and the relevant language components such as vocabulary, pronunciation, spelling, structure and grammar. But all of the components were not isolatedly exposed but integratedly embedded within the reading skill mastery. Hence, the use of CLLA as an approach will depend on the learning process objectives.

4.2.2 Establishing English Learning for Non-academic Need It is undeniable that English teaching today, including teaching reading, is still mainly in favor of academic interests and less in favor of the non-academic ones. Whereas, the latter needs more attention from the academicians to serve since the non-academicians commonly earn the living in the informal sectors with the relative huge amount of numbers. The tour guides, for instance, if working in the formal sector such as those are hired by their institution, they are commonly positioned as a contract workers whose fate depend on the quality of their works. If their works are acceptable or considered professional, their contracts will be extended. In facts, as tour guides whose primary jobs were providing communicative services for foreigners, they should be able to do their jobs professionally, at least by utilizing the supplementary reading book that has been designed using CLLA. Such type of workers need more attention, even though they had ever learnt English for many years before working as tourist guides, i.e. whenever they were at several years of elementary schools until the higher level of study. Normatively, such types of workers are categorized into false-beginners level. According to Bailey (2005: 14), a false-beginner level is a learner who had learnt English for many years but keep unable to communicate in the language s/he learnt for many years. The investigated tourist guides were, in this case, included in these types of learners. Considering the tourist guides level of learning, the author treated them as the false-beginners. They were taught reading aloud beside comprehension, though conceptually, reading aloud should be taught for the beginners and pre-intermediate level in which mostly at the age of children and young learners. Reading aloud was explored to improve the participants’ pronunciation mastery while reading comprehension was intended to enhance the learners reading skill, especially in understanding the provided discourse contents. The other language aspects such as lexis, grammar and structure were learnt integratively within the given discourses sequentially from the easiest to the more complicated. Traditionally, syllabus items were graded and sequenced according to grammatical complexity for instance, the simple present tense would be introduced before conditional sentences (Nunan, 2009: 95). In relation to reading comprehension there was the dilemma captured, for instance, the text readability was really influenced by linguistic factors like words difficulty and its sentences complexity. Thus, this became

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 123 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 a challenge for the author (as the instructor) in choosing the worthiest strategy to deliver the texts successfully comprehended. Concerning the principle of learning strategy, Nunan (ibid: 89) defined that it involves the mental and communicative process that learners deploy to learn a second language. In this project, the author employed group work strategy to arouse the participants’ motivation to lighten their learning process and minimize their burdens. As it is written in the title’s part, principally, this project employed Cultural Language Learning Approach (CLLA). This approach was embedded together within the given provided discourses for the group works study as the learning strategy. CLLA was, in this study, by the reason of matching their daily jobs on having moral responsibility to introduce and disseminate the cultural heritages stored in their institution where they were demanded to dedicate or devote their capacities. While the group works strategy was used by the reason of making the learning processes easier for the participants to do every learning task provided by the English language training instructor (the author).

4.2.3 Assessment Assessment is defined as the process of teacher’s gauging information of the learners learning processes and its results. This also involves on multiple ways of collecting information that provide them with the type of feedback the need to monitor learner’s progress and to plan for instruction (O’Malley & Pierce, 1996: 2). The term assessment cannot be separated from the term evaluation. As it is known that there are two types of evaluation, they are formative and summative evaluation. Formative evaluation focuses on evaluating the process to improve the learning program while the latter focuses more on the result of the program to measure both the efficiency and the effectiveness of the educational program (Sukmadinata, 2007: 122). According to Nunan (ibid: 140), assessment is defined as procedures for determining what learners can and cannot do, while evaluation is procedures for determining how effectively the curriculum is achieving its objectives. Concerning with language assessment, Fulcher & Davidson (2007: 29) defined that it should be in performance-based. Performance-based elements in large scale are usually restricted to a small number of controlled task types which commonly involves writing and speaking. Referring to the various definitions written above, it can be defined the distinction of assessment and evaluation is, that assessment focuses on gaining information of the learners learning need, while the latter is stressed more on the learning program’s effectiveness and efficiency. In line with the above concepts of assessment, in this study, both assessment and evaluation terms were used as the instruments to gain information concerning with the participants need analysis procedure and the result of their learning process for 14 meetings of English training. In other words, assessment principle was used as the tool to gather need analysis while the latter was utilized to evaluate the participants’ language acquisition after joining the intentional treatments based on their performances both in written and spoken way using the designed product, namely the supplementary reading material which is called JCHRSM (Javanese Cultural Heritages Reserved in Sonobudoyo Museum).

