FORD FOUNDATION

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EDITORIAL BOARD Suzanne E. Siskel Mary S. Zurbuchen Philip Yampolsky Mark Hanusz

PRINCIPAL AUTHOR Goenawan Mohamad

INTERVIEWS AND SIDEBARS Sandra Hamid Andreas Harsono Laksmi Pamuntjak

TRANSLATION AND EDITING John H. McGlynn Patrick Kavanagh Irfan Kortschak Nasiruddin Budi Setiyono Linda Owens Paul Dillon

PHOTO RESEARCH Suli Widodowati Untung H. Bimo John Hanusz I Putu Bagus Yogi

©2003 Ford Foundation

ISBN 979-97964-1-5

No part of this work may be used for any purpose without written consent from the Ford Foundation.

All rights reserved.

Women from a Tengger village in East , 1990. Introduction: A Time for Celebration ...... 9

————————————————CHAPTER ONE———————————————— No Ivory Tower ...... 35 Sayuti Hasibuan ...... 39 ...... 53 Daoed Joesoef ...... 43 An Evening with the Technocrats ...... 58 Institution-Builder: Djojohadikusumo ...... 46 A for the Arts in ...... 62 Technocrat Number One: ...... 50

————————————————CHAPTER TWO———————————————— America, America...... 69 Mayling Oey-Gardiner ...... 73 Sukadji Ranuwihardjo ...... 91 The Green Revolution: Feeds Itself...... 74 Mely G. Tan...... 95 Sajogyo ...... 77 Sophie Sarwono ...... 97 Public Defenders: The Indonesian Legal Aid Foundation . 80 A Short Hiatus ...... 100 Haryono Suyono ...... 83

————————————————CHAPTER THREE———————————————— Petroleum, Policies, and Protests ...... 103 Syahrir ...... 107 Sartono Kartodirdjo...... 123 Civil Society and State: The Campaign . 108 A Public Intellectual: Soedjatmoko...... 124 Ibrahim Alfian...... 113 Rumors, Plots, and Conspiracies: The Ramparts Article ... 126 Juwono Sudarsono ...... 117 Taufik Abdullah ...... 129 Anugerah Pekerti ...... 119 ...... 131 The Professor Who Loved Indonesia ...... 120

————————————————CHAPTER FOUR———————————————— The Mantra of Unity ...... 135 Augustinus Rumansara ...... 137 Laso’ Sombolinggi’ ...... 157 Preserving the Past: Manuscripts and Microfilms ...... 138 Nursyahbani Katjasungkana ...... 159 Erna Witoelar ...... 143 Tony Djogo ...... 165 Charles Suryadi...... 145 Helmi ...... 169 Ninuk Widyantoro ...... 147 Comic Energy: Umar Kayam ...... 170 Zohra Andi Baso ...... 149 Edi Sedyawati...... 174 Nyoman Sutawan ...... 151 Endo Suanda ...... 177 Sandra Moniaga ...... 155

————————————————CHAPTER FIVE———————————————— A Journey, A Nation...... 181 Taboos Overturned: Freedom of Expression ...... 184 Lies Marcoes-Natsir ...... 209 Amna Kusumo...... 187 Irid Agoes ...... 211 Women’s Rights: Reinterpreting Classical Texts ...... 188 Boosting Books: Program Pustaka...... 212 Maria Hartiningsih ...... 191 Lilis N. Husna ...... 213 Sarah Lery Mboeik ...... 193 Dede Oetomo ...... 215 Music of Indonesia: The Smithsonian/MSPI CDs ...... 194 Ratna Riantiarno ...... 217 ...... 197 Fred Wibowo ...... 219 Stepanus Djuweng ...... 199 Ribut Susanto ...... 221 Zoemrotin K. Susilo ...... 202 Yayah Khisbiyah ...... 223 Farha Ciciek...... 203

List of Acronyms ...... 228 Sources Consulted...... 230 Index...... 231 Photo Credits ...... 235 Staff and Consultants in Indonesia...... 236 8 INTRODUCTION A TIME FOR CELEBRATION 9

INTRODUCTION A TIME FOR CELEBRATION

he story of the Ford Foundation’s half century in Indonesia resonates with the great motifs of nation- building, development and modernization that T th shaped international relations in the second half of the 20 century. It is also a chronicle of one of the ’ leading philanthropic organizations as it sought to play an effective and relevant role in a rapidly-changing world. The Foundation’s work in Indonesia and elsewhere is grounded in the culture of American philanthropy, which emerged in the late 1800s from a unique combination of the United States’ industrial expansion, ideals of social reform, and a system of government taxation providing incentives for the charitable giving of private wealth. The Foundation has never functioned as a charity, in the sense of providing direct relief or services to those in need. Instead it is a philanthropy, defined in the dictionary as “an active effort to promote human welfare.” The Foundation works to effect positive change in strategically chosen areas of endeavor. Its mission statement expresses and elaborates this basic purpose through four overarching goals: strengthen democratic values, reduce poverty and injustice, promote international cooperation, and advance human achievement.

 Displaying hand-woven ikat textiles in Pontianak, West , 2003. Facilitating the transmisson of traditional arts – including weaving – across generations is a theme of the Foundation’s arts and culture grantmaking. 10 INTRODUCTION

The Ford Foundation was established in 1936 as a local Of those countries where the Foundation initiated philanthropy in the state of Michigan, using gifts of stock in overseas work in the 1950s, there are only two in which it the Ford Motor Company from Henry and Edsel Ford. remains active: (where the field office opened in 1952) Following the global turmoil and destruction of World War II, and Indonesia (opened in 1953). In Asia today, the Foundation and anticipating additional bequests from Ford family estates, also has offices in and Vietnam, but over time it has had the Foundation commissioned a study (known as the “Gaither resident Representatives in , Burma, , , Report”) to assess new options and directions for its work. In , the , and . Indonesia was viewed 1950, the Foundation’s trustees made the historic decision to as “a country of unique significance” in early Foundation expand the organization to become a national and an memoranda, because of its rapid and turbulent transition from international foundation. This decision reflected particular colony to independent state and the great need for development concern for the cause of peace: “among all the problems in of its human resources, and because – in the political thinking human relations,” the trustees stated, “the greatest challenge is of that time – Indonesia seemed to have “a reasonable chance the achievement of peace throughout the world.” The Trustees of developing along democratic lines.” It is clear that in the felt that only through improving economic and social conditions early days of the , the Foundation’s leadership shared in societies around the globe could the causes of war be the concerns of the United States government regarding eliminated, and they mandated that the Foundation’s resources communism in Asia, and that Indonesia was regarded as be managed as a perpetual source of support for programs and contested territory in the confrontation between totalitarian operations. Over time, the Foundation divested itself of all of and open societies. its Ford Motor Company stock, and the Ford family no longer In 1952, the first assessment team to visit Indonesia from was involved with the decisions or policies of the Foundation. the Ford Foundation described Indonesia’s pressing need to train Under the guidance of its first president, Paul Hoffman, competent administrators, increase rice production, improve the Ford Foundation began operations outside of the United basic health, and address education needs that were “tremendous States, focusing on newly independent or emerging societies in scale,” including a need for greater fluency in English. struggling to institute democratic forms of government. Before Indonesia had a population of 75 million people, the sixth largest joining the Foundation, Hoffman had been a principal architect population in the world at that time. It had vast resources of of the Marshall Plan in Europe. He approached the forest, marine and mineral wealth, yet its population suffered development of overseas programs by focusing on the needs of from widespread poverty following the Depression of the 1930s, individual countries, consulting the governments of those the Japanese occupation, and the war for independence in the countries about their own priorities, and establishing overseas 1940s. Only ten per cent of Indonesians were literate; unlike in offices of the Foundation to work “on the ground.” These basic India where mass education was provided to train colonial principles of operations in countries around the world have subjects for public service, Dutch colonial policy severely limited endured to this day. the educational opportunities available to “natives.”

Rice growing on the foothills of , West , 2003. Increasing Indonesia’s rice production was an early priority for the Foundation. A TIME FOR CELEBRATION 11 12 INTRODUCTION A TIME FOR CELEBRATION 13 14 INTRODUCTION

The Indonesian government welcomed the Foundation’s senior staff working in its New York and 12 overseas offices. offer of involvement, and President endorsed the Programs in Indonesia are linked to those in other countries proposals for training civil servants and improving the teaching around the world, promoting the cross-fertilization of ideas of English. In an unpublished memoir, one of the early and strategies as well as international collaboration among Representatives in , John Bresnan, suggested that “a grantees and staff. private American philanthropy like the Ford Foundation was of some interest [to Sukarno] as an alternative to the US Conditions in Indonesia have vastly changed since 1953: there government,” which had only reluctantly come to support the are now some 212 million people, national literacy rates cause of Indonesian independence during the struggle against approach 90 per cent, and per capita income has grown from the Dutch from 1945-49. A one-room office in Jakarta’s Hotel less than $30 in the early 1960s to around $900 today. Schools, des Indes opened in June 1953, but activities at first progressed health facilities, modern communications, and basic with frustrating slowness. It was only when a former labor infrastructure have spread throughout the archipelago. A organizer named Michael Harris took over the Jakarta office in succession of governments – from Sukarno’s super-nationalist 1955 that the Foundation began to make a mark. Guided Democracy to the authoritarian of , Over the 50 years of its work in Indonesia, the the brief interludes of B.J. Habibie and , Foundation has committed, in today’s dollars, some US$ 420 up to the current administration of President Megawati million in Indonesia in a variety of fields, out of more than $12 Sukarnoputri – have wrestled with enormous problems in billion given in grants and loans in the US and internationally. addressing needs for improved livelihoods, social justice, and The Foundation remains an independent, nonprofit pluralist tolerance. These governments’ policies and their effects, organization, accepting no contributions from governments along with global and local currents of socio-economic change, or any other donors; its trustees set policy and delegate have created the context for the Foundation’s work and the grantmaking and operational authority to the president and array of issues and challenges to which it has sought to respond.

Representative Michael Harris with his secretary, listed only as Miss Cunningham in the photo’s original caption, in the Hotel des Indes office, 1957. The Hotel des Indes, where the Foundation opened its first office in Indonesia in 1953. A TIME FOR CELEBRATION 15

Over the past 50 years, grantmaking programs have social-science training commissioned from the anthropologist changed and evolved in tune with the Foundation’s staff Clifford Geertz. He observed that “Indonesian intellectual life assessments of issues to be addressed and opportunities for making is centralized, over-organized, practical, and strongly influenced an impact. The first decade of activity focused on establishing by economists.” Geertz argued that the social sciences required faculties of economics and teachers’ training colleges, and on stimulation through a decentralized training program based in building capacity. Most of the Foundation’s regional institutions, “animated by regional concerns,” and Indonesian grantmaking at that time went toward education; grounded in research methods and analysis. As a result, the the Foundation could point to over 300 teachers and Foundation helped launch the Social Science Research Training administrators who studied outside the country, many of whom Stations program and extended support for the non-economic later attained key positions in government or universities, or as social sciences in other directions as well. policy advisors. The most famous among these – a cohort of Entering the 1980s, the Foundation’s substantial economic “technocrats” trained at leading US institutions like commitment to the social sciences had strengthened its capacity the University of California and Massachusetts Institute of to respond to the need for poverty alleviation strategies for the Technology – became known as the “.” village-based, agriculture-dependent Indonesians who formed Political conflict led to a temporary closing of the office 80 per cent of the population. By 1982 Indonesia had been in late 1965. When it reopened in 1967, the Foundation classified as a “middle income country” by the World Bank, decided to add new emphases to its existing programs through and along with other ASEAN countries had enjoyed a period support for family planning, rice research, basic social sciences, of relative stability and economic growth. Yet this stability was and development planning at the national level. These themes shadowed by tight military control and concerns about basic were the hallmarks of work in the 1970s, along with continuing human rights, and there were growing and glaring inequities support for higher education for Indonesians. The Foundation’s in the distribution of the fruits of development, especially under approach was importantly influenced by a report in 1971 on the domination of Indonesia’s military and business elite.

Taufik Abdullah (Cornell), Alfian (Wisconsin), Harsja Bachtiar (Harvard), Soedradjad Djiwandono (Wisconsin), Mely Tan (UC Berkeley), and Algamar (Wisconsin) in front of UC Berkeley’s Sather Gate at a meeting of Foundation grantees who had been selected for study abroad by the Indonesian Institute of Sciences (Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia – LIPI), 1966. 16 INTRODUCTION A TIME FOR CELEBRATION 17

and Foundation-supported researchers from Brawijaya University in , , interview farmers to gain a better understanding of their agroecological practices.Repairing manuscripts in the court of , . The Foundation’s work in preserving, cataloguing, and microfilming Indonesia’s endangered manuscripts began in 1984.

The Foundation’s program, accordingly, focused focus and impact of the Foundation’s work expanded increasingly on community-based management of land and considerably. During this time all grantmaking in Indonesia, water resources, on the productivity of Indonesia’s diverse agro- the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam was administered from ecosystems and its informal employment sector, and on the Jakarta, and program staff based in Indonesia frequently worked need to base development interventions on the real interests on parallel activities across the region. and involvement of rural Indonesians. Another signature of In the 1990s, it became clear that a fractured yet this period was a growing number of grants to emerging civil- progressively more adamant opposition to the New Order was society organizations struggling to operate outside the emerging from many sectors of society, and that Indonesia’s framework of government, promoting concern for legal and economic disparities, official corruption, and lack of openness human rights, the environment, consumer interests, and gender were great and growing problems. Increasingly, Foundation equity. Equally important was the growth and deepening of grantees promoted social justice concerns, whether these took support for work in cultural preservation and vitality, which the shape of attention to minority cultural groups and their sought to study, document, and sustain Indonesia’s diverse and “right to be different,” women calling for improved reproductive vibrant living traditions. health and livelihoods, journalists advancing freedom of During the years 1981 to 1995, Jakarta was designated expression, or local communities seeking recognition of their as Ford’s regional office, and the geographic rights to forest resources. 18 INTRODUCTION A TIME FOR CELEBRATION 19 20 INTRODUCTION A TIME FOR CELEBRATION 21

A trainer from Rifka Anissa, a reproductive health grantee in , speaking at a workshop for local police on handling cases of domestic abuse, 2003. A mother with her newborn child at a clinic outside of , 1985. Improving maternal-child health was an important focus of the Foundation’s support in the 1980s. A sex worker in Singaraja, , learns how to properly apply a condom at a clinic run by grantee Citra Usadha, 2003.

Throughout its 50 years in Indonesia, the Foundation into the new millennium include support for Muslim groups has sustained its commitment to education, supporting a range exploring alternative interpretations of social and gender issues, of scholarship and fellowship programs that have evolved with religious groups seeking to increase their appreciation of local changing conditions and needs in the country. The earliest artistic traditions and cultural practices, and educators scholarships were designed to help forge new generations of developing a new school curriculum in the arts stressing university teachers in fields such as economics and education Indonesia’s cultural diversity. A new program portfolio that were deemed critical for a newly independent nation. focusing on local governance and civic participation was Subsequent programs helped to build expertise in specific fields established and quickly built momentum. Another new area such as cultural documentation and revitalization, population of grantmaking reflects the Foundation’s interest in the and reproductive health, and rural development. Today cultures, practices and environment for philanthropy within significant new programs support post-graduate study for Indonesia, along with concern for the sustainability and talented individuals from underserved or disadvantaged sectors accountability of civic associations and nonprofit institutions. of the population, who show promise as leaders of their Underlying much of its work in Indonesia is the Foundation’s community or society. commitment to pluralism and peaceful co-existence among Other emerging areas of the Foundation’s work moving the archipelago’s diverse cultures. 22 INTRODUCTION A TIME FOR CELEBRATION 23 24 INTRODUCTION

This record of support to thousands of individuals and products of grants provide important insights, as when institutions over half a century reveals certain shifts and changes community organizing around irrigation management and in the modalities of the Foundation’s philanthropy. While in forestry gave people skills that are now proving vital in the its early days grants were conceived and designed in concert radically new context of decentralization. with agencies of the (including uni- Relationships between donors and grant recipients can be versities), over time the Foundation also developed strong links one of the most sensitive and challenging dimensions of with private groups and the nonprofit sector. Initially, the Foun- international philanthropy. The Foundation seeks to fulfill its dation’s strategic approaches were based on training, obligations for grantee reports and monitoring while still allowing institution-building, and the provision of outside expertise. Later grantees to develop their programs without excessive oversight on, the importance of net- or intervention. In a speech working among various commemorating Ford’s organizations, integration 40th anniversary in of research and policy Indonesia, the prominent processes, and building economist Widjojo Niti- knowledge through com- sastro commented that the munity-based initiatives Foundation did not in- was recognized. The volve itself in day-to-day Foundation increasingly activities or decision- has sought to facilitate making once programs it fruitful, diverse partner- funded were initiated. ships involving NGOs, A willingness to academic researchers, and experiment with, to learn government, providing from, and to adjust multi-faceted institutional support for people to explore new activities as innovative approaches are tried has characterized avenues and test innovative ideas. the Foundation’s work in Indonesia as elsewhere. In measuring The Ford Foundation’s flexibility, patience, and long- the results of its support, the Foundation recognizes that even term commitment to important problems have been projects that fail to achieve all their objectives can yield valuable distinguishing features of its work throughout its years in insights and lessons for the future. Forging successful Indonesia. Grants not only fund short-term projects, but also partnerships with independent local groups and institutions provide essential core funding to help ensure long-term means that innovation and learning take place in a mutually organizational sustainability. The Foundation invests in people, respectful environment. In the end, dialogue and the exchange institutions, and ideas, without always predicting the outcomes of ideas and critical perspectives can be just as significant as the of its support. In fact, the unanticipated outcomes or by- transfer of funds.

President Suharto greets visiting Ford President Franklin Thomas (center) and Board Chair Edson Spencer, 1989. Playing on fish traps outside of , , 2003. These traps are a local invention developed by villagers working with WARSI, a grantee that promotes community-based natural resource management. A TIME FOR CELEBRATION 25 26 INTRODUCTION

The second Foundation office, on Taman Kebon Sirih in Central Jakarta.

Sidney Jones and Brent Ashabranner in 1978, during one of the many memorable floods that staff endured over the years at the Foundation’s Kebon Sirih office. A TIME FOR CELEBRATION 27

A visitor to the Ford Foundation office in the early 1960s the United States Agency for International Development, and would likely have taken a pedicab along the narrow, leafy lanes the State Department. of Bali, or have crossed a small bridge over the nearby When the Foundation began working in Indonesia, canal, to reach Taman Kebon Sirih (“Betel Tree Garden”). The there was a dearth of local professionals to carry out activities office occupied the rooms of what was once a private residence, such as language or teacher training, teaching clerical skills to and its reception, work, and storage areas bore traces of the public servants, or development planning. The only way to former domestic layout. Because of its low-lying location and launch significant efforts in any of these areas was to hire the nearby canal, in the rainy season the grounds were often experts to do the work, hence the Foundation employed submerged, and water periodically seeped up through the tiles numbers of American university trainers and international of the office floor. A former representative recalled how the consultants. These experts, often called “project specialists,” staff drew high-water marks from severe floods on the inside lived in regional centers such as Malang, or Yogyakarta, wall. They even took home inundated files and – on one while their operations and support facilities were managed unforgettable occasion – wet banknotes from the office safe in by the Jakarta office. In the 1970s the Foundation operated a order to iron them dry. residence on Jalan Daksa III in Kebayoran Baru that Until the mid-1970s, the professional program staff of functioned as a six-bedroom guest house (wisma) for project the Foundation tended to be American, white and male. The specialists and consultants passing through Jakarta. Many pool of potential employees willing and able to work overseas expatriates then working with Foundation-supported projects overlapped with those who typically joined the diplomatic still recall pleasant evenings spent exchanging stories at service or foreign aid organizations; it is not surprising, then, “Wisma Ford,” and the legendary cooking of Hasan, its that there was some circulation of staff among foundations, resident manager.

Inspecting construction of new Foundation houses in Kebayoran Baru, Jakarta: Kamaruszaman, Andrew Choa, F.F. “Frosty” Hill, Harrison Parker, Michael Harris, and an unidentified colleague, 1957. The Foundation’s crowded office in the Hotel des Indes, 1957. The photo’s original caption identifies Kamaruszaman, Miss Cunningham, Bahasuan, June Kuntjoro-Jakti, Tony, Sukardjo, Andrew Choa, Hasanah, Harrison Parker and Miss Livingstone. 28 INTRODUCTION A TIME FOR CELEBRATION 29 30 INTRODUCTION

Beginning in the late 1970s under the presidency of of Trustees. In the Jakarta office, where the first female program Franklin Thomas, the Foundation underwent a significant officer was hired in 1977, the Representative and three out of institutional reorientation, leading to changes in the staff profile four program officers were women in the mid-1990s. At the and its public mission. Diminishing resources earlier in the decade same time, Ford’s leadership wanted to open staff positions to had led the trustees to require financial retrenchment, and the excellence wherever it could be found, and thus large numbers Foundation’s staff worldwide was decreased by nearly half. Several of program officers with non-US citizenship now work in the field offices were closed, as the Foundation determined that it New York and overseas offices, under the leadership of President was more productive to work more intensively in a smaller Susan V. Berresford. This process of “internationalizing” has number of countries. At the same time, Thomas encouraged the also enabled more program staff to be hired from within the staff to provide direct grant support for program activities, with host countries, including Indonesia. local institutions deciding when and how to bring foreign For visitors to the Foundation’s office in Jakarta – which technical assistance to bear; the role of the “project specialist” moved from Taman Kebon Sirih to its current location on Jalan thus was ended. All of these changes meant that Foundation Jenderal in 1990 – the most familiar faces belong to program officers became less concerned with operational details local staff who have dedicated their careers to Ford’s activities of specific projects, and could be more involved with design and in Indonesia. Expatriate officers come and go, but the monitoring of broader thematic programs. Indonesian administrative, clerical and support staff have been Other sorts of changes began to alter the profile of the key to the continuity and grounded nature of the Foundation’s Foundation’s staff around the world. Gender, ethnic and expanding portfolio in the country. The local staff have a strong international diversity became high priorities in both informal network, and their professional bonds are deeply felt; grantmaking and staffing, and the Foundation applied this their commitment has indeed anchored the Foundation’s commitment at all levels of the organization, including its Board achievements over the decades.

The Foundation’s drivers and office assistants posing in front of the Hotel des Indes: Winata, Totong, Sukardjo, Sarwani, Abas (standing), Basir and Bahasuan, 1957. Images of the Foundation’s Indonesian and other Southeast Asian staff over the years. A TIME FOR CELEBRATION 31

From the moment Foundation staff began to think about country’s first fifty years of independence – we knew that the the approaching 50th anniversary of the office, it was clear that book would necessarily be selective. It could not possibly portray some kind of history needed to be written for our colleagues and every important aspect and episode of modern Indonesia. partners within Indonesia and abroad. Beyond the myriad existing Likewise, countless individuals, institutions, grant-supported grant-related publications and reports, office brochures, and programs, and staff members associated with the Foundation commissioned assessments, we agreed that we needed a thoughtful are inevitably left unmentioned here. But we gratefully view of the Foundation within the evolving context of a half-century acknowledge their help to the Foundation. We hope that this of independent Indonesia. The best book, we felt, would show the picture of the Ford Foundation within an Indonesian frame will Foundation’s legacy through the eyes and voices of Indonesians be meaningful for all of our partners and colleagues over the past who have, in some manner, interacted with this institution. five decades. Foundation staff began discussions with a broad group of Placing this book itself in historical context, it is apropos Indonesian colleagues who might be either subjects of or actors to note that it was conceived in the early months after the “9/11” in the book project. It was our good fortune that one of Indonesia’s terrorist tragedy, in an environment of exacerbated tension, fear foremost essayists, a founding editor of the news weekly Tempo and mistrust among and within many societies around the globe. and Harvard Nieman Fellow, Goenawan Mohamad, agreed to Yet we could not have foreseen then that as preparation of this write the main text. He then assembled an especially talented book proceeded, Indonesia would become a front-page news team including the anthropologist and journalist Sandra Hamid; story as it endured shocking terrorist attacks on its own soil by the journalist and another Nieman Fellow Andreas Harsono; members of its own citizenry, or that it would be catapulted and the author and critic Laksmi Pamuntjak. Mark Hanusz of from relative obscurity to international notoriety as a haven for Equinox Publishing was tireless in coordinating a number of terrorism. This was not the image of Indonesia that the people translators, editors, proofreaders and photographers. The team whose voices and faces emerge from this book could have was given unfettered access to the Foundation’s archives – to imagined or would now accept as a definitive characterization of materials ranging from program planning documents to outside their home. As Goenawan Mohamad tells us at the conclusion evaluations and internal critiques, and lists of individual and of this book, Indonesians are engaged in a great experiment which, institutional grantees over the past 50 years. Researchers for the overwhelming majority, is a journey toward a just, conducted exhaustive searches of public and private photo archives prosperous and inclusive society. It is more important than ever to find evocative images of each of the decades covered in the that their vision and their stories prevail. book, and current and former staff and grantees contributed This book is part of a larger celebration of the Ford photographs from their personal collections. Foundation’s 50th anniversary in Indonesia. It is also a celebration The writers shaped an outline featuring different voices, of the country’s diversity and pluralism, an opportunity to honor individual reflections, and specially-researched interludes, or the achievements of our myriad colleagues and grantees, and a “sidebars.” They had a free hand in articulating the content salute to the creativity and determination of Indonesia’s people and perspectives of the volume, and in selecting the individuals in forging a strong independent nation and in anticipating the and institutions whose voices and work would be featured. challenges of an uncertain future. This book gives voice to some The result is a critical view of the country’s development and of those individuals who have played a role in the country’s of people who have helped shape it, capturing some of the development over the past half-century and reflects many of the themes and challenges that have resonated over the nation’s challenges they have faced along the way. It has been a privilege first half-century. The writers chose to examine these themes for the Ford Foundation to contribute, however modestly, to and actors in the context of history, not judging them by current these efforts just as it is an honor to continue with old and new standards, but nonetheless offering an unvarnished impression colleagues on the journey into Indonesia’s new millennium. of the legacy they left for future generations. Given the breadth of our subject – not only the magnitude Suzanne E. Siskel and Mary S. Zurbuchen of the Foundation’s work, but especially the complexity of the Jakarta, October 2003

CHAPTER ONE: NO IVORY TOWER

CHAPTER ONE NO IVORY TOWER

alf a century ago, no one would have thought that an important part of modern Indonesian history Hwould begin in a building of bland colonial architecture at No. 4 Jalan Salemba. It is just a stone’s throw from the morgue of the hospital that bus drivers used to call “CBZ” – short for the Dutch “Centraal Burgerlijk Ziekenhuis” – but now better known as the Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo General Hospital. Almost next to No. 4, just across a small side street, is No. 6 Jalan Salemba, a more attractive, multi-storied building, and the site of classrooms for the ’s Faculty of Medicine. There, if you turn to the left, you will see a kind of gateway. Pass through it and you come to an open ground where sit two additional classrooms and a large auditorium, sometimes called the “amphi” by students, probably because of the arrangement of seats that are banked progressively higher toward the back of the room. Walk several meters past this building today, and you come to the University of Indonesia’s Faculty of Economics (Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Indonesia – FEUI), a patchwork school of sorts that has grown by bits and pieces. The longing for a free, independent, and modern Indonesia was not something foreign to the inhabitants of these buildings on Jalan Salemba. Only a month after Indonesia proclaimed its independence in 1945, a group of doctors and other intellectuals met in the CBZ’s delivery room. They were

 A reunion of UI students inside No. 4 Jalan Salemba, 1958.  The UI Faculty of Medicine. Jakarta, 1950. 36 CHAPTER ONE NO IVORY TOWER 37 38 CHAPTER ONE not there to talk about medicine. They had gathered to discuss perhaps, because of the possibility of more opportunities to the establishment of an institution that would combine the advance their position, remained in Jakarta. existing Faculty of Medicine – the seeds for which were sown In 1948, NICA seconded two Dutch officials, an army in the 19th century when it was called the “Javanese Doctors colonel and a medical doctor, to take over the task of running School” – with other academic disciplines. So there in that CBZ. Some of the Indonesian employees at the hospital refused delivery room, the idea of establishing a National Center of to work with them. As an expression of solidarity with these Higher Education (Balai Perguruan Tinggi Republik Indonesia nationalists, medical students stopped going to lectures in – BPTRI) was born. It would not be called a “university”; that Salemba No. 6; instead, they went to their professors’ homes would have been too Western. The people gathered there on for instruction. In this way BPTRI – one of the first institutions Jalan Salemba were painfully aware that the new republic of the Republic of Indonesia – survived. When, in 1949, NICA desperately needed a modern institution of advanced learning. then established a so-called “Transitional” University of The Dutch colonial government had left behind practically Indonesia in Jakarta, many medical instructors refused to join. nothing; a mere 1000 citizens had received the benefit of higher Despite this setback, NICA continued to pursue its plan. education – 1000 out of 70 million. It established a chain of campuses in other cities: in Surabaya, This dream nearly foundered in midstream, though. In faculties (schools) of medicine and of dentistry; in Bandung, a late 1945, following the surrender of the Japanese, Allied troops technical school; in , faculties of agriculture and of animal occupied Jakarta, and the Indies Civil husbandry; and in , a faculty of economics. Taken Administration (NICA) was established to oversee together, these campuses formed what NICA called Universiteit administration of the former Dutch colony. Predictably, many van Indonesië. Later, when the Dutch finally recognized Indonesian intellectuals refused to be forced again to wear the Indonesian sovereignty, this institution became Universitas yoke of colonial domination. Some of the staff of the Faculty Indonesia or the University of Indonesia, now commonly of Medicine repaired to Central Java, where the new government known as UI. Yet BPTRI was not subsumed within this of the independent Republic of Indonesia had moved. Other institution until February 1959, and even then only after much staff, in consideration of the need for their services at CBZ or, heated debate.

A lecture at , Makassar, 1952. NO IVORY TOWER 39

SAYUTI HASIBUAN

Sayuti Hasibuan was one of several academics from Nommensen University, an affiliate of the Indonesian Batak Protestant Church (Huria Kristen Batak Protestan – HKBP), to receive funding from the Ford Foundation for further education in the US in 1961. While most of his colleagues came from Java, Hasibuan came to the US directly from Medan. He studied the economics of human resources at the University of California, Berkeley. Due to internal rivalries at Nommensen stemming from clan and religious differences, Hasibuan, a devout Muslim, resigned from his post. He moved to Jakarta, where he works in the Faculty of Economics at the Al-Azhar Indonesia University. He is particularly interested in issues related to the Islamization of the economy and the implementation of Islamic law in Indonesia.

Nommensen University was founded in Nasional – BAPPENAS] where I worked in a These ideas had been developed over 1954. The Faculty of Economics used Dutch variety of fields involving human resources. hundreds of years, and Sumitro was unable lecturers with experience in the plantation In the 1970s the situation in Indonesia was to challenge them. sector. Prior to the establishment of this extremely chaotic. There was no clear It was not easy to develop Nommensen. university, there was a theological There was a conflict between the school in Pematang Siantar. I entered university and its foundation. Who Nommensen in 1955. In the years that was in charge? Nommensen was followed, the university was involved controlled by the foundation and in a range of programs with the the foundation was controlled by Foundation. I left for Berkeley in HKBP church. The foundation was 1961, and I was still on a contract beset by conflicts beginning with with Nommensen. I returned in 1965 instructors’ salaries, who would be to complete my dissertation and to sent for study, who would not, who resume teaching. At the time, the would become rector and even how Indonesian Communist Party (Partai funds would be used. That’s how it Komunis Indonesia – PKI) was was then. I don’t know how it is now. extremely active. Cooperation between universi- I was actively involved in the ties – for example those in Indonesia Islamic Students Federation and the US – are good because of the [Himpunan Mahasiswa Islam – contact between [Indonesian] na- HMI]. At that time there was a great tionals and foreigners. There can be deal of conflict between Muslim and conflicts that disrupt the balance be- communist students, and so I tween them and this can be hard to thought it would be better to leave change. Medan. Luckily I received an offer If we compare the three from the Foundation to study in universities that have been assisted America. It was a great opportunity by the Foundation – Gadjah Mada to avoid the discord that occurred [UGM], UI, and Nommensen – only throughout the 1960s. When I UI has significant influence. Many returned as a lecturer, however, the Sayuti Hasibuan in Jakarta, 1995. of its academics are powerful in divisions in society were even more government circles. In a way, that’s violent. So in 1971 I decided to leave again. direction to development. As a result, natural, because UGM and Nommensen are That same year I was asked by Sumitro academics performed a wide range of distant from the capital Jakarta. But even Djojohadikusumo to help rationalize the unusual functions. so, the influence wielded by academics , as it was extremely Actually, Sumitro was not entirely in from UI is entirely different from that overstaffed and many personnel had to be accord with the Widjojo-led technocrats. wielded by UGM and Nommensen. UI dismissed. I assisted in the planning of this, His natural impulses were more community academics promote the classical economic and although my official title was assistant oriented, with a strong interest in the paradigms, those developed by John to Sumitro at the Ministry of Trade, my main development of human resources. However, Maynard Keynes, Adam Smith, and others responsibility was to prepare those soldiers he was unable to articulate his own beliefs. of that ilk. But those who have worked who were to be dismissed from active duty. Even though he wasn’t entirely in accord actively to develop a new paradigm for the Later Widjojo Nitisastro invited me to with them, Sumitro was trapped in Western development of Indonesia – such as critics assist at the National Planning Board paradigms, dominated by Keynesian like Sritua Arief from Nommensen – have [Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan economics and the ideas of Adam Smith. come from outside UI.

01e 1950s 39 9/25/03, 9:19 AM 40 CHAPTER ONE NO IVORY TOWER 41 42 CHAPTER ONE

The history of FEUI parallels that of its Faculty of in history would figure more prominently than those of his Medicine, but with somewhat different problems. Prior to friends. In Joesoef’s view, no matter how you looked at it, the Indonesian independence there was no school of economics in institution at No. 4 Salemba was a creation of the Dutch. A Jakarta. There was one in Makassar, in southern , but true nationalist would opt to go elsewhere, even to the poorly even this was far from ideal as courses there were more concerned financed National Academy, just as medical students had sought with business administration than with pure economics. instruction in their professors’ homes. “Sometimes, classes were Qualified instructors were almost nowhere to be found. In held at night, beneath the light of oil lanterns,” Joesoef recalls. Jakarta, the study of economics was limited to socio-economics In the end, however, a proper faculty of economics was as taught by the Faculty of Law and Social Science. Thus, an established at UI. Students of all political stripes enrolled, from aspiring young economist would have to study somewhere the republicans who had once been in the guerrilla movement besides No. 4 Salemba. So it was that at around the same time to the ‘lesser republicans’ who came from the school founded UI was created, the Society for the Advancement of Science, a by NICA in Makassar. With an extremely low enrollment fee private foundation, established an alternative higher educational of 300 rupiah for the first year – after which it was free – 300 institution, the National Academy. students applied and were accepted. A number of the Academy’s first students – Daoed Almost all of the new students were admitted at the first Joesoef, Suhadi Mangkusuwondo, and Panglaykim, to name year level, the propaedeutis, a term illustrating the irony that just three – would go on to become well-known economists. even while the nationalist spirit was burning, the use of classical For Daoed Joesoef, a young painter who had joined nationalist terms was still acceptable in schools. The general lecture, held independence forces in Medan, , enrolling at weekly in the “amphi,” was called studium generale. School songs, the National Academy was an expression of republican such as the cheerful Ius Vivat, as well as the more somber sentiment. Studying alongside him were Suhadi, who had joined Gaudeamus Igitur, continued to be sung at campus gatherings the guerrilla movement while still a member of the student and ceremonies just as they were in far-off Leiden and brigade in East Java, and Widjojo Nitisastro, whose later role .

and Initiation of first-year UI students, October 1950. NO IVORY TOWER 43

DAOED JOESOEF

Daoed Joesoef is a native of who grew up in Medan, near where his father owned a milk factory. Joesoef was the first lecturer from FEUI to study at the Sorbonne in , breaking a tradition established by the majority of his colleagues who studied in the US. He once served as minister of education and culture under President Suharto, and was known by students in the late 1970s as a “man of analysis” not a “man of public meetings.” At the beginning of the 1950’s, I served as At the time, I was also an active writer. Development: Theory, History and Policy, an assistant to Professor Sumitro I’d written an article criticizing Hatta’s Meier and Baldwin argue that issues related Djojohadikusumo in his endeavors to assertion that it was not necessary to to development were far too important to develop the study of economics at FEUI. I maintain gold reserves to guarantee the be controlled by economists alone. This was responsible for the development of Indonesian currency. At the time, it was argument influenced FEUI to establish a new economics faculties at universities in the stipulated that gold reserves must equal 20 department, the Department of Public regions, including Makassar, where the per cent of the value of currency in Economic Administration. university was originally established by the circulation. However, in the unstable In order to achieve this, funding for Dutch, and which later became the political environment, the government paid experienced lecturers was required. The Hassanuddin University. its bills simply by printing money. Hatta had Foundation was prepared to fund the In fact, previously, I’d sent a letter to education of teaching staff. I decided that Prime Minister Hatta, after the recognition training should be conducted at the of sovereignty in 1949, to suggest that the Sorbonne, because of the high quality of the school of economics at Makassar be education provided to their civil servants dissolved. This was for reasons of efficiency, in post-graduate training programs at and also because the school was l’école d’administration. unsympathetic to the Republic. However, Being a Francophile, I was the only one Sumitro insisted that we should overlook interested in studying at the Sorbonne. I am the past. I accepted the justice of those an enthusiastic painter, and I appreciate arguments, and served as a visiting lecturer. Paris as an artistic center. However, things I also established schools for the study of didn’t go as smoothly as planned. Widjojo, economics in Palembang and Lampung. the deputy dean of FEUI, refused to approve In 1956, the PRRI- rebellion my departure to Paris, and the Foundation broke out. One day, just after I’d flown into didn’t want to send an academic without Makassar to teach, the airport was bombed the approval of his superiors. by the rebels. I was trapped in Makassar. It I took this matter up with was quite ironic, really, because Sumitro was Representative Frank Miller. In the end, actually one of the leaders of the rebellion. Daoed Joesoef in Jakarta, 1978. Miller agreed, on condition that the Sumitro played a significant role in the government approved. I visited the Minister establishment of FEUI. He introduced suggested that the gold standard be for Education Syarif Thayeb, a military Keynesian economics to Indonesia and eliminated. I argued this point through an officer from Aceh. Syarif Thayeb was approached the Foundation for assistance article in Mimbar Indonesia. I took view that surprised to hear that Widjojo had refused in the development of FEUI’s teaching staff. it was necessary to maintain the gold standard, to sign my letter, saying that the Sorbonne He also facilitated the recruitment of but that its level should be determined with was even older than UC Berkeley. teaching staff from the US. Prior to that, respect to the value of imports. I studied at the Sorbonne for eight years. when FEUI had been under the influence of Not long later, I was invited to join the When I returned, I found that my Dutch teachers, Keynesian economics was vice president’s group as he traveled through department had been dissolved. Widjojo and unknown. At the time, almost the entire Tegal, Pekalongan, and the surrounding I held divergent views on the issue of collection of material in the library was in areas. We traveled by chartered train, with economic development. I always felt that Dutch. me in the same carriage as Hatta. Hatta the economy was too important to be The Foundation assisted in sending engaged me in discussions throughout. While handled by economists alone. When I joined Widjojo Nitisastro, , and these did not result in decisive conclusions, I the Cabinet as minister of education and various others to America. I didn’t go, felt honored by the attention Hatta paid me. culture, I hoped that I would be able to because of my other duties. Also, my mother By the end of the 1950s, I felt that promote my vision. However, Suharto told was unwell. As the oldest child, I felt economics as taught at FEUI did not prepare me that I should confine myself to issues particularly responsible for her after the students to play a part in the public directly related to education as he had other death of my father. economy. In a work entitled Economic people who could handle the economy. 44 CHAPTER ONE

It is possible that the teaching staff and students at UI Regardless of these romantic memories, student life at imagined themselves to be part of the centuries-old European UI was actually never far from day-to-day realities of an tradition of higher education. Until the late 1950s, student life impoverished country that was not yet a decade old. A year at Salemba resembled that of their peers in Holland. At the after FEUI officially opened in the Faculty of Medicine’s time the practice of “free study” was in vogue: students, being auditorium, it had yet to find its own space on campus. considered mature enough to choose their own courses and set Sometimes lectures were held in a classroom in the Faculty of their own schedules, were not required to attend classes so long Letters across from CBZ, other times in a room on nearby as they were able to demonstrate their knowledge on a test. Jalan Tambak or in various other locations. The school’s Even then, if they failed, they could repeat the test until they administrative officers worked out of a room down the street passed. These were the university’s “eternal students.” on Jalan Kimia at the Ministry of Education, Instruction, and One student in the Faculty of Law – who would later Culture. gain prominence as a founder of the country’s first think tank, The school had no library of its own. Students and faculty the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) – were forced to go elsewhere to find books, including to the was Harry Tjan Silalahi. Recalling his time at the university, he library of the Dutch cultural exchange organization (Stichting said that he practically never attended classes. Hailing from a Culturele Samenwerking – Sticusa). When FEUI was finally poor family in Yogyakarta, Silalahi made his living as a teacher. assigned its own space, its library was located in a room that sat For him, attending lectures was a luxury. One day, when between a food stall and a small building where the student entering the classroom to take a test he did not even know who film league screened movies. It had few books or scientific the professor was. journals and former students recall that they could borrow them And when students like Silalahi did find the time to for only one hour at a time. come to Salemba, often they would wind up hanging out at a Some of the more clever students found a way out of the coffee stall across the street from CBZ while waiting for students dilemma. They took extra careful notes during lectures, typed from the Faculty of Letters, most of whom were women, to them up, then stenciled and sold them in large quantities. In pass. “We lived on books, parties, and love,” said Djunaedi the late 1950s, this small business within the Faculty was run Hadisumarto, a budding economist who, years later, served in by a group of students calling itself Vivayuba. One of the group’s President Abdurrahman Wahid’s administration as chairman entrepreneurs, Fikri Jufri, became a prolific writer on economic of BAPPENAS. issues and eventually co-founded the country’s leading news For college students at that time, life seemed untouched magazine, Tempo. by the outside world. They attended classes when they felt like The quality of Indonesia’s educational system at that time it. They spent their free time hanging out at Miauw Seng’s, a was in a state of emergency, and not only because the students snack shop across the street from No. 4 Salemba. They went lacked textbooks. In its early years, FEUI had a more serious dancing at their friends’ homes. Or, as freshmen, they spent problem. The school had been founded by legal experts; its the last day of initiation week celebrating at the Harmonie first dean, Kolopaking, among them. The school had club house, a gathering place for Jakarta’s elite. Two law students, only one qualified instructor and no economist at all. Soenario Marihot and Paul Hutabarat, formed a band that became himself was forced to juggle his duties as dean with several extremely popular. As their friends hit the dance floor, they different jobs and, when he fell ill and resigned, a crisis occurred. played songs reminiscent of Bill Haley and the Comets and It was at this point that Suhadi, a quiet and serious young The Platters. The students’ drinks of choice: lemonade and man who was chairman of the Student Senate, took matters sarsaparilla. into his own hands. He rounded up a group of friends, some NO IVORY TOWER 45 of whom had been members of the Student Brigade against to help but was too busy with his duties as vice-president. the Dutch, and went to the Ministry of Education, Instruction, “History sometimes happens by accident,” said Widjojo and Culture. The group urged the government to step in to Nitisastro, recalling that time. solve the school’s crisis. It was unclear what the government Coincidentally, one young economic expert shared could do at the time, but the seriousness with which Suhadi Suhadi’s sense of seriousness. Thirty-four year old Sumitro conveyed his plea moved one of its teachers, Djokosutono – Djojohadikusumo, a graduate of the College of Economics in who later became dean of the Faculty of Law – to lend his own Rotterdam, had recently stepped down as minister of finance. assistance. Together, they went out in search of instructors. Since he was one of only two Indonesians with a doctoral degree In Indonesia at that time there were no more than ten in economics, it was fortunate for the students that he did not qualified economists, and among these only a few were turn down their appeal. Yet when they asked him to serve as interested in teaching. One of them, , wanted dean he did hesitate.

A piano concert at Sticusa, the Dutch cultural exchange organization (now Erasmus Huis), Jakarta, 1953. 46 CHAPTER ONE

INSTITUTION-BUILDER:

In the late 1960s, an American visitor to the they will build institutions.” Clearly, Sumitro Developmental Economics – and he wanted Department of Trade was so intrigued by was one such person. “He was restless, this taught at FEUI. During 1955-56 the Minister Sumitro Djojohadikusumo (1917- rebellious, a pool of nervous energy,” said curriculum was overhauled with a new 2001) that he asked, “Sir, your English is close friends. Many saw him as ‘visionary.’ emphasis placed on solving Indonesia’s excellent. Have you studied in the United “He was indisputably the pioneer of modern economic problems. “It was Sumitro who States?” Unblinking, Sumitro replied, “No, I economic studies in Indonesia,” wrote introduced macroeconomics to Indonesia,” never studied in the US, I only taught there.” economist Thee Kian Wee in 2001. says Salim. Almost 20 years earlier, a student Early in his deanship Sumitro, who was By this time nearly all the Dutch delegation from UI had called upon then also minister of finance, built the professors had fled. Sumitro was prepared Sumitro. Their mission: to ask Indonesia’s faculty infrastructure from scratch. The for this, and following an agreement first economics PhD from the Netherlands result: a strong teaching staff, adequate between FEUI and UC Berkeley, American School of Economics, by then already lecture rooms, a solid library and research professors began to arrive. FEUI responded minister of trade and industry, to by sending its best and brightest to become dean of FEUI. schools such as Berkeley, MIT, In post-independence Indonesia, Stanford, , and tertiary education, particularly in Cornell. So began Indonesia’s economic studies, was severely economic development. limited. The Foundation estimates “The most instantly felt that in 1949 Indonesia had only ten difference was the start of a culture fully qualified economists in a of debate between students and population of over 70 million. lecturers,” recalled Saleh Afiff, later “There was simply nobody else as a leading national planner. “Before, qualified as he was,” says Suhadi the professor was all-knowing.” Mangkusuwondo, leader of that The FEUI-Berkeley affiliation was delegation. not Sumitro’s first attempt to enlist Nobody could have predicted then development assistance. He favored that this slender, quick-witted man, “Anglo-Saxon” educational methods, the son of a public servant in the but earlier bids for British expertise Netherlands Indies administration, made through the British Council had would do a great deal more than whip failed. Negotiations with Cornell an academic faculty into shape. through the Rockefeller Foundation, Sumitro was a multidimensional were similarly unsuccessful. character: cabinet minister, lobbyist, He did manage to secure a project academic, cosmopolite, rebel. He with MIT. When the Sukiman cabinet seemed to believe his destiny was to adopted his initiative and established lead the country. His confidence was Indonesia’s first state planning bureau almost messianic: in 1952 he Sumitro Djojohadikusumo in his office, Jakarta, 1971. he invited nine foreign experts to serve explained his vision in a public as consultants. Their leader, MIT’s polemic with Sjafrudin Prawiranegara, the units, and an effective administration. “Before Benjamin Higgins, recalled the time when first governor of and a Sumitro came on board, FEUI did not have scholars who were neither Dutch nor champion of agricultural development. any lecture halls. Lectures were given in Indonesian were “heavily involved in both Sumitro argued instead that only rapid Gedung Kesenian, the Adhoc Staat, the PTIK research and policy formation.” industrialization would strengthen building, and sometimes underneath the trees Sumitro made his first appeal to the Indonesia’s bargaining power with more of the present UI campus,” said fellow Ford Foundation for educational assistance developed countries. economist in 1993. in 1951, through Everett Sumitro was a consummate institution The then-dominant school of economic Hawkins. Meanwhile other Indonesian builder. “There were people in the thought, Dutch-inspired, was unsuited to the leaders were knocking on the Foundation’s Foundation who were always talking about needs of a developing country like door; in the same year, , building institutions,” said John Bresnan. “If Indonesia. “The style was very theoretical Ambassador to the US, sought support for you focus on the individual and look for and philosophical,” Salim recalled. Sumitro a project promoting English proficiency in the brightest people you can find anywhere, meanwhile was aware of a new approach – Indonesian schools. A year later, the

01e 1950s 46 9/25/03, 9:22 AM NO IVORY TOWER 47

Sumitro giving a lecture in Surabaya, 1955.

Foundation sent an exploratory mission to introduced them to the world’s top economists. Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia which served as the basis for its When these people came of age as Indonesia’s Indonesia (Pemerintah Revolusioner initial engagement in the country. economic decision-makers, they knew whom Republik Indonesia – PRRI). Ironically, Another of Sumitro’s talents – raising a to thank. Sumitro himself was civilian leader of that constituency – emerged during this period. In 1955 Sumitro founded the Association rebellion. As Joesoef noted, “It was Sumitro The Institute of Economic and Social Research of Indonesian Economists (Ikatan Sarjana who first asked me to teach in Makassar; it (Lembaga Penelitian Ekonomi dan Ekonomi Indonesia – ISEI), today a well- was also he who sent the bomber.” Masyarakat – LPEM), established in 1953 and regarded professional organization. Sumitro’s role in this uprising long supported partly by the Ford Foundation, By the early 1960s FEUI boasted a self- remained a stigma. Critics associated his fostered the “passing of the torch,” cadre- sustaining local leadership, broad support in CIA-backed political misadventure with his building, and full Indonesianization. LPEM government and society, a capacity for growth “liberal” economic thinking. This was a became a testing ground allowing Sumitro, without external assistance, and good staff dubious label. Sumitro always maintained aided by his students and faculty colleagues, development. As a “feeder” institution it his faith in government intervention and to fine-tune economic policies. The Institute supported other economics faculties in state believed above all in effective public policy- also became the principal link between faculty universities around the country. The making institutions. His much-quoted and government. technocrats remember fondly how “flying diagnosis of the 1998 economic crisis – Like everything Sumitro touched, LPEM lecturers” from FEUI commuted by air to “Indonesia is suffering from institutional developed from a collection of able, if Sawerigading (later Sriwijaya) University in diseases” – referred to the deterioration in inexperienced, young people into a respected Palembang, and to UI’s satellite campus at public policy resulting from President institution. Many were attracted to it simply by Makassar. Suharto’s interference in favor of his family’s Sumitro’s fame and reputation. He gave them Sumitro wore many hats, some business interests. internships and practical exposure. He placed surprising. Daoed Joesoef speaks of being one That remark – vintage Sumitro – the best of them in Central Planning Bureau such “flying lecturer” in Makassar in 1957. expresses the best side of an economist who (Badan Perancang Nasional – BPN) and its At the time, the city’s airport was under was also a public intellectual, ever trying 1952 Five Year Development Plan. He bombardment by the rebel forces of the to offer an alternative vision.

01e 1950s 47 9/25/03, 9:22 AM 48 CHAPTER ONE

In Sumitro’s mind, a dean should have a beard and the on the situation. The ideas of Keynes completely altered the title of professor, neither of which he possessed. Despite his classic economic view. reservations he accepted and, as was typical of him, he proceeded Sumitro, who had received his doctorate from Rotterdam to work exhaustively on behalf of the school. Years later he in 1945, was familiar with recent developments in economic would say that on the long and winding road that was his theory. Though only 25 years old when he graduated, he had distinguished life, his work in establishing FEUI gave him the already rejected the classic economic views that found so much most pride. favor among Dutch economists. At UI he attempted to apply Typically, Sumitro devised a plan that in the end strongly both a Keynesian and post-Keynesian approach to the situation influenced Indonesian history. His plan was simple and limited in Indonesia. in scope. Since FEUI would be starting from zero, he and his Sumitro dreamed of establishing a “Jakarta School of colleagues would have to build from the ground up. There Economics.” His goal was to hire teaching staff whose views were five main tasks: to flesh out FEUI’s roster of teachers; to were sympathetic with the Developmental Economics that he complete the administrative structure and obtain the necessary was creating. Sumitro had taken several courses at the equipment and supplies; to put together a curriculum; to School of Economics under professors such as the liberal Harold establish the complementary institutions that the Faculty would Lasky, and with fellow students like the future leaders Nehru need, including a library and a research institute; and to get the of India and Ghana’s Nkrumah. He wanted to send his cadres Faculty its own building. to England. Unfortunately, the Indonesian government had Sumitro worked quickly. To fill out his corps of no money for this, nor was the British Council able to help. instructors he was compelled to coax a number of Dutch Eventually, the Ford Foundation provided the necessary scholars, who happened to be in Indonesia, to teach at the assistance, but the road there was not completely straight and school. He was not entirely happy with this situation; most of it eventually led to Berkeley, not London. these people were not in fact economists. And even though he Sumitro submitted his first proposal to the Foundation in himself was a graduate of Rotterdam, he harbored mixed feelings 1951 through Everett Hawkins, an American economist who about the Dutch, particularly those still living in their former worked at the US embassy in the office of the Economic colony. He said, “The Dutch in Indonesia are far more old- Cooperation Administration (ECA). His initial request, for fashioned than those in Holland itself.” As a result, the Faculty’s $400,000, was intended to finance a group of American economic curriculum could not help but be “old-fashioned” too. experts to teach in Indonesia for three years. Sumitro saw this as a In the early 1950s, the British theoretician John Maynard short-term way to compensate for the lack of qualified indigenous Keynes held sway in the world of economics. The ideas that he teachers and to replace the Dutch instructors who were leaving developed in his masterpiece, The General Theory of Employment, the country. But he did not receive an immediate response to his Interest, and Money, first published in 1936 in the wake of the request. In fact, a later confidential assessment of the Foundation’s Depression, were seen as the antidote to the destruction of early work mentioned that the US Department of State – which much of the world’s infrastructure during World War II. The apparently held influence over private philanthropic organizations Marshall Plan, launched by the US to channel assistance to the at that time – asked that consideration of Sumitro’s request be destroyed countries of Europe, clearly indicated how important delayed. In the words of an intern at the time, this happened government intervention could be. At the same time it signaled simply because the US government was “piqued” that the the limited impact that liberal laissez-faire policies would have application had not been made via the “proper channels.” NO IVORY TOWER 49

and Sultan Hamengku Buwono IX and Lieutenant-Governor Hubertus van Mook at the handover ceremony on 27 December 1949 marking the transfer of sovereignty over Indonesia from the Netherlands to the new Republic. 50 CHAPTER ONE

TECHNOCRAT NUMBER ONE: WIDJOJO NITISASTRO

Widjojo Nitisastro has been called Indonesia’s Widjojo worried about petrodollar- argued, for example, that cooperatives “number one technocrat,” the “architect of generated hubris and was skeptical of high- were unsuited to the needs of a modern the New Order economy,” and, less glowingly, tech industry as an engine of growth. state. He preferred a government-directed the “Don of the Berkeley Mafia.” Whatever Instead, he had a passion for such village- economy that stimulated growth, but that the fairness of these labels, he clearly was level services as elementary schools and also kept close watch over Indonesia’s the intellectual leader of a whole generation medical units. Even the security guards at unreliable bureaucracy. He believed in good of economists. his office remembered him as a high official planning, conceived and supervised by Born in 1927 to a nationalist family, who cared for “little people” like trained economists. Widjojo grew up in Surabaya. In 1945 he was themselves. They talked fondly of his Sumitro Djojohadikusumo, from the in high school when the Revolution broke unassuming manner, his shunning of the moment he assumed the deanship of FEUI, out and he joined the Republican Youth Army trappings of power, and his penchant for saw in the young Widjojo a first-rate (Tentara Republik Indonesia intelligence, leadership skills, Pelajar – TRIP). “He was very tenacity, and something else: an brave,” said an old friend, Pansa ease with rural life. Tampubolon. “He nearly died When Sumitro sent his stu- somewhere between Ngaglik and dents to the villages, Widjojo was Gunung Sari, fighting and throwing in his natural element. His report, grenades with his bare hands.” co-written with Julius E. Ismael, That story paints a different drew the attention of the Ford image of a man who was later Foundation Representative. He accused of being unpatriotic for was not the only person im- “selling” his country to the IMF and pressed. In the early 1950s, when the World Bank. In fact, Widjojo Harvard demographer Nathan has served his country all his life. Keyfitz was consulting for the As a student at FEUI and at BPN, he became “frustratingly Berkeley, he organized informal bored” and went instead to do seminars on the topic of his coun- research in an East Java village. try’s outlook. “He was always tak- Widjojo, then still a student assist- ing the lead in discussing Indone- ant at BPN, accompanied him. sia’s future with us,” said Ali Their results were published in a Wardhana, a classmate and col- widely used textbook titled Soal league. When Widjojo was chair- Penduduk dan Pembangunan In- man of BAPPENAS, he often donesia (On Population and Devel- worked until the wee hours. Un- opment in Indonesia). like many other top officials in the It was almost inevitable that New Order government, he was Widjojo should inherit control of never tainted with corruption. Af- FEUI. In a 1986 interview Sumitro ter students took to the streets pro- said, “By 1955 I told Widjojo, ‘This testing corrupt practices among is as far as I can go as a teacher.’ the military elite, Widjojo declared Widjojo Nitisastro, Jakarta, 1971. So immediately after his that they did “the right thing.” graduation as sarjana [Bachelor Furthermore, he maneuvered to unseat after-hours street snacks. of Arts], I made him director of LPEM.” , the powerful director of the Obviously no mere puppet of Western Commenting on Widjojo’s rapid ascent, state oil company, Pertamina, who had interests (as his left wing detractors often another colleague, , said squandered the country’s oil revenues and suggested), neither was he sympathetic to half-jokingly, “That was the beauty of it. If plunged Pertamina into debt. He was always Marxist ideas. His formative years as an everybody had been equally bright, there suspicious of grandiose projects. He was economist coincided with the heyday of would have been no natural hierarchy.” even secretly critical of Suharto’s support Third World and its disposition Irma Adelman, a member of Widjojo’s of the First Lady’s theme park, Beautiful toward state regulation. Widjojo advocated dissertation committee at Berkeley, told Indonesia in Miniature (Taman Mini an alternative strategy: Keynesian scholar Karen Brooks in 1996, “We always Indonesia Indah – TMII). economics with an Indonesian face. He felt that Widjojo was by far the brightest NO IVORY TOWER 51

President Suharto, Widjojo Nitisastro and John Bresnan in 1972.

and most energetic of the Indonesian this began is the stuff of legend. they got their way. They told him that if he students we had. We thought at the time that The technocrats first presented their didn’t follow their suggestions the people he by himself would be a sufficient payoff vision to Suharto in August 1966, during an would be without food and clothes, or the for the whole Indonesia-Berkeley project army seminar in Bandung. The general economy wouldn’t grow.” Another view is – and were taking bets as to whether he asked them a blunt question, “If you had that Widjojo charmed Suharto with a would wind up in jail or as prime minister!” the chance to change the economy, what combination of Javanese manners and an In the end, with his coterie of the would you do?” ability to package complex issues clearly country’s best economic minds, he rose to It was here, according to several and convincingly. power and prominence. This group, known sources, that Widjojo won Suharto’s trust In any event, when Suharto entrusted as the “technocrats,” dominated economic and confidence. Economic nationalist A.R. Widjojo and his colleagues with real decision-making in the early days of Soehoed said of the technocrats, “They power, they accepted the challenge, and Suharto’s New Order, and pulled Indonesia were very good at scaring the old man. They Indonesia’s economic history was changed out of the quagmire of the mid-1960s. How kept him on the razor’s edge, and that’s how profoundly. 52 CHAPTER ONE

In early 1952, at the request of the Indonesian and decided to request assistance for publishing activities on government, the Ford Foundation’s head office in New York his campus. Summoning up his courage, he went to the office sent an exploratory team to Indonesia. At the end of its visit, at the Hotel Des Indes and asked Starch for a vehicle. “It the team confirmed the need for English language instruction, doesn’t have to be a sedan – a pickup would do just fine for financial assistance for which had been requested by Indonesia’s us,” the budding scholar said in broken English. Starch ambassador to the US, Ali Sastroamidjojo. The need for laughed but had to explain that the Foundation was not a car assistance for UI and UGM was also touched upon, but no dealership. specific mention was made of Sumitro’s proposal. That period of Indonesia’s history was tense. The In June 1953 the Cabinet had been disbanded. Foundation sent its first rep- Conflict among political resentative to Indonesia. groups was growing, just as Elmer Starch had been raised it was in the army, which had on a wheat farm in Montana supported a massive violent and knew little about Indo- anti-Parliament demonstra- nesia. He was not provided tion that came to be known a house, so for the duration as the October 17th Incident. of his two-year stay he lived Within the government and in a single room at the Ho- society as a whole uncer- tel Des Indes, as did his tainty was spreading. American secretary. They In an unpublished ran the Foundation’s first reminiscence, John Bresnan, “office” in yet another room painted a picture of the diffi- at the hotel. Located where cult situation. He wrote that the Duta Merlin shopping Starch “was no man to deal center now stands, the Des with the government.” It Indes may have been the seems that Starch was not the only prestigious hotel in Ja- person to deal with Sumitro karta at the time – interna- either; during Starch’s tenure tional negotiations for Indo- in Indonesia, Sumitro’s re- nesia’s independence had been held there – but it was far from quest for assistance for FEUI went unheeded. ideal as a location for an office. In 1955, Starch left his tiny room in the Hotel Des Indes If Foundation personnel knew little about Indonesia, to return to the US. He was replaced by Michael Harris, a man the same could be said of the Indonesians who first came Sumitro refers to in his biography as an “old friend.” They first into contact with the institution. Take Umar Kayam, for met in 1951 when Harris came to Jakarta with a survey team instance, who would one day become one of Indonesia’s to investigate the possibility of providing assistance in a manner leading scholars and writers. At that time he was a student in similar to the Marshall Plan. Harris had been handpicked by the pedagogy program at UGM. He learned that Ford was the Foundation’s President Paul Hoffman, who was a former offering assistance for Indonesia’s educational development director of the Plan.

A crowded reception area in the Hotel des Indes office with a blackboard showing the daily assignments of cars and drivers, 1957. NO IVORY TOWER 53

SELO SOEMARDJAN

Professor Selo Soemardjan (1915-2003) was well known as a senior academic in sociology at UI. He began his career as a government bureaucrat in Java, serving as a district head in a rural area outside Yogyakarta. During the revolutionary period 1945-1950 he was secretary to Sultan Hamengku Buwono IX, a major figure in the struggle for independence. Later, Soemardjan continued his studies at . After his return from the US in 1959, he held a range of academic posts, although the majority of his time was spent at UI and the Social Sciences Foundation (Yayasan Ilmu-ilmu Sosial – YIIS) which he co-founded and headed for three decades.

In 1948, an American student named George tion offered to fund his visit to Cornell. That by the reports as my children were studying McTurnan Kahin was doing research in was in 1958, the first time the Sultan visited there. Back then, it took a long time for Yogyakarta. Kahin asked Minister of America, and it had a big influence on him. accurate information to come through to Education Ali Sastroamidjojo to suggest a I was assigned to escort him during his one- America. My teachers were also concerned suitable candidate as a research assistant. month trip. When we were going to Wis- about what was happening in Indonesia. I Sastroamidjojo suggested me. I was a consin from Chicago by train, three officials think maybe they allowed me to pass my civil servant, secretary to Sultan Hamengku accompanied us to the station, then left us. exams because they felt sorry for me. Buwono IX. The Sultan had On my return, Mohammad served the young republic by Sadli of FEUI asked me to teach allowing Yogyakarta to be used sociology in his department. I was as a temporary capital, and as a the only teacher in the depart- result the Sultan was held in high ment without a background in esteem by the Indonesian economics. My subject was titled independence movement. “Non-economic Factors in Eco- I took Kahin everywhere. I nomic Development.” even introduced him to President In 1968, after General Suharto Sukarno and Vice-President officially replaced Sukarno as Mohammad Hatta. After his re- President, Sadli and his colleagues turn to America, Kahin was ap- became the architects of Indone- pointed professor at Cornell, sia’s economic policy. I was in- where he established the Modern volved in the analysis of non-eco- Indonesia Project. He needed In- nomic factors. The emergence of donesian staff. He called me and these economists – Widjojo asked if I wanted to study in Nitisastro, Sadli, and others – was America. due to the assistance provided by I wasn’t even sure exactly the Foundation for their educa- what I wanted to study. I was re- Selo Soemardjan in Jakarta, 1971. tion. I, too, have reason to be ally only a graduate from the grateful. Dutch middle school, moderately proficient Unfortunately they had given us the wrong During 1974-1984, the Foundation in English. But I remembered my experience tickets, and we had to get off. We had to assisted social scientists through YIIS. Each as district head during the Japanese occu- find a new train, and buy new tickets. I had year, 15 individuals were selected for pation. It was an extremely difficult time, to carry all the suitcases – after all, a Sul- training in research techniques. I was the with the Japanese army commandeering tan is a Sultan. chair of this foundation. rice and livestock, and forcing men to join At Cornell, I studied all the European Looking back now, I can see a big dif- the labor corps. The revolution broke out theories of sociology. These allowed me to ference in the assistance provided by the after the Japanese left. The situation be- make sense of the things I had witnessed in US and the former Soviet Union. The So- came even more unstable. Social change Yogyakarta. In 1959, I returned there to do viet Union provided direct assistance to the took place rapidly. These experiences made research on social change for my PhD. After people, usually through the PKI, and usu- me think that I’d like to study sociology. six months, I went back to Cornell to ally in the form of food or agricultural Kahin helped me get the documents needed complete my thesis and sit for exams. tools. The Americans, on the other hand, to study at Cornell, with sponsorship from On the day of my exams, there was a provided assistance to academics, through the Ford Foundation. grenade attack against President Sukarno at scholarships. Their intent was for these In February 1956 I went to Cornell. At a school in Cikini in Central Jakarta. Sukarno academics to become leaders in society. the time the Sultan was becoming quite well survived, but four students were killed. Of Through the trickle down effect, many known throughout the world. The Founda- course, I was concerned and deeply upset people benefited. 54 CHAPTER ONE NO IVORY TOWER 55

Harris was a memorable figure, “a tall, physically young economist from No. 4 Jalan Salemba could not postpone imposing man, full of nervous energy, familiar with the corridors his plan for FEUI much longer. In fact, by the time Harris arrived, of power.” Harris, who had never attended college, began his Sumitro had nearly forgotten about the possibility of funding career as an organizer with the Congress of Industrial from Ford and had initiated an agreement with the Rockefeller Organizations (CIO) and had headed Marshall Plan programs Foundation, which had signaled an interest in assisting the faculty in , Sweden, and Germany. Sumitro was impressed by in cooperation with Cornell University. In the end, however, Ford’s new representative; he tended to admire “men of action.” Sumitro’s hopes of an arrangement between the two academic Harris acted decisively to establish a firmer base for the institutions collapsed because the necessary matching funds, Foundation in Jakarta. By 1958 he had moved out of the room which had been pledged by ECA, failed to materialize. at the Hotel Des Indes and bought a house at Taman Kebon By then Ford was Sumitro’s last resort. His persistence Sirih in the city’s central business district to serve as the office, and Harris’s hard work finally bore fruit. In May 1956, UC purchased two spacious houses in the elite residential area of Berkeley officially entered into an agreement with FEUI, one Menteng, and built five others with Scandinavian-style that would turn out to have great historical ramifications. The architecture in the newly developed suburb of Kebayoran Baru. Foundation gave its approval to nearly all of Sumitro’s plans, The Foundation’s staff and expenditures grew significantly. In including the idea of sending some 20 students and their families 1957 alone, the administrative costs in Indonesia consumed to the US for further education. Part of the budget was also half of Ford’s total office expenses overseas. earmarked for bringing instructors from Berkeley to Indonesia. Harris remained in Indonesia for six years. He was all They were to fill temporarily the staff vacancies at FEUI. Ample business, and he had to be when dealing with Sumitro. The funding, more than $2 million, was provided for this purpose.

The Foundation expands in the late 1950s: construction of residences in Kebayoran Baru for staff and consultants, 1957. When the office closed temporarily in 1965, the Foundation donated these residences to Foundation grantees. Miss Cunningham, Andrew Choa, and Hasanah in the general administrative area of the Hotel des Indes office, 1957. 56 CHAPTER ONE

Even today, people still argue whether this program can acceptance criteria; new students were required to pass an entrance be considered a success. Mohammad Sadli, one of the first examination. Even these moves, however, would not have members of FEUI and later a long-serving member of Suharto’s stimulated growth in the knowledge of economic science in Cabinet, argued that the Foundation’s assistance program failed Indonesia without the Ford-funded Berkeley program. Emil to fulfill Sumitro’s plan for building a modern school of Salim, one of the graduates of this program, said in an interview, economics. The plan’s original aim was to strengthen UI, but “All my knowledge of economic science came from Berkeley, in the end nearly all the economists that the program produced from the most basic of subjects to calculus.” were recruited into the government. Graduates, including Emil Salim was in a good position to judge. Prior to the Widjojo Nitisastro, Ali Wardhana, Subroto, Daoed Joesoef, start of the Berkeley program, he reported, FEUI students who J.B. Soemarlin, Saleh Afiff, Emil Salim, Suhadi, J.E. Ismael, were studying with Dutch teachers focused on micro-economic Djunaedi Hadisumarto, Dorodjatun Kuntjoro-Jakti and Sadli topics. “As with a tree,” Salim wrote in commemorating FEUI’s himself, are today far better known for their years of public 50th anniversary, “the whats and hows of their connection with service than as scholars. The number of academicians produced the economic forest were not explained…. Meanwhile, in the by UI is far fewer than it might have been. academic world, Keynesian economic theory, with its macro- This “failure,” if that is what it was, can be related to the economic approach, was all the rage.” situation in Indonesia at that time. In a nation where well- Not all criticisms of the Sumitro program and the educated workers were rare, both academic and social pressures economists that FEUI produced came from academic quarters. demanded that capable academics had to be able to perform Vicious criticism came from the political sector as well. Sumitro, jobs other than teaching. Nonetheless it is possible to show positive besides being known as an economist, was known also as an active results from the Sumitro plan. In 1958 FEUI finally shed its member of the Indonesian Socialist Party (Partai Sosialis Indonesia Dutch legacy and revised its curriculum. It dropped the Dutch – PSI). Given his guiding role at FEUI, it is not surprising that “free study” method for a “guided study” approach. It tightened political foes would view FEUI as “socialist” territory.

Mohammad Sadli receives his doctoral diploma from FEUI, 1957. NO IVORY TOWER 57

While Widjojo, Ali Wardhana, Suhadi, and Emil Salim President Sukarno and the policies of the central government. might never have declared themselves to be PSI members, or This gambit resulted in much tension, and even though the members of any other party for that matter, there were some rebel officers were not completely convinced that Jakarta would lecturers, Tan Goan Po being one, who were well-known send troops against them, they made military preparations socialists. And, indeed, PSI did seem to have a wide following anyway. Sumitro even accepted assistance from the CIA toward among FEUI students. The university’s Socialist Students that end. Movement was very active on campus. “Even the bicycle As a result of Sumitro’s affiliation with PRRI, PSI leaders parking attendants on campus wore PSI badges,” said Silalahi, suspended his party membership. This action, however, did who himself was a leader of the Indonesian Catholic Students not save the party from Sukarno’s wrath. In 1960, having already Association (Perhimpunan Mahasiswa Katolik Republik disbanded Parliament and declared Indonesia to be in a state Indonesia – PMKRI). of war, Sukarno dissolved PSI and imprisoned former Prime During the 1950s, attacks against PSI and anything Minister . Thanks to an effective PKI campaign, remotely connected with it generally originated from the the PSI label came to carry a stigma, tainting FEUI as well. Indonesian Nationalist Party (Partai Nasional Indonesia – PNI) The late Bruce Glassburner, a lecturer from Berkeley or from the PKI. As the decade advanced, these attacks grew who had been assigned to teach at No. 4 Jalan Salemba, recalled harsher, especially after the 1955 general elections when PSI that those were the darkest weeks in the early history of FEUI. was routed at the polls. It was around then that Sumitro was From that time on, FEUI found itself in a defensive position. summoned several times by the Military Police Corps for Concurrent with President Sukarno’s moves to implement his questioning on charges of corruption. Sensing that this was policies of “guided economy” and “guided democracy,” merely a tactic designed to imprison him, he fled Jakarta. newspapers were banned and several opposition figures jailed. Thereafter Sumitro joined a group of military officers As a result, FEUI could not provide an open forum for in who had formed the PRRI in rebellion against discussion.

Initiation of members into the Indonesian Catholic Students Association in Pasar Baru, Jakarta, 1958. 58 CHAPTER ONE

AN EVENING WITH THE TECHNOCRATS

One night in March 2003, while US President George W. Bush’s plan to attack Iraq filled the airwaves, a unique meeting took place at a hotel in Jakarta. Five journalists interviewed nine senior Indonesian economists. Widjojo Nitisastro came with some of his colleagues from FEUI, who in the past studied economics in the United States as part of the cooperative program between FEUI and UC Berkeley. This program was supported by the Ford Foundation. There were Suhadi Mangkusuwondo, Subroto, Julius E. Ismael, and Mohammad Sadli. Widjojo sat between Saleh Afiff and Subroto, while Ali Wardhana, Djunaedi Hadisumarto and Sri Hadi sat further back. Over the years these people occupied key positions in the planning agency, in the finance industry, trade, mining, and transportation departments, as well as Indonesia’s representative at the IMF. Widjojo introduced his colleagues, who replied with jokes. “He was called our village headman,” Sadli said. During the evening these men described their experiences. After studying in the US in the 1950s and 1960s, they served as lecturers at FEUI. Later on they served in government assisting President Suharto in managing the Indonesian economy.