4.2.4 The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Research Product

As it is considered that there is nothing perfect in the world of life, likewise the designed model of JCHRSM, of course, it has its strengths and weaknesses. The strengths are among others as follows: (1) It fulfills the user’s or the reader’s needs at his/her curiosity concerning with the Javanese cultural heritages; (2) It provides a new complete reference for further relevant research; (3) It provides information about Javanese cultural heritages that can be beneficial to disseminate and/or declare to other nations through tourism for the sake of avoiding international conflicts which may appear as the effect of the similar culture recognition; (4) It can be used as an alternative supplementary reading in English language teaching (ELT) especially to facilitate the teaching of extensive reading; (5) It may realize and generate the Javanese learners’ sense of belonging toward their ancestor’s valuable heritage, so that they will be responsible for preserving it as well. The weaknesses of the model is, among others as follows: (1) It merely contains specified cultural heritages so that it may be only interesting to be read by a certain relevant community; (2) It does not provide any task to evaluate the readers or learners’ reading comprehension since it only provides a lot of text concerning with Javanese cultural heritage information; (3) It does not facilitate materials to teach other language skills such as listening, speaking and writing, except it is redeveloped into the teaching of those skills. Thus, it can be only used as a reference related to cultural heritages stored in Sonobudoyo Museum. The provision of such designed book however, was extremely needed to complete the available brochures which were relatively insufficient to fulfill the need of the tour guides in conducting their jobs.

5. Conclusion and Suggestion It has been widely written that the main points of this project was designing a handy book contains any information concerning with the cultural heritages stored in Sonobudoyo Museum Yogyakarta. As it has been written earlier that this study yielded reading book which was called Javanese Cultural Heritages Reserved in Sonobudoyo Museum (The JCHRSM). This book was designed and then judged as an alternative guide book for the museum’s tourist guides by considering the results of the three variables that had been intentionally used as the basic of the end product decision. Based on the research findings as written above, it can be concluded as follows: (1) The need of the tourist guides currently working for the research setting (namely Sonobudoyo National Museum) was the provision of the guide book entitled “Javanese Cultural Heritages Reserved in Sonobudoyo Museum” (The JCHRSM); (2) Based on the result of the development research, it was found that the understudied book model was matched with the users’ need; (3) The result of validation step showed that the book model was judged to be a tourist guide book that can be used as a provision for tourism service. Additionally, this book may be also developed to be a supplementary reading for English language learners and teachers and other users. As it has been discussed earlier that this primary project finding was the provision of The JCHRSM that was actually dedicated for the relevant tour guides but only as a supporting reference and has not developed fully as normative language teaching materials that contain various tasks to support language training. Therefore, these results still need wider theoretical and practical development, especially for the advanced researcher, language materials developer and teacher of English. On the other hand, this product may be multiplied by the authorized official in charge for providing alternative written information not only for the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2017 pg. 125 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-5 No-08, 2017 workers, but also for the visitors who need the complete information related to the heritages stored in the museum. This is suggested to do by the museum or the upper authorized institution such as the regional government by considering that this project had limited facilities. Ultimately, as a ‘no ivory that is not cracked’ this paper still needs suggestions from the readers for the sake of its perfection.

7. References [1] Anonymous. (2011). What is Culture?. Available at © 2003-2011, Atma Global, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Retrieved February 20, 2017 from http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/ challenges-and- opportunities-in-international-business/ s07-01-what-is-culture-anyhow-values-.html.

[2] Arikunto, Suharsimi. (2010). Prosedur Penelitian : Suatu Pendekatan Praktik. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.

[3] Azwar, Saiffudin. (2016). Penyusunan Skala Psikologi (Edisi 2). Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.

[4] Bailey, Kathleen M. (2005). Practical English Language Teaching Speaking. New York: McGraw- Hill.

[5] Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy; 2nd Ed. New York: Pearson Education Company.

[6] Cindy Hail, Beth Hurst & Deanne Camp. (2007). Peer Debriefing: Teachers’ Reflective Practices for Professional Growth. Missouri: Missouri State University.

[7] Cohen, Louis, et al. (2000). Research Methods in Education; 5th Ed. London: Routledge Falmer.

[8] Dubin, Fraida and Elite Olshtain. (1990). Developing Programs and Materials for Language Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.