THE BERKELEY MAFIA selected UC Berkeley. As to the question what about Prof. Widjojo: Luck always plays a role in history. UC Berkeley sent two senior academics, Andreas Papandreou who taught at FEUI has been lucky to have Prof. Sumitro Prof. Paul Taylor, chair of the Department Berkeley during that time and later became Djojohadikusumo. We were also lucky that of Economics, and Dr. Thomas Blaisdell, the socialist prime minister of Greece, it can in the early 1950s Suhadi Mangkusuwondo professor of political science. In the US, be told that he became the chair of the led the student senate. When Prof. Sunario Prof. Frank Kidner organized the Department of Economics at Berkeley after Kolopaking (FEUI’s first dean) resigned as administrative side, including the selection Prof. Paul Taylor. At Berkeley, Prof. dean, the student senate took the initiative of academics to be sent to Indonesia, and Papandreou taught a course in mathematical and sought out a new dean. They chose Dr. the selection of students here. economics. I took this course. At that time Sumitro. If it were not for Suhadi and Prof. The academics selected to come to he did not show an inclination to become Sumitro, nothing would have been achieved Indonesia included associate and full involved in politics. by FEUI. The course of events would have professors and younger staff. They began been completely different. coming in 1965. I remember that their CHOOSING A FIELD Suhadi: Prof. Sumitro was the only chairman was Prof. Leonard Doyle, who Widjojo: The students had different economist with a doctorate in economics. often argued with Prof. Sumitro. So things interests. For example, Ali Wardhana was The other came from legal or social science didn’t always go smoothly. The second man particularly interested in fiscal and backgrounds. There were also others with was Prof. Leon E. Mears, who became an monetary studies. doctorates, such as Dr. Saroso, but he was outstanding figure because, together with Afiff: At FEUI I began my studies in the not really well known as an economist. Saleh Afiff, he wrote a book on rice business economics department. At the time Widjojo: Prof. Sumitro headed FEUI where marketing in Indonesia. Another was Hans the department was involved in research most of the teachers were Dutch. Then, Schmitt, who was quite young. He had a on the marketing of rice. Prof. Mears was tension grew between Indonesian and the close working relationship with Ali looking for an assistant and I was selected. Netherlands, as a result of the Papua issue. Wardhana, because both had an interest in When I went to Berkeley, I attended the The Dutch were planning to leave. Prof. fiscal and monetary studies. School of Business Administration. Sumitro took the initiative to find other Prof. Sumitro and the faculty secretary, Widjojo: The choice of a field of study was professors to replace them, and he thought Prof. Tan Goan Po, were responsible for decided before departure. Berkeley looked about the United States. He considered that selecting those who were to study in the US. for suitable universities. They didn’t make the continental and the Anglo-Saxon There was an intake each year. Suhadi, the decision for a candidate, but offered a systems each had its advantages and Julius Ismael, I and other colleagues left in number of choices. disadvantages. Prof. Sumitro then contacted 1957. We were the first batch. In 1958 Ali What was crucial for FEUI at that time the Ford Foundation to get assistance to Wardhana, J.B. Soemarlin and others was not just those who were sent abroad, finance the plan. followed. In 1959 Emil Salim, Saleh Afiff, but also those who organized the program Luckily, the Foundation’s Representative Batara Simatupang and others went. After in Indonesia. In 1957 Prof. Sumitro left in Jakarta, Mr. Michael Harris, had a good that, a number of other students followed, because of the rebellion in Sumatra and relationship with Prof. Sumitro. They agreed going to different universities. Sulawesi. Prof. Djokosutono, Dean of the that Ford would find an educational After Prof. Doyle, Prof. Malcom Davisson Faculty of Law, doubled as dean of FEUI. At institution in the US to act as counterpart held the position of chair. He came from a the practical day-to-day level, two people of FEUI and would finance the cooperative background in public finance. Later came from FEUI who had returned from studies program. Prof. Sumitro did not nominate a Prof. Bruce Glassburner, who stayed longer in the US – Subroto, the secretary of FEUI, university, but left that up to Ford. Ford and had a wide network of contacts. and Mohammad Sadli, director of the

01e 1950s 58 9/25/03, 9:26 AM NO IVORY TOWER 59

Institute of Economic and Social Research acquainted with him. Both Subroto and THE ECONOMIC CRISIS: 97-98 – played a significant role. So we could Sadli spoke at an army seminar in 1966. Mr. Widjojo: The crisis of 1997-1998 was not just leave with confidence. Suppose they said, Suharto came into the government also in an economic but also a political crisis. In “No need to take care of them, let them all 1966. We met at the seminar for the army. the same way as the crisis in 1965 which come home.” It could have happened and Later he asked us to assist him. was also an economic and political crisis. the history of FEUI would have been very At the time, the government’s priority A question was raised whether President different. was not to carry out a major development Suharto did not as much listen to us anymore Subroto: During that time there was a lot program, but an economic stabilization and at the time of the 1997-1998 crisis? This of pressure from the leftist movement. Prof. rehabilitation program. Stabilization was question may also be correct. As Ali Djokosutono was the leading figure in required to counteract the prevailing very Wardhana said, in the past President Suharto defending FEUI. There was a lot of pressure high rate of inflation. Rehabilitation did not merely listen but also took notes. For to appoint leftists on the teaching staff. involved repairs to infrastructure, including example, the problem of rescheduling foreign Afiff: Ford provided not only individual irrigation facilities, roads, and agricultural debts in December 1967. It had to be scholarships, but also assisted in institution facilities. We developed the plans for explained to him what rescheduling was, building, such as developing our library. We economic stabilization and rehabilitation how it was done, what was the system used were also lucky with our timing. When the together with President Suharto. in the world. If we wanted to reduce the Dutch left, the Americans burden of debt we could not replaced them. By the time merely oppose this system. the Americans went home, We had to be familiar with we had already come back. the intricacies. At that time So we took over the President Suharto was positions left empty. That prepared to learn. was just chance. Afiff: At one stage, Ali Wardhana and I had an THE ECONOMIC CRISIS 65-66 audience with President Widjojo: The recent Suharto to discuss economic crisis (1997-1998) is deregulation. At first, he not the only one we passed didn’t even give us a chance though. The Indonesian to speak. He gave us a economy went into free fall lecture. But Ali pushed in 1965 too. Another forward. In the end example of economic President Suharto agreed to disaster? The Indonesian “Technocrats” take questions on the state of the economy at a press conference deregulation. Indeed, in the economy also imploded at the Department of Information, 1971: Subroto, , past President Suharto took during the Japanese Sumitro Djojohadikusumo, Widjojo Nitisastro and Ali Wardhana. notes, later on we were the occupation (1942-1945). ones who took notes. That In 1965 there were important changes. WIDJOJO’S LEADERSHIP was true, but anyhow we continued to argue. At that time there was a significant event Ali Wardhana: We were lucky to have Widjojo: Was the economic crisis of 1997-1998 initiated by students. On 10 January 1966 Sumitro, Subroto, Sadli, and Suhadi – and the result of the deregulation package in the the students of FEUI held a seminar. Widjojo too. When I was a student at FEUI, 1980s? The deregulation began in 1985. It Speakers included Sultan Hamengku before taking exams I received suggestions covered many aspects of the economy. If Buwono IX and , as well as and guidance on the subject form Widjojo at there had been no deregulation, imagine lecturers of FEUI. Sadli made a salient point: the student dormitory at Pegangsaan where what would have happened. Formerly, to “We must recognize that we lack the capital he lived. At Berkeley, we were encouraged import soybeans, you had to go through a to improve the economy and develop the by Widjojo to ponder about the certain processing plant in Tanjung Priok. nation. We need capital, yet we cannot raise developments in our country. He kept this Which country manages its economy that capital internally. We must look for capital up until our return. Widjojo’s aim was to way? As a result there was a lot of rethinking. from abroad.” At the time, to say that prevent us from becoming just passive It was the same with banking. In the past Indonesia needed foreign investments and lecturers observing the surrounding situation. when clients wanted to put their money in foreign loans, was indeed an extraordinarily The turbulence started in 1965. It was government banks or take out their money brave statement. After that, there was a an important year because of the from these banks, many suffered bad division of labor: there were seminars and establishment of the New Order. Towards treatment. Later on, when private banks were there were actions. which course was the economy to be given an opportunity and there was Before 1965, FEUI was asked to provide directed? Widjojo took the initiative to put competition, there was an improvement in lecturers to the Army Staff College. Sadli together our ideas to overcome the the services of government banks. It was true was the first to be involved. The situation. Later these ideas became the that there were still shortcomings. One of the Commandant, General Suwarto, was foundations of economic policies. weaknesses was supervision. 60 CHAPTER ONE

Despite these constraints FEUI survived, in large part Militancy was on the rise, even among the teaching staff. due to the efforts of Sumitro’s successors. Djokosutono, a law Soemarlin, who joined the dean’s staff in 1962 to head the professor at the university, took over Sumitro’s titular position educational division, was accosted by poster-carrying activists but insisted on being called assistant to the dean. Then there from the Indonesian Students Movement Center (Consentrasi was Subroto, who had earned his master’s degree at McGill Gerakan Mahasiswa Indonesia – CGMI). They accused him of University in Montreal and his PhD at UI. He stepped in to being anti-Manipol, that is, an opponent of Sukarno’s Political serve as acting director. Thanks to these men (especially Subroto) Manifesto. Years later, Soemarlin admitted to having refused the Berkeley program was able to continue, pursuing its goal to hire known leftist students as teaching assistants. to send some 45 UI graduates to school abroad between 1956 Carmel Budiardjo, now famous for her work to free and 1962. In 1957, Widjojo and Suhadi left for California, Indonesian political prisoners during the New Order, was one along with J.E. Ismael and Barli Halim. Another group soon such person. A British citizen, Carmel had married an followed, as if nothing was amiss. Indonesian student, Budiardjo, in Prague and had come to But things had changed at No. 4. No one heard Ius Vivat Indonesia in 1954. She was one of the founders of the Union any more. The words “books,” “parties,” and “love” were of Indonesian Scholars (Himpunan Sarjana Indonesia – HSI), stricken from the UI hymn that was sung at every school an organization affiliated with PKI. She had earned her degree anniversary. Instead, the term Manipol – an abbreviation of at FEUI and as a student had chaired HSI’s economics section “political manifesto” – became a holy word, just as did – which is the reason she was not hired. “An American professor “revolution” and “socialism.” Politics became a serious activity. who taught economic history… whispered to me that the US Left-leaning and communist students found themselves facing embassy and the Foundation acted to prevent my off against students in Muslim and Catholic organizations. appointment,” Carmel recalled.

Subroto defending his doctoral dissertation at FEUI, 1957. Evidence of the growing importance of politics in the nation’s educational institutions: an invitation to all students in Jakarta to support the government against Sumitro Djojohadikusumo and the PRRI.

62 CHAPTER ONE

A PALACE FOR THE ARTS IN UBUD

Along the narrow main road in Ubud are Over a period of several years, Spies Each week, committee members met at markets, a theater, internet cafes, bike came to be known as the foremost non- Spies’ house. The association sponsored rentals and eateries. The atmosphere is Balinese authority on Balinese culture. He exhibitions in Batavia (now Jakarta), relaxed, and the scent of incense from was variously an insect collector, a Bandung, Medan, Palembang, Surabaya, and temples wafts on the winds. composer, a film production consultant, an abroad in the Netherlands, Paris, New York, Puri Lukisan (“palace of painting”), near author of books and articles, a patron of and Nagoya. Bali became established as an the market, houses a significant collection the arts, and a choreographer – he was the artistic center equal to China, Japan, and of historic Balinese paintings. Here, the first to arrange the now-famous kecak India. Lempad, in particular, became myths of Bali are on display. Bima is present. dance as a secular performance. Spies acknowledged around the world as a major So is Garuda, and a witch, and several opened up his house to guests from abroad, artist. And then, World War II broke out. figures from the . But there are also including Rudolf Bonnet, a Dutchman of Accused of sexual misconduct, Spies was pictures of bare-breasted maidens bathing Huguenot ancestry. expelled from Pita Maha. Bonnet protested in a pool. Unfortunately, some of the and also withdrew from the paintings have deteriorated over time. association. Jean Couteau, researcher and author, In 1942, Pita Maha was dissolved. says in his book Museum Puri Lukisan Spies and Bonnet were arrested by that the collection bears witness to the Japanese troops. Sadly, during his renewal of the arts of painting and return to Germany, Spies’ boat was sculpture in Bali. Until the 19th century, torpedoed and sank off . Balinese artists worked exclusively to Bonnet was held in Makassar but serve the needs of religious institutions eventually returned to Bali after and the aristocracy. The Dutch Indonesian independence. He used the colonial influence, however, created revolutionary period to do research, conditions for the opening up of train young painters, and collect the Balinese arts, which then were further works of Balinese painters. He revived encouraged by the development of his plans to establish a museum in tourism in the 1920s. company with Tjokorda Agung. “The collection now consists of They purchased land near Tjokorda more than 200 paintings, and maybe Agung’s family seat in Sukawati. In 1953, 80 pieces of sculpture,” says the the Ratna Wartha Foundation was director, Tjokorda Bagus Astika. Most established to develop the museum. In of these works were originally The Museum Puri Lukisan, Ubud, 2003. January 1954, Prime Minister Ali collected by Rudolf Bonnet. Any Sastroamidjojo, a close friend of discussion of the museum must mention These two European artists gave added Tjokorda Agung, came to Ubud to lay the Bonnet, Walter Spies, and Tjokorda Agung momentum to the renewal of the Balinese cornerstone. Donations flowed from the Sukawati, each of whom played a arts. Spies and Bonnet provided artists with Indonesian government, from the Dutch significant role in the renewal of Balinese materials and instructed them in new cultural association Sticusa, and from the fine arts. techniques. Spies himself oversaw the Ford Foundation. Two years later, the Walter Spies was born in Moscow in training of 12 to 15 young painters in his museum was inaugurated by Minister for 1895 into a family of German descent. In own house. He also helped them market Education and Culture Muhammad Yamin. 1923 he travelled to the Netherlands East their work. The name Puri Lukisan was coined by Yamin. Indies, where he worked for a while as a In 1936 the Pita Maha association was Bonnet and Tjokorda Agung died in musician in the Yogyakarta kraton. There, established. This name, which was taken 1978. Their remains were cremated in a Spies met a prince from Ubud, Tjokorda from ancient Kawi, means “honored shared ceremony in 1979. Puri Lukisan Raka Sukawati, a member of the Volksraad ancestors.” The association was headed by continues to attract the interest of artists who had studied for a while in France and Ida Bagus Putu, while the artistic committee from other areas, including such notable who was married to a French woman. The included Tjokorda Agung, Bonnet, Spies, figures as Affandi, S. Sudjojono, Dullah, and prince invited Spies to Ubud and introduced and the painter I Gusti Nyoman Lempad. many from abroad. These artists come to him to his younger brother, Tjokorda Gede The association became established in art study in Ubud and to find inspiration from Agung Sukawati. Spies decided to spend centers around Bali, and involved between one of the finest collections of Balinese art some time in the small town. 120 and 150 artists. in existence. NO IVORY TOWER 63

“The Birth of Hanoman” (1936) by the Balinese painter I Gusti Made Deblog, hangs in the Puri Lukisan in Ubud. It was donated to the museum by Michael Harris, a former Foundation Representative. 64 CHAPTER ONE

While there is no record of this incident in Foundation Socialist Accounting Procedures.” Even the vocabulary of documents, it was true that in Indonesia the fear of communism academic papers was altered to fit the times. Sadli wrote about was spreading, and no one living in the country, Indonesian or “industrial organization within the Indonesian socialist system.” foreign alike, was immune to its effects. At UI, as both Soemarlin Ali Wardhana and Subroto presented a paper entitled and Daoed Joesoef recall, PKI was trying to take control of FEUI. “Economic Cooperation Among the New Emerging Forces.” Because of its strong PSI stigma, FEUI was an easy target Some of the teaching staff were sent for training to Eastern for criticism. The administration felt that it had to defend itself European countries, like Yugoslavia, or in the case of Widjojo, by all means necessary. When Sukarno criticized economists to the People’s Republic of China. Batara Simatupang, another who were trapped in “textbook thinking” and who had been grantee who finished his studies at Stanford University in 1961, “brainwashed by Keynes,” staff members removed certain books left for to study with the noted socialist economist Oscar based on non-Marxist theory from the library, those of Keynes Lange at the Warsaw Central School of Planning and Statistics. foremost among them. Dorodjatun Kuntjoro-Jakti, who later Berkeley professor Glassburner viewed these trends with dismay, served as ambassador to the US and as President Megawati’s but No. 4 Jalan Salemba, it seemed, was no ivory tower. And, coordinating minister for finance and economy, was a student in fact, it had never been destined to be one. at the time. He told of being assigned by Professor Sarbini Even in its earliest days, the active role that this institution Sumawinata to remove the library’s books on “capitalist would play in national life was implied, if not always evident. economics” and store them in the teacher’s office. Some books When Soenario gave his first lecture on the day FEUI opened in even ended up being held for safekeeping in Cipinang prison. 1950, the title was “The Economy, Economic Politics, and State As a safety precaution, course titles were changed. Politics.” Emil Salim wrote in the foreword to a book “Accountancy,” for example, was changed to “Indonesian commemorating the school’s 50th anniversary that this inaugural

PKI members on the second anniversary of the Jakarta chapter, 1953. NO IVORY TOWER 65 speech established the FEUI’s character. Thereafter, he said, the program that Suwarto established as one attempt “to take into school was always “weaving together developments in the fields consideration the political and economic developments of the of economics, economic policy, and national development.” times in order to stem the influence of communism.” For the A highly significant development in the history of FEUI teachers seconded to Seskoad, the forum offered something took place nearly a decade later when Sadli met an old school they couldn’t find in other official places: the freedom to express friend from his time in revolutionary Yogyakarta in the 1940s. their criticisms of Sukarno’s guided economy which, by way of Suwarto was now an army colonel and the deputy commander its pervasive government control over production and of Seskoad. To those Indonesians who admired him, he was an distribution, had succeeded only in producing economic extraordinary military man. In 1967, after Suwarto’s death from stagnation. Similarly, the officer-students at Seskoad had used cancer, the statesman Soedjatmoko wrote in an obituary that the ideas that these economists generated to form their own he was an example of a warrior-priest, an intellectual in the political agenda, preparing for the day when they would hold military. Suwarto had revamped Seskoad’s curriculum so that power – that is, after PKI had been eliminated. half of its courses dealt with economics, law, political science, That time did come, in 1966, with the rise of Major sociology, and philosophy. In 1958, he established a cooperative General Suharto as commander of the armed forces and then program bewteen Seskoad and UI, UGM, the Bandung head of state. Thereafter, as the concepts of the Salemba Institute of Technology (ITB), and . A technocrats began to be implemented on a national scale, the year earlier, after their return from studies in the US, Sadli and face of Indonesia changed more rapidly. A historical Subroto had begun to teach courses there. transformation in Indonesia’s economic system was effected. The commemorative book, Fifty Years of the University The country made a large-scale shift away from a guided of Indonesia’s School of Economics, describes the cooperative economy toward a market economy, 30 years before China

Opening day of the Armed Forces Staff College in Cililitan, 1951. 66 CHAPTER ONE

Classes resume at UI, 1966. NO IVORY TOWER 67 and Vietnam went through the same process. For those who economic development plan, one for which coherent and saw that the lights were much brighter on the “capitalist street,” consistent leadership was vital. Their plan was effective: it the rise of Suharto and his New Order policies was good news became the road map that charted Indonesia’s most rapid indeed. economic development of the 20th century. Up until this time Suharto was not familiar with Widjojo, Yet what was rational was not necessarily democratic. although he might have known Sadli and Subroto during his Democracy, it seemed, was a luxury, a notion to celebrate time as an officer-student at Seskoad in 1959 and 1960. In early freedom, while freedom itself could be bothersome. 1966, after the PKI had been eliminated through bloodshed, Nevertheless, as time went by, the need for greater democracy students at FEUI held a “Lecture and Seminar Week” at the grew. The control over national development that had been so auditorium of No. 6 Jalan Salemba. Suharto was still just an effectively exercised by the economic technocrats started – like army commander, but since his emergence on the national stage so much else under Suharto’s rule – to erode. The New Order, following the events of 30 September 1965 he had demonstrated which began with the mass murder of its political opponents a level of authority that already proved a match for Sukarno. in 1965 and 1966, could not transform itself from an Students who opposed Sukarno enthusiastically invited him to emergency-driven regime into a free and democratic give the opening speech for the seminar. administration. Anxiety and fear were epidemic and surfaced Widjojo, who was the school’s dean at the time, even when people tried to think of stopping the decay through participated in choosing both the speakers and the topics of a change of government. the seminar. With the cloud of guided democracy still hanging Over time, Indonesia’s authoritarian regime, which had over the country, students and faculty were still hesitant to speak relied so heavily on the bureaucracy, the military, and the freely, and at the close of the seminar the participants together technocrats, came to be centered on one person: Suharto. He recited an oath of loyalty to President Sukarno, the “Great sat securely in his home on Jalan Cendana in Jakarta, both as Leader of the Revolution.” Even so, after all the presentations president of the country and as father to his children. As his had been made, Widjojo did voice a critique of the government sons and daughters grew to become the nation’s most powerful that was only partially veiled. He said that the government’s capitalists, the country’s “rational” development plan repeatedly actions with respect to the economy and finance “were unwise” had to be accommodated to support them. The systems and and that they “only added to the current economic difficulties.” procedures set up by Widjojo and his team were ignored Perhaps it was at that moment that Suharto realized he whenever they were inconvenient. The very words “Cendana had found a useful source of ideas for Indonesia’s rehabilitation Family” cast a spell that made all other powers irrelevant. once he was in power. In his address at the seminar, Suharto Towards 1998, when Suharto resigned as president, expressed his appreciation to the organizers. Thereafter, the road Sumitro Djojohadikusumo harshly criticized the regime for to the halls of power began to open for Widjojo and his FEUI the institutional decay that had occurred. By that time, colleagues. however, it was too late. Widjojo and his team had long been For these neo-Keynesians, rehabilitation from the out of the cabinet. For Suharto, the old technocrats were degradation caused by Sukarno’s “guided economy” did not history. Indeed, in his autobiography Suharto: My Thoughts, mean doing away with guidance altogether. Indonesia’s Sayings and Actions, he mentions Widjojo’s name only twice, economy was in shambles, as it had been during the Depression while heralding B.J. Habibie, with 17 references, as the source of the 1930s, and it could not right itself without intervention. of a new economic approach, one unknown in the halls of The FEUI technocrats saw the need to embark on a rational No. 4 Jalan Salemba. CHAPTER TWO: AMERICA, AMERICA...

CHAPTER TWO AMERICA, AMERICA...

n 1956, an American scholar set out for the Indonesian island of Ternate. His goal: to locate a tribe that, so it was Isaid, communicated by whistling instead of speaking. Although he didn’t succeed in finding this unusual group, that was not the worst of Lucien Zamarski’s experiences. On Ternate, he was arrested by the Indonesian military and accused, among other things, of making radio contact with a Dutch submarine. He was detained for more than two months without any official charges having been levied against him. It was not until US Ambassador John Allison intervened that he was released to fly home to his wife in Moline, Illinois. In 1958, an American woman who worked at an English language school in Bukittinggi was arrested. The civil conflict caused by the establishment of the separatist PRRI in West Sumatra was all but over. Central government troops had regained control of the area, and the few remaining rebels continued to wage guerrilla warfare. Beatrice Sutherland, who had been sent by the Foundation to Indonesia to teach English and who had lived in Bukittinggi for eight years, was accused by the central military commander of being a PRRI sympathizer. His proof: a recording she had made of the sound of gunfire. Ms. Sutherland explained that she had become intrigued by the contrast between birdsong and the sound of gunfire, which could be heard on an almost daily basis, and had made the recording as a souvenir. But the military officials believed that she was using the recording to send signals to rebel soldiers.

 The turbulent 1960s saw hundreds of demonstrations calling for an end to foreign involvement in independent Indonesia. This one in Yogyakarta in 1961 protested continuing Dutch control over West Irian. 70 CHAPTER TWO AMERICA, AMERICA... 71

Sutherland was eventually released and the Ford He organized assistance for the Indonesian military officers who Foundation office in Jakarta asked the Ministry of Education rebelled against the government, in the PRRI and in the Sulawesi- to conduct an investigation into the military’s charges. The based Permesta (Piagam Perjuangan Semesta Alam – Universal investigation turned up no evidence whatsoever to support the Struggle Charter) rebellion which also took place in 1958. military’s claim. These officers, along with anti-Sukarno civilian leaders To be an American in Indonesia in the 1950s and 1960s like Sumitro Djojohadikusumo, were good partners for the was not always a comfortable experience, particularly if one CIA in its quest to thwart the establishment of a communist wished to study a remote ethnic group or make an unusual regime in Indonesia. Crates of bazookas, machine guns, and sound recording. This was grenades, each clearly marked understandable. While the with the stamp of the US Navy, geographical distance between were sent to the Permesta rebels the United States and Indonesia in . An even had “shrunk,” political tension more obvious indicator of US – due to the Cold War, interference in Indonesian American fears of a “communist politics occurred in May 1958 threat,” and a drive by the US when a bomber belonging to the to expand its global influence – rebel forces was shot down, and had driven the countries apart. its pilot, Allen Pope – believed In a press conference in to be a US Air Force pilot – was Washington, DC on 11 captured. Though Pope was February 1958, US Secretary of never officially acknowledged by State John Foster Dulles said the US government to be a that “Indonesia’s ‘guided member of the US Air Force, democracy’ might very well be American involvement in unconstitutional and was Indonesian politics could no unsatisfactory for many.” Dulles’ longer be kept secret. comments did not receive a The outcry over the Pope warm welcome in Indonesia, incident caused a sea change in where guided democracy was an US policy. The Pentagon, which underlying principle of President Sukarno’s so-called “Political did not approve of the CIA’s actions, now had an excuse to Manifesto,” the doctrine of the Indonesian revolution that he press the State Department to change its image and course of was reviving. action. The US government, realizing that the CIA’s support But the US did not simply criticize this guided democracy. for the rebels was a failed venture and was damaging to America’s Allen Dulles, director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reputation abroad, put a stop to the channeling of assistance to and younger brother of the secretary of state, went much further. the insurgents.

Allen Pope showing a judge his flight path before his plane was shot down. Jakarta, 1960. John Foster Dulles visits Jakarta in 1956. 72 CHAPTER TWO

This change in the position of the Eisenhower Since the beginning of its history in Indonesia the Ford administration reveals how uneasy international bilateral relations Foundation played a unique role in Indonesian efforts to obtain could be during the Cold War. Indonesia had always been foreign aid. For Paul Hoffman, the Foundation’s president at ambivalent toward the US. American diplomats in Jakarta that time, Indonesia also held a special place for the Foundation, believed that Sukarno was beginning to distance himself from second only to India in importance. the US. They felt that he suspected Washington wanted to Hoffman became interested in Indonesia only by overthrow him. “The imperialists are truly… imperialistic!” he coincidence. In the late 1940s, when he was working in Europe proclaimed. At the same time, he also made it clear that Indonesia administering the Marshall Plan, he learned that the was not rejecting the assistance the US was offering. He Netherlands wanted to use a portion of its aid to put an end to maintained a pragmatic attitude, even in periods of resurgent the independence movement in its former colony. He nationalist rhetoric. threatened to stop further assistance to the Netherlands unless A mere four months after Pope was shot down, Indonesia it desisted. accepted $7 million in military assistance from the US. The An Indonesian parry to the Dutch move came in early first shipment arrived by a C-124 transport plane, in which 1952, when nationalist figure Ali Sastroamidjojo, then Sukarno was only too happy to take a short ride. Indonesian ambassador to the US and later Prime Minister, Whether to accept aid, or whether to provide assistance – wrote to the Institute of International Education (IIE) in those days, the variations on this theme were many. The most requesting that the Foundation help fund an English- interesting example of this confused or, perhaps more accurately, language teacher training project in Indonesia. Hoffman this ambivalent state of affairs can be seen in the relationship quickly assigned Dyke Brown and Edwin Arnold, two between the Indonesian government and the Ford Foundation, consultants for the Foundation, to conduct an initial survey which survived the heated and, finally, explosive 1960s. in Jakarta.

An exhibition of US military hardware in Jakarta, after the Pope Incident,1958. AMERICA, AMERICA... 73

MAYLING OEY-GARDINER

It was late in her career when Mayling Oey-Gardiner became a grantee, but her relationship with the Foundation began much earlier. The first female professor at FEUI, Mayling earned two masters’ degrees and one doctorate and was the first Indonesian ever to receive a PhD in demography. She is currently involved in the Foundation’s International Fellowships Program, a world-wide initiative to provide post- graduate scholarships to promising but socially or economically marginalized students.

My first experience with the Foundation Widjojo with his dissertation Population the bureaucracy; instead it gave money to wasn’t as a grantee, but rather as a clerk in Trends in Indonesia. universities to run population programs. So its office on Kebon Sirih in 1963. I had just Throughout my years in the US I kept when Harvard, being one of the big grantees finished a project at FEUI when I was asked close contact with Mr. Quinn. So, after of this money, came to Indonesia looking for – in fact, told – to join the Ford office by graduating with a BA in Sociology in 1968 I students to train in population, I accepted Assistant Representative William Lightfoot. decided it would be better to stay in the US the opportunity for a second MA in Because of the political situation, Ford’s as the situation was still very tense in Population Science. activities in Indonesia were slowing down Indonesia. I was accepted into the MA In 1976, after two masters degrees and but for some reason Mr. Lightfoot and 15 years being involved with the Mr. Phineas Quinn insisted I come to Foundation, I was the first Indonesian work for them. Mr. Quinn, who was to win a Ford-Rockefeller population based in New York, came to Jakarta studies award to do research on every couple of months. Since the transmigration in Lampung. I was workload was slowing down he convinced to do this by another convinced me to teach him Foundation program officer, Peter Indonesian, and in return he would Weldon. After the research was teach me English. But his idea of completed, Mr. Weldon further English was Oxford English, and he convinced me to get a PhD from decided my lessons would focus on Australian National University in reciting Shakespeare. After several of 1978, which made me the first these lessons, he popped the Indonesian ever to get a PhD in question, “What do you think about Demography. More recently, in 2001, going to school in America?” I I became the first female professor replied, “What, me, go to school in at FEUI. America?” Ever since I was a clerk at the The early 1960s was a very Foundation, I always felt it is the difficult period to be Chinese in people there that affected my life, Indonesia. I initially rejected the much more so than the actual offer, but my parents convinced me institution. What I appreciate most to go. There was substantial about the Foundation is the fact that educational funding provided to Mayling Oey-Gardiner at St. Xavier College, Chicago, 1965. they have been able to pick up on universities in the US, and Mr. Quinn atypical and marginal cases, put me in contact with a colleague of his at program at William and Mary, and upon especially now through the International St. Xavier in Chicago and I was granted a completion, I moved back to Indonesia in Fellowship Program. I have always felt that full scholarship. In 1964, just before 1971. Again my mentor, Mr. Quinn, influenced for many granting organizations, people Sukarno closed the borders, I was awarded the direction of my future. His contacts with are just numbers; they’re just another a Fulbright scholarship and left for the US. several institutions paved my way and grantee. But the Foundation is different – While I didn’t receive any grant from the introduced me to the study of population. they are involved in the grantees’ lives, and Foundation at the time (mainly because, I Around this time, Dr. Widjojo, who was not just financially. The people who kept believe, they were only able to provide heading BAPPENAS, was instrumental in challenging and encouraging me have grants through the government), Mr. Quinn’s getting population into the development made a huge impact on my life, and I’m persistence got me to the US. During the debate. This was also the time when the US certain there are many others whose lives summer of 1965 Mr. Quinn arranged for me allocated a lot of funds to population, and have been affected as well. To me the Ford a summer job at Cornell to help John Wolff Indonesia received the largest multilateral Foundation stands for providing with his Indonesian-language study book. I population grant. It was also the time when development assistance with a human also landed a second job assisting Dr. the US decided not to continue expanding face. 74 CHAPTER TWO

THE GREEN REVOLUTION: INDONESIA FEEDS ITSELF

Nowadays, the term “biotechnology” substantial investment, something a large for bringing IRRI to Indonesia. At the time, conjures a host of other terms, many landowner could manage but which was Bresnan’s former boss in New York was controversial: genetic modification, gene beyond the capacity of poor or landless chairman of IRRI’s board, and adamantly splicing, engineered seeds, transgenic crops, peasants. opposed extending its work to Indonesia due “Frankenfoods.” The field has stirred a whole The political mood was also to the mounting political tension between set of side-issues involving trade, national and problematic. In the aftermath of the 1965 Indonesia and the US. Bresnan, however, economic sovereignty, health concerns, and massacres, the army took political control believed deeply that the Green Revolution philosophic and moral questions. of rural Java. Villagers, whatever their was good for Indonesia, and eventually his It wasn’t always so. In the 1960s, politics, were no longer free to conduct view prevailed. “biotechnology” was synonymous with the their own local affairs. IRRI’s achievements make for impressive Green Revolution that gave hope to The combination of these economic and statistics: the International Rice Genebank, developing countries threatened with a political forces – not to mention continued with 90,000 samples of cultivated and wild Malthusian disaster. The term Green population growth – brought abrupt rice in storage; the Farmers’ Primer on Revolution referred to the Growing Rice, translated into 48 dramatic improvements in grain languages; the library with its Rice crop yields resulting from the Bibliography, containing more introduction of new varieties of than 170,000 references to rice in wheat and rice. at least 80 languages. The tradition For rice agriculture, the revo- of local community work – lution began in 1966 with the re- scholarships, income-generating lease of new hybrids by the Uni- training activities, gender versity of the Philippines’ Inter- empowerment programs – is solid. national Rice Research Institute But critical questions should (IRRI). Established in 1960 by the be raised. Some say that the new Ford and Rockefeller founda- rice varieties are more vulnerable tions, IRRI is a non-profit re- to pest and disease; they cite, for search and training organization. example, the devastation wrought Its worldwide activities to help Threshing rice in the village of Abianbase, Bali, 1985. by the brown planthopper in poor farmers and consumers are Indonesia. Others say that soils are estimated to have touched half the world’s changes to rural Java. Landowners became eventually impoverished by long-term population. The scientific breakthrough of less willing to enter sharecropping intensive applications of chemical fertilizer. 1966 was designed to stave off the mass fam- arrangements, thereby jeopardizing the Still others point to pollution by pesticides, ine predicted for Asia in the 1970s. In fact social harmony underpinning rural life. the most dangerous being the poisoning of it was to alter profoundly the political Increasingly, fields of ripe grain were fish. economy of rice. opened to outsiders who brought in their IRRI stands its ground, and claims that The timing proved crucial for Indonesia. own harvesters – mostly men – using sickles the technology has actually reduced the The economy was in shambles. The and rotary weeders rather than the amount of pesticides farmers have had to population was growing at an alarming traditional palm-held blade. use, with happy consequences for the rate, and the country still suffered from the By the early 1970s, Indonesia was environment and for human health. severe rice shortage that had contributed experiencing the highest levels of rice In 1984, to global accolades, Indonesia to the fall of Sukarno. Importing rice was production in its history. The new variety finally achieved rice self-sufficiency. The not only costly, but for a proud nation it known as IR5 was in use on one-fourth of report card however has been mixed. Poor was an embarrassment. By the time Suharto the country’s rice land. But rice-land rural dwellers have had to compete for took power, just about everyone was short owners, eager to cut labor costs, had shrinking rice-field jobs, and many have fled of food, and the new varieties were a boon. increasingly turned to machinery, and within to the cities to look for wage labor. They provided increased productivity, a few years had ended a major source of Although many decades have passed since economic stability, and self-respect. paid work for poor women. When the the Green Revolution, we still see these But managing the new technology was sociologist Masri Singarimbun asked some economic migrants everywhere: sex a problem. The integrated package of of these women how they would cope, they workers, street vendors, scavengers, barely irrigation infrastructure, chemical fertilizer, replied, “We will eat more carefully.” eking out a living in the towns and cities of and improved seed varieties required John Bresnan was the person responsible our “self-sufficient” country. AMERICA, AMERICA... 75 76 CHAPTER TWO

There was great enthusiasm for this proposal in the Ford Indonesia maintained what it called a “free and active” – as office. A memo to Hoffman by Brown and Arnold stated that opposed to a “neutral” – position. And, indeed, it was active in Indonesia appeared to “have a reasonable chance of developing the drive toward a resolution of the conflict between the blocs. along democratic lines.” The consultants also noted that, aided Its hosting of the Asia- Conference in Bandung in 1955 by “its experience, geographic isolation, and the Islamic faith, marked the initial declaration of this non-aligned position. This which is followed by 90 per cent of its people, Indonesia has was a policy the US did not fully appreciate. Thus, the friction remained non-communist.” between American and Indonesian foreign policies existed even “Communist” and “non-communist” – these were the before Dulles’ 1958 declaration. labels that dominated American thinking at the time and were In 1952, when Sukiman Wirjosandjojo was prime used to decide whether a country should be classified as friend minister, Indonesia was scheduled to receive US aid. This – and deserving of assistance – or foe. As such, Indonesia’s assistance was cancelled, however, because of a clause in the request for assistance was not to be denied. As a “non- US Mutual Security Act of 1951 requiring that US economic communist” country, it could knock on Washington’s door. assistance be linked to defense of the “free world.” Negotiations Even so, resources were limited. In 1952 the UN assistance were held in order to dispel the appearance that Indonesia had program was small, and the budget for US technical assistance abandoned its non-aligned foreign policy. An agreement seemed had recently been cut from $8 million to $3 million. to be within reach, but opposition to this clause had already Relations with the US were not easy. The problem with spread within Indonesia. The Sukiman Cabinet’s mandate was the American government, according to Foundation staff at withdrawn by Parliament in February 1952. This incident time, was that “it underestimated the strength of Indonesian demonstrated that, for Indonesia, foreign aid often involved nationalism.” Further, during the Cold War, the US was complications not easily resolved. somewhat inflexible in the face of Indonesia’s refusal to take This was the same conclusion reached by Ford sides between the “free world” and the “Communist bloc.” consultants Brown and Arnold after they visited Indonesian

The opening session of the 1955 Asia-Africa Conference in Bandung. Terraced rice land in Bali. For nearly two decades Foundation grantees promoted the involvement of local farmers in the design and management of the systems that irrigate their fields. AMERICA, AMERICA... 77

SAJOGYO

Professor Sajogyo is a well-known lecturer at the Bogor Institute of Agriculture (Institut Pertanian Bogor – IPB). He is widely acknowledged as one of Indonesia’s principal experts on poverty alleviation, rural development, family welfare, and rural sociology.

After graduating with a degree in agricultural The Foundation supported agricultural rice strain the production volume of this science from the Faculty of Agriculture at UI, development throughout Southeast Asia vital commodity could be expanded I served for ten months as research assistant through the Agricultural Development dramatically. Cultivation of the new rice to Prof. Karl Pelzer, a geographer from Yale Council (ADC). The collaboration between strain required the use of commercial University, working in North and South ADC and the AES coincided with the fertilizer and pesticide, and thereby Sumatra. After that, I was an assistant in introduction of a new rice strain from IRRI necessitated the development of a new social-economic studies in UI’s Faculty of in the Philippines. Given the enormous agricultural industry that included Agriculture in Bogor from 1956-1957. At the demand for rice in Indonesia, this was a construction of factories, and systems of same time I was an assistant to the guest vitally important new development. distribution and credit. This became known sociologist, Prof. W.F. Wertheim from the Previously, in the Sukarno era, projects that as the Green Revolution. It also opened up University of Amsterdam. In October great opportunity for corruption and 1957 I completed my doctorate in collusion between the bureaucracy agriculture under Prof. Wertheim with and business. a thesis entitled, “Spontaneous IPB staff were not involved in Transmigration to W. Sekampung, the ‘discovery’ of the IRRI rice Lampung, South Sumatra.” variety. Our contribution was hybrid “Spontaneous transmigrants” strains of Indonesian rice that were came to Lampung without used as genetic stock for the new government assistance. They hailed seeds. Some IPB staff had the task from all across Java, following the of introducing the new strain in path of earlier Javanese migrants who three villages in Karawang [West had established settlements in Java] where they worked intensively Lampung prior to World War II. They with farmers over a six-month did not just develop farm lands, they period to encourage them to use the established new communities with new strain. The farmers were their own institutions and endeavored convinced. Agriculture agencies to have these settlements recognized began involving senior students as officially as new villages by the district extension workers, sending them to government. work in villages for six months; and In the 1950s, the key word in their reports constituted part of social studies was “community their final exams. In 1965 there development.” This was an area of were hundreds of IPB agriculture academic inquiry but the World students on such assignments. Bank, International Labor In 1973 I went on leave to Hawai’i Organization and the World Health to write a paper for a seminar of the Organization also supported the Sajogyo outside his office in Bogor, 1977. Food and Agriculture Organization. concept of grassroots development. Entitled, “Modernization without The Department of Agriculture’s Agro- promoted intensified rice cultivation by the Development,” it was later published in the Economic Survey (AES) project began in Padi Centra Program used Indonesian Journal of Social Sciences in Dhaka. 1964. As part of its support for the project, varieties. The New Order government did not pay the Foundation funded the consultancy of Dr. After 1965, the ADC became increasingly sufficient attention to agrarian reform. The E. de Vries, who had been an agricultural involved in agricultural development in forestry law of 1967 stipulated the transfer official of the colonial Dutch government in Indonesia. IRRI began conducting research of hundreds of millions of hectares of forest the 1930s. I was seconded by IPB in 1964 to on rice in this country, involving many IPB land to state control. This opened the way head the working committee of the AES with lecturers in this work. A hybrid rice strain for big business to take over forest funding from the Department of Agriculture that came to be called “AES rice” was management. So today, after 30 years of a as well as Ford. The New Order government developed by crossing the tall, silky peta New Order administration that gave priority sustained its support for the AES over many strain with a variety that had the opposite to capital development, our forest heritage years, and I headed it until 1972. characteristics. With the new, faster-growing is in ruins. 78 CHAPTER TWO AMERICA, AMERICA... 79 80 CHAPTER TWO

PUBLIC DEFENDERS: THE INDONESIAN LEGAL AID FOUNDATION

Once upon a time in an Indonesian Djojohadikusumo to ensure his financial indirectly, through foreign human rights courtroom, recalled Adnan Buyung Nasution, independence. Later, funding came from organizations or programs such as the typically the judge would ask the defendant, other local and international sources. International Commission of Jurists and “This is how much I will fine you. Think you YLBHI’s pioneering role in support of Human Rights Watch/Asia. can handle that?” and typically the hangdog the political goals of NGOs is well known. After the November 1991 Santa Cruz defendant would answer, “Yes, judge, It has long struggled, for example, for a massacre in – and in a tense whatever you say.” society based on the rule of law. At the same political atmosphere – a Foundation grant In 1957, young prosecutor Nasution was time, its organizational efforts, particularly to Human Rights Watch/Asia and the Legal appalled by Jakarta’s top-down justice in networking and coalition building, have Aid Institute helped pay the travel costs of system. His work in the courts had exposed served as a practical model for NGOs. YLBHI YLBHI lawyers to defend East Timorese. him to extortion by judges and policemen, has links with its own branches, with other Support for Human Rights Watch/Asia also unfair jail terms, and the general defense- more loosely affiliated groups in the included an intern exchange program with lessness of the poor. He felt that the country provinces, and with local networks or posts YLBHI. Other support came in the form of needed an independent, non-profit legal aid in smaller towns and villages. individual grants for study and conference organization to defend the public participation abroad. Young lawyers interest. such as Tatang Suganda, Abdul Hakim Because this idea violated the Garuda Nusantara, and Todung Mulya “revolutionary” character of Sukarno’s Lubis – vocal critics of the New Order later years, more than a decade passed and important figures in YLBHI – went before it could be implemented. By the to places like Manila, Seoul, London, early 1970s, meanwhile, it had become and . clear that the same kind of corruption, Another Foundation strategy was to patronage, and abuse of justice was inject social justice concerns into areas rampant under the Suharto regime. such as resource management, The Indonesian Legal Aid environmental law, and women’s issues. Foundation (Yayasan Lembaga Bantu- But NGOs didn’t always know how to an Hukum Indonesia – YLBHI) was resolve personal or institutional launched in 1970 by a group that frictions, and this prompted the included Martokusumo, Mochtar Foundation to consider ways to help Lubis, P.K. Ojong, Suardi Tasrif, Yap strengthen the organizational Thiam Hien, Hasjim Machdan, Minang The YLBHI office in Central Jakarta as it appears capacities of these groups. In the view Warman, Victor Sibarani, Albert three decades after its founding, 2003. of former Human Rights Watch/Asia Hasibuan, and H.J.C. Princen. The institu- Since 1986, YLBHI’s efforts on behalf of Director Sidney Jones, the goal was “to devise tional model was American, with the labor associations have been channeled the kind of training that could bring big and Neighborhood Legal Offices and the Public mainly through the formation of credit little NGOs into closer contact.” By the late Defender Services providing particular unions and small enterprises. This type of 1980s, a tug of war within the NGO inspiration. After charismatic Jakarta assistance also extended to unorganized community was far from resolved. Governor endorsed the new labor such as domestic servants and women YLBHI’s achievements over several institute, a nod of approval came from shop assistants. In fact, the rights of women decades were impressive. It helped shape the Suharto. had drawn YLBHI’s attention as early as fundamentals of community development in YLBHI quickly became the leading pro 1979, when a group of Muslim professional Indonesia by empowering local groups, bono defender of indigent Indonesians and women established a complimentary encouraging popular participation in a center for human rights activism. Over the institute to improve the status of Muslim decision-making, and fostering the idea of a years it has maintained links with a diverse women in marriage and family law. strong civil society as a counterweight to the network of legal aid organizations, research The Foundation’s support for YLBHI power of the state. Ironically, YLBHI was bodies, and advocacy groups; published on began in the late 1970s, at a time when state beset by funding problems soon after Suharto legal and human rights issues; and hostility toward human rights organizations fell from power. Internal friction and conducted seminars, workshops, and had a chilling effect on donors. The continuous lay-offs have characterised its paralegal training. Indonesian government did not recognize operations since. It was further torn asunder Initial funding came from Nasution’s international human rights principles, so by Nasution’s controversial decision to defend own law firm, which he built at the urging support for activism in Indonesia was Indonesian generals accused of human rights of and Sumitro virtually impossible. It had to be provided abuse. AMERICA, AMERICA... 81 cities in August 1952. In Jakarta they met with Prime Minister As a result, the Foundation’s response was measured – Wilopo, Minister of Education Bahder Djohan, the rectors of and properly so, it seemed – for it would have been difficult to two universities, and with President Sukarno. Their 45-minute follow a ready-made design. The most urgent task, and the easiest meeting with Indonesia’s leader left a positive impression. The on which to reach agreement, was to improve the country’s quality Americans concluded that Sukarno “has a warm view of the of education. English-language education was a must. In Miller’s West and the US.” The head of state asked them, “What other view, Indonesians were quick to realize that learning the English nation has philanthropical organizations like the Rockefeller language was one of the keys to national development. This, it and Ford Foundations? Is it because Americans are so rich, or seems, was the reason for Ali Sastroamidjojo and Sukarno’s because they are so humane?” requests. Even before their departure from Indonesia, Brown Amid all this congeniality, Brown and Arnold learned and Arnold sent a telegram to New York recommending that two crucial things about Indonesia. First, they understood the English-language teachers be dispatched to Indonesia right away, character of its top leadership, which they described as “forged for the academic year 1953-54. in the revolutionary struggles of the country and genuinely In the history of the Foundation in Indonesia, perhaps dedicated to the progress of Indonesia as a free and independent no other program was initiated as quickly. The request was country.” Second, they learned that “Indonesians are particularly approved only one day after Hoffman received the telegram. slow…to accept assistance from foreign governments.” Brown and Arnold were told to convey this information to the According to Brown and Arnold, this was due to “the newness minister of education before leaving Indonesia. The ensuing of Indonesia as an independent country,” and to the “bitterness agreement was simple: immediate support to build language of the struggle to emerge from its 300-year status as a colony.” laboratories for university students and middle-school teachers. Hence, the “hypersensitivity of Indonesians concerning the Over time, this agreement expanded and grew more independence of their foreign policy” must be taken into complex. A decade later, the total allocated by the Foundation consideration. to its English-language program in Indonesia had reached It was precisely for this reason that the Foundation, an almost $1.5 million (no small sum at that time) – even amid a independent nongovernmental agency, was viewed in Indonesia rancorous political atmosphere. as having the potential to play a key role in relations with the The Foundation-funded program began with a five-week US. The conclusion reached by Foundation consultants was basic training course for English-language teachers, the goal that Sukarno “very much wanted the Ford Foundation to being to improve these teachers’ speaking ability. Eleven conduct activities in Indonesia.” American teachers were sent to cities around the archipelago. The list of programs that needed implementing was Following that, a two-year “standard training course” was extensive. Building a nation as vast as Indonesia – with its lack designed to produce Indonesian instructors able to teach English of money and planning, a ten per cent literacy rate, and a to the next generation of students. government administration in complete disarray – was a job An internal evaluation produced by the Foundation gave not previously envisioned by any power in the history of the high marks to the English-language program for the institutional archipelago. The task was so huge, wrote Frank Miller, the change it effected. At the outset of the program in 1953, nearly Foundation’s second representative in Jakarta, that it was 80 per cent of the country’s English-language teachers had no understandable there should emerge “the sublime in humility, grasp of standard pedagogical methods. For the most part, they or an ego on the grand scale.” At the same time, there was lacked the necessary teaching materials or even an institution within Indonesia a resolve, said Miller, “to never fall into the where they could receive proper training. By 1963, “the situation hands of a foreign power again, or to mortgage itself through was dramatically changed. A whole complex of institutions, obligations or alliances.” materials, and teachers existed.”

The Foundation’s first consultants in Indonesia, Dyke Brown and Edwin Arnold, meet President Sukarno in the , Jakarta, 1952. 82 CHAPTER TWO

The evaluation also pointed to a potential indirect A 1974 article in Tempo noted that “English language outcome, one consistent with thinking typical of the Cold War courses are springing up like street vendors and new restaurants.” era. It noted that sufficient English-language skills among According to Kurnianingrat Ali Sastroamidjojo, a former professor educated Indonesians provided “an important political of English at UI, whose husband was one of the first Indonesian advantage for the free world and its ideology.” It assumed, since officials to request assistance from the Foundation, “From one English was now the international language of communication year to the next, young people are getting progressively worse. as well as the language of much of the “free world,” that the It’s as if they don’t read anything in school. Only those students Indonesian government would favor American teachers over with the financial means are able to sign up for private lessons.” those from communist states. This, it was said in the report, Students who could not afford private lessons enrolled in whatever would “help limit the influence of communist countries in courses were available, the quality of which varied greatly. One Indonesia.” In fact, by the early 1960s, credit from the USSR English course in Jakarta that catered to the needs of hotel and to Indonesia rose to $800 million, while 300 technical assistants nightclub employees provided reading materials with sentences from the USSR were working in Indonesia, compared with like, “What’s the matter has been so happened?” 200 from the US. Teaching English seemed to have no impact An indisputably beneficial and enduring result of the on the extent of influence from communist countries. Ford Foundation’s work in the field of language was a set of The Foundation’s principal goal in establishing its English- bilingual dictionaries compiled over several decades by John M. teaching program also proved elusive. The British Council and Echols of Cornell University with the assistance of an Indonesian other organizations, too, had initiated similar programs in lexicographer, Hassan Shadily. An initial publication subsidy Indonesia. Yet a Foundation report in 1971-72 observed the of $3000 from Ford in 1963 ensured that their Indonesian- “very slow progress that had been achieved in English language English volume could be sold at a reasonable price, and it training” overall, and stated that the Foundation’s program was became a best-seller. Later, the Foundation provided an one of its “less than encouraging” endeavors. A quarter of a century additional $170,000 for preparation of the English-Indonesian after American and other western teachers first entered Indonesian volume eventually published in 1975. Updated editions are schools, it appeared it still was not easy to equip Indonesians still widely sold both in bookstores and, as pirated copies, by with English. street vendors all around the country.

By the end of the 1950s, the Soviet Union had increasing influence on Indonesia with the sale of planes, ships and military equipment. A hawker selling pirated Echols-Shadily dictionaries in Central Jakarta, a common occurence since it was first published. Of the estimated 120,000 copies sold each year, 80 per cent are illegal. AMERICA, AMERICA... 83

HARYONO SUYONO

Haryono Suyono first became involved with family planning through articles he wrote for papers and magazines while working as a statistician. Ali Sadikin, one of the few government officials of the 1960s to have the courage to openly support the family planning movement, encouraged him to continue to write about the disastrous effects of Indonesia’s population explosion. Haryono also wrote a speech that Ali Sadikin delivered when he opened the first International Family Planning Conference in Indonesia. From his beginnings as a writer, Haryono rose to become head of BKKBN, a body established by the government in 1970, and later joined the Suharto cabinet. It all began with a column I wrote for various population control. Later, Suharto made In- predicted that, we would have structured our newspapers: Kompas, Berita Buana, and donesia a signatory to that declaration. From organization differently, in a manner that Jaya magazine, among others. Mostly I wrote that point, at the end of 1967, the govern- facilitated a more rapid transfer of about the disastrous effects of Indonesia’s ment’s commitment was institutionalized. knowledge. population explosion. Ali Sadikin encouraged Many programs were devised and imple- Another major issue is that of prepar- me to continue writing on the topic. At the mented with the support of the full range of ing communities to stand on their own. In time, Sadikin was a hero to the family state agencies. The role of the donor com- the past, this was not considered a prior- planning movement. He was the only ity, and so the level of dependence on senior ranking official to come out in the government has remained very favor of family planning. high. In the past, the government pro- President Sukarno was actually vided all contraceptives and other nec- happy with the idea of a rapidly essary items. Even when the issue of expanding population. He seemed to be community self-reliance was raised, it under the impression that a large was always expected that the govern- population signified a great nation. ment would continue to provide a sig- Many attacked Sukarno’s viewpoint nificant proportion of the expenses. purely on health grounds, including The community was considered to be doctors and other health professionals. poor, and it was assumed that the gov- But Sadikin didn’t just address the issue ernment’s help would be ongoing. Now, from the perspective of health; he took apparently, the government’s budget a wider viewpoint. He addressed issues has been limited to 100 billion rupiah such as quality of life and the [around US$ 11 million] – that’s cer- development of human resources. tainly not enough to provide free con- In 1967, an international family traception across the country. planning congress was held in Jakarta. With excessive dependence on the The government was represented by the government, success depends entirely Minister for Human Welfare – if I’m not on the level of funding provided. If the mistaken, . At the time, the concept of self-reliance is applied, majority of religious leaders were also Haryono Suyono at his office in Jakarta,1979. communities will be empowered to opposed to the concept of family continue their programs even without planning. The selection of Idham Chalid as munity became extraordinarily significant. access to funds. If it is not possible to provide Minister was calculated to win support, The Foundation sponsored the education of contraception, perhaps a similar objective because he was a highly regarded figure a large number of workers in this field. I can be achieved by providing information within the [NU]. Through myself was sponsored by USAID. regarding and access to contraception, Chalid’s influence, NU became one of the first When the program began, we never through pharmacists and other suppliers. major mass organizations to support family imagined that we would have to deal with Unfortunately, programs to stimulate self- planning. At the conference, the national such frequent transitions between reliance are still very limited in range and government also affirmed for the first time governments. With each new president – scope. its commitment. almost one each year for three years – not Moreoever we did not anticipate the This affirmation sent out a signal to other only are ministers and other top officials decentralization of governance in elements in society. While the government replaced, but so are many of their Indonesia. The government should move initiated the process, others actively encour- subordinates. Under Suharto there was a quickly or else there will be another aged the movement. Donor agencies also certain stability, and the transfer of authority population explosion. It could even be played a significant role. World opinion was and skills was usually a steady and ongoing mightier than the Bali or the J.W. Marriott institutionalized through a UN declaration on process. Things are different now. If we had bomb. 84 CHAPTER TWO AMERICA, AMERICA... 85 86 CHAPTER TWO

An interest in learning English, however, did not suit who were not employed to depart from Indonesia. In the end, the worldview of Indonesians who, in the late 1950s and early almost 46,000 people left for the Netherlands, and the ‘60s, were caught in a drastically changing political situation. Indonesian government nationalized all Dutch-owned Politics in the young country followed their own unique companies. direction and development, in part driven by the trauma of Meanwhile, the Indonesian military, under the leadership colonization, fear of “neo-colonialism,” the Cold War, domestic of General , was increasing its political insurgencies, and a multitude of administrative and social power. The position of political parties, with the exception of rivalries across the archipelago. PKI, was declining. The military attempted to undermine PKI’s The government’s announcement of a State of Wartime influence too, but it was the best organized among the parties Emergency in early 1957 dramatically altered the country’s and would not cede its power. Another factor was President political atmosphere. Repression became the most common Sukarno, who lacked his own organized base of popular support, method for settling conflict. Meanwhile, both national and relied increasingly on PKI. mobilization and increasing militancy manifested themselves In March 1960, Sukarno dissolved the Parliament as well, beginning with the government’s demand that the (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat – DPR) which had been formed Netherlands relinquish its claim on West Irian. Its anti-Dutch after the 1955 general elections, and created a new organization campaign proved to be vehement. called the National Front (Front Nasional). All parties were In late 1957, Indonesian workers at KPM (Koninklijke required to turn over their membership lists and, in August Paketvaart Maatschappij), the Dutch shipping line, staged a that year, Masyumi (Majelis Sjuro Muslimin Indonesia – the sit-in at the company’s main offices in Jakarta. This was followed Consultative Council of Muslim Indonesians) and PSI, both by a similar protest at the Netherlands Trading Company. supporters of liberal democracy, were banned. For PSI, whose Thereafter, the Minister of Justice ordered all Dutch citizens political influence was slight as a result of its poor showing in

Dutch nationals leaving for Holland aboard the Captain Cook, Jakarta, 1957. The nationalization of the Netherlands Trading Company in Jakarta, 1957. An early Masyumi congress in 1951. AMERICA, AMERICA... 87 88 CHAPTER TWO AMERICA, AMERICA... 89 90 CHAPTER TWO

1955, the impact of this ban was negligible. But the by four assassination attempts. The result was an increasingly consequences for Masyumi, which had come second only to harsh and restrictive environment. In the wee hours of the the PNI in 1955 and had almost eight million supporters morning one day in mid-January 1962, leaders of PSI and scattered throughout Indonesia, were devastating. Masyumi were arrested on orders from the Military High Because of pressure on the media at the time, it is difficult Command. They were accorded no trial, nor given any to gain a true picture of the situation from press reports. The indication of when they would be released. As it turned out, communist-affiliated newspaper, Harian Rakjat, was muzzled, they were not released until after Sukarno’s own fall. Sutan albeit temporarily. Pedoman, whose chief editor was Rosihan Sjahrir, the former prime minister and a leading figure in PSI, Anwar, was also banned and only allowed to publish again died while still a political detainee. after Sukarno’s fall in 1966. Mochtar Lubis, editor-in-chief of Arrests such as these became more common as the Indonesia Raya, was imprisoned. Over time, media censorship campaign to free West Irian mushroomed into conflict between and arrests became more frequent, often leading to questionable the Indonesian and Dutch armed forces. Finally, in 1962, the charges. In early 1961, for instance, a number of people were Netherlands was forced to relinquish its last colonial outpost arrested and charged with being part of a conspiracy known as in the archipelago to the UN. By this time, however, NIGO (Nederlandse Indische Guerilla Organisatie, the Dutch Indonesians had grown accustomed to a political life that, in Indies Guerrilla Organization), which planned to “assassinate the name of patriotism and security, flew the banner of militancy the president and take control of authority.” One person arrested and condoned repression. was UI professor of medicine Sjahriar Rasyad, a radiologist The State of Wartime Emergency officially ended in May who had never been active in politics. Even though the 1963, but the power structure that had developed during that government could find no proof of his guilt, he was nonetheless time did not change. Extralegal regulations replaced subjected to house arrest. government-established law as the norm. Political prisoners By this time, President Sukarno’s life had been threatened were not released. The arrest of dissenters continued, particularly

President Sukarno in Yogyakarta denouncing the Dutch presence in West Irian, 1961. The Cikini Affair: four men on trial for attempting to assassinate the president with a hand grenade. August, 1958. AMERICA, AMERICA... 91

SUKADJI RANUWIHARDJO

Sukadji Ranuwihardjo graduated from the Faculty of Economics at UGM in 1957. One year later, while employed as an official of the railway service in Bandung, he was offered a scholarship to complete a master’s degree in public economics at UC Berkeley. On his return to Indonesia he was appointed dean of the Faculty of Economics at UGM, then rector of the same institution, and finally director- general of higher education in the Department of Education and Culture.

At the beginning of the 1950s, when UGM first UGM, there were only two senior academics 1969 to monitor the progress of the program established cooperative links with the involved: Professor Soenardjo and Professor between Wisconsin and UGM. At a meeting University of Wisconsin, I hadn’t decided Kertonegoro. The UGM senate was extremely we offered him snacks, including klepon, where I wanted to study. Just one week traditional. Professor Kertonegoro once said little cakes with palm sugar inside. When he before I was due to leave for America, I met that before he visited America, some bit into it, the sugar spurted all over his shirt. with a senior academic from America who members of the senate told him that if It seems funny now, but it was a crisis at the was involved in the management of the Indonesian lecturers couldn’t develop their time. program. He told me that there were already capacities by themselves, it would be better Observers often compare FEUI with the a lot of teachers from UGM at faculties at Gadjah Mada and Wisconsin, and asked me if I Nommensen. A lot of people say wanted to go to Berkeley instead. I that UI is the most successful. But spent two years there. At Berkeley, just because UI produces a large most of the Indonesian students number of ministers doesn’t mean were Javanese. Initially, Javanese that it’s more successful than the was spoken at home by young other institutions. mothers with their children. On The New Order regime campus, the fathers spoke emerged in Jakarta. The first Indonesian or English, but student demonstrations against gradually Javanese terms entered the Old Order broke out at UI. into our conversation. We had to Suharto selected the people teach Javanese to Emil Salim, closest to him, including Widjojo Sayuti Hasibuan, Bistok Sitorus, Nitisastro, Emil Salim, Mohammad Arif Djanin, Panglaykim, Ang Giok Sadli and Subroto, from among Hun and others. the staff at UI. In 1962, at the age of 31, I was While I was at UGM, I was also appointed assistant rector at UGM, offered a position in Jakarta. At a position I held until 1964. At that the time I was on the research point I told the rector, Professor staff of the minister for labor and Herman Johannes, that I wanted to transmigration, Professor Subroto, return to America to engage in and had to make frequent trips further studies. I left in 1964. back and forth between Around this time, as part of his Yogyakarta and Jakarta. One day, anti-Western stance, President Sukadji Ranuwihardjo in Yogyakarta, 1978. I was told that Radius Prawiro, the Sukarno issued a decree forbid- minister for trade, was looking for ding economics lecturers from studying eco- for them to close shop. They felt that me. “You’ve spent too long in Yogyakarta. nomics in America. However, we managed cooperation with America was unnecessary. It’s time for you to move to Jakarta,” he said, to find a way around that. Those scheduled Conservative attitudes were very strong, partly adding that the position of secretary- to study in America received letters from because Yogyakarta was still a relatively general in the Department of Trade was the state secretariat that scrupulously closed society. Since its establishment in open. avoided stating that the bearer would be 1949, most of the teachers at UGM were I refused. My colleagues at UI who have studying economics. Rather, these letters graduates from Leiden, and most of them served as ministers or other functionaries referred to studies related to management, were aristocrats. They were extremely can still give weekly lectures at Salemba. If statistics, or other technical matters, so the suspicious of foreign influences. I’d moved to Jakarta, I wouldn’t have been secretariat would let them through. McGeorge Bundy, president of the able to teach. For me, my first commitment At the beginning of the program with Foundation, came to Yogyakarta in 1968 or is to my university. 92 CHAPTER TWO AMERICA, AMERICA... 93 94 CHAPTER TWO

after an outbreak of riots in Bandung that same month against country of “land-owning demons” – the so-called setan kota Indonesians of Chinese descent. Sukarno accused a and setan desa – pushed landowners into a corner. Widespread “counterrevolutionary” group of being behind the riots, and bitter conflicts erupted, primarily in rural areas of Central comprising “PSI, Masyumi, PRRI, Permesta, and foreign Java, East Java, and Bali, where communist farmers took to subversive elements.” squatting on land belonging to these rural “demons.” Over The accusation of being a counterrevolutionary was the years the number of landless farmers had indeed increased; sufficient to silence most people. When a group of artists and even so, the pattern of land ownership in rural areas did not intellectuals announced its Cultural Manifesto, proclaiming reflect true control by large-scale landowners. In very few that the arts must be free from political influence, the group villages, in fact, was ownership of the land that was used for was attacked by pro-communist organizations. Subsequently rice production concentrated in just one or two hands. As one their writings were banned and those who worked at left-wing activist later admitted, PKI’s unilateral action to universities, such as H.B. Jassin, a famous literary critic, were redistribute land only resulted in “clashes between the poor pressured to resign from their positions. and the middle class.” As is now known, that conflict ended in During Sukarno’s Crush Malaysia campaign, the horrifying bloodshed. country’s militant and repressive atmosphere grew even more In the cities, PKI’s militancy was generally limited to intense. Reports circulated that 21 million volunteers had been areas outside the economic sphere. There, the fiercest conflict recruited to participate in this struggle. Meanwhile, on the centered on the realm of ideas, the media, and culture. Those domestic political stage, rivalries intensified. people who suffered the brunt of PKI attacks generally sought PKI’s frequent attacks on its political rivals made them the protection of the military or took refuge in the name ever more defensive. The party’s campaign to cleanse the “Sukarno.” One example of the latter was a group of

The 33rd anniversary of the founding of the PKI, 1953. AMERICA, AMERICA... 95

MELY G. TAN

Dr. Mely G. Tan is one of Indonesia’s most distinguished sociologists. She is well known for her work on inter-group relations, for example on the ethnic Chinese in Indonesia, and on gender development including women’s reproductive health and the empowerment of women. She received a Foundation fellowship organized by LIPI for her PhD studies at Berkeley in 1963. Since then she has presented lectures and papers at conferences all over the world, and served on the National Commission on Violence Against Women (Komnas Perempuan), a current Foundation grantee. While I was completing my MA at Cornell have too much to do with Ford, since the which Pak Selo was chair. His name always in 1959, I met Professor Selo Soemardjan, LIPI fellowship program was administered seems to come up in any discussion about who was getting his PhD in sociology there by the International Education Foundation. the social sciences in Indonesia. Ford at the same time. I returned to Indonesia in In 1974, however, I was asked to be on a assisted this Foundation and since then I 1961. In 1963 Pak Selo told me about a team to evaluate Ford grants in Southeast have been involved, directly or indirectly, recent program where LIPI with Ford in my work to was looking for people to advance women in the social send to the United States for sciences. further study, after which For me, the Foundation they would return to has made a great impact on Indonesia to work full-time Indonesia with its original in the National Institute for and continuing focus on Economics and Social education. In the very begin- Research (Lembaga ning, when we became a re- Ekonomi dan Kemasyara- public, the standards were katan Nasional – Leknas). such that there was a su- The program, funded by perb, albeit thin, top layer Ford, was immediately of educated people. So, interesting for me, so I what the Foundation did in applied. I believe there were giving as many young peo- a total of 60 applicants for ple as possible the opportu- 12 positions, and I was nity to finish their studies is fortunate to be chosen and extraordinary. sent to get my PhD at The Foundation is a very Berkeley. I arrived back in well regarded organization the US a few months before here in Indonesia, which Kennedy was shot in surely helps it implement its November 1963. programs. I think one of the My thesis was on the reasons for this success is Chinese in the United States, the quality of the Repre- and I completed that degree sentatives. I remember the in 1968. I remember being first Representative I met very worried about the Mely Tan with Soedradjad Djiwandono in her apartement at Berkeley, 1966. was Frank Miller, who was events of 1965 when Ford replaced by John Bresnan, closed its office, because we thought that Asia. I was assigned to go to the Philippines, and then later of course there were women our fellowship would be terminated. and [South] Vietnam. I don’t such as Mary Zurbuchen and Suzanne Luckily for us, even though Ford closed its remember too many details about that Siskel – and all are fluent in Indonesian! office for a short time, it still maintained evaluation, but I do remember how This is important, as fluency in Indonesian its funding and all of us were able to interesting it was meeting so many grantees. makes a very good impression on the peo- complete our studies. Ford’s impact was undeniably positive in ple here, and also these women have been When I returned to Indonesia I went to those countries. very sensitive to the issues that women face work at LIPI as agreed. All this time I didn’t In 1980, I became a member of YIIS, of in today’s Indonesia. 96 CHAPTER TWO journalists and activists who called themselves “The In Jakarta, other protesters went to the homes of British citizens, Sukarnoism Support Group” (Badan Pendukung Soekarnoisme ordered them outside, and burned their belongings in the street. – BPS). However, sometimes even this proved ineffectual, as A year later, the Indonesian government closed the main office was the case with BPS, which was banned in December 1964. of the British Council and its branches. Sukarno himself concurred with the charges that PKI leveled In May 1964, 16 organizations representing workers, against the group – that it had been established for the purpose young people, women, and the film industry launched a of assassinating him and destroying his ideas. BPS supporters boycott against American films. In mid-July of that same year, were interrogated and, several months later, 21 newspapers Minister of Education and Culture Prijono issued the that had backed the group were shut down. instruction that schoolchildren should no longer call their On college campuses, student members of CGMI, a fathers the Dutch- or English-sounding papi or mami. In the communist-affiliated organization, pushed for the dissolution first quarter of 1965, five branch libraries of the United States of HMI, the nation’s largest organization of Muslim students. Information Service (USIS) were destroyed and American Tensions within universities were more or less consistent with Peace Corps volunteers were deported. In June 1965, what was happening off campus. Demonstrations and musicians in the band Koes Bersaudara were detained by the expressions of anti-Western sentiment, particularly toward Great Attorney General’s office for singing Beatles songs. In August Britain and the US, grew increasingly strident. In September 1965, some 22,000 American-published books and 250 1963, following the formation of the Federation of Malaysia, Beatles albums were burned on the grounds of the Jakarta several thousand protesters burned down the British Embassy. Central Police Headquarters.

Tensions over foreign involvement in Southeast Asia: a protest and subsequent burning of the British Embassy in 1963  and demonstrations at the US Embassy against the Western-backed South East Asia Treaty Organization in 1958. AMERICA, AMERICA... 97

SOPHIE SARWONO

Inspired by the hard work of her close friend, Dr. Hoeroestiati Soebandrio (see page 108), Sophie Sarwono became involved in the family planning movement. In the late 1950s the movement still had far to go to win acceptance. Ibu Sophie remembers President Sukarno’s distaste for the movement. He openly belittled its aims in front of state guests at the . Later, she became chairperson of the Indonesian Planned Parenthood Association (Perkumpulan Keluarga Berencana Indonesia – PKBI), which received technical and financial assistance from the Foundation.

When I was at PKBI I always said that have felt that he was being pressured – and want to pay for it. It’s not just a matter of despite Soebandrio’s unfortunate political one thing you couldn’t do was pressure not having enough money, it’s a matter of associations, his wife, Ibu Hoeroestiati Sukarno. Everyone involved adopted a non- expectations – people think, contraception Soebandrio, made a great contribution to confrontational approach. If we hadn’t been has been free for years, why should we pay the development of the family planning careful, it is possible that BKKBN wouldn’t for it now? Recently, I read that BKKBN has movement. Everyone involved in PKBI exist today. Suharto might have continued 100 billion rupiah in funds. That’s not enough remembers her with appreciation and with the previous government’s opposition to provide free contraception! BKKBN made respect. Using her position, she smuggled to the movement. Luckily, Suharto inherited a grave error by acclimatizing members of condoms, IUDs, and diaphragms into the the seeds for a functional movement, even the community to not having to pay. country through the diplomatic The general level of awareness pouch. about contraception among those with At that time, the government had a reasonable level of education has set up maternal-child health clincs. improved greatly since BKKBN was Hoeroestiati saw these clinics as a established. Those with some safe channel for distributing contra- education have come to accept the ceptives. need for contraception, but not the She was unable to operate freely reality that they have to pay for it. Of because Sukarno was opposed [to course, these people are in a better family planning]. Whenever there situation than the most disadvantaged were guests from abroad, Sukarno groups who need contraception most. used to show off the wives of officials Without free contraception, many of with a large number of children. He these people will drop out of the would say things like, “Look how program. beautiful she is! She has 12 children.” At the beginning, BKKBN played The guests would acknowledge her a facilitating role, coordinating the beauty, and then Sukarno would activities of a number of independ- continue: “Twelve children! See! We ent units and programs. PKBI was don’t need birth control in Indonesia! considered a unit, but there were also The more children our women have, units associated with Muham- the more beautiful they become!” He madiyah, with the Christian organi- said things like that all the time. zations, and with the Departments of One reason the family planning Sophie Sarwono, Jakarta, 1979. Health and Social Welfare. Each of movement was not designated as these bodies implemented the family subversive and banned outright was that Ibu if it hadn’t been encouraged previously. planning program in its own way. BKKBN Hoeroestiati was quite flirtatious and a good People should have been accustomed to played a coordinating role, assigning funds dancer – and Dr. Soebandrio was “the King buying cheap contraceptives right from the when these became available. Slowly, how- of Jive.” So she danced and chatted with start of the program. That way, they would ever, BKKBN began managing programs di- Sukarno to butter him up. Even if Sukarno consider buying their contraceptives in the rectly, using funds from donor agencies never came to accept the need for family same natural way they buy their toothpaste abroad. In particular, they started a lot of planning, at least he didn’t ban it. or soap. training programs, perhaps because a large Dr. Suharto, who assisted with the birth We always said: don’t provide free proportion of the funds was assigned for of Sukarno’s children, also played a role. contraception. Contraception should be that purpose. In fact, PKBI was better suited He was an uncle of mine. Before he died, I cheap and readily available, but users should to do that training, because it had had more asked him if he’d ever talked about family pay. The authorities disagreed, and now look experience. They took a lot of our ideas, planning with Sukarno. He said that he at the result. If there aren’t enough funds to without even acknowledging them. They hadn’t, because if he had, Sukarno would provide free contraception, people don’t didn’t even say thank you. 98 CHAPTER TWO AMERICA, AMERICA... 99 100 CHAPTER TWO

A SHORT HIATUS

What did John Maynard Keynes, , study. This, of course, struck at the heart of New York however did not share this and the Indonesian pop group Koes the Foundation’s work. Miller visited view, especially after March 1965, when the Bersaudara have in common? They were all Sukarno and argued that the Foundation’s town of Malang, East Java, was racked by on President Sukarno’s hate list. The Great goal was “to enable Indonesia to do what demonstrations. The protestors opposed Leader of the Revolution once complained, you yourself said it should do – stand on its the presence of professors from the State “All those young men say to me is [Joseph] own feet.” The president relented and University of New York (SUNY) at a Ford- Schumpeter and Keynes. When I was young allowed every scholarship candidate to go financed local teachers’ college. The college I read Marx!” The Beatles and Koes Plus as an “exception.” voted to expel the professors because of the came under the dismissive rubric of ‘ngak- By late 1964, as communist harassment program’s “connection with the US ngik-ngok’ music, and were held up as led to the closing of US Information Service government” and announced furthermore examples of Western decadence. libraries and the departure of the Peace that all SUNY property had been Such was the climate of the early 1960s: Corps, Sukarno overplayed his hand. When confiscated. After Foundation executive an era of raids, persecutions, diatribes, and Malaysia was selected for membership of George Gant was apprised of the situation, alerts – and of fractured friend- Miller – who was scheduled to ships. Politics revolved around return to New York in only a few the Presidential Palace as months – was told of his new Sukarno struggled to maintain his task: to close the Indonesia tense coalition of communists, office. Muslims, and military. Meanwhile, Miller was described as being US-Indonesia relations deterio- “deeply sentimental about rated following CIA involvement Indonesia and the Indonesian in the PRRI rebellion and US op- people.” He flew to New York at position to Sukarno’s konfrontasi his own expense to try to reverse campaign against the formation the Foundation’s decision. Failing of the new state of Malaysia. Af- in this, he then flew back to secure ter the British embassy was Sukarno’s support in assuring the burned in 1963, the US withheld Foundation a peaceful departure. new aid to Indonesia until the And so began the heartrending Malaysia dispute was settled. tasks: giving away the office In 1962 Orville Schell, Jr., later building, residences, vehicles, and in life dean of Berkeley’s Graduate other property; making the School of Journalism and award- severance payments to local winning author of such works as employees; re-ordering the lives. Mandate of Heaven: The Legacy of The process turned out to Tiananmen Square, came to work Frank Miller, 1972. involve much more than the mere at the Foundation’s office in disposal of resources. By that time, Jakarta. The PKI fascinated him. Soon he had the UN Security Council, he impulsively Indonesian army personnel had taken over befriended a left-wing operative named announced that Indonesia would leave the many residences vacated by departing “Comrade Nata,” through whom the world body. Malaysia took its seat, and expatriates. Ford staff were determined that attempted to learn more about the party’s Indonesia was out. There followed an this should not happen to Foundation organizational work in the villages. Schell’s exodus of foreign agencies from Jakarta, property. Instead, they made efforts to inquiries went awry, however, and in the end the Ford Foundation being the lone survivor. transfer property to grantees and social he and colleagues were falsely accused of Meanwhile, although the Foundation institutions. One building, for example, was being spies working under Foundation cover. continued to suffer minor harassment, rarely offered to Yayasan Asih Budi, a school for The Representative in Indonesia, Frank was it the target of political attack from the mentally challenged children. Miller, fearing that the Foundation would be left. Its position and self-confidence as a The Foundation would reopen in 1967, forced to close, put Schell on a plane private philanthropy seemed to protect it. under Miller’s leadership. “Frank had been immediately. Officers on the ground remained given the disagreeable task of shutting By mid-1964 things had heated up again, unperturbed. “The more difficult our task things down,” said David Bell, a Foundation when Foreign Minister Soebandrio ordered became, the more determined we were to executive. “He deserved to have the that no one should be sent to the US for soldier on,” recalled a former staffer. satisfying task of opening them up again.” AMERICA, AMERICA... 101

G30S: the funeral of the generals, October 1965.