[9] FGD TEFLIN. (2013). Pokok Pikiran dan Rekomendasi tentang Kurikulum Mata Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris Tahun 2013: Hasil FGD TEFLIN 2013. Bandung: UPI. Retrieved January 20, 2017 from http://file.upi.edu/Direktori/FPBS/ Jur._Pend._Bahasa_Inggris/196706091994031- Didi_Sukiyadi

[10] Fulcher, Glenn & Davidson, Fred. (2011). Language Testing and Assessment: An advanced resource book. London & New York: Roudledge.

[11] Gall, Meredith.D, Joyce P. Gall, and Walter R. Borg. (2003). Educational Research: An Introduction (7th Edition). USA: Allyn and Bacon.

[12] Hermayawati.(2008).Pengembangan Materi Ajar Bahasa Inggris dengan Pendekatan Fungsional

(Penelitian Pengembangan di PJTKI Jakarta). Unpublished Doctorate Dissertation. Universitas Sebelas Maret Surakarta.

[13] Hermayawati. (2014). Embedding Cultural & Moral Values in ELT through Cultural Language Learning Approach (CLLA): A paper presented at the Proceedings of International Conference and Seminar on Cross Cultural Understanding 2014 hosted by Master Program of English Education Faculty of Graduate School Ahmad Dahlan University. Retrieved February 26, 2017 from https://www.academia.edu/24572714/Embedding_Cultural_and_Moral_ Values in_ELT_through_Cultural_Language_Learning_Approach_CLLA

[14] Hoebel, E. Adamson (1982). Anthropology, law and genetic inheritance. In M. Gruter and P. Bohannan (Eds.) Law, Biology and Culture: The Evolution of Law (pp. 27-33). San Diego. Ross- Erikson, Publishers, Inc. [15] Hutchinson, Tom & Waters, Alan. (1994). English for Specific Purposes: A Learning-Centred Approach. USA: Cambridge University Press.

[16] Javed, Muhammad, et.al. (2015). Developing Reading Comprehension Modules to Facilitate Reading Comprehension among Malaysian Secondary School ESL Students. International Journal of Instruction, Vol. 8 (2) pp. 140-154. Retrieved April 15, 2017 from http://www.e-iji.net doi: 10.12973/iji.2015.8211a.

[17] Jiang, Decheng. (2010). A Study of the Teaching of Culture in College English. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, Vol. 1 (5) pp. 735-737. Retrieved Februari 22, 2017 from Academy Publisher Manufactured in Finland.doi:10.4304/ jltr.1.5.735-737.

[18] McDonough, Jo. & McDonough, Steven. (1997). Research Methods for English Language Teachers. New York: St Martin’s Press Inc.

[19] McDonough, J and Shaw, C. (2003). Materials and Method in ELT: A Teacher’s Guide. (2nd Edition). United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing.

[20] Nunan, David. & Bailey, Catherine M. (2011). Exploring Second Language Classroom Research. Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

[21] Nunan, David. (2009). Introduction to Task-Based Teaching. Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

[22] ODI (The Overseas Development Institute). (2009). Research tools: Focus group discussion. A Publication retrieved March 01, 2017 from https://www.odi.org/publications/ 5695-focus-group- discussion.

[23] O’Malley, J. Michael & Pierce, Lorraine Valdez. (1996). Authentic Assessment for English Language Learners. NY USA: Longman.

[24] Ramli, Mohd Anuar. (2017). Konsep Budaya. Available at Page 18. Retrieved February 20,2017from https://www.academia.edu /1736613/Kuliah_1_Konsep_Budaya.

[25] Springer, S.E. (2003). Contingent language use and scaffolding in a project-based ESL course. Unpublished manuscript, Monterey Institute of International Studies, Monterey, California.

[26] Sukmadinata, Nana Syaodih. (2007). Metode Penelitian Pendidikan. Bandung: PT. Remaja Rosda Karya.

[27] ThễNguyịn. ( 2013). Peer Debriefing: A paper available at file:///D:/Peer Debriefing SAGE Knowledge.htm. Retrieved October 27, 2013.

[28] Tomlinson, Brian. (1998). Materials Development in Language Teaching: Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[29] Tomlinson, Brian & Hitomi Masuhara. (2004). Developing Language Course Materials. Singapore: SEAMEO.

[30] ThễNguyịn, Thu Su'o'ng. (2013). Peer Debriefing. Retrieved October 27, 2013 from file:///D:/Peer Debriefing SAGE Knowledge.htm.

Copyright Disclaimer Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).