It was indeed a time of tumult. In late March 1964, Sukarno under Ambassador Marshall Green settled on what they called told the Western world to “Go to hell with your aid!” Implicit in a “low profile,” meaning that aid would be channeled through his further statements, however, was the sense that Indonesia was multilateral agencies. Writes former US diplomat Paul Gardner, still willing to accept aid, but it would refuse to accept assistance US assistance programs were to “be kept simple” and without that was linked to political ties. Later in the year, when Malaysia “a proliferation of commitments or personnel.” This was because was accepted as a member of the UN Security Council, Indonesia even after a new government had emerged, with Major General announced its intention to leave that organization. Suharto coming out on top of all the mayhem and violence, During this passionate, uncompromising decade, Indonesia continued to be dogged by uncertainty. patience for negotiation was lost. In the early morning hours Suharto’s government, the New Order, was built on of 1 October 1965, when six generals and a mid-level Air Force the basis of fear and hope. Turmoil within the nation’s political officer were taken from their homes and killed, the outburst of structure was seen as a challenge, and because Sukarno had violence that followed quickly rocketed to its climax. PKI was failed miserably to manage the economy – not only had accused of involvement in the incident. That party, which had inflation reached 1000 per cent by 1965, but foreign debt played such a dominant political role over the previous decade, had also grown to $2 billion – it was imperative that Suharto itself experienced what had been its own standard political modus find his way out of this crisis. He was unflaggingly vigilant, operandi: civil unrest, repression, and destruction. This time, always fearful that communism would return. He was however, a combination of fear, thirst for revenge, local conflicts, understandably wary, too, that Indonesia continued to face and a brutal political plan engendered mass murder. Estimates two problems that had already played a major role in of the numbers of PKI members and sympathizers slaughtered undermining the country’s stability: a fast growing population, range between 300,000 and two million. Whatever the true and insufficient food production. death toll, this was one of the worst massacres of the 20th century. Anxious in the beginning, Suharto grew more self- The US had good reason to be pleased with the changes confident over time. Born in poverty, he slowly climbed to the that were taking place in Indonesia. But enthusiasm was apex of power and, as he wrote in his autobiography, “I have tempered by a desire to appreciate Indonesian realities and become a person who can truly understand and feel the meaning sensitivities. Indeed, after that time senior American diplomats of life’s difficulties.” CHAPTER THREE: PETROLEUM, POLICIES, AND PROTESTS

CHAPTER THREE PETROLEUM, POLICIES, AND PROTESTS

he fires flickered as if exhausted, but the smoke continued to billow. Scattered on the streets were the Tcarcasses of some 900 vehicles. Above them loomed the wreckage of nearly 150 buildings, all either burned or ransacked. The streets were quiet. It was seven in the evening and a curfew was in effect. A line of armored vehicles stood ready. Military trucks disbursed soldiers in battle gear. A revolution? A demonstration? A coup d’etat? A provocation? Even to this day, it is unclear what actually happened on 15 January 1974. What is known is that upwards of 50,000 people descended on Jakarta’s thoroughfares and, as if run amok, burned cars and motorcycles, and incinerated buildings, including the Toyota Astra dealership and the new Senen Mall. The city had never experienced rioting like this. The government press later dubbed it “Malari,” an acronym formed from the words “Malapetaka Limabelas Januari” (“The January 15th Disaster”). By way of this abbreviation the government hoped, perhaps, to launch a campaign against the perpetrators and to attach a stigma to its political enemies. But if this was the case, who were these enemies? Thousands of students from three Jakarta universities had filled the streets that day. None said anything about trying to overturn the government, nor demanded that Suharto step down. Ostensibly they were there to protest the arrival of Japan’s Prime Minister ; they were angry about foreign investment in Indonesia – Japanese investment in particular. It was only later that it became apparent that Tanaka’s arrival was not, in fact, the key element in that day’s story. Something else was going on.  Students protesting in front of Senen Mall, January 1974.

PETROLEUM, POLICIES, AND PROTESTS 105

The student leaders and their followers had not expected as president. Whatever the case, they employed a variety of that thousands of other people would suddenly join them in methods to achieve their ends. the streets. It was this group that is purported to have initiated Following the riots, a number of witnesses reported that the large-scale rioting. Who they were, or from where they unidentified provocateurs were behind the transformation of a came, has never been fully explained. Over time, however, it student protest against Japanese investment into an occasion has become increasingly clear that this event could be linked to for rioting and arson. Realizing the volatile nature of this a fierce but hidden rivalry in the upper echelons of Indonesia’s situation, the students had retreated to the UI campus on Jalan political structure. Salemba in central Jakarta. But they were unable to prevent At the time, two people close to President Suharto were the mayhem and conflagration that then erupted. wrestling for influence and position: General Sumitro, head of In the wake of the incident, the president decided that the Operational Command for the Restoration of Security and General Sumitro had failed to control the situation, and fired Order (Komando Pemulihan Keamanan dan Ketertiban – him. If this was truly a battle between Sumitro and Moertopo, ), and Lieutenant General Ali Moertopo, a trusted the former had lost. aide of President Suharto who headed his “special operations” Two days later, a number of individuals were arrested. unit. Both men were ambitious. Each wanted to push the other The list included Hariman Siregar, chairman of the UI Student aside and grab for himself a powerful position even closer to Council; Adnan Buyung Nasution, whose role as a critical Suharto. They both might have dreamed of succeeding Suharto observer of the government had gained increasing strength

General Sumitro addresses students, 1974. One of many students arrested after the Malari riots, 1974. 106 CHAPTER THREE

Author Marzuki Arifin, with journalist Fikri Jufri, 1984.

through his position at YLBHI; Syahrir, a popular FEUI student; Moertopo and his special operations unit, this book posited and Dorodjatun Kuntjoro-Jakti, a FEUI lecturer. Also jailed were that PSI and Masyumi were the ‘puppeteers’ behind the riots. Marsillam Simanjuntak, a medical doctor and former student An editorial in a publication of CSIS – and organization of leader who had participated in the 1966 demonstrations that which Moertopo was co-founder – confirmed this view. It stated helped to bring down Sukarno, and Rahman Tolleng, editor-in- that “former PSI and Masyumi members” had both incited chief of Suara Karya, the newspaper owned by (Golongan and used the student demonstrators for their own purposes. Karya), who was suspected of being a PSI sympathizer. At the It was somewhat ironic that official sources were now same time, even Soedjatmoko, a prominent Indonesian using the same kind of language that PKI had once employed intellectual and former ambassador to the US, was interrogated. to hound its political enemies. Through the use of innuendo – The reason for these moves was not long in coming, by tainting its foes with the label of PSI or Masyumi – the however ambiguous. Admiral Sudomo, who had replaced government was able to intimidate its opposition. General Sumitro as commander of Kopkamtib, announced that After intimidation comes repression: history seemed to “radical socialist” elements were behind the , be repeating itself. Even though the government had undergone and that the brains behind the riots belonged to members of a complete about-face in political outlook since the early 1960s, banned parties. it still did not hesitate to ban newspapers with opposing views. But who these people were, he did not say. In 1985, a Pedoman, Indonesia Raya, and Abadi were forcibly closed. local publishing house produced a pocket-sized book entitled Nusantara, a newspaper that the Sukarno government had once Peristiwa 15 Januari 1974 (The 15 January 1974 Incident) shut down, was also closed, as was Harian Kami, a newspaper that purported to provide the answers. Written by Marzuki that had been born together with the student protest movement Arifin, who was known to have close connections with Ali against Sukarno in 1966. PETROLEUM, POLICIES, AND PROTESTS 107

SYAHRIR

Syahrir is well-known both as an economist and as a politician. He was the founder of the New Indonesia Association Party (Partai Perhimpunan Indonesia Baru) and aspires to the presidency. In 1974, Syahrir was an activist at UI. Following the Malari unrest that began on 15 January 1974, when Japanese goods and shops selling them were burned or destroyed by a rampaging mob, he was convicted of subversion. Syahrir spent four years in prison for this offence, despite the belief of a large number of people that his prosecution was the result of the direct intervention of key figures in the Suharto regime.

At the beginning of 1974, I had no inkling arrest anyone who opposed him, and to classification system was based on the that the Malari incident was in the air. At the blame Sumitro for the unrest. As a result, government’s perception of the level of time I was getting ready to leave for America. after Malari, Sumitro’s influence over the involvement of the accused in the riots. I had been accepted into political process was severely curtailed. Three individuals were clearly proven guilty as a post-graduate student at the Kennedy At the time of the unrest, there was a lot of setting fire to buildings, but there was no School of Government. I was due to leave in of looting and destruction. It was only when proof that any students were involved. My July. Instead, I was feeling is that some of the arrested, tried, and jailed people in the kembang for almost four years. sepatu group were I was convicted of involved in the unrest, subversion, because of although it was the my alleged role in lead- kelinci group who were ing and provoking the made into scape-goats. students through a series None of those charged of talks I gave before the and tried were from the incident. During these kembang sepatu or talks, I criticized the gov- gladak group. ernment’s development In 1978, I was re- strategy. It was later leased from prison and claimed that these talks got married. To its credit, influenced the students Harvard had kept my and provoked them to scholarship open. Soe- engage in the rioting and djatmoko – an intellec- unrest that came to be tual, a former Indone- known as the Malari in- sian ambassador to cident. Washington, and a trus- I have no idea exactly tee of the Ford Founda- why I was prosecuted, tion, who was also although two generals, briefly detained after the Ali Moertopo and Malari incident – played Sudjono Humardhani, Syahrir, Jakarta, 1970. a significant role in that played a major role in my decision. Soedjatmoko arrest and that of my colleagues. we were in prison that we realized that the assisted me in obtaining a scholarship from The real, underlying causes of the Malari government classified those involved in the the Ford Foundation. He also assisted me in incident are still unclear, although there unrest into three groups. The first group was applying to several universities. But I really were struggles within the political known by the intelligence services as wanted to go to Harvard. leadership at the time, particularly between kembang sepatu [hibiscus]. This group I completed by PhD program in 1983. General Sumitro and Ali Moertopo. Also, the included those with connections to Sudjono Both my children were born in . My general economic and social conditions Humardhani. The second group was known wife was accepted at Cornell, but because exacerbated the conflict. There was a great as gladak [bridge]. This group included it is located far from Harvard, we decided deal of dissatisfaction with the government. Mardanus, a well-known nationalist figure, she should attend Boston University, for When the students protested and violence and his followers. The third group was which she also had some support from broke out, Ali Moertopo had an excuse to known as kelinci [rabbit]. I think this Ford. 108 CHAPTER THREE

CIVIL SOCIETY AND STATE: THE FAMILY PLANNING CAMPAIGN

If there’s an award for unsung heroes, here’s Ryder’s consulting services, as well as to nation’s leader and prevailing religious a nomination. Hoeroestiati Soebandrio was clarify PKBI’s role in the government- values had been opposed to birth control. smart, progressive, a trained medical doctor endorsed national family planning program At the outset, BKKBN was intended to – and married to powerful Old Order Deputy soon to come. This included the purchase be only a coordinating body for the myriad Prime Minister and former Foreign Minister of a building for PKBI’s headquarters, health units run by private organizations Soebandrio. She was used to overseas travel, assistance in sponsoring workshops, like PKBI. But by 1976, on Java and Bali diplomatic dinners, and doing the lenso, a training programs for family planning alone, the initial thin layer of 116 clinics dance from eastern Indonesia, in the workers, and provision of information to had grown to 2,700 clinics. PKBI then Presidential Palace. Yet in Hoeroestiati’s less opinion leaders. became only an implementing unit, one public moments, she smuggled contra- The campaign for family planning among many such bodies. ceptives in diplomatic pouches into succeeded surprisingly rapidly. In 1967 “PKBI clinics used to suffer because of Indonesia. Her example sparked a guerilla Suharto signed the UN Declaration on BKKBN’s free handouts,” recalled Ninuk coalition of doctors, gynecologists, nurses, Population. Jakarta’s pilot projects were Widyantoro, founder of the Panca Warga and women volunteers, who received, network of clinics (another beneficiary disseminated, and explained the use of of Foundation grants). “But people these contraceptives to women the started coming back to us when we country over. Thus in 1964 PKBI was born. introduced counseling. People didn’t Soon the Foundation was aware of mind paying to get proper and thorough the new organization. Even before the information so that they could make the Suharto government had reversed state right choice.” policy and begun to support family The national program gave the fam- planning, the Foundation had provided ily planning movement the weight and “modest” assistance to PKBI, including outreach that only the power of the the services of Dr. Brooks Ryder, a family state can mobilize. Where local commu- planning specialist. nity structures were conducive, strong PKBI was a people’s movement, the social pressures working though the vil- first that addressed the crucial link lage administration were especially ef- between family planning and women’s fective. In Bali, for example – which in reproductive health and rights. It mounted only five years had reduced the average a challenge to government, and proved number of births per woman from 5.8 that citizen action can sometimes get to 3.8 – family heads in the village met results. PKBI demonstrated the political once a month, and the family planning power of networking, and fostered A family planning clinic in South Jakarta, 1969. situation was a regular item on the cooperation among international donors, agenda. In the meeting hall a map of all NGOs, and funding agencies. For example, the expanded, and the national family planning houses in the village was displayed. Houses Margaret Sanger Institute, named after the program followed a year later. Finally, in of IUD users were colored blue, those of woman who had pioneered the birth control 1970, BKKBN was established. pill users red, condom users green, and pill, was among them; Sanger herself visited The confluence of several factors led to non-users left blank. Red, considered an Indonesia in those heady days of women’s the success of the campaign. The movement unlucky color in anti-communist Indone- reawakening. had credible and powerful allies. Much of sia of the day, was a nudge towards the When Jakarta’s first New Order the groundwork had already been laid by cheap, effective IUD. governor came out in support of PKBI, PKBI (its institutional alliance with the In East Java, family planning had also things moved fast. Ali Sadikin was famous International Planned Parenthood done well. An authoritarian provincial for his firebrand energy, political courage, Federation enhanced Indonesia’s credibility). government had pushed the program, often and fierce commitment to action. He quickly The campaign had good relationships with through spectacular recruiting drives went to work on two pilot projects in international donors and with the UN. And involving army personnel. In some villages, Jakarta, and mounted an intensive profoundly significant were the new, the headman rapped a wooden gong once campaign in favor of family planning. receptive attitudes that had been shaped a day to remind women to take their pill. Meanwhile, in September 1967, the Ford within the community at large – this in a The result? Fertility declined from 4.6 Foundation renewed its grant to continue country where, not many years earlier, the children per woman in 1971 to 3.9 in 1976. PETROLEUM, POLICIES, AND PROTESTS 109

Explaining the use of an IUD to a young mother at a family planning clinic in South Jakarta, 1969. Soewardjono (seated right) and Haryono Suyono (standing left) at a Planned Parenthood meeting in Jakarta, 1975.

112 CHAPTER THREE

For most critical thinkers, it was difficult to make a As a result Indonesia experienced a rush of foreign connection between PSI, Masyumi, and these “radical socialist” investment. By the mid-1970s, 50 per cent of all investment in newspapers that Admiral Sudomo had mentioned. Prior to the country, with the exception of the oil sector, originated the 1974 riots there had been some debate in intellectual circles abroad. A wide range of consumer products began to appear, about the need for a return to a more leftist point of view, along with a surge in television and print advertising. The face especially in terms of the equitable distribution of national of Indonesia’s cities, especially Jakarta, soon changed, largely wealth, but that particular ethic seemed to have disappeared in because of the influx of Japanese products. the 1970s. Japan as a whole contributed an impressive amount of funds, equivalent to one-third the total amount of aid provided The 1970s were in fact a deceptive, confusing time. The by the Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia (IGGI), the economy not only grew, it took off. Villages prospered, especially consortium of governments giving economic aid to Indonesia. those on Java – even though, it should be noted, per capita Japan used much of its aid to expand the market for its products. income rose at a slower rate there than in the large cities. As Hence, brand names such as Toyota, Hitachi, Honda, Mitsui, with many tales of growth, however, there were painful side Marubeni, and many others began to appear on billboards and effects not always evident. in store windows throughout the archipelago. It all began in the late 1960s, at a time when the In Japan, as a result of rising salaries and soaring land Indonesian economy was at a virtual standstill. The only way prices, a push was on to relocate factories to cheaper sites in out of this situation, it seemed, was to try to stimulate trade Southeast Asia. Japanese money seemed to be everywhere – in and investment. Because investment from the domestic sector business offices, banks, factories, and of course, golf courses. alone was insufficient to meet the task, the government sought By the end of 1973 investment by the Japanese in Indonesia an infusion of foreign funds by offering various incentives. was nine times higher than in the Philippines.

A familiar sight throughout the archipelago from the 1970s to the present: Japanese-brand motorcycles on sale, 1974. Jakarta Governor Ali Sadikin addresses community officials at Senayan stadium during the 1971 election season. PETROLEUM, POLICIES, AND PROTESTS 113

IBRAHIM ALFIAN

Ibrahim Alfian is director of the humanities faculty at UGM. During 1975-1977, Alfian served as director of the social sciences training center at Syiah Kuala University. This center managed a program that was first conceived by anthropologist Clifford Geertz and funded by the Foundation. This program was always headed by two managers with doctoral qualifications, one Indonesian and one foreign. When Ibrahim Alfian was there, his colleague was Lance Castles, a social scientist from Australia.

The program was initiated by my close And so it was. Some of them ended up chasing 24 participants. Of all the training centers, in friend and colleague, also called Alfian, in the nurses or the students, and some who Aceh, Makassar, Surabaya, and Jakarta, the one 1974. I replaced him in 1975. We got to were already married said they weren’t. that produced the most doctors and professors know each other during our doctoral When the program was over, I used to was Aceh. These included Mukhlis PaEni studies in Holland. The Dutch (former director of the used to call us Little Alfian National Archives), Nani and Big Alfian because of our Tuloli (rector of the Teachers physiques. I was Big Alfian. Training College, Gorontalo), In 1977 I was replaced by Amir Lutfi (rector of the State Syamsuddin Mahmud, the University for Islamic Studies, Acehnese scientist who later ), P.J. Suwarno became governor of Aceh. (rector of the University of Over two years, there were Sanata Dharma, Yogyakarta), a total of 24 participants in Hamid Abdullah (a professor our program. The program’s at University), teaching methods, guidance, Syarif Ibrahim (a professor in and funding were excellent. Pontianak), Durtje Durasit (a After they graduated, partici- professor in Banjarmasin) pants conducted research in and others. It was a very Aceh. I adopted a cunning productive program. strategy to ensure that the Each year, one researchers were accepted outstanding paper was by the local authorities. selected. In my first year, a The Acehnese Governor paper written by P.J. Muzakkir Walad invited the Suwarno of Yogyakarta was researchers to a dinner with chosen. He was sent to traditional Acehnese dancing. Jakarta, with the author of This was to promote Aceh, as the best paper from most of the participants came Makassar and the other from , Surabaya, centers, to take part in a , and other places in seminar and to discuss his Indonesia. I made sure that paper. each individual was photo- Suwarno was a Javanese graphed standing next to the Ibrahim Alfian at a seminar in Yogyakarta, 1983. Catholic who wrote about the governor. role of the ulamas [Islamic I told each participant to blow up these help the participants buy imported goods scholars] in North Aceh. I was extremely sur- photos and put them on the front of their from or Penang. At the time, prised. His paper was the best. He handled notebooks. Then, when they were in the Sabang was a duty free port. The traders himself well when he was conducting his re- field, they had to make sure that these offered the participants electronics, search, complying with local customs. The photos were seen. That way, there were no typewriters, crockery, and other ulamas opened up to him. As a result, his problems with the local authorities. inexpensive, high-quality goods to take research was the best as well. Later, he got At the beginning of the program, I always home. The customs officials also helped his doctorate – his thesis was about Sultan told the participants, “There aren’t any ensure that the participants got these things Hamengku Buwono IX and I was his super- beautiful girls in Aceh. But after three months at good prices. visor – and then went on to become rector here even a tamarind tree will look beautiful.” I was proud to be involved in training the of the University of Sanata Dharma.

PETROLEUM, POLICIES, AND PROTESTS 115

While Japan did stimulate growth in the Indonesian These were the circumstances in which protests against economy and expand employment opportunities, the government policies began. In November 1973, IGGI experience for Indonesians working with Japanese investors was Chairman Jan Pieter Pronk visited Indonesia. When he landed not always pleasant. Economic expert Panglaykim said that in at Kemayoran airport in Jakarta, a large group of students and partnering with Japanese business interests, Indonesia “usually young people greeted him with a bouquet of flowers, and with had no choice but to surrender all the managerial and posters that read, “Foreign Investment Creates Domestic organizational power to the Japanese partner.” Colonialism,” and “Indonesia for Indonesians.” Pribumi or indigenous Indonesian business owners who, In a declaration read that afternoon, the students said for whatever reason, were unable to enter into partnerships they were ashamed to see foreign capital being used only to with Japanese investors felt even more left out than they had bankroll tall buildings, hotels, Coca-Cola, and nightclubs, while before. The majority of Japan’s business partners in Indonesia people had no jobs, homes, or land. The country’s textile were people of Chinese descent who, generally speaking, had industry was dead, they lamented. Indonesia’s forests were bare. much more commercial experience than indigenous Its oil was running dry. entrepreneurs. Even in industries in which they once had been In late November 1973, a group of intellectuals and dominant – such as textiles – there were few remaining pribumi activists held a discussion to analyze the pros and cons of foreign owners. With the collapse of the economy during Sukarno’s investment. This resulted in a manifesto whose signatories final years in office, these people had seen their fortunes dwindle, included Dorodjatun Kuntjoro-Jakti, Adnan Buyung Nasution, and the New Order government had yet to benefit them , and Mochtar Lubis, all of whom were known economically. Indeed the country’s economic strategists, who for their critical opinions about government policies. Yet another wanted to see Indonesia open itself to foreign investment, simply signatory was former Vice-President Mohammad Hatta, who sat back and let indigenous businesses continue to falter. was known as the father of the nation’s cooperative movement.

Dorodjatun Kuntjoro-Jakti, Mochtar Lubis, Maruli Panggabean and Suhadi at the 1973 foreign investment discussion. Students protesting the arrival of IGGI Chairman Jan Pieter Pronk at Kemayoran Airport, Jakarta, 1973. 116 CHAPTER THREE

The manifesto demanded a return to national pride, which In November, Indonesian students began to chant, “we will had been sullied “by certain segments of society.” Which turn Jakarta into Bangkok,” which is just what they tried to segments was unclear. Maybe it was business owners of Chinese do in January 1974. descent, maybe it was the technocrats who had flung open the But what was it the protesters really wanted? However country’s doors to massive foreign investment, or maybe it was great their dissatisfaction, they did not produce a firm agenda the generals who had close links with Japanese business. The that could unite the diverse elements of society. means by which national pride was to be restored was not spelled “Restoration of national pride” might have meant putting out either. Even so, the desire for radical change was tangible. a halt to foreign investment. But by the early 1970s foreign What had happened in Thailand a month earlier was an investment had already been dwarfed by government income inspiration for Indonesian activists. from oil revenues. In mid-1973, the international price of oil On 14 October 1973, thousands of students took to rose from $2 to $3.70 per barrel; a year later, the price had shot the streets in Bangkok in a protest that lasted for nearly a up to $12, and the influence of oil on national growth was week. Finally, on the sixth day of these demonstrations, apparent. In the words of political and economic expert Richard Thailand’s prime minister, Air Marshal Thanom Kittikachorn, Robison, Indonesia was experiencing “state-driven economic who had ruled for 12 years with military backing, resigned. nationalism.”

The opening session of the OPEC meeting in Bali, 1976. PETROLEUM, POLICIES, AND PROTESTS 117

JUWONO SUDARSONO

An academic-cum-politician, Juwono Sudarsono is widely known not only as the author of well-respected works on political science and international relations, but also as the minister of defense in President Abdurrahman Wahid’s cabinet – the first civilian to occupy this position in 50 years. In 1975, Sudarsono received a scholarship from the British Council with a supplement from the Foundation for further studies at the London School of Economics. This funding enabled his wife, Priharumastinah, and his one and a half year old son, Vishnu, to accompany him.

In 1971, I assisted professors Selo The graduates of Banda Aceh, Jakarta rising young faculty members who hailed Soemardjan and Harsja W. Bachtiar to and Makassar research centers became the from every major island grouping throughout gather materials for the then projected “critical mass” of faculty and researchers Indonesia. They became critical partners to study on advancing social sciences in throughout Indonesia who, through their the economists and technocrats initially sent Indonesia to be undertaken by professor stint in these three meeting points in Western, by the Ford Foundation to UC Berkeley in the Clifford Geertz of the Institute of Advanced Central and Eastern Indonesia shared late 1950s and early 1960s, underlying Dr Study, Princeton University on behalf Soedjatmoko’s prescient observation of the Ford Foundation. in 1954 that any success in The study was in part encouraged Indonesian economic development by Dr. Soedjatmoko, former ambas- had “vital elements of society and sador to the United States and then a culture to account for.” member of the Board of Trustees of The problems facing Indonesian the Ford Foundation, who believed social scientists that were first that some aspects of Western social brought to light by Geertz in 1971 are sciences should be adapted to and still with us. Social scientists do not ”indiginized” with local culture and conduct enough research, their realities. John Bresnan, Ford salaries are small, and they are often Representative at the time, vigorously required to moonlight in order to supported the initiative. make ends meet. This is because most The Geertz Report became the researchers are public servants, basis for establishment of Social working in the Department of Sciences Research Training centers Education and Culture. in Banda Aceh, Jakarta and But at least we are beginning Makassar funded by the Ford to see the development of partner- Foundation and jointly supported by ships among the private sector and the Indonesian Ministry of Education university campuses and research and Culture and the Indonesian institutes. This is a vital develop- Institute of Sciences. ment, as in order to overcome the Throughout the 1970s and early shortage of funds, research must 1980s hundreds of public and private address both the need to serve the college and university academics from community and the need to respect a wide variety of fields (population, market forces. Unfortunately, only education, literature, history, public Juwono Sudarsono with his son Vishnu, London, 1976. the most skilled and senior administration, political science, mass researchers are in a position to communications, languages, archeology, insights, experiences and cross fertilized their provide services required by the market. sociology-anthropology) went to Banda individual knowledge of Indonesian society, How are we to ensure that young Aceh, Jakarta and Makassar, devising culture, politics and economy. Through their researchers can develop a more market- research methods and following up on field interaction with the supervising faculty, and oriented approach? Our biggest problem work leading towards preparation of their most importantly with one another, is how to create a cadre of young master’s and doctorate theses in Indonesia constituted an important part in replenishing researchers who can replace their as well as abroad. the notion of Indonesian-ness among many seniors. 118 CHAPTER THREE

At the forefront of this growth was Ibnu Sutowo, were favorable. No one, it seemed, was keeping watch. It wasn’t managing director of Pertamina, the state-owned oil company. until 1976 that Tempo magazine finally succeeded in A doctor by training, a general by profession, and with an uncovering part of Pertamina’s deception. The magazine athletic build even as an older man, Sutowo was a force unto revealed that the amount of debt amassed by Ibnu Sutowo himself. Pertamina, which Sutowo had led since 1967, exercised was sufficient to destabilize the Indonesian economy. monopolistic control over every Mohammad Sadli, minister of segment of the oil industry, mining and refineries at the from upstream to downstream, time, reported to Parliament from exploration to the gas that Pertamina’s debt totaled pump. By early 1970, the $10.5 billion. He also said that company’s employee rolls had “the major share of Pertamina’s swollen to almost 40,000. investment activity was Efficiency did not seem to be wasteful and had little con- Pertamina’s strong suit, yet the nection with the company’s company did feed a lot of basic function.” people. Since 1972, the IMF Sutowo did not manage had been advising Indonesia to just Pertamina. Beginning in limit the amount of mid-term 1971, Suharto turned over to credit that the government and him a number of construction its agencies were carrying. Yet projects, along with the authority this advice went unheeded as to seek financing for them on his Sutowo accepted the aggressive own. Before there had been a offers of foreign creditors, Pertamina, when the company defying legal requirements to was still called Permina, Sutowo was already providing funding obtain ministerial approval for new loans. Conflict between for the military in the form of foreign currency. Now, he more or Sutowo and the technocrats was inevitable, and finally came less continued his previous working methods, but on a much to a climax in 1976 when Suharto removed him from larger and more ambitious scale. Backed by oil export income leadership of Pertamina. Sutowo was never prosecuted, though that had grown since the 1970s, he began to seek credit abroad. he had broken the law and, in the process, increased Indonesia’s At that time it was difficult to tell exactly how much foreign debt fourfold and turned Pertamina into a massive debt Pertamina had incurred, or whether the credit terms nest of corruption.

 Protesters calling Pertamina to account after years of corruption, 1970. PETROLEUM, POLICIES, AND PROTESTS 119

ANUGERAH PEKERTI

Anugerah Pekerti is a lecturer at the Institute for Development and Management Research (Lembaga Pengembangan dan Penelitian Manajemen – LPPM) in Jakarta. With the assistance of the Ford Foundation, during 1978-1986 he earned a PhD in Management from the University of Southern California (USC). On his return to Indonesia, Pekerti helped develop an MBA program with scholarships for students lacking a business background. An Indonesian citizen of Chinese descent, Pekerti believes that this program will correct imbalances created by the colonial system which encouraged , but not pribumi (indigenous) Indonesians, to go into business. By the end of the 1960s, the private sector Harvard Business School and similar background, different ethnic groups in Indonesia was becoming increasingly schools accept students from a variety of dominate different sectors. Business, for important. Capital entered the country, backgrounds into management courses. example, is dominated by people of Chinese corporations were started, but Indonesia There is no explicit connection with the descent. still lacked competent business managers. faculties of economics. At the beginning of the 1950s, to cor- Kadarman, a Jesuit priest, had the idea of LPPM continues to accept people from rect this imbalance, certain policies were starting a school to teach management a range of backgrounds, religions, and implemented. One policy introduced by skills. At the time, across the world, Trade Minister Sumitro Djojohadi- many business schools were being kusumo involved providing special fa- established on the American model. cilities to pribumi traders in rural ar- Kadarman wanted to launch the eas. Unfortunately, this did not result school through the Catholic and in the emergence of skilled entrepre- Protestant organizations. He put this neurs. Rather, it created all sorts of idea to the late T.B. Simatupang, a distortions and excesses, with many so- retired general and a senior figure in called “pribumi entrepreneurs” merely Protestant circles. selling the licences provided to them During the 1965-66 change in to Chinese businessmen. The result was government, religious conflict broke the emergence of so-called “Ali-Baba” out. Responding to the idea to companies, managed and operated by establish a Christian school including Chinese businesspeople but with an In- both Catholics and Protestants, donesian front. “Ali” was the Indone- Simatupang asked why Muslims were sian at the front of the shop; “Baba” not included too. So the institute was the Chinese somewhere out the became inter-denominational. At first, back. it involved Muslims and Christians, We addressed the problem from a later, Hindus and Buddhists. The inter- different perspective, without discrimi- denominational emphasis drew the nation, by creating the chance for those attention of Ford. Anugerah Pekerti at his office, 1990. without a business background to enter Simatupang, Kadarman, and the world of business. If we provide 30 several colleagues established LPPM in 1967. ethnic groups, all of whom work together scholarships each year at LPPM, over 100 From the beginning, Muslims with a strong harmoniously. A high level of idealism years we will have helped 3000 individuals. business background, such as Syafruddin inspires us. We operate on the basis of a It will take that long before the full effects Prawiranegara and Bahder Djohan, were clear set of ethical principles and values. of the program are felt. involved in the launch. USAID provided $4 We are independent. During the 32 years [In the 1980s] I had an idea for extending million for staff training, improving the that I have worked at the institute and the this program. Of the $4 million provided by library, and creating an MBA program. I ten years that I have been its president USAID, a certain proportion should be made joined LPPM in 1968. After working there director, it has never been suggested that available directly to students. I met with for ten years, I received a scholarship for the institute has obtained contracts through USAID director William Fuller and put the doctoral studies at USC, under the illegitimate means. We are famous for proposal to him. Fuller agreed to provide sponsorship of the Foundation. On my putting into practice the values that we $367,000 to establish a revolving fund. The return in 1986, I became director of the new publicly espouse. idea is that this money is used to provide MBA program. One of LPPM’s missions is to provide financial assistance to students, who repay One problem is that in Indonesia, even opportunities to young people without a their debt after graduation. The money they now, management is considered a branch business background to enter business repay is then used to assist other students. of economics. Economics in fact is a science, through the study of management. In This effort, the Wijawiyata Manajemen while management is a professional skill. Indonesia, because of its colonial program, is still in operation. 120 CHAPTER THREE

THE PROFESSOR WHO LOVED INDONESIA

When President already agreed to provide scholarships for consulate told the State Department in presented John J. Bresnan with the Bintang 13 Indonesian lecturers. Washington, who told the Foundation in Jasa Pratama Award in January 2003, many Miller rushed to the Presidential Palace, New York. F.F. Hill, the Foundation’s Vice asked what had been this man’s contribution where he often had breakfast with Sukarno. President, felt that the situation had gone to Indonesia. What had he done that Sukarno was fond of Miller. He had even too far. Hill sent Miller a letter demanding justified an award that had been granted to told Miller that if Miller allowed Sukarno that Miller close the Jakarta office. only a handful of foreigners, including the to find a suitable marriage partner for him, Miller and Bresnan opposed this order American scholars George McTurnan Kahin Sukarno would dance at the wedding. vehemently, but were forced to leave and Clifford Geertz? So, Sukarno was receptive, and told Jakarta. A few months later Bresnan An answer came from senior diplomat Miller that he might be prepared to make learned of the killing of several Indonesian , quoted in the newspaper exceptions to the regulation. He then asked Army generals. Soon, hundreds of thousands Kompas: “His criticisms were always of Sukarno’s supporters had been constructive. He never discussed a murdered, and Suharto ascended to problem without presenting a power. constructive solution to it.” Professor The Foundation reopened its Jakarta Juwono Sudarsono of the University of office in 1967. Bresnan replaced Miller in Indonesia said: “Over a period of many 1969. Under Bresnan’s leadership, the years, Bresnan has worked to develop Foundation funded research into high- Indonesia’s human resources extremely yield rice, education for social scientists, effectively, despite the complex and family planning, management training, pluralistic nature of Indonesian society.” and the preservation of marginalized Bresnan arrived in Indonesia in cultures. Bresnan included Sumatra, November 1961 to assist Frank Miller, the Sulawesi, and Kalimantan in these Foundation’s Representative in Jakarta. programs. At the time, President Sukarno was Bresnan considered the participation demanding that the Netherlands of IRRI in Indonesia the most successful surrender Papua to the new republic. The of the Foundation’s programs. Because of Soviet Union supported these demands this institute, the level of rice production and provided military assistance. US in Indonesia increased dramatically. “I President John F. Kennedy intervened to knew nothing about the Green Revolution, prevent the use of force by both the except that I wanted to make it happen. Indonesians and the Dutch. Nonetheless, That was probably the single most Indonesia deployed “volunteer” troops in John Bresnan receives the Bintang Jasa Pratama Award exciting or influential thing that I did, in Papua. from President Megawati Sukarnoputri, January 2003. retrospect. But even at the time I felt it In September 1963, relations between was important,” said Bresnan. Indonesia and Malaysia broke down. which of the 13 candidates Miller particularly In 1974, Bresnan was recalled to head Indonesia accused the of wanted to go to America. Miller responded the Foundation’s Asia-Pacific division from interfering in Malaysia’s affairs. In Jakarta, that he wanted all of them. Sukarno laughed, where he maintained strong links with a mob of 10,000 demonstrators burned the but in the end he agreed, saying, “Just tell Indonesia. In 1982, he left the Foundation British embassy, and many houses occupied Soebandrio that I said it was okay.” to join the East Asian Institute at Columbia by British residents were attacked and So, even in extremely difficult University, New York, where he taught and looted. In March 1964, American Secretary circumstances, Miller and Bresnan found did research on Asian studies. of State Dean Rusk declared that his opportunities to help Indonesia develop in In 2001, a large number of academics country would not provide financial aid to a positive fashion. who had received assistance from the Indonesia. Sukarno famously responded, The political situation worsened when Foundation during Bresnan’s tenure “Go to hell with your aid!” Indonesia withdrew from the UN. In March approached Juwono Sudarsono, at the time At about the same time, Indonesia’s 1965, demonstrators protested the presence a minister, to nominate Bresnan for the Foreign Minister Soebandrio issued of Ford-funded American lecturers at the Bintang Jasa Pratama. President Megawati regulations prohibiting Indonesians from Institute for Teaching and Education in agreed, and so Bresnan became the third studying in the US. This was a serious Malang. An American student informed the American to receive Indonesia’s highest problem for the Foundation, which had American consulate in Surabaya. The award for non-Indonesians. PETROLEUM, POLICIES, AND PROTESTS 121

In fact as early as 1966 the newspaper Indonesia Raya had “Maybe it would be better if we didn’t have oil,” published a series of articles, replete with data, on “leakage” within Widjojo Nitisastro once complained to a friend. It was oil, the company. But these reports had no effect. The word however, that had enabled Suharto and his generals to witness “Pertamina” had come to suggest a world of glamor for Jakarta’s rapid development with businesses popping up like elite. In 1968, Ibnu Sutowo celebrated the marriage of one of his mushrooms after a warm rain. Petrodollars bolstered their daughters with an opulence conviction that Indonesia, unparalleled for that time. So with its rich natural resources, grand was the affair that would finally be able to enter Pedoman, a Jakarta daily, ran the modern world. a special editorial on the Throughout the event. For his family, it was country, and especially in nothing to fly by private jet major urban areas, the face of to Houston, Texas for a Indonesia had changed dental appointment, and markedly as it assumed a Sutowo himself often played modern appearance. Sutowo golf in Palm Springs, had built golf courses; sunk California. He even money into real estate and imported a Rolls Royce to construction; paid for the Indonesia for his private use. construction of Bina Graha, For years Ibnu the new presidential offices; Sutowo had remained built a modern hospital; virtually untouchable. designed a floating fertilizer During this time he built a factory and petrochemical business network for his plant; and funded the family, long before Suharto construction of the Krakatau ever did. Jakarta Governor Steel plant and a host of other Ali Sadikin gave Sutowo projects, including the permission to build a five- College for Koranic Studies star Hilton Hotel in the city’s (Perguruan Tinggi Ilmu Al- Senayan sports-complex area, under the impression that the Qur’an). He also served as a financial patron for top-level establishment would be owned and operated by Pertamina. As military officers who came to be on Pertamina’s rolls. In was revealed years later, the lease was held by the Sutowo family. short order, this state-owned company came to act as if it For Ibnu Sutowo, the division between personal and company had the duty, if not the actual legal authority, to underwrite property was completely blurred. He owned some 35 companies the funding of development projects not covered by the which, in whole or in part, were Pertamina subsidiaries. national budget.

 President Suharto officiates at the opening of the Pertamina Hospital in Jakarta, one of the country’s first modern medical facilities, 1972. 122 CHAPTER THREE

From the outside, Indonesia appeared to be growing by UI and ITB declared in a manifesto called the White Book that leaps and bounds, but economic disparities were increasing, “they had no faith in Suharto and did not want him as president chiefly between those benefiting from the petrodollars and those of the Republic of Indonesia.” lower down the economic ladder. This was most apparent in Suharto did not remain silent. Troops soon occupied Jakarta, where a wealthy class emerged even as the government the ITB campus and more than 100 students were arrested. sought to rid the city of poor pedicab drivers and itinerant Heri Akhmadi, chairman of the student council, became the vendors. Never before had the economic gap within Indonesian chief target. Lukman Hakim from UI experienced similar society been so clear. treatment. In March 1978 Suharto, unchallenged, was again There were some who attempted to addresses this elected president. imbalance. YLBHI, for instance, provided free legal assistance to help the poor to defend their rights. In the 1970s, such The decade’s unrest was not limited to street protests and was assistance was becoming increasingly urgent. There were no not just about the nation’s leadership. As social imbalances checks and balances within the prevailing political structure to became more and more apparent, so too grew the number of prevent abuse of authority. Predictably, it was the students, with voices asking if there was not some other road to follow toward their historical and almost mythological role as moral arbiters national development. of the nation’s transformation and development, who were the At that time, such inquiry on the part of Indonesia’s first to take action. After their successful demonstrations against intellectuals was reflected in the journal Prisma, published by Sukarno in 1966, their next volley of protests came in 1969, the privately-funded Institute for Social and Economic not long after Indonesia Raya revealed the corruption within Research, Education and Information (Lembaga Penelitian, Pertamina. Their voices were heard again in 1974 in the Malari Pendidikan, dan Penerangan Ekonomi Sosial – LP3ES). Incident. But the climax occurred in 1978, when students from Originally funded by the Friedrich Naumann Stiftung (FNS)

A sign of the times: the Jakarta city government tries to rid the city of pedicabs by dumping them into the sea. PETROLEUM, POLICIES, AND PROTESTS 123

SARTONO KARTODIRDJO

Professor Sartono Kartodirdjo is one of Indonesia’s most prominent historians. He received an MA from in 1964 and completed a doctoral dissertation for the University of Amsterdam in 1966. Titled The Peasants’ Revolt of Banten in 1888: Its Conditions, Course and Sequel, it has been highly praised by historians and academics. In 1968, Kartodirdjo was appointed senior lecturer at the Faculty of Arts at UGM. In 1981, he spent a year as guest lecturer at the Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in Humanities and Social Sciences in Wassenaar, . During this period, he wrote a series of articles on issues related to Indonesian history and Dutch colonialism under the rubric “Letter from Wassenaar” for the Sunday edition of Kompas.

In 1957, I attended a seminar in Yogyakarta recognized that adjusting to a cold winter as our model. We felt that this work was on Indonesia’s national history. At this might have an adverse affect on our work. comprehensive, and addressed historical seminar, the need for a work of Indonesian At least in Berkeley we were reasonably sure issues from all perspectives, including history that accurately reflected Indonesian that the weather would be good. political, economic, and cultural. national identity was analyzed in detail. At In November 1971, the core team was In April 1972 the team moved to Leiden the time, Indonesia was still a newly meant to depart for Berkeley, although to complete our study of the archives at the emerging nation. Most history books there were a few scheduling problems. Royal Institute of Linguistics and Anthro- reflected the Dutch colonial pology (KITLV). We read every avail- perspective. Prominent intellectuals able book and work on Indonesia. In such as Muhammad Yamin and May, we returned to Indonesia. Soedjatmoko took part in this Then there were more seminars in seminar. Unfortunately, the book Indonesia, funded by the Department remained a pipe-dream. of Education and Culture. Eventually, In 1970, a second national six volumes of Indonesian history were seminar was held, also in Yogyakarta. produced, each one involving five This time, I chaired the meeting, writers. So, in all, 30 writers were which yielded more material and involved in the project. In 1976, we concrete results than the previous completed the work and presented it one. An official committee was to President Suharto. formed with the approval of Mashuri, Frankly, I was disappointed with the minister for education and the results. Most of the writers were culture. involved with other projects, and did At the time, Soedjatmoko was not give their best. In my opinion, if Indonesian ambassador to Wash- each volume had been the ington. He introduced us to the Ford responsibility of a single writer who Foundation. In 1971, we entered into Sartono Kartodirdjo at UGM, 1979. was able to devote his or her entire an official relationship with the time to the task, the result would Foundation. There were seven core Nugroho could only stay for two months, have been better. members of our committee: Nugroho while Sutjipto could only arrive in January In 1981, I received the opportunity for Notosusanto, Abdurrachman Surjo- 1972. Every day, our work schedule was the further study at Wassenaar, also under the mihardjo, Sutjipto, Oka Tjandrasasmita, same. In the mornings, we spent our time sponsorship of the Foundation. During my Buchairi, Sujono Panji Suroso, and myself at various libraries. Every evening, some year there, I wrote An Introduction to acting as Chairman. Ford was prepared to time between 18:00-20:00, we held a seminar Indonesian History (1500-1900) which was assist members of this committee to conduct in the apartment of a group member. At first, later published by Gramedia. I think this was research at libraries in the US and the we held these seminars at the office of Joe a better work than the one produced Netherlands. Fischer, an Indonesianist who assisted us earlier. On my return to Indonesia, I wrote Initially, I went to America to find an with administrative details. This was during two volumes on the struggle for appropriate base for the team. I went to the period of violent anti-Vietnam war independence, although my eyesight was Berkeley, Yale, Wisconsin, and Cornell. On my demonstrations, and there were police declining. Luckily, I was able to complete return to Indonesia we decided to base everywhere, so we decided to meet at our these works, although I couldn’t finish the ourselves at Berkeley. The reason was simple. apartments. In total, we held 99 such third one, on the period of the Japanese Oka, Sutjipto, and Abdurrachman had never seminars at Berkeley. We decided to use a occupation. By that time, my vision had spent much time in cold climates, and we history of Belgium, written by Ari Pirenne, become a major problem. 124 CHAPTER THREE

A PUBLIC INTELLECTUAL: SOEDJATMOKO

Historian, diplomat, intellectual, visionary signature work is probably An Introduction permanent representative of Indonesia to – Soedjatmoko was Indonesia’s true to Indonesian Historiography). Often, it was the UN. And in 1968 he became Indonesian “renaissance man.” his range of interests, rather than the depth ambassador to the US. “Koko,” as he was known, was born in of his thinking, that dazzled. Social sciences, No other Indonesian intellectual has 1922 in Western Sumatra to a well-to-do information sciences, traditional arts – it received such a breadth of international family. He received a Dutch education, and seemed there was nothing he didn’t explore. awards and honors. In 1969 he became the his father’s profession – surgery – exposed Some argue that Soedjatmoko was ill first trustee of the Ford Foundation from him further to travel, books, and intellectual at ease with the realities of Indonesia, and what was then often called the Third World. vigor. During the early 1940s his family lived that he sought to pursue his intellectual In 1978 he received the Ramon Magsaysay in the city of Solo, where he was delighted quests largely on foreign shores. During the Award for International Understanding. to discover that “all the libraries raided by last 20 years of his life, undoubtedly, the Two years later he was appointed Rector the Japanese ended up in the flea market.” international circuit was his domain. of the University in From this liberal back- where, during his seven-year ground came an awareness tenure, he tirelessly of Kierkegaard and of rural expounded his vision of poverty, existentialism versus freedom and development. the revolutionary ideal, the At the same time, he helped search for inner freedom put Indonesia on the global combined with the call to map. duty. These contrasts gave Anthropologist Clifford shape to Soedjatmoko’s life- Geertz saw a common di- long intellectual disposition. lemma for people like It may be said that he was Soedjatmoko: how best to a thinker by example. Read- serve one’s country, not by ing and conversation were exaggerating its virtues, but constants in his life. In the by bringing it closer to itself? late 1950s, as chief editor of Following a nine-month the socialist-leaning maga- “tour of personal political zine Siasat (Inquiry) and, si- discovery” to Eastern and multaneously, the man be- Western Europe, Soedjat- hind the influential opinion moko agonized, “I am not a page Gelanggang (Forum), he communist, nor a left wing sparked a polemic on litera- socialist, and not a rightist ture and culture that ener- either; none of the political gized the entire discourse on approaches that these labels nation building. One of his Soedjatmoko with Ford Foundation Chairman Alexander Heard stood for seemed relevant to greatest contributions to this at a Board of Trustees meeting, New York, March 1973. the kind of problems Indo- exchange was his call for tol- nesia faced…” erance and openness. He believed passion- His active life abroad began remarkably To his left-wing detractors he was “PSI,” ately in the freedom and independence of early. In the late 1940s he was sent to the local shorthand for elite intellectuals who individuals. He was always “too cosmopoli- UN with Sumitro Djojohadikusumo and Sri spoke more English or Dutch than tan for the rest of us,” said Sitor Lankan journalist Charles Tambu to struggle Indonesian, who preferred to pontificate Situmorang, but “he inspired dialogues, he for global recognition of Indonesia’s rather than risk contact with the masses. was meaningful.” independence. Soedjatmoko then was 25 Another disparaging term for this group was In fact, Soedjatmoko wasn’t a specialist years of age. “the Jakarta Fabian society.” This PSI in any particular field. According to That was the launch of his diplomatic connection, as well as Soedjatmoko’s links sociologist Ignas Kleden, he represented the career. After serving as Indonesia’s first with the West, fuelled darker suspicions psychology rather than the epistemology of chargé d’affaires in London, he went to about his true political motives. intellectual thought. Taufik Abdullah said Washington to strengthen the political Paradoxically, he was resented for his he was not so much an historian as a thinker section of the newly established embassy. personal closeness to Sukarno – the man who pondered history (Soedjatmoko’s Later, in New York, he acted as alternate who banned his party in 1960. PETROLEUM, POLICIES, AND PROTESTS 125

A meeting of the UN Security Council to discuss the “Indonesian Question.” Sutan Sjahrir (center) surrounded by his advisers: Soedjatmoko, Sumitro Djojohadikusumo, CharlesTambu and Agoes Salim. New York, 14 August 1947.

Soedjatmoko had been called “brilliant but This outlook contradicted the prevailing “mastermind” of the Malari riots. As a naïve,” a “lightweight,” “a panderer to trendy ideas of the 1970s when Indonesia, awash Foundation Trustee, he could have invoked ideas,” “a lover of truisms,” a public intellectual with oil profits, was eager to hurtle into the the prestige and influence of the who spread himself too thin. Yet he always future. Although his neo-Gandhian vision organization to help him. But he refused to championed human dignity as an essential failed to explain which strategy Indonesia do that. His situation was an Indonesian component of the social contract: “We can should adopt in the global competition for affair, he told the Jakarta Representative, only remain human beings if we learn to trade and power, nonetheless students and Guillaume de Spoelberch, and he wanted it develop within ourselves some sort of inner younger intellectuals welcomed his resolved in an “Indonesian” manner. life. A much greater realization of self then is challenge to the New Order’s model of He died in 1989. During the years since, possible. Art and religion must be fostered.” aggressive development. his exact legacy has remained elusive. Such an attitude led Soedjatmoko to an By 1974, however, this challenge had Perhaps his true bequest to Indonesia, and alternative vision of development. He come back to haunt Soedjatmoko. Although to the world, is this: the idea that nothing is argued that “intermediate technology” he had never been an open critic of the as permanent as change, that ambivalence should fuel Indonesia’s economic progress. government, he was accused of being the may not be such a bad thing after all. 126 CHAPTER THREE

RUMORS, PLOTS, AND CONSPIRACIES: THE RAMPARTS ARTICLE

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, “foreign educational activities – teacher training, Harris, Ford Representative in Indonesia at intervention,” in the eyes of some, was a English-language education, public the time the training project was approved. specter threatening the developing world. administration and management, and He knew members of the economics faculty Advisors, consultants, and trainers were research and development – had been at Berkeley, including Thomas Blaidsell, who portrayed as “neo-imperialists” bent on initiated and conducted with the approval convinced the university of the merits of the ruling post-colonial societies through the of President Sukarno. These activities, in project. In the meantime, Harris’s own close subtle and sophisticated means of financial fact, made up the bulk of Foundation funds friendship with Sumitro Djojohadikusumo, and technological assistance. committed to Indonesia. the man widely regarded as the father of the This period was highlighted by the Ransom focused on a team of Ford- “technocrats” and the instigator of the election of Soedjatmoko to the Ford financed, US-trained economists based at affiliation, was a matter of public record. Foundation’s Board of Trustees, which FEUI, whom he branded the “Berkeley Mafia.” And Sumitro, in turn, had a personal quickly drew criticism from both left and After returning from their postgraduate connection with the then chairman of the right. In October 1970, Ramparts magazine Berkeley Department of Economics, Dr. published an essay by California-based Andreas Papandreou, a fellow socialist he writer David Ransom. He much admired. described Indonesia’s political Ransom’s emphasis on upheaval of 1965 and 1966 as Berkeley was odd, in light of being the product of a sinister Foundation-supported projects and elaborate American plot. The in Indonesia based at other culprits? Ford Foundation, Rand prestigious universities, including Corporation, USAID, the Council on MIT, Cornell, and the University of Foreign Relations, assorted American Wisconsin. The purpose of all of universities, and the CIA – he seemed these projects, said another former to be implicating the entire free world. Ford Representative, Frank Miller, The Ford Foundation’s real interest in was to “prepare teachers of Indonesia, according to him, was the economics, not public officials.” subversion of the government followed by In 1957, when Sumitro fled Jakarta the coaching of Indonesian economists to to avoid arrest and later joined the PRRI produce a national development plan rebels in West Sumatra, the affiliation with Even today the Ramparts article still serves compatible with “the new indirect rule of as occasional fodder for conspiracy theorists. US universities stayed afloat despite America.” “severe difficulties.” Sources close to the Initially, the so-called exposé generated studies – at Berkeley and other universities event agreed, “Any association with him little press interest, either in the US or in – some were appointed to influential [Sumitro] was a serious liability.” Although Indonesia. It was the fiercely nationalistic positions in the Suharto government. The so- this also raised considerable suspicions Merdeka (Freedom) daily that later gave called “conspiracy” lay in Berkeley’s role in about FEUI’s loyalty, the Foundation and all Ransom’s thesis its curious staying power. “training most of the key Indonesians who the contracting universities refused to In January 1974, when anti-foreign would seize government power to put their retreat. In his 1965 report for the demonstrations in Jakarta reached their pro-American lessons into practice.” Foundation, consultant Richard Dye spoke peak and Indonesian army intelligence But history is often simpler and less glowingly of the dedication of two men in needed a scapegoat, the article became the devious than it may seem. In fact the particular, Mohammad Sadli and Subroto, basis for accusations that “radical international educational exchange may in keeping FEUI going during Sumitro’s socialists” were behind a grand plan to have had several beginnings. absence. Widjojo Nitisastro echoed this discredit the government, with Soedjatmoko It could, for instance, have started with exact sentiment almost 40 years later. cast in the role of “mastermind.” a few books. In 1950, the Berkeley student A decade elapsed between the time the The Ramparts attack was spicy, body had collected books for UGM in Berkeley Mafia first went off to study and entertaining, and persuasive in the way of Yogyakarta. The students sought Ford when they became Indonesia’s economic most sensational pieces. But there were Foundation money to ship the books. Ford tsars – a long time, some might say, to holes in the argument. Ransom did not take said fine, but since the students had no sustain a ‘conspiracy’ to control the fate of sufficient care to distinguish among the corporate entity, the money had to be given a nation. As Berkeley’s Bruce Glassburner alleged parties. He ignored the fact that the through the university. Plain and simple. noted, “We were neither that diabolical nor Foundation’s entire extensive program of It could also have started with Michael that clairvoyant.” PETROLEUM, POLICIES, AND PROTESTS 127 of Germany, the journal later received much-needed assistance heralded the view that Indonesia’s development was the product from the Ford Foundation. Prisma was the preeminent forum of a “Berkeley Mafia” that was carrying out a liberal American for the exchange of critical thought, which had almost no place economic agenda. in other Indonesian media. It was in Prisma that one could Another important source of alternative thinking was trace the path of Indonesia’s contemporary intellectual history. Soedjatmoko, Indonesia’s most prominent intellectual at that The writers whose articles appeared in Prisma raised time, who posited the idea of using mid-level technology to numerous questions, and their search for answers took them support the nation’s development plans. He argued that to a wide range of sources, including the critical New Left. methods used by the established industrial nations had been Since the 1960s this school of thought had attracted much proven to cause environmental destruction and to create social interest on campuses in the US and Western Europe. According imbalances. Soedjatmoko believed it was not too late for to its proponents, economic development of the type being Indonesia to choose a more appropriate strategy. The country implemented in Indonesia was part of a worldwide capitalist would be served best by using less expensive technologies that conspiracy. Before the attraction of this school began to wane, would stimulate growth in the labor force without wreaking Ramparts, a California-based New Left monthly magazine, havoc on the environment.

Four of the so-called “Berkeley Mafia” take the oath of office along with other members of the 1971 cabinet: (beginning from second left) Mohamad Sadli (mining), Subroto (manpower and transmigration), Widjojo Nitisastro (economy, finance, and industry), Emil Salim (communications). Also pictured are (far left) Mukti Ali (religion) and (far right) M. Panggabean (politics and security). 128 CHAPTER THREE

Soedjatmoko’s idea was not completely original. In fact Around this same time, a group of scholars from the it had begun to enjoy popularity in other countries as well, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) shed new light especially after the 1973 publication of E.F. Schumacher’s on this subject. In a report entitled The Limits to Growth, which Small is Beautiful. The book rapidly gained wide critical had been commissioned by the international council of business attention, both in Indonesia and abroad. Schumacher was a leaders known as the Club of Rome, the MIT scholars put German-born British economist. Much like Soedjatmoko, forth the Malthusian hypothesis that if global population growth he had come to the conclusion that poor countries should and industrial expansion continued at their current high rate, avoid the adoption of advanced technologies since they did world food production would not be able to keep up, and not stimulate job creation. Instead, they should adapt mid- natural resources would be rapidly depleted. If this outcome level technologies to meet their needs. Schumacher questioned were to be avoided, there would have to be, as the report stated, the need for continuous economic growth, recommending a “Copernican revolution in thinking.” Governments had to the development of a society that was not heavily dependent rethink and review policies calling for continuous growth. The on capital- and energy-intensive investment. While capitalism birthrate had to be reduced to zero. Continuous expansion of might improve the quality of life, he argued it was also industrial production was not necessary. Instead, pollution had necessary to conserve and maintain the world’s natural to be controlled, products had to be recycled, and the resources. Large cities and industries would only destroy them. manufacturing industry geared towards the fabrication of more Small was beautiful. durable items that could be repaired.

Selo Soemardjan, chair of the executive committee of the Social Sciences Research Training Centers Program, addresses the first group of fellows in Ujung Pandang [Makassar]. To his left is Umar Kayam, director of the center and to his right is the anthropologist Clark Cunningham, 1975. PETROLEUM, POLICIES, AND PROTESTS 129

TAUFIK ABDULLAH

Taufik Abdullah, a Cornell-trained historian, was director of Leknas from 1974-1978, and has been affiliated with LIPI for most of his professional career, becoming its head during the presidency of Abdurrahman Wahid. He is currently the director of YIIS and formerly ran its Social Science Research Training Centers program.

The Foundation originally had the idea to Geertz report. We also had to select the right Alfian, and Lance Castles, from Australia, establish a program to develop the social campuses, recruit staff, and so on. Staff were replaced Schlegel. Since Ibrahim Alfian, the sciences in Indonesia and invited Professor recruited from all over Indonesia. The first position has been held by various native Clifford Geertz here. Geertz travelled to a intake of students consisted of 12 individuals Acehnese. The first was Syamsuddin number of campuses to interview academics who came from all over Indonesia, too. Mahmud, who later became governor of the and administrators. After Geertz completed The first director was Alfian, assisted by province, then Ali Basyah Amin, later rector his report, the Foundation asked for of Syiah Kuala University, then Dayan comments from people including Dawood, who also became rector of Selo Soemardjan, Harsja Bachtiar, Syiah Kuala, and who was killed in and Daniel Lev. We all agreed that 2001. All of these people turned out the social sciences in Indonesia to be successful, although it is sad to were in a poor state and that there remember Dayan. was no tradition of sound research About two years after the Aceh methods. We decided to establish program started, Umar Kayam was what we called “research stations” appointed as first director of the – institutions to provide training in program in Makassar with anthro- research methodology in one-year pologist Clark Cunningham. After programs. Kayam was Mochtar Naim, then The Department of Education Mattulada, then Hasan Walinono. At and Culture was ready. Selo the time I was director of LEKNAS. Soemardjan and Soedjatmoko had The programs that ran for the also established a foundation to longest periods were in Makassar support the project. These joined and Aceh. In the end, the universities together into YIIS which worked took over the management of the with local universities that were to centers. The programs were highly manage the training centers. Three productive while they lasted. With 12 local univesities were nominated, in people each year at each center, over Aceh, Padang, and Ujung Pandang. ten years there were between 200 to Aceh responded enthusiastically 400 graduates of the program, many and promised to support the of whom went on to receive program. Madjid Ibrahim, the doctorates and become professors rector of Syiah Kuala University, was and rectors, although some also prepared to set aside two buildings, Taufik Abdullah posing in front of anti-socialist disappeared without a trace. a dormitory, and a lecture hall. The graffiti on a visit to Wisconsin, 1973. The influence of the social other universities did not respond scientists in the New Order regime nearly so enthusiastically. Also, in Aceh, Stuart Schlegel, an anthropologist who had was nowhere near as strong as the influence Governor Muzakir Walad strongly developed the “grounded method.” This was of the economists. The New Order had little supported the program. At the time, Aceh’s a good research methodology because it patience for the social sciences in general. star was rising, and Syiah Kuala was a highly didn’t involve an undue period of time spent The social sciences therefore had little influential institution in Aceh. The governor on theoretical studies. After one or two impact on political development. and several regents were elected from Syiah months preparation, the researcher was Unfortunately, the whole country is paying Kuala lecturers. At the time, we all had high ready to go into the field. Participants in for that neglect now. We have been fully hopes for Aceh. The center was opened at the program also studied the Acehnese aware of the potential for disaster in Aceh Syiah Kuala in 1974. language. I went to Aceh at least once a year and East Timor for years, but our input has Preparation took four years, partly for lectures and workshops. been considered decidedly unconstructive because of the debate that followed the After two years, Ibrahim Alfian replaced by those in power. 130 CHAPTER THREE

For Indonesians who were open to new and alternative US and European countries. The 1970 book, Dependency and ideas – particularly those who wanted change – Schumacher’s Development in , by Fernando Henrique Cardoso views and the warnings implicit in The Limits to Growth were and Enzo Faletto, offered a similar viewpoint. Its theory of earth-shaking. Further, these ideas were far more attractive than dependencia recommended radical change, including severing the concepts previously employed with regard to economic links with international trade and investment. Arief Budiman, development, the consequences of which were deeply Indonesia’s premier champion of leftist thought during the New worrisome. Order, was one of this theory’s proponents. For Indonesians with an even more radical bent, a fair The Chinese socialist model, as espoused by Mao wind was blowing from Latin America. Since the mid-1960s, Zedong, also had its supporters (even though, as was later Andre Gunder Frank had been arguing against the Third revealed, information about the practices of the People’s World’s adoption of Western development theories. In his Republic’s socialist economy was not always accurate). The opinion, the under-development of the Third World was due Chinese leader and his followers argued that equitable to its close links with the capitalist economies, especially the distribution of wealth was in fact possible, but only if society

A LIPI-sponsored math quiz on the national television station TVRI. Jakarta, 1976. PETROLEUM, POLICIES, AND PROTESTS 131

THEE KIAN WIE

Thee Kian Wie is a senior researcher at LIPI. He is well known as the author of prize-winning books about the Indonesian economy, and is among the group of economists who studied in the US in the 1960s. He began his career at the National Institute for Economic Research (Lembaga Kajian Ekonomi Nasional – LKEN), which later amalgamated with LIPI. While most of his colleagues have joined the bureaucracy, Thee continues to engage in research and writing. He also chairs the board of a current Foundation grantee, SMERU Research Institute, an important new poverty research center in Jakarta. I’d been an ordinary member of the International Development – HIID). Sriwijaya University. In general, the research administration staff at the Indonesian The first intake included Harsja yielded good results. Council for Science and Learning [Majelis Bachtiar, Mely Tan, T.S.S. Soetanto and Indonesian academics, including Ilmu Pengutahuan Indonesia – MIPI] since myself, left in 1963. The second, which economists, enjoy holding seminars. 1959. In 1962, LEKNAS was established as included Soedradjad Djiwandono and They are less productive when it comes one of seven institutions in MIPI to be Taufik Abdullah, left in 1964. The final one to publishing papers, particularly in engaged in research into economics and the left in 1965. In all, 13 students completed English, despite the fact that it is the other social sciences. I wanted to become a post-graduate studies in economics in the ability to publish that determines the researcher, so I applied to the worth of an academic in the eyes director of MIPI, Professor Sarwono of the world. Prawirohardjo. Several factors explain this. The Sarwono asked Professor tradition of academic research in Sadarjoen Siswomartojo, whose Indonesia is still quite weak. Many background was in education, to economists, including those with take up the position of director of PhDs, do not see research or educa- Leknas. He wasn’t an economist tion as their primary focus. Most are himself, and he established a board more interested in joining the bu- of advisors that also included a lot reaucracy, or becoming rich, or es- of economists, including Widjojo tablishing an institute that provides Nitisastro, Mohammad Sadli, Selo consulting services rather than one Soemardjan, Koentjaraningrat, that engages in research. Sarbini Sumawinata, Makaminan The inability of Indonesia’s Makagiansar, Ali Wardhana, and economists to make a significant Emil Salim. input on the world stage is indicated I was accepted there. Widjojo by the lack of material by these had a good relationship with the economists in international Foundation. They were prepared to economics journals. There are far provide assistance. At the beginning fewer contributions from of the 1960s, the PKI was extremely Thee Kian Wie in his office at LEKNAS, Jakarta, 1978. Indonesians than from their strong, and President Sukarno was counterparts in Malaysia, the becoming increasingly anti-Western. US through this program. Philippines, or Singapore. The usual defense American institutions were not in favor in After I returned Harsja Bachtiar became – that we are not English-speaking – doesn’t Indonesia. The Foundation saw an acting director of Leknas-LIPI. At the hold water, considering that the number of opportunity to maintain links with the beginning of the 1970s, Bachtiar felt that papers published by Thai academics is community of intellectuals in Indonesia. our knowledge of the economic situation significantly greater. So, Ford was prepared to provide in the provinces was lacking. We didn’t have FEUI used to be strong, but every scholarships to a number of economists and much experience with field research, so he significant economist to emerge there was social scientists to complete post-graduate agreed to work with the Center for South taken away to serve as a ministerial advisor. studies in the US. At the time, Leknas did not East Asian Studies from the University of In the 1970s and 1980s, the ministries took have any economic researchers of note. Most Kyoto. a lot of economists on their return from graduates were clearly incapable of high- The first survey research with which I was their studies in America. They were never standard research. After a rigorous process involved was a regional economic survey able to continue their studies in economics. of selection, several people were chosen for conducted in South Sumatra. For two years It’s very difficult to continue as an academic further studies. Funds were channeled we engaged in field research. This involved a if you stop writing and spend all your time through the Harvard Development Advisory number of parties in addition to the University giving newspaper interviews and shallow Service (later Harvard Institute of of Kyoto, including the Economics Faculty of presentations. 132 CHAPTER THREE

A traditional birth attendant weighing a baby in a clinic near Bandung, , 1982 PETROLEUM, POLICIES, AND PROTESTS 133

The anthropologist Clifford Geertz in Yogyakarta, 1984. Many of the observations in his seminal 1971 report on the state of the social sciences in Indonesia remain relevant today.

was treated as a commune. A communal life style, detached (HDI), in which the basic standard for measuring prosperity from the world market and without an agenda that stressed was not simply an increase in per capita income, but also economic growth, was the answer to the problem of prosperity growth in the level of education, life expectancy, infant survival or the lack thereof. In Indonesia, support for this model, which rates, and other factors not generally tabulated in economic first appeared in the writings of prominent Moslem intellectual analyses. and economist Dawam Rahardjo, did not last long. After Mao It seemed that “technocratic optimism” was showing signs Zedong’s death and Deng Xiaoping’s rise to power, China of slackening, according to Clifford Geertz’s 1971 report for adopted a different path – a capitalist one. Around the world, the Foundation. People were becoming aware that economic the theory of dependencia was abandoned, even by the future calculations might solve certain problems, but could give rise president of Brazil, Cardoso himself. The small-is-beautiful spirit to other, more troubling difficulties. The need for a deeper had lost its luster. understanding of social reality was becoming increasingly felt. In the mid-1970s, however, the influence of Mahbub Up to that point, said Geertz, it had been “polished by the ul-Haq did warrant notice. This famed Pakistani economist machinery of modern economics.” argued it was wrong to believe that growth in a country’s Understanding social reality is never easy. The problem GDP would automatically resolve the problem of poverty. in Indonesia was that people were being asked not simply to He introduced the concept of a Human Development Index understand or to evaluate the world, but to change it as well. CHAPTER FOUR: THE MANTRA OF UNITY

CHAPTER FOUR THE MANTRA OF UNITY

n 12 September 1984, a stage was erected on Jalan Sindang in Koja, a neighborhood in the Tanjung OPriok section of North Jakarta. The area, located near Jakarta’s main harbor, is crowded, and most of its residents are poor. Whenever a stage is erected, therefore, it signals festivities to come, and a huge crowd soon gathers. That night was no exception. A protective tarpaulin hung over the stage. Dozens of loudspeakers were attached to the electricity poles along the street. There was nothing special about that Wednesday night. The site of the stage, an intersection that had been closed to traffic, was a place where local events were often held. The notices handed out by Remaja Islam, a Muslim youth group, billed it as an evening of prayer for the young. But the night would end in bloodshed. Maybe no one saw it coming, not even when Amir Biki appeared on stage at eight PM. Standing 178 centimeters and weighing more than 100 kilograms, this man had his own special presence on the stage. He was a person of influence in the area, better off than his neighbors, and a natural leader. Originally from Gorontalo, North Sulawesi, Biki was frequently called upon to help resolve conflicts among local residents.

 Taman Mini Indonesia Indah (“Beautiful Indonesia in Miniature”) – a theme park of an idealized Indonesia that was heavily criticized at the time of its construction as a luxury the country could ill afford. 136 CHAPTER FOUR

Amir Biki spoke with anger that night. One report by residents were angered. Rumors spread: “a sergeant went into a Tempo magazine described him as carrying a dagger, which he mosque without removing his shoes”; “a soldier sprayed a brandished at the crowd while shouting invective against the mosque with sewer water”; “Sergeant Hermanu is a Christian.” government. The target of his anger was a proposed law requiring Two days later, on Monday, 10 September, conflict erupted. all Indonesian organizations, even religious ones, to adopt While Sergeant Hermanu and one of the heads of the mosque , the state-prescribed ideology, as their guide. This set of – to which the prayer house was attached – were discussing the five principles includes belief in one God; humanitarianism; matter, a crowd of people gathered. Someone then set fire to national unity; representational democracy; and social justice. Sergeant Hermanu’s motorcycle. Soon, troops arrived and The government’s insistence that Pancasila be adopted by all arrested the two heads of the mosque, the head of the As-Sa’adah organizations had raised hackles across the country. prayer house, and one of the people who had taken part in On 7 September, five days prior to the prayer evening, torching the motorcycle. Sergeant Hermanu, an army officer posted to the South Koja In his speech to the crowd on the night of 12 September, sub-district, had discovered three posters protesting the Amir Biki loudly demanded the release of the four men. He government’s plan on the walls of the As-Sa’adah musholla, a had already paid a visit to the local civilian authority to request local prayer house. He asked the members of the prayer house their release, but the military had refused to budge. Biki might to take down the posters, but they refused. have been using his speech that night to further press his case. The next day, the sergeant returned to the prayer house According to an official statement from General L. B. Moerdani, accompanied by another soldier. When he saw that the posters commander-in-chief of the Indonesian Armed Forces, Amir were still in place, he tried to remove them. He took a sheet of Biki had given the local military headquarters an ultimatum: if newspaper, dipped it in the open gutter outside the prayer house, the four prisoners were not released by 11 PM, he would “commit and tried to smear the posters with the foul, black water. Local murder and destruction.”

Military commanders and Benny Moerdani address the media following the Tanjung Priok incident, September 1984. THE MANTRA OF UNITY 137

AUGUSTINUS RUMANSARA

Augustinus Rumansara serves as vice president of the integrated social strategy program for British Petroleum at its mining operation in Tangguh, Papua. Prior to this, he worked in the field of human rights and environmental protection in Papua though the Village Community Advancement Foundation of Irian Jaya (Yayasan Pengembangan Masyarakat Desa – YPMD) and for WWF, the global environment network. He headed the International Non-Governmental Group on Indonesia (INGI) in the early 1990s.

I studied agriculture at the Satya Wacana concerned INGI. INGI agreed, and we were My major concern continued to be Papua Christian University in Central Java where I provided with extra funding. Not all and the massive violations of human rights and became involved in the struggle to help the Indonesian officials welcomed our environmental destruction there. While at poor. I graduated in 1978 and returned to presence, but at least the minister for the YPMD, I often found cause to criticize Freeport Jayapura, where I began working for the environment, Emil Salim, and the minister McMoRan, the gold mining company that church. George Junus Aditjondro, a friend for internal affairs, Rudini, accepted us. operates in Papua. In the end, they offered from my student days and an environmental INGI played a major role after the me a job. Of course, after criticizing them for activist, arrived in Jayapura to establish so long, I didn’t feel that it would be the Irian Jaya Development Information appropriate for me to join them. Service Center at Cendrawasih The flow of “newcomers” into Papua University. This center was funded by the has created tensions with the original Asia Foundation and was involved in inhabitants. I’d say that newcomers research and community development. currently make up 50 per cent of the After a while, the university became population. If we look at local parliaments concerned about the activities of the and private enterprises throughout Papua, center – this was during the New Order newcomers are greatly over-represented. period, after all. They told us to establish The political and economic institutions of ourselves as an independent entity, so the region do not accommodate the we formed YPMD. aspirations of the Papuans. Through YPMD I came into contact However, I don’t agree that newcomers with the Foundation, which assisted us should be prevented from coming. Papua in developing a social forestry project. is part of Indonesia, and any Indonesian YPMD was also involved in home should have the right to go there. If industry programs intended to help affirmative action programs, especially in Papuans develop sources of income. In the area of education, are implemented 1986, when George left to continue his well, I feel that the problems in Papua can education at Cornell, I replaced him as be slowly overcome. director of YPMD. In 1999, British Petroleum began Later, for 15 months I studied the exploring for oil in Tangguh, Papua. I politics of development at the Institute worked to establish a social policy that of Social Studies, The Hague. On my would prevent a repeat of the damage return in 1991, my colleagues from NGOs Augustinus Rumansara on the golf course, August 2003. caused by Freeport. British Petroleum pushed me into heading the secretariat was interested in this, and asked me to of INGI in Jakarta. There were two decision to build the Kedung Ombo dam in join them. I met with their senior figures in secretariats, in Holland and in Jakarta. The 1989. INGI protested that the World Bank London and became convinced that they goal of this organization was to approach failed to consider the social aspects of the were serious about the program. donor agencies and states that provided project. The World Bank accepted our input. I believe that British Petroleum is commit- funds to the government of Indonesia to INGI also proposed establishing a human ted to fulfilling its social responsibilities. I told encourage them to place issues related to rights commission after the killing of East them that I didn’t want merely to implement the environment, human rights, and Timorese at the Santa Cruz cemetery in the program; I wanted to be involved in its for- democracy on the agenda. in November 1991. Another important INGI mulation. I was offered the position of vice In Jakarta, the INGI secretariat only activity was promoting the rights of women. president at British Petroleum for the Tangguh came to life in the period before its annual Until now, it was as though women achieved operation. Some of my activist friends criti- meeting. I proposed that INGI also act as a whatever rights they had only through the cized my decision to accept, but I feel I can lobby group in Jakarta – after all, the sympathy of men. I have fought for women achieve real goals here. My goal is to trans- Indonesian government was the most to be allotted one-third of the seats in the form Tangguh into a model of good corporate significant factor in the issues that People’s Consultative Assembly of Papua. citizenship. 138 CHAPTER FOUR

PRESERVING THE PAST: MANUSCRIPTS AND MICROFILMS

Until the twentieth century, many of production of microfilm copies. Ford manuscript inventory was compiled. Indonesia’s indigenous literatures existed modeled its grants on two earlier Individual research and publication awards only in oral tradition. In those languages microfilming projects: the Surakarta were given for work on literature in that had developed writing systems, Manuscript Project, undertaken by Nancy manuscript. however, vast quantities of manuscripts K. Florida in the early 1980s with funding Imagine, then, Ford’s dismay when a were produced and preserved in private from Cornell University and the National 1998 evaluation by Roger Tol, head of a collections and court libraries. Scribes used Endowment for the Humanities, and work Dutch library with a vast Indonesia perishable materials (paper, palm leaf, begun in 1984 to microfilm colonial-era collection, revealed that the microfilms held bark, bamboo), but it was common practice Indonesian newspapers at the National in Indonesian collections were deteriorating to recopy texts into new manuscripts if an Library in Jakarta. The Foundation, even faster than the manuscripts they old one was falling apart or an extra copy sometimes in cooperation with other recorded! The problem was, of course, was needed. In this way Indonesia’s written donors, eventually supported the filming of climate control: stored in uncontrolled heritage was passed down, despite the over 14,000 manuscripts in various court, conditions, the films were vulnerable to impermanence of the materials it was university, and private collections. Copies fungus. The entire Indonesian collection of written on. microfilms, Tol wrote, was Nowadays, however, the in great danger of being preservation of manuscripts lost forever. has become an enormous Fortunately, there was problem. Upkeep of a col- a solution, already in use lection requires constant at LIPI in Jakarta: a stor- climate control, usually by age process known as means of air-conditioners hermetic sealing. The and dehumidifiers, and microfilm is vacuum- many of the libraries that packed in an aluminum hold large collections are pouch, after which no finding them too expen- climate control is nec- sive to maintain. The essary. At Tol’s manuscripts are deterio- recommendation, Ford, rating rapidly in Indone- which had thought its sia’s tropical climate, and microfilming work they are not replaced by completed, agreed to a new copies, as the prac- rescue operation, in tice of recopying has died which all of the dam- out. Moreover, the con- aged microfilms were tents of the manuscripts washed and cleaned are increasingly remote An illuminated Javanese manuscript held in the Sonobudoyo Museum in Yogyakarta. and the master films from contemporary hermetically sealed. readers: the establishment of Indonesian as of the resultant films were deposited in the Before the final sealing, additional duplicate the lingua franca has led to a decline in the home collections, in the Indonesian National films were made to fill in gaps and increase strength of regional languages, and the domi- Library and National Archives, and in a the number of complete sets to four, two in nance of the roman alphabet in print has ren- research library abroad. Indonesia and two abroad. dered the regional scripts in the manuscripts The Foundation did not see preservation The problem of the microfilms appears virtually unreadable by anyone but scholars. as an end in itself, but instead as a necessary to have been successfully resolved. Centuries of literature and history are at risk. first stage in the process of encouraging Preserving the manuscripts themselves, It was against this background that the public and scholarly access to the however, is still an urgent need. Outside Ford Foundation decided in the mid-1980s manuscripts and interest in their contents. donors can offer short-term assistance, but to support work in preserving Indonesian Catalogues, exhibitions, archiving work- in the long run Indonesia itself must manuscripts, both through conservation of shops, brochures, and videos on book shoulder the responsibility – or else let its the actual manuscripts and through the conservation were produced. A nation-wide heritage crumble away. THE MANTRA OF UNITY 139

No proof exists that Biki ever gave such an ultimatum. he tried to get up. According to several witnesses, at that evening’s prayers he said More and more victims fell. Later they were taken away only that he intended to go to military command headquarters in troop transport trucks to the Gatot Subroto Army General – where the four men were being held – to free them. Regardless Hospital. The next day, General Moerdani stated that nine of what Biki actually said, tension mounted considerably and people had been killed and 53 injured, but another eyewitness at 11 PM a crowd of around 1500 began marching toward said that as many as 400 had been killed. Sixteen years after the military headquarters. They carried aloft both the Red-and- incident, in its own investigation into the case, Indonesia’s White, the Indonesian national flag, and a green flag National Human Rights Commission (Komnas HAM) emblazoned with letters spelling out the Islamic concluded that 24 were killed and 55 injured. profession of faith. Along the way, the crowd’s progress was This run-in between the demonstrators and the military blocked by troops. Trucks and tanks were in evidence. Some was not the only cause of death that night. A second group of people reported that a unit of troops approached the demonstrators had marched northward. On Jalan Jampea they demonstrators from behind, possibly with the intent of arresting set fire to Toko Tanjung Jaya, a store where auto parts, fuel, and them, but thereby blocking their retreat. lubricants were sold. An adjacent pharmacy, Apotik Tanjung, According to an eyewitness who was marching close to had been spared once it was learned that its ethnic Chinese owner him, Biki grabbed one of the flags and yelled “Forward!” The was Muslim. Nonetheless, because the fire at Tanjung Jaya could crowd began to move again. Perhaps they weren’t surprised not be contained, the pharmacy too was engulfed in flames. The when tear gas canisters were fired their way – they would have following day the remains of eight people were removed from expected that – but then a volley of shots rang out. Biki fell. the ruins of the Toko Tanjung Jaya. The family of Tan Kio Liem Two witnesses said that a soldier stabbed him with a bayonet as and their maid had burned to death.

Emotional mourners in the funeral procession of Amir Biki, 1984. Inspecting microfilm at the Sonobudoyo Museum in Yogyakarta, 2003.

142 CHAPTER FOUR

Like many other stories of unrest in Indonesia, the price of basic foodstuffs rose. violence in Tanjung Priok that night had its roots in poverty. The flow of casual employment for Koja residents The Koja area is inhabited mainly by casual laborers, and many became even more insecure, further exacerbating economic ethnic groups are represented there. Nearly all the district’s adult inequities. The business group owned by ethnic Chinese males rely on ship repair work to make a living. They and their businessman Liem Sioe Liong, whose close connection with families live in ramshackle huts made from scavenged materials President Suharto had given him control over a large number in the area’s labyrinth of small side streets. of trade monopolies, suddenly experienced spectacular growth. In mid-1984, a global recession that had begun in the Liem’s conglomerate had even begun buying companies and industrialized world but soon spread to the developing countries banks abroad. hit Indonesia hard. Foreign investment projects, including factory As had happened before in Indonesia, these apparent construction and the like, were either cancelled or postponed. inequities exacerbated anti-Chinese racism among the lower World oil prices fell, causing a major disruption in the flow of classes. Liem became a symbol of “Chinese-ness” and, therefore, national income from oil sales. Domestic investment by the an emblem of the New Order’s injustice. Such inequity, set in government and state-owned companies – historically a major a social context where freedom of choice and expression are source of employment – plummeted by 17 per cent. And the stifled, provided the spark that ignited violence in the difficulties did not end there. Due to a drop in government economically-pressed and politically-marginalized Muslim subsidies caused by growth in the nation’s budgetary deficit, the community that night.

A beggar outside a Chinese temple in Pontianak, 2003. The existence of an ethnic Chinese lower class in Indonesia is often overlooked. THE MANTRA OF UNITY 143

ERNA WITOELAR

Erna Witoelar is a well-known pioneer activist with NGOs. She began her career in the Indonesian Consumers Association (Yayasan Lembaga Konsumen Indonesia – YLKI), before assisting in the establishment of the Indonesian Environmental Forum (Wahana Lingkungan Hidup – WALHI). Throughout her career she has been involved in activism and grass roots politics. When Abdurrahman Wahid became president in 1999, Ibu Erna entered the cabinet and became a trusted advisor. When he was forced from office in 2001, she resigned immediately in solidarity. Today she chairs several civil society organizations and, as this book went to press, was appointed by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan as ambassador to promote the Millennium Development Goals.

In the 1980s in Indonesia, what might be children. At the same time, women as con- The Foundation encouraged WALHI to termed “advocacy NGOs” began to emerge, sumers affect the well-being not just of them- begin its biogas campaign, which, like joining the existing community development selves, but of their families. Their reproduc- pesticides, involved both environmental and NGOs. I worked at YLKI from 1978. YLKI’s tive rights are threatened by pollutants on the consumer protection issues. Bianti secretary, Permadi Satrio Wiwoho, Djiwandono managed the Founda- and I handled education and surveys. tion’s grants to WALHI. We had a very I also held the position of executive close relationship with Bianti. director. USAID also played a significant At first, YLKI was involved in com- role from the beginning. The munity development. In 1978, YLKI Foundation did not really support conducted consumer education pro- advocacy; it was more oriented grams. We saw a need for this, given towards community development the weak position of the consumer and training. USAID, the Canadian protection movement even in the cit- International Development Agency, ies, let alone in rural communities. We and the Asia Foundation were all conducted consumer education pro- more supportive of advocacy. The grams in cooperation with pesantren Foundation is subtler, and its [Islamic boarding schools]. We tried institutional support is stronger. to raise awareness of consumer rights, I’ve learned how to establish net- dealing in particular with pesticides works from the examples set by and their effects, irresponsible trade world-class consumers’ organiza- practices, and so on. The funding for tions such as Consumers Interna- this program came from the Founda- tional, Pesticide Action Network, and tion. We established the program in World Alliance for Breast Feeding Jombang, in Tebuireng, and in Guluk- Action. We need to establish alli- Guluk, Madura. ances. Those are the perspectives I I left YLKI because of differences brought to WALHI. with Permadi. This is normal, and it By the 1990s, those involved in didn’t prevent Permadi from advocacy were increasingly accepting me back in 1986 to replace intolerant of the Suharto regime. him as head of YLKI. In 1989 I left NGOs began to oppose the govern- again and was replaced by ment more and more openly. It was Zoemrotin. similar to the situation in the Philip- As a representative of YLKI, I was pines before the fall of Marcos in Erna Witoelar visiting a landfill clean-up project in Jakarta, 1992. involved in the establishment of 1986. Every NGO, whatever their WALHI. Then, during 1980-1986, I was streets and in cigarette smoke. We opposed cause and purpose, was fed up with Suharto. actually based at WALHI. Ford Foundation not the excessive promotion of powdered baby NGOs held demonstrations, assisted the only supported that program, but they also milk, particularly through advertising in hos- student movement, got involved in court provided institutional support, helping us to pitals and doctors’ surgeries. When I was the cases, and used any available means to reach our goals without interfering. chairperson, other major issues involved the oppose the government. WALHI was also In 1986, when I went back to YLKI, the contamination of food with pork fat and other directly involved in the campaigns that led most vulnerable consumers are women and substances. to the . 144 CHAPTER FOUR

The tale of violence in Tanjung Priok may be seen as a nation based on Islam, the general view among the Indonesian chapter in the story of Indonesian Islamic politics. President military and among its officers, in particular, was that anyone Suharto had always viewed Islam with suspicion – at least until associated with it was a traitor. For the military, any group the 1980s. Some believe this was because he himself was more proposing to make Islam the basis for the state – even by attracted to Javanese mysticism, or kebatinan. Born and raised constitutional means – was its enemy. in rural Central Java, Suharto felt much more at home with For whatever reason, the Suharto of the 1980s was no local traditions than with Islam, a “foreign” religion. One of longer the Suharto who spoke only about economic Suharto’s confidants, the late General Sudjono Humardhani, development. It was the Suharto who spoke continually of the who was close to Suharto even before the latter’s rise to power need for propagating Pancasila as the basis of national life. In a in 1966, was also known to be a strong follower of kebatinan. speech he delivered in August 1982 in Pekanbaru, Sumatra, he Others claimed that Suharto’s experience at the beginning proposed that all social and political organizations, especially of his military career in dealing with the religious separatist political parties, should accept Pancasila as their sole guiding movement and its armed wing, the Indonesian principle. When Parliament convened in April 1983, he again Islamic Army (Tentara Islam Indonesia), had made him wary of expounded on this point. Pancasila, he said, was the only way Islam as a political force. Since the 1940s, when Darul Islam to eradicate the remnants of conflict, division, and suspicion. was first established in West Java for the purpose of building a Pancasila was the path of unity.

President Suharto and Vice President Adam Malik announcing the third Development Cabinet at the Presidential Palace, 1978. THE MANTRA OF UNITY 145

CHARLES SURYADI

A meeting between Charles Suryadi, his colleagues and a Foundation program officer resulted in the establishment of a national epidemiology network that allows public health research institutions to achieve higher levels of cooperation. Jaringan Epidemiologi Nasional (JEN) involves 24 organizations engaged in addressing public health issues using approaches influenced by epidemiology, the social sciences, and health management sciences. A researcher with extensive experience in community health organizations, Charles Suryadi is convinced that a strong impulse towards mutual aid exists within Indonesian society. However, all too often, he says, when government becomes involved in a community health program, problems will develop.

The Foundation assisted JEN by approach, not the preventative one. adopted strategies from those found to be strengthening our institutional capacities However, the scope of public health extends effective in a range of community develop- and encouraging us in the direction of social beyond preventative medicine. It must also ment programs. epidemiology. Epidemiology in Indonesia is deal with cultural, social, and A concrete example involves the estab- usually regarded as the study of the clinical anthropological issues. In a developing lishment of a community health insurance factors behind the distribution of disease, country, a deep understanding of these fund for economically disadvantaged peo- and most research has been conducted ple. We have also facilitated the by the medical establishment in establishment of healthcare programs hospitals. Through the establishment of for young children. These programs JEN, an approach to epidemiology that have been developed on the principle is more influenced by public health of community involvement and self-help, considerations has been introduced. with some mothers volunteering to su- JEN’s activities include capacity pervise playgroups of between 20 and building, training, and the development 30 children. All funding for these activi- of external networks, and once a year ties comes from the communities we hold our congress. Because we themselves. As outsiders, all we do is operate as a network linking existing play a role as facilitators. organizations, we are able to coordinate We have many examples of comprehensive research. For example, successful community programs in order to conduct comprehensive conducted within small groups, research into AIDS, we adopted not only involving units below the sub-district a medical approach, but also a social level. At the level of small, residential approach. A range of organizations was groupings, the level of mutual aid and involved in 33 defined research zones cooperation in Indonesia can be across Indonesia. Because of our outstanding. It is a very different matter structure, we were able to do research when an initiative involves a large city in an integrated fashion, involving all in its entirety. This may be because segments of society throughout all activities involving small residential regions of Indonesia. This was the first groupings are not marred by excessive Charles Suryadi in Jakarta, 2003. significant research carried out on AIDS government interference. When larger in this country. issues and the impact they have on public numbers of people are involved in units The study of public health must be health is vital. above the district level, the involvement maintained and developed within medical In the past, we operated through of government officials becomes inevitable. faculties, in order to ensure that doctors meetings with community organizations, This often has a detrimental effect, remain fully aware of these issues. At through informal gatherings. We saw our because government is not prepared or present there is a tendency to eliminate role not merely as providing information. able to implement the programs that the public health components from the study We aimed to strengthen community community needs. The ability of the of medicine. This could have dire capacities and facilitate the establishment community to organize itself is influenced consequences. In medical faculties, the issue of effective organizations, in order that by our political culture: are power holders of preventative medicine in general is given communities be better able to identify prepared to develop forums that might far too little attention. Under the influence significant issues and create their own monitor, even criticize, their performance? of the pharmaceutical industry, medicine programs to address them. As doctors, we Or will they perceive this as a threat to here is heavily biased toward the curative merely played a facilitating role. We their own power? 146 CHAPTER FOUR

A mother and child with oral rehydration salts. Ford supported the Diarrheal Disease Research and Training Unit of the University of Sriwijaja in Palembang, South Sumatra for development of a field station, technical consultants, equipment, and staff training. THE MANTRA OF UNITY 147

NINUK WIDYANTORO

Ten years after the Suharto government first instituted its family planning program, Ninuk Widyantoro and several doctors established a small family planning clinic called Wisma Panca Warga. This clinic worked to achieve what the government programs did not: staff listened to clients, provided information, and allowed clients to choose for themselves. Ibu Ninuk believes that the right to choose whether or not to employ contraception and which form to use is fundamental. She says that this should be the right of all women, not merely the rich and well-educated.

In the fifties, President Sukarno was used force to achieve its goals. As a result, implants caused a lot of suffering due to a lack strongly opposed to the family planning there were a lot of failures, a lot of of information and a lack of recognition of the movement, and infant mortality rate reached unwanted pregnancies. At about that time, side effects, which include increased sporadic an appalling 800 per 100 thousand births. A in 1980, I became involved in an Integrated bleeding. The doctors say that this is not group of dedicated doctors, including Ibu Family Planning program as a counselor. medically significant, but it has a serious Soebandrio and Prof. Hanifah, continued to At government hospitals and clinics, psychological impact. Women in the rural work to address this problem. I remember failures occurred because of simple areas felt unable to have sex or even pray when women of my mother’s they are in a state of “impurity.” generation volunteering to I wrote about this in the provide information and to magazine Reproductive Health distribute the pill. Matters, saying that the implant After Soeharto came to program involved violations of power, the government took human rights. complete control of family As a psychologist, I was planning, establishing BKKBN taught to respect clients as in- to do so. After its in 1970, all dividuals. I thought that family funding for family planning planning programs should be initiatives was channeled orientated towards meeting through this body, not PKBI. the needs of the clients. I al- Family planning officials ways let the client choose a implemented the program in form of contraception that the field. The influence of the they personally considered original volunteers faded, and safe. If it didn’t work out for programs were run to achieve her, I helped her choose an- a set target, defined by the other form of contraception. number of “acceptors,” of the Ninuk Widyantoro at the Panca Warga Clinic in In the case of unwanted number of men and women Jakarta promoting women’s right to choose, 1984. pregnancies, Family Planning using contraception. I don’t Centers (Wisma KB Terpadu like the term “acceptor.” It reduces people misunderstandings. Clients were not provided PKBI) helped to facilitate abortion. Many to objects. At Wisma Panca Warga, we use with full and clear information, nor with the officials, including Haryono Suyono, the the word “client.” freedom to choose the appropriate form of coordinator of the Family Planning Program, In fact, BKKBN programs achieved contraception. For example, I’d ask women knew what we were doing and tacitly significant changes. The number of births how they came to be pregnant, even though supported us. declined dramatically, and public values they said they had been taking the pill. And Programs to empower clients were held began to change. Lots of children were no the woman would say, yes, she had, but she not just at Family Planning Centers, which longer seen as a “blessing.” Rather, limiting didn’t bother taking them when her husband served paying clients, but also in villages. the number was seen as promoting family was away! Another one said she only took was chosen for a pilot study. There, welfare. the pill on days when she had sex. we found that even illiterate women were However, set targets made the quality Some clients complained of health capable of making informed choices, if they of family planning services decline. The problems as a result of contraceptive pills were provided with clear information. The provision of accurate information and or injections. They complained of dizziness, right to choose is not the monopoly of the women’s right to choose became secondary nausea, weight gain, and decline in libido. On rich and the educated. considerations. Sometimes, the programs the whole, officials didn’t listen. In particular, 148 CHAPTER FOUR

Suharto’s intention behind this drive was not entirely Sjafruddin reflected the mindset of the Islamic clear. Was it his goal to eradicate differences altogether? community, which had felt itself cornered ever since President Numerous organizations rejected the idea outright. In an Sukarno dissolved the Islamic political party Masyumi in extraordinary show of unity, the Council of Islamic Scholars 1960. Since then, a stigma had been attached to nearly anyone along with representatives of the Catholic and Protestant who was considered to be sympathetic with that party. In churches, and of the Hindu and Buddhist faiths, issued a joint Parliament’s attempt to formulate a constitution after the statement saying that while they did not reject the idea of general elections in 1955, Masyumi had championed Islam Pancasila as a national ideology, it was clearly out of the question as the basis for the Republic of Indonesia. Masyumi had thus to alter the religious basis of their organizations. come to be equated with an “Islamic State” and, therefore, In July 1983, , a prominent was equated with the Darul Islam separatist movement and Islamic political figure, wrote a letter to Suharto, the contents its Indonesian Islamic Army. Just as had happened with PSI, of which were leaked to the public through the political Masyumi was seen by both the PKI and the military as an grapevine. Sjafruddin stated his worry that the government enemy, which was why, after Suharto came to power, Masyumi might prohibit the Muslim community from establishing its supporters continued to be prevented from reviving the party own Islamic associations. According to Sjafruddin, this was in any form. akin to “attempting to kill Islam” with Pancasila. Pancasila, in During the 1980s, certain Islamic political activists his view, was a human creation and could be interpreted and quietly sustained the hope of creating an Islamic state. This implemented according to the ideas and wishes of those in aspiration, however, occupied no place in the minds of the power, including those who controlled the armed forces. political generation that had matured since the 1960s.

Indonesian army troops capturing suspected Darul Islam members in West Java, 1951. THE MANTRA OF UNITY 149

ZOHRA ANDI BASO

Zohra Andi Baso doesn’t make it to Jakarta all that often these days. “I spend more time in the villages, talking to ordinary people,” she says. These visits have made her aware of two issues. They have revealed the ineffectiveness of government programs, most of which, she says, assume a lack of capability on the part of the community. And more importantly, Zohra has become aware of just how fast members of local communities can learn to overcome any lack of capabilities. At 51, Zohra, who comes from Makassar, has a wealth of experience and is widely known in the activist community. According to Zohra, this is a cause for sorrow, because it demonstrates just how few activists are emerging to replace the older generation.

I first became involved in gender and no. They have the right to protest if, for horrified, and said that that would be a sin. reproduction issues through the South example, a doctor tries to reuse a syringe. In , there is a strong gender Sulawesi Consumer Protection Foundation. The problem is to create an awareness of bias inherent in religious interpretation. I took part in a workshop on women’s their rights. These women must learn to be assertive and health funded by Ford. After that, I thought The problem is even more acute with ask questions if they are to avoid the about conducting research into issues other reproductive rights. As part of an HIV/ dangers of AIDS. related to the levels of service provided to AIDS awareness program, we invited Recently the governor of South Sulawesi and the rights of users of made belittling comments about contraception. I feel that when women, referring to their having addressing consumers’ rights, it is been produced from Adam’s rib. This important to base your position on was barely days after the Canadian facts established through research. government had provided funding We need to understand what the real for training in women’s issues for problems are, not just what we think members of the government. Now, a they are. We have to dig to lot of officials take part in gender understand what the community sees issues programs, but I worry that as problems. these are only popular because they From our research, we learned are required in order to gain that the biggest problem is that promotion. People do the courses to family planning services pay little gain points, but their attitudes are attention to the needs of the not really affected. community. Second, we found that We still have a long way to go. We there were still top-down army- have to be patient. For socialists, there sponsored family planning is no surrender. I want to see things programs. These should have been happen faster. It seems like when we reduced. Finally, we found that try to be tactful and polite, we don’t service providers had no conception achieve anything. I’m getting old, and of the rights of their clients. There I’m losing my patience. People say might have been some awareness of that as you get older you become these issues at the national level, but Zohra Andi Baso, a promoter of more patient, but that’s not true for very little among clients themselves reproductive rights, Makassar, 1995. me. I’m scared I’ll die before I see any or among those directly involved in significant move to democracy. providing services to them. We also found members of Dharma Wanita [Association Women’s groups still don’t seem to be that local communities had developed their of Civil Servants’ Wives] to participate in a able to form strong networks. Personal own methods for avoiding unwanted discussion. We assumed that as middle class problems and misunderstandings often pregnancies. people, these women would be more open arise, and we haven’t learned to separate A lot of people missed the close to a discussion of sensitive issues, and that personal issues from political ones. And connection between consumer rights and they would be in a position to spread their again there is the problem of the lack of family planning. I’m asked about that a lot. new perspectives among members of the human resources. We have been unable to We have seen the problems with the broader community. When we discussed the develop a group of potential leaders. Also, delivery of reproductive health services. rights of women to reject their husbands’ women’s groups are reluctant to get Even in the cities, a lot of people still feel sexual overtures, or to question their involved in politics. This is unfortunate, as that doctors are always right. We try to husbands regarding their sexual practices we need women in the political arena if we show them that they have the right to say and hygiene, many of these women were are to achieve gender justice. 150 CHAPTER FOUR

Furthermore, once the assorted Islamic political parties had been Tanjung Priok was not the first example of religious- forced by the government to merge into one, the United related violence during the 1980s. On 28 March 1981, a Development Party (Partai Persatuan Pembangunan – PPP) – the Garuda Indonesia Airlines passenger plane, the Woyla, was name of which did not even include a reference to Islam – the hijacked en route from Jakarta to its destination in Medan, issue of a guiding principle for the state seemed to have no relevance. North Sumatra, and its 42 passengers held hostage. After the In 1982, Nurcholish Madjid and , two young hijackers forced the pilot to fly out of Indonesian air space, the and prominent Muslim intellectuals, openly rejected Islam as a media reported that it was headed toward Sri Lanka and then legitimate basis for the state. “Nowhere is it stated that the on to the Middle East. But when the plane landed instead at religion demands the establishment of an Islamic state,” wrote Don Muang Airport in Bangkok, an Indonesian anti-terrorist Amien Rais in Panji Masyarakat, a magazine published by the unit stormed it and freed the hostages. In the melee, four Islamic organization Muhammadiyah. “Indonesian Muslims hijackers, the plane’s pilot, and one member of the anti-terrorist will be satisfied if the esteemed Pancasila is applied in a truly unit were killed. consistent manner.” The person judged to be the brains behind the hijacking But in the 1980s, when the country’s intellectual life was a man named Imron, a cherubic 33-year-old preacher at seemed frozen, the issue of ideology began to regain importance. the Istiqamah Mosque in Bandung. He, it was said, had founded Since 1966, Indonesia had been preoccupied with economic the Indonesian Islamic Revolutionary Council (Dewan Revolusi growth, but 15 years later the issue of Pancasila versus Islam Islam Indonesia), the aim of which was to “implement Islamic had become heated. And with it, violence was brewing. syariat law in its purest sense.”

The hijacked Woyla at Don Muang International Airport, Bangkok, 1981. Balinese women on their way to a subak temple, 1985. THE MANTRA OF UNITY 151

NYOMAN SUTAWAN

Nyoman Sutawan is perhaps best known as a former rector of Udayana University in Bali. Sutawan has also made a significant contribution through his research into the traditional Balinese system of irrigation, which is managed through an institution known as the subak. He claims that if the subak system disappears, Balinese society will lose its integrity. The subak system can be examined from technological, social, cultural, and environmental aspects. In addition to his position at Udayana, Sutawan has served as rector of Marwadewa University in Denpasar.

Until the beginning of the 20th century, the level, the project failed. In the 1980s, floods The subak system is entirely different subak system operated on the principle that occurred frequently as a result of badly from the banjar system. The banjar is an water was a shared resource. Irrigation planned irrigation. administrative division, created for the facilities were managed through a system of Farmers complained that the system organization of a community. The boundaries mutual cooperation, without interference was inappropriate, and that many projects of each subak are defined according to from the princely houses. Working together, had to be dismantled. Now, farmers are hydrological needs. Thus, a subak can farmers built dams and dug channels for the working to resuscitate the subak system. In overlap banjar boundaries. distribution of water. In the 1920s, the Dutch Bali, there are thousands of subak I conducted research on the subak colonial government extended its under the sponsorship of the influence into Bali. At this point, Foundation between 1983 and they became involved in the 1999. Ford also funded similar improvement and maintenance of research at other universities irrigation systems. Almost throughout Indonesia, including exclusively, they addressed the those in South Sumatra and West physical aspects of these systems, Sumatra. without any regard for the other Prior to the 1980s, Bali’s rice aspects. fields covered 125,000 hectares. The most negative impact on This has been reduced to 85,000 the system, however, came in the hectares due to development in 1970s when the New Order gov- the Denpasar region. Develop- ernment, with assistance from the ment for the tourism industry has World Bank and the Asian Devel- also played a major role in this opment Bank, introduced the Bali reduction. The Balinese Irrigation Project. This began at a government has made some time when the central government token efforts to discourage the coffers were overflowing with oil reassignment of farming land for revenues, and Jakarta was insti- other purposes, but these efforts tuting a range of agricultural Nyoman Sutawan with a farmer in Bali, 2003. have not had a meaningful effect. development projects in the re- Currently, a much discussed gions, including in Bali. This caused a organizations. These are slowly coming issue is that of the privatization of state dramatic change in the system of irrigation back to life. Most are small organizations, enterprises, including those involved in the in Bali. Different subak were amalgamated. involving a small geographical area. production and distribution of drinking Distribution channels were made to conform The defining characteristic of the subak water. In Jakarta, PAM Jaya has been sold to the requirement of the government’s plan. is harmony. Mutual agreements govern to Suez of Paris and Thames Water of At no point was any attempt made to involve planting cycles, the division of water London. Under the Indonesian constitution, local people in the process, resources, the financial contribution of control of water resources is a government While they were able to amalgamate the members, and the rights and responsibilities prerogative. Privatization of these resources subak at the physical level, it was more of members. The underlying philosophy is rests on the assumption that water difficult to amalgamate at the social level. defined by the Hindu concept tri hita resources are economic goods. In fact, the The result was an uneven distribution of karana, or “three elements of happiness.” subak system shows that water resources water resources. Often, only upstream areas First, people must be in harmony with their are more efficiently managed as social gained access to the required amount of neighbors, with fellow human beings. goods, or community resources. I feel that water, although the stated aim of the Second, humanity must be in harmony with the privatization of these resources requires program was to distribute water both the environment. Third, humanity must be extremely careful consideration before upstream and downstream. At the social in harmony with God. implementation. 152 CHAPTER FOUR THE MANTRA OF UNITY 153 154 CHAPTER FOUR

One of the more extraordinary aspects of this incident – retired military officers, elder statesmen, and intellectuals – was the manner in which the group had procured its weapons. submitted a petition to Parliament calling for a change in As was later revealed, several days prior to the hijacking members Indonesia’s political institutions, particularly in Parliament itself of the group had attacked a police station in Bandung and which, in their view, had failed as a representative body. The confiscated the weapons they found there. Three policemen only way to form a valid government, one that was acceptable were killed. to the majority of Indonesian citizens, they argued, was to hold One theory about this incident was that a person in completely free and honest elections. Imron’s group, one of the hijackers, had actually been working This Petition of Twenty-Six, as it came to be called, was for the military and had tricked the young radicals into taking a clear critique of the Suharto government’s method of such a serious risk, thereby exposing themselves and making it controlling Parliament. The institution, long a target of public easier for them to be caught. While this theory was never proved, humor, was seen as an extension of the military and of Golkar, the Woyla hijacking does reflect the intense behind-the-scenes the so-called “[Government] Workers Group” that avoided conflict between the proponents of Islam and Pancasila. calling itself a party but was in fact the state’s primary mechanism Though only one of many incidents, the Woyla hijacking for obtaining votes. The alliance between these two groups made may have given President Suharto a pretext to revive his ideological for unfair and dishonest elections because Golkar and the chess game. Perhaps, however, he perceived a different threat. government’s other powerful supporters, with the help of the In February 1980, a group of 26 prominent individuals military, could easily intimidate voters.

President Suharto swears in new election officials in the presence of cabinet members, 1980. THE MANTRA OF UNITY 155

SANDRA MONIAGA

Sandra Moniaga feels fortunate to have been provided with extensive educational opportunities by the Ford Foundation. She states that the Foundation has empowered her to face challenges and to move forward, and provided the opportunity for continuous, life-long study – a great gift to those suited to this path. And yet, she recognizes this leads to a dilemma: when asked to list the major problems affecting her struggle to defend the rights of local communities, she cites excessive dependence on donor agencies. At present, the organization with which she is most closely associated is the Association for Community and Ecology-Based Legal Reform, or HuMa, funded by the Foundation. She said that this organization has a long way to go to achieve its goals, particularly in the more isolated regions of Indonesia.

When I began to work at WAHLI in 1988, I the villagers found much that was as possible. The view that the law is inherently was asked to monitor the development of a unacceptable. For example, under a certain biased against ordinary people and that it fails new program that addressed both legal and piece of legislation, traditional lands in a to respect the environment and human rights environmental issues. Out of this program grew particular area had been reclassified as state is the result of the old legal paradigm an increased awareness of the relationship forest, which had a number of practical promoted by major power holders in this between the human rights and environmental implications for members of the community. country. movements. This awareness was We have tried to promote a legal encouraged by the fact that Abdul Hakim system that is more responsive and more Garuda Nusantara, who then served as the accommodating to social diversity. We executive director of YLBHI, and was promote values based on a vision of a chairperson of WALHI at the time. pluralistic society. We also promote the After several years, I became convinced values of conservation and demo- that problems were systemic. A fundamental cratization as integral parts of this vision. issue was at stake: most legislation is The issue of dependence on donor enacted without any reference to the agencies is extremely important. I feel community it affects. Communities that too often NGOs fail to establish links acknowledge their own local legal system, among communities facing similar issues based on adat, or tradition. Villagers will across Indonesia. This limits us. In fact, have total faith in their claim to traditional it is only a small group of people who lands – because adat law guarantees that adopt a broader perspective. right. So there is a division between There is a failure to involve broader legislation enacted by the government, segments of society. For example, outside usually without any reference to the their own community, few are aware of the community, and the adat law recognized issues facing the Dayak in Kalimantan, by members of the community itself. even though other communities through- We have to do something to change the out Indonesia may face similar issues. This legal system. Society must be educated to narrowness is our major weakness, and realize that the law should not just support overcoming it is our biggest challenge. Our existing norms. People must understand the Sandra Moniaga holding one of her organization’s programs should be funded by members political realities that affect the enactment publications on traditional law, 2003 of the broader Indonesian community. of legislation and the philosophical basis This will only become possible by fostering for any particular law. The distinction between So, villagers became increasingly aware of the a sense of ownership over and involvement traditional law and state-enacted laws must be affect of legislation and of the manner in which in issues that ultimately affect us all. We understood. When I first started working with it is formulated. We need to work to achieve a should also involve the business sector by members of rural communities, I often heard simple understanding of the legal system creating a membership-based organization people comment that the laws were well throughout the community. supported by contributions from members formulated, but they were enforced badly. This HuMa works to facilitate the development who believe in HuMa’s programs but who viewpoint however was based on a low level of a new legal paradigm, not just among the would be unable to implement similar of understanding of what the laws actually members of HuMa itself, but throughout a programs by themselves. Fostering greater were. When I went through these laws with broader network of legal organizations. involvement is the only way to achieve a more members of communities, clause by clause, HuMa tries to spread its conception as widely equitable legal system. 156 CHAPTER FOUR

Rigged elections might have produced the results the organization, refused to support it – even though they refrained government wanted but they did not guarantee peace of mind; from openly opposing it. at least not for Suharto who, having been in power since 1966, For Suharto, political security was equated with seemed to view his position as increasingly shaky. After having unanimous support and the stance of these NU members navigated the hazards of previous threats and demands – disturbed him. This was not the first time that NU had failed fomented primarily by student groups in 1978 – the president to support his plans. In 1978, for instance, the organization apparently began to sense that he was in danger of being had refused to approve a government-sponsored program for supplanted. By mid-1979 more and more public figures were the obligatory teaching of Pancasila in schools. NU leaders voicing the need for Indonesia to prepare for a presidential contended that the program was akin to turning Pancasila into succession. a religion. In late 1979, Suharto tipped his hand when he submitted Suharto apparently felt it necessary to take a hard line to Parliament a proposed amendment to the nation’s election toward this threat – or perceived threat – to his authority as laws. The extraordinary aspect of this amendment was the large president. At a meeting of military officers in Pekanbaru in number of seats that were to be reserved for government March 1980, Suharto spoke extemporaneously after reading appointees. When added to the number already set aside for the prepared text of his speech. He stressed the need for the the military – one third of all the seats in Parliament – the military to continue to support Golkar and, in a threatening number of non-elected seats was nearly equal to the number tone of voice, spoke of the existence of political parties that chosen by voters through their representative political parties. were guided by principles other than those of Pancasila. He This was the focus of criticism leveled by the signatories went on to remind the audience that there existed a national of the Petition of Twenty-Six. Their combined voices held little consensus that both Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution, sway. Yet when Suharto submitted his amendment to Parliament which formed the legal basis for his own leadership, must the response was not as acquiescent as he might have hoped. remain unchanged. Furthermore, to prevent any attempts to Fifty members of PPP, all of whom were members of Nahdlatul amend the constitution, he stated it might be necessary to Ulama (NU), the popular and influential grassroots Islamic kidnap certain Members of Parliament.

A billboard of President Suharto and his wife, Ibu Tien, leading a national fitness initative. THE MANTRA OF UNITY 157

LASO’ SOMBOLINGGI’

Laso’ Sombolinggi’ is Executive Director of Wahana Lestari Persada (WALDA), a non-profit organization working for environmental protection and the conservation of forest resources. WALDA is based in Lembang Madandan, a Torajan village near Rantepao, where Sombolinggi' grew up in a farming family. Concerned by the damage to local forests, both as a result of community members gathering wood and officials clearing land for cacao and coffee plantations, he established WALDA in 1986.

In 1986, the central government began to for windbreaks and shelter. Also, a land involved in the agro-forestry project, with conduct reforestation programs in our area. classification program labelled land as each group consisting of 15 to 20 families. These were largely unsuccessful due to the “productive” or “forested.” All members of The results were excellent. Madandan is inept manner in which they were the village – some 30 families – were involved now the richest producer of chocolate and implemented. In particular, the government in this project. coffee in the whole of Tana Toraja. In an established programs without any In Nanggala, we promoted the use of land average week, Madandan sends 60 tons of involvement of or consultation chocolate and coffee to the with local people. Locals market. Nanggala is the richest suspected that these so-called village in Tana Toraja. After the reforestation programs were 2002 season, one family yielded actually being used to make land profits of one billion rupiah available to investors for coffee [about $110,000] from the sale of plantations. The government did vanilla. Even the least prosperous not involve local people in these farmer in Nanggala yielded schemes at any stage. profits of 20 million rupiah We established WALDA both to [about $2200]. Vanilla provides facilitate reforestation and to a new crop every eight months. improve the welfare of local The economic crisis had no people through programs based negative impact on this region. on agro-forestry. We did not rush The agro-forestry program re- in half-cocked. We began with sulted in improved conservation research into the social and of the forests and improved sys- ecological aspects of the problems tems of agriculture. The only affecting the area. We worked with serious problem affecting the a research institute from Jakarta program was the theft of vanilla. which employed the participatory The farmers formed a community action research method. On the watch, but it was not easy to pre- basis of this research we began to vent theft due to the dispersed implement our program in two nature of the village and the lands villages, Madandan and Nanggala. surrounding it. Both villages are in the In 1987, when the Ford Rantepao district. In 1987, we Foundation began to assist the established an agro-forestry program in Nanggala, the agro- program in Nanggala with the Laso’ Sombolinggi’, 2003 forestry program involved 900 assistance of the Ford Foundation. hectares. This has now been We then began a similar program in outside the forest zone in order to reduce expanded to 5,200 hectares. Madandan with the assistance of the Dutch the pressure on the remaining forest. The Foundation became involved after a organization Hivos. Madandan had no forests Members of the community were encouraged seminar in Makassar conducted by the left in its surrounding areas, while the forest to rehabilitate land in this buffer zone, where District Office of the Department of Forestry. around Nanggala had suffered significant an integrated farming project was started. Three areas were nominated to take part degradation. Local farmers were urged to plant chocolate, in a pilot project: Nanggala, Gowa, and In Madandan, we helped farmers plant coffee, vegetables, and beans. In 1995, we Maros. The program was not as successful short-cycle crops such as vegetables, entered the second stage of the program with in Gowa and Maros as in Nanggala however, medium-cycle crops such as chocolate and the introduction of vanilla as a cash crop. At maybe because the implementation there coffee, and long-cycle plants such as trees this point, there were 15 groups of farmers was poorly managed. 158 CHAPTER FOUR

By mid-April that same year, Suharto appeared to adopt signatories called it, a “statement of concern” about the nation. a different tack. In an address on the occasion of the 28th Few Indonesians were able to read it, however, because the anniversary of the Army Special Forces Command (Komando local press would not publish it. News about the petition Pasukan Khusus – ), he spoke of the accusations emerged only in the foreign media. frequently made against him and his wife, particularly their The was a clear and hard-hitting critique alleged acceptance of bribes and commissions. The reason of the president and his policies: Suharto had used Pancasila as behind these accusations, he argued, was that certain parties a weapon to threaten his political enemies. Further, he also saw were bent on eliminating him. But these parties, he told the himself as the personification of Pancasila to such an extent soldiers, had apparently forgotten that if such a thing were to that even idle rumors about him were considered to be a happen, the entire Indonesian military would stand as one challenge to the state ideology. Two months after the petition against anyone who attempted to threaten Pancasila or to was submitted to Parliament, 19 members – two from the promulgate an alternative ideology. Indonesian Democratic Party (Partai Demokrasi Indonesia – For Suharto, it seemed that he and Pancasila were one PDI) and the rest from PPP – sent a letter to the President and the same. He also saw Indonesia as a nation divided into asking for an official response to the “statement of concern.” camps: those who supported him, and those who did not. In Suharto responded, albeit indirectly, in his 17 August May 1980 another petition was announced, this one signed by Independence Day speech. While he was clearly trying to avoid 50 prominent citizens, nearly twice as many as had signed the provoking a new controversy, he did take steps to stifle the previous appeal. This so-called Petition of Fifty was, as the opposition as represented by the Petition of Fifty.

A meeting of the Petition of Fifty signatories with members of the National Forum of Indonesian Youth expressing their dissatisfaction with President Suharto, Jakarta, 1980. An emotional counseling session at Rikfa Anissa in Yogyakarta, 2003. This grantee has been assisting victims of domestic abuse for over a decade. THE MANTRA OF UNITY 159

NURSYAHBANI KATJASUNGKANA

Nursyahbani Katjasungkana once attracted notoriety by protesting the case of a woman divorced by her husband on the grounds that she wasn’t a virgin at the time of her marriage. Many observers said it was none of Nursyahbani’s business, that the matter was a private domestic issue. That argument has never carried much weight with her. Since the Legal Aid Institute Indonesian Women Association for Justice (Lembaga Bantuan Hukum Asosiasi Perempuan Indonesia untuk Keadilan – LBH APIK) opened under her management, it has offered assistance to hundreds of women who have suffered from domestic violence. For her, it is clear that all of these cases have one common cause: the inequalities between men and women in both the domestic and public arenas. Furthermore, she says, these inequalities are often reinforced by an inherently biased legal system.

In 2003, there are more than 15 Sometimes, when it comes to achieving should form the basis for promoting an autonomous branches of APIK in Indonesia, constructive change, NGOs are just as bad ongoing program conducted in cooperation each of which is a fully independent legal as government agencies. For example, in with the government. Otherwise, it’s just a entity. Since the establishment of these 2000, the Indonesian government asked waste of billions of rupiah spent on foreign branches, counselors have handled an NGOs to participate in the formulation of a and local consultants, all for nothing. extremely large number of cases of national plan against domestic violence. We NGOs must consider who it is that they domestic violence. Through our represent in order to achieve legiti- experience we have come to macy. At present, many of these or- understand the weaknesses in the ganizations claim to represent the legal system. These weaknesses interests of the people, but it is not relate to the nature of existing always clear to whom they are re- legislation, to the manner in which sponsible. A member of parliament the laws are enforced, and to once attacked a coalition of NGOs, community attitudes. We have saying, “Who do you represent? You staged interventions in all three accuse us of not representing the areas. community, but at least we went These interventions have taken through the electoral process. Who various forms. For example, we elected you?” In fact, the criticism have helped formulate legislation that NGOs do not have a strong regarding domestic violence. We grassroots basis is one that must be have been involved in creating answered. training courses for members of the A related issue is dependence on police force as well as for judges foreign aid. Unfortunately, foreign and prosecutors. We have worked aid means that NGOs are often more to create “women’s desks” – centers oriented towards pleasing donor staffed by women who have been agencies than towards meeting the trained specifically to deal with needs of their constituents. This victims of domestic abuse and other creates difficulties. Actually, I think forms of violence. We have also foreign aid can be useful. Foreign conducted paralegal training aid demonstrates the world’s programs for members of the Nursyahbani Katjasungkana speaking in Jakarta, 2002. solidarity with our cause. community, working in cooperation However, funding doesn’t with religious councils. These are examples all worked together, facilitated by the necessarily have to come from abroad. It of the interventions we have staged in the Canadian International Development should be possible to raise funds from area of legislation, law enforcement, and Agency, to develop the action plan. But, sources within Indonesia. The concept of community attitudes. after it was formulated, nothing happened. alms is well-entrenched in Indonesian With the political changes that have The plan remains a piece of paper and society. Look at the amount of funds raised occurred since 1998, we have had to adapt nothing more. So, NGOs are often just as bad by newspapers such as Republika and our strategies. We cannot keep up a as the government when it comes to bringing Kompas for humanitarian purposes. confrontational approach with the about real change. As soon as a project is Individuals and private-sector institutions government because it simply isn’t effective. considered complete, they don’t want any have demonstrated a willingness to provide We have had to change our methods to further involvement, even if no real results funds when they are convinced of the value achieve results. have been achieved. Really, the action plan of an initiative. 160 CHAPTER FOUR THE MANTRA OF UNITY 161 162 CHAPTER FOUR

The government recognized that the signatories were those having to do with state ideology. not just ordinary citizens. They included retired general A. H. In the government’s top-down development approach, Nasution, former Ali Sadikin, and two diversity at the local level was often considered a hindrance, former prime ministers. As their arrest or detention would be even in a field such as agriculture. Thus the drive to increase sure to cause even greater commotion, another method was the nation’s level of food production favored the adoption of a employed: silence. The mass media was forbidden to print news new, hybrid type of rice throughout the country. The results of about them. Those among the signatories who were what became known as a Green Revolution were impressive: businessmen suddenly found that the nation’s rice harvest doubled in their commercial permits would size and caloric intake increased by not be renewed. When one 50 per cent per capita. But there individual submitted a tender for a were serious side effects. In an area government project, the proposal where the populace depends upon was dropped from consideration. a single strain of its subsistence crop, Banks denied them credit. the risk of severe food shortages Three years later Suharto because of crop loss due to launched the offensive that sparked pestilence increases exponentially. the Tanjung Priok Incident, that is, Concerns about the impact the requirement that every of this unitary development organization adopt Pancasila as its approach on local diversity led a guiding principle. Pancasila had group of scholars to establish the become a mantra of unity, as if it Indonesian Agro-Ecosystem were a magic formula that would Research Network (Kelompok make all conflicts disappear. In this Penelitian Agroeko Sistem – KEPAS) venture Suharto may have wanted in 1983 with funding from the to demonstrate that national Foundation. KEPAS documented ideology was at stake, and not his and analyzed problems relating to own political future. In a the productivity of marginal land bureaucratic, militaristic regime, however, it is typical for unity in East Java, South Kalimantan, the eastern part of the Lesser and integrity to be the nation’s first and last agenda. Sunda islands, the north coast of Java, and Papua. According to Flores native Tony Djogo, who worked on the project in the Indonesia, however, is not a singular vision. Diversity is part of 1980s, the researchers and activists who were involved also had the national character. But differences are inconvenient for a to study local politics, often because the government’s centrally regime that wants to work efficiently and effectively toward based, top-down agricultural policies did not stimulate national development, toward “progress.” And in this regard, production on the ground. “The programs did not build on difficulties for the New Order government were not limited to the strengths and knowledge of local communities, there was

A farmer working in a flooded paddy field in Kota Agung, West Java, 1985. Forest rangers and Ministry of Forestry officials inspect the Gede-Pangrango National Park in West Java, 1985. THE MANTRA OF UNITY 163

A farmer brings produce to market in Sukatani, West Java, 1985. A Foundation-funded field researcher confers with local agricultural extension workers in West Java, 1984. 164 CHAPTER FOUR THE MANTRA OF UNITY 165

TONY DJOGO

Until 1997, Tony Djogo was the director of the State Agricultural College of (Politeknik Pertanian Negeri Kupang) in , a position he held for more than 13 years. After working for the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), an international forestry research institute based in Bogor, Djogo now works for Konphalindo (The National Consortium for the Preservation of Forests and Natural Resources in Indonesia) in Jakarta, where he is involved in the conservation of natural resources and community-based development.

I graduated from the Bogor Institute of theoretical, too removed from the realities linked, and all affect agricultural Agriculture in 1980, and chose to work in in the field. In fact, this problem still persists. production and the conservation of natural my native region, East Nusa Tenggara. I was Academics live in their own world, content resources. All these factors need to be born in 1957 in Boawae, Flores. In Kupang, to perform research that only their peers considered for agricultural development. I was a teacher at the University of Nusa will ever look at. This occurs everywhere, We have to understand the political Cendana from 1982 until 2000. situation. I became involved in NGOs I have always tried for a through World Neighbors [a US- pragmatic approach. I work to based NGO that works on translate my research findings, the community development around the results of discussions and world] in 1983. In 1984, I worked workshops so that they serve some with the Ford Foundation to train useful purpose. We used the results young researchers. The Foundation of these and of my field experience made a great contribution by with an NGO to develop a concept: training researchers to present their everything goes back to the materials in such a fashion that rural community to be implemented by people could use the findings as the the community. The lack of basis for community development relevance of much research is an programs. ongoing issue. In 1990, I helped established the Does Indonesia need research? organization that was to become That is difficult to answer. I have the Community Development frequent contact with colleagues Consortium of Nusa Tenggara. from the research and development Unfortunately, the approach section of the Department of adopted was not developed Forestry. They are often frustrated throughout East Nusa Tenggara. because the results of their research Colleagues from universities and are not utilized to form policy. NGOs became overly specialized I have often raised these issues and technical in their approach. at CIFOR or at meetings with the They lacked the capacity to Department of Forestry. Can the analyze their findings to present research be socialized? Can we them in a form that would make convince the public that the them useful to government findings are relevant and useful? We agencies. can’t afford to publish widely, but Another major challenge was we have to create a situation in the lack of a clear institutional which there is a demand for useful mechanism to facilitate clear Tony Djogo in the CIFOR nursery in Bogor, 2003. research. communication between research I have given great thought to institutions and the users of their research even in Jakarta, not just in Kupang. Even this issue. Ideally, a member of the private findings, both government and non- good research is not utilized optimally, and sector, or of a community or government government bodies. As a result, much is often not translated into a development organization, should call me and say: research served no clear purpose. strategy plan. “Please send me a summary of the latest On the other hand, many academics For me, the ecosystem, the community, research findings.” But how can we create were trapped in conventional paradigms of the system of agricultural production, a climate in which that happens? We have research. They were too abstract and government policy, and economics are all to work to achieve that. 166 CHAPTER FOUR THE MANTRA OF UNITY 167 168 CHAPTER FOUR no local participation,” he said. Or in the words of Helmi, a results. Depletion of rich forest reserves accelerated rapidly in researcher at in Padang, West Sumatra, this places like West Sumatra for example, where imposition of the was a case of supply-driven development: “The government new form of village government undermined traditional roles had the money, its own staff, and implemented its policies of local residents, including the job of safeguarding the forest without consulting the people.” that historically had been an integral part of their lives. Even The government’s approach proved ineffective precisely attempts to restore some element of local engagement were ill- because it ignored the conditions specific to the different regions conceived. In 1984 the Department of Forestry launched a around the country. The problem was exacerbated when, in 1979, program to administer vast areas of forest lands that enlisted the secretary of the interior enacted an ordinance standardizing local communities in the process. Yet their participation was the form of village government over the entire archipelago “in severely circumscribed by state policy and managed according accordance with the character of the Unitary State of the Republic to government-approved systems. of Indonesia.” Numerous local village systems around the country, From the very beginning of the New Order, the each of which had grown out of its unique history and culture, government embarked on a campaign to unify the disparate were suddenly forced to assume a common, distinctly Javanese voices in Indonesia. It permitted the existence of only one labor form, with a political district administered by a lurah, or village organization, the All-Indonesia Workers Union (Serikat Pekerja chief, and branches of central government agencies reaching into Seluruh Indonesia – SPSI). Civil servants were allowed to join virtually all aspects of local affairs. only one organization, the Indonesian Civil Servants Corps Such standardization made administration of the country (Korps Pegawai Republik Indonesia – Korpri), whose loyalty could more manageable for Jakarta. And it also became far easier for only be to Golkar. And there was only one approved the central government to involve itself in the development – organization of journalists, the Indonesian Journalists Union and exploitation – of natural resources, often with disastrous (Perserikatan Wartawan Indonesia – PWI).

A Korpri anniversary at Senayan Stadium, Jakarta, 1981. Grantees’ work on community-based natural resource management has led to enhanced agricultural production, Bukittinggi, West Sumatra, 2003. THE MANTRA OF UNITY 169

HELMI

Helmi teaches at Andalas University in Padang, West Sumatra. He believes that local irrigation systems provide a model for the management of resources for the mutual benefit of all stakeholders. He also believes that most local communities are fully capable of managing available resources to meet their own needs. Ironically, what prevents local self-management programs from succeeding is government interference, with the government often setting priorities at odds with the needs of community members. With support from the Foundation, Helmi is working with community irrigation systems to achieve the broader goals of democratization and economic self-empowerment. In his view, the manner in which irrigation systems are managed deeply affects the social and economic lives of communities, so these systems are a good point of departure for making broader changes.

In the past, research has been conducted worked to achieve consensus among the that these will have to be provided by the by institutions working alone, without various stakeholders. government. Often, this assumption results in interaction with other major stakeholders. This approach yielded many benefits. One the disempowerment of communities and the Only after research has been completed have concrete success was the formulation of an creation of a vicious circle. the results been made available to a wider official irrigation systems policy, implemented Take, for example, the construction of audience. We adopted [beginning in the in 1987. The development of this highly irrigation systems. In Bali, over hundreds of 1980s] a more multi-layered, inclusive successful policy was the result of extensive years, communities have developed strategy. Frances Korten, who was at Ford traditional systems of irrigation in which at the time, had extensive experience with the division of water is automated through similar environments in the Philippines, the use of planks of wood drilled with and we drew on this background to holes. This is a highly efficient, low-tech formulate a strategy for constructive system. Once the system is established, the research – research that yielded direct flow of water is almost fully automated. benefits. Then, the Public Works Department comes We sat with bureaucrats from the along, with its assumption that the Department of Public Works to determine community is backwards and old- what the real problems were and how they fashioned. They implement a system of should be addressed. We tried to work out irrigation that depends on locks and water what actual developmental issues were and gates, which must be monitored to address these through our research. continuously to prevent mishap. If, as Thus, research became an integral part of occasionally happens, a mechanical project implementation, rather than just failure occurs, whole fields can be flooded being for its own sake. and destroyed. Bureaucrats felt involved in the process, This kind of development is supply- and the results were relevant to real driven: the government has the funds and problems they were facing. In academic the human resources to implement terms, there may have been compromises. Helmi, 2003. projects, and decides when and where. We Frankly, we did not adopt a purely scientific are trying to change the paradigm to a approach. Our objective was to facilitate discussions involving all stakeholders, system that is a balance between supply-driven change. Thus we had to take the interests of including non-governmental organizations, and demand-driven. Under the demand-driven the bureaucracy into account and universities, and the bureaucracy. paradigm, the government must work with accommodate these interests in our findings. Based on this project, cooperative communities to establish what the problems Despite these compromises, there is no models to establish policy and legislation and issues are, what the communities need, question that the level of interaction yielded have since been adopted in a range of areas, and how these needs can be met. extremely positive results. At each stage, we including forestry, agriculture, and maritime Modernization of irrigation systems is discussed all issues with Public Works to affairs. vital, but it must be conducted after full ensure that our research remained focused. The government often assumes a very low consideration of the context. We do not These stages included setting the terms, level of community capabilities. It assumes that oppose the involvement of the government, conducting fieldwork, interpreting results, all the resources to develop irrigation systems nor do we oppose modernization. It’s just and formulating policy recommendations. We will come from outside the community, and important to find the correct balance. 170 CHAPTER FOUR

COMIC ENERGY: UMAR KAYAM

In the 1980s Umar Kayam liked to cruise to advertise, thus reducing their dependence graduate studies at Cornell University. They the streets of Yogyakarta in his battered on state funding. He taxed imported movies feel like reminiscences, like reports from a Toyota, eatery-hopping with his artist in order to fund an independent body past all of us have had, wherein people friends. This man indeed was many things: supporting Indonesian filmmakers. All the share the merest hint of something novelist, columnist, government official, while, Kayam wrote, acted, politicked – and unfulfilled, maybe even something never activist, public intellectual, actor, art critic ate to his heart’s content. begun. The language is free of verbal – and gourmand. Predictably, the New Order government flourish, the characters shorn of personal Kayam’s interest in food is a clue to his discarded him before long. Later, when the history and inner voice. There is no appeal. Much of the respect he moralizing, no “knowing-ness.” inspires today isn’t just because The details exist only in our of his impressive resume or his private memories. literary legacy. It is because of the His wife remembers him relaxed generosity and down-to- “typing his short stories in front earth leadership that made him of the open fridge” because they a magnet for so many lives. Even could not afford air conditioning. while a student “Kayam was Kayam spoke of drawing stories behind every art event at UGM,” from newspapers and gazettes said Koesnadi Hardjosoemantri, a discarded by neighbors. Evidently, former rector. the whole story interested him less How does a man keep himself than the snippets and snatches. By both together and everywhere? not revealing too much, he For a start, Kayam, who died encouraged textual interpretation. in 2002 at age 69, never took This low-key ‘non-technique’ was himself seriously. He poked fun at irrevocably literary in that it his own flaws, enjoyed being conveyed a shimmering suspension teased, made jokes. A of multiple realities. Yogyakarta-based dramatist In his later novelettes, Sri remembered how he was once Sumarah and Bawuk, Kayam “punished” by Kayam for a minor allowed context to claim a larger misdemeanor – by having to role. The protagonist, in other perform in a play. words, now enters history. But Rendra, the prominent herein may lie a problem, for it theater figure, felt Kayam had meant that Kayam had become “immense talent” as a stage less a storyteller than an director, but “that it wasn’t his explainer of things Javanese. destiny.” His destiny lay elsewhere. Sri Sumarah’s name hints at Umar Kayam, the first director of the Ujung Pandang Social Sciences At one time Kayam wanted to Research Training Center, visits South Sulawesi in 1974. her character: resilient, work within the political system. submissive, resigned to her fate. After he became disillusioned with the Jakarta Arts Council elected him as She is a poor villager who accepts the totalitarian tendencies of Sukarno’s Old chairperson and entrusted him with values and customs of the Javanese priyayi, Order, he joined behind-the-scenes managing programs at the Taman Ismail the educated, aristocratic elite. Kayam politicking to pave the way for the New Marzuki arts center, he produced what wanted to see how far she would go to Order. Later, Suharto appointed him critics remember as “the Golden Age of reconcile her social destiny with modern director general of Radio, Television, and Indonesian performing arts.” Kayam seemed realities. Sri Sumarah has indeed lost much, Film. less concerned about success and prestige “a husband, a daughter, a son-in-law,” and Although doubtless an important figure than about the inherent value of his she has fought against much. She is a lonely in the government’s propaganda machine, contribution. Perhaps this is why he flew widow who must care for a grandchild, a Kayam was too independent-minded to from “nest to nest,” restlessly seeking new masseuse who must fend off poverty and serve as a mere tool. For example, he challenges. the unwanted advances of men. But still she allowed private radio stations to operate, His early New York short stories were remains proud and faithful to priyayi values. and permitted public TV and radio stations written during the spartan years of his In Bawuk, set during the 1965 upheavals, THE MANTRA OF UNITY 171

Political scientist Mochtar Pabottingi, a Ford grantee, reading a eulogy at a memorial held on the first anniversary of Umar Kayam’s death, Yogyakarta, 2003.

Kayam becomes bolder, stretching the same Here he was no longer Umar Kayam the from the norm inevitably meant theme to embrace a rebelliousness that is note-taker, but instead Umar Kayam the misfortune. met, predictably, with failure. Nothing this social scientist and historian of the Javanese The success of Kayam’s folksy courageous young woman does would not elite, the priyayi of the title. newspaper columns, later collected under incur the wrath of the Javanese gods. Bawuk In telling the story of three generations the title Mangan Ora Mangan Kumpul abandons her young children, runs off with of the Sastrodarsono family, Kayam took (Strong Sense of Togetherness), owed much a communist, and lives her life as a fugitive. care to give equal voice to his characters. to another side of him, a sprightly comic She is such an enigma she becomes the Still, many autobiographical elements energy. In a modern rendering of the novelist’s ultimate achievement: an remained. We all recognize Sastrodarsono, standard comic scene (goro-goro) in unforgettable heroine. a teacher serving the colonial government, Javanese shadow plays, Kayam leavened Kayam’s major , Para Priyayi (The and his offspring to be priyayi types. the problems of class conflict with humor Elite) was written under a Foundation grant, Disasters such as the Japanese occupation, and irony. Though ultimately still serving the the first ever given to an Indonesian for the Communist uprising in Madiun, and the highest Javanese values – peace and fiction writing. He created in the end not so alleged coup of 1965 strengthened rather harmony – he found authenticity in the much fiction as a fictionalized sociology. than diminished their belief in the trivial, in “dailiness,” and invited everyone Gone was the elusive authorial presence. aristocratic value system, where deviations to share in the fun. 172 CHAPTER FOUR

This campaign did not eliminate differences; it whom the government characterized as a marginal minority, bureaucratized them. What differences remained were those constructed a “religion” from their indigenous regulations that had received official sanction. Political parties were forcibly regarding food, burial, and medicine. grouped together until only two remained besides Golkar. Categories became important, even paramount. While Members of the old PNI were compelled to merge with PDI, local traditions were “respected” by the authorities, this meant, along with members of Catholic- and Protestant-affiliated in fact, that they were to be “developed.” But standards for political parties. Into PPP were folded former members of NU development were determined by the state-appointed official and Muhammadiyah. in control of that particular region. So, for example, in 1980 Even religious or spiritual beliefs were subject to outside the Central Sulawesi city of Palu, the local government government control. Confucianism (known locally as Kong Hu compelled a “primitive tribe,” the Da’a, to add an unfamiliar Cu), Javanese mysticism (kebatinan), and Aluk to Dolo of the element, dancing, to its oral music tradition, the lalundu dan Torajan peoples in South-Central Sulawesi were either rejected roya, thus making it more consistent with the dominant Palu or transformed. Whatever one’s belief system, every citizen was culture. obliged to subscribe to an officially approved religion. In the “Local culture,” as described by the government, was given end, traditions that fell far outside the realm of the recognized to mean the “apex of that local culture.” It was not clear, however, religions were forced to accommodate themselves. This is why who was in charge of determining what the apex was or upon the animist Kodi peoples of West Sumba, for instance, stressed what standard this determination was based. Often, what was those elements within their belief system that were consistent considered “high culture” (in Javanese, adiluhung) existed only with Christian practices. The Wana peoples of Central Sulawesi, in myth. And yet, all too often tangible manifestations of what

Musicians from Rote, East Nusa Tenggara, 2003. The instrument, hidden within a lontar-leaf resonator, is a bamboo tube-zither called a sasando. Dancers in the Belu district, western Timor, 1997. Their songs were recorded for one of the Smithsonian/MSPI CDs (see page 194). THE MANTRA OF UNITY 173

EDI SEDYAWATI

Although the former director-general for culture, Professor Doctor Edi Sedyawati, is a government insider of high standing, she also has an excellent reputation for communicating with the broader community. This is no small skill. Particularly under the New Order regime, Indonesian bureaucrats generally did not place a high priority on developing public relations skills. Her engagement in museum development required a high level of interaction with educators, museum managers, and the public. With the typically refined and charming manner of the senior Javanese functionary, Ibu Edi explains the reasons behind the lack of appreciation for museums in Indonesian society and the efforts she and her office have made to overcome this.

The education program, which is this kind have been conducted at a number regarding the potential of museums to conducted in cooperation with the Ford of venues. For example, the National Museum entertain or to educate. We must work to Foundation, began before I became director- recently held a display of children’s toys, with change community perceptions of what a general of culture. Throughout my period in demonstrations, discussions, and so on. museum is. office the program continued, with a number However, we recognize that even with an In Indonesia, efforts to improve the level of people receiving training, including of appreciation for museums have a few members of staff who were included making visits to museums a sponsored to participate in master’s compulsory part of the school sylla- programs. These programs were bus. The program was implemented intended to improve the skills and in cooperation with the education broaden the outlook of current and department and its agencies through- potential managers of museums. We out Indonesia. This program is a step hope to inculcate an appreciation of in the right direction, but the quality professional standards, regarding of these visits needs to be improved. both the care and maintenance of Often, for example, groups are too collections and the duties of museum large. As a result, individual members managers to the public. Hopefully, of the group are unable to benefit those undertaking these studies will from the services of a guide. There is be inspired to achieve international also the problem of the format of visits standards in all Indonesian museums. and associated tasks. Too often, Throughout my tenure I strove to children are obliged to make a visit foster an increased appreciation for and then prepare a report, which may museums among the community. involve little more than merely writing However, in order to achieve that, the down the information provided on first step was to motivate museum labels on the exhibits. These kinds of managers to improve standards and to visits do not foster a genuine become more relevant. With increased appreciation. In order to achieve this, competition from a range of other we need members of museum staff activities available to today’s youth, Edi Sedyawati in Jakarta, 1986. who are genuinely committed to a managers must focus on creating teaching approach. Also, teachers displays that are attractive and educational. increasing number of events such as these, themselves need to be convinced of the value They must work both to arouse and to satisfy we have a long way to go to overcome of these programs. curiosity in order to fulfill the needs for community prejudice regarding the value of Some members of museum staff do knowledge among members of the community. museums. engage in extensive preparation, visiting Efforts to achieve this have perhaps been more An obstacle to achieving this is the schools before students come to the successful in some places than in others, but common perception that museums are boring museum, meeting with teachers, and that is only to be expected. and ugly. The study of history is regarded as providing background information so that At any museum, programs and activities irrelevant, and the work of those who manage visitors gain the maximum benefit from their relate to two different kinds of displays: museums is considered of little value. excursion. With this kind of preparation, permanent and special. Special displays are Traditionally, museums have not played a students gain a completely different often accompanied by supporting events such major role in Indonesian society, and have not impression from their trip. Unfortunately, as discussions, performances, films and so been seen as a major national resource. The this kind of experience is still the exception on. Integrated events and special displays of community has a very low level of expectations rather than the rule. 174 CHAPTER FOUR THE MANTRA OF UNITY 175 176 CHAPTER FOUR local people might truly regard as high culture were allowed to and eliminated it. Cultures that did not fit into a category were decay. When American scholar Nancy Florida microfilmed seen as peculiar or even invalid, especially if they did not have Javanese manuscripts in the library of the Mangkunegaran palace any political strength to support them. Wayang potehi, the in Surakarta, Central Java in the 1980s, she was shocked to see Chinese shadow puppet theater of Java, was rarely performed the deteriorated state of these treasures. They were torn, moth- even inside Chinese temples. Followers of Confucianism were eaten, soiled and dusty. Some had not been opened in decades. required to become Buddhists. Not surprisingly, Indonesians Nevertheless, there was a strong movement to “improve,” of Chinese ancestry felt alienated. In order to protect themselves, or else to eliminate altogether, cultural elements that fell outside their traditions and their business interests, they were forced to the domain of “high culture.” Ethnomusicologist Endo Suanda maintain close relationships with government officials – from says that during that time “marginal cultures were erased from the sub-district all the way up to the president. Most of the the map. The focus was always on the strongest or the best.” In time these relationships involved the payment of unofficial fees. discussions of West Sumatra, for instance, the expressive culture This situation, in turn, bred resentment against the of the Mentawai Islands wasn’t even mentioned, having been Chinese minority who were seen to gain special favor over those overshadowed by the dominant Minangkabau culture of the who could not afford to “buy” justice or favorable treatment mainland. for themselves. Thus, in November 1980, anti-Chinese riots Bureaucratization of differences pushed aside the unique spread through a number of cities in Central Java. Over the

Fires in the street during the 1980 anti-Chinese riots in Solo. THE MANTRA OF UNITY 177

ENDO SUANDA

Endo Suanda knows how it feels to be dismissed as a crude, unpolished artist. In his youth he was frequently belittled as a “village dancer” and his performances were attacked for being unsophisticated. Perhaps these criticisms made him more sensitive to issues of cross-cultural judgment. In fact, the manner in which one’s own cultural values affect one’s judgment of other cultures was an integral part of his ethnomusicology course at Wesleyan University. Endo is saddened to admit that, in Indonesia, the view still prevails that some ethnic cultures are more advanced or better than others. As an ethnomusicologist he feels it is his duty to oppose this concept. In cooperation with Ford, he has been involved in a number of programs intended to foster pluralism by increasing awareness of issues related to cultural values.

After studying ethnomusicology at to some golden past. Rather, I feel that rural appreciation and respect. At present, there Wesleyan, students began to address the big performers must become aware of who and is a tendency to eliminate marginal question: “Are values universal?” Through what they are, and for whom they are cultures from consideration, because these our discussions, we became aware of the performing. Through the study of are not considered worthy of respect. vast differences among cultures. We also anthropology and ethnomusicology, we Commonly, each province selects a range came to understand that our own values did become aware that the boundaries between of art forms that it presents as not provide us with the tools to understand the traditional and the modern are not as representative of that province. These are other cultures. clear as they might first seem. The tweaked and modified so as to become Until the 1970s there was little entirely respectable, while other awareness of these issues in Indonesia, forms are ignored or actively in the academic world or anywhere discouraged. There is a process of else. We were completely under the selection that favors groups and forms influence of the development that conform to a construct of what approach. The talk was of how to modern Indonesia is. For each “raise” Indonesia’s myriad cultures. One province, there is one representative sad consequence of this approach is form of architecture, another of that members of rural communities traditional dress, and so on. have become indoctrinated to believe In recent years there has been a that the cities were the source of all search to uncover an “original culture” progress, all power, and all good. They untainted by external influences. This are brainwashed into believing that the seems to be an extreme reaction, based arts must conform to a standardized on a feeling that traditional cultures format, and that this format is have been lost, and that this must be determined by modern, middle class, redressed by resurrecting art forms to urban values. create a sense of identity for their This means that rural art forms are owners. This has resulted in an made “more sophisticated” by adding exaggerated and unrealistic tendency technological gimmicks and increasing to seek out and recreate “pure” local the number of performers. The belief traditions. There is a belief that the that bigger and brighter is better has Endo Suanda, ready to document a performance, Jakarta, 1997. foreign influences can be scraped off, been so deeply inculcated that like barnacles, to reveal a form that members of rural communities have lost traditional is not something dead and represents the true identity of the touch with their own values. Each year, embalmed. Living traditions are going community in which the corrupted form is performing arts competitions are held in through a constant process of change – but performed. This is laughably naïve. The rural areas. These competitions clearly these changes should be the result of search for pure cultural traditions is a reinforce the message that performances internal evolution, not external pressure. chimera. should be clean, gleaming and grandiose – My focus is on cultural pluralism, We must avoid such extreme positions. in short, modern. But in these areas people particularly on how to understand it Perhaps the problem is that we are not cannot afford to present a “modern” through the arts. I think the arts provide accustomed to dealing with complexity in performance, and they have become the clearest means for gaining an general; we are trained to look for obvious, ashamed of staging a more modest understanding of the differences and clearly defined problems. Areas of performance. In effect, they are becoming similarities among cultures. ambiguity are ignored, although it is only disenfranchised. We aim to foster an approach to the through coming to terms with ambiguity Of course, I am not promoting a return study of the arts that is based on that a society evolves. A performer of the Balinese gambuh theater, Peliatan, 1985. Gambuh was the object of one of the Foundation’s earliest grants for revitalizing traditional performing arts. Dancers in a curing ritual of the Benuaq people in East Kalimantan, 1995. THE MANTRA OF UNITY 179 course of several days, almost 250 stores and homes were burned. ignored the plurality within . The language Twenty-three factories were destroyed. Tragic as such spoken in Tegal is different from that spoken in the court center occurrences were, they help to explain the lack of surprise when of Surakarta, yet that fact was not formally recognized. It was the Tan Kio Liem family perished in their home at the time of as if Java were a unit without tension or class, unlike the the Tanjung Priok Incident four years later. aristocracy depicted by Umar Kayam in his novel Para Priyayi, The government’s bureaucratization of difference struggling to protect itself within a constantly changing society. contained the seeds of violence. Identity was shaped and welded “Islam,” “Christian,” “Javanese” – it didn’t matter. In into a hardened and unyielding collective unit. Regardless of the end, each religious and ethnic group was placed into neatly the differences among them, all Muslims were seen as part of a defined categories. But from the Tanjung Priok Incident, we unified Islamic community, just as all Christians were seen as a know that in a pluralist society, there can be no coerced singular unified and inseparable group. Even the official notion of “Java” identity. Force leads to fracture.

Torajan women in a funeral procession, Tana Toraja, South Sulawesi, 1994. CHAPTER FIVE: A JOURNEY, A NATION

CHAPTER FIVE A JOURNEY, A NATION

he ceremony lasted only ten minutes. No special decorations adorned the Presidential Palace. There Twas no receiving line, no national anthem. But in those ten colorless minutes, an important chapter ended. Suharto, the head of state who had held power longer than anyone in Indonesia’s modern history, stepped down from office. The atmosphere was like a neighborhood meeting where the ward chairman turns over his position to his replacement. On 21 May 1998, at 9:05 AM, Suharto spoke into the microphone in his usual monotone voice. His dark, short- sleeved safari suit looked much like the uniform of any other Indonesian official. He announced his resignation. He shook the hand of his successor, B. J. Habibie, then left in his own car with his eldest daughter, Siti Hardiyanti “Tutut” Rukmana. He never returned. Thousands of students had occupied the Parliament building and its grounds for more than three days to signify their defiance of Suharto’s rule. They cheered for joy. Some jumped into the fountain at the front of the building. Some knelt and touched their foreheads to the ground as if in prayer. The Red-and-White, which had been flying at half-staff, was hoisted and allowed to billow freely. For a moment, Indonesia breathed easy. It was not a junta with an armed division of soldiers but these protesters, noisy and enthusiastic young people – some acting as if on a picnic, others ready to go into battle – who finally brought Suharto down.

 Students celebrate President Suharto’s resignation, Jakarta, May 1998. 182 CHAPTER FIVE

Suharto ruled for such a long time, yet stepped down so unanimous vote. Public opposition against this quintessentially quickly – this perhaps was the paradox of his presidency. His passive institution, however, was becoming increasingly administration, which had dominated the country for more widespread and open. It was no longer limited to the campuses. than three decades and had overseen an impressive record of For a time Suharto did not react. Perhaps he was economic growth, neglected to establish a power structure with convinced, as in the past, that after his inauguration he could truly sturdy institutions. Over time, the person of the president quickly and easily silence the barking of the opposition – even had increasingly become the center of the Indonesian universe. after his appointment of a highly controversial Cabinet. He Likewise, he also became the focal point of the nation’s problems had named his beloved daughter Tutut as minister for social when the country was buffeted by the powerful shock of the affairs. The minister of industry and trade was no longer a monetary crisis in 1997. technocrat, but Mohammad “Bob” Hasan, the “timber king” This shock resulted in more than just a monetary with whom Suharto played golf three times a week. emergency for Indonesia. Its origins can be traced to the rupiah’s It was who carried out Suharto’s wish to take depreciation, which followed the fall of the Thai baht. The control of a number of banks and who ran the various enterprises decline was so severe and of such concern that the government the president had established. By the 1990s Hasan held immediately asked the World Bank and the IMF for help. For exploitation permits for vast tracts of forested land and headed Indonesia to overcome such a dramatic monetary crisis, its a number of business associations linked to the timber citizens would have to trust the country’s institutions. Yet they processing industry. In a country where industry operated under did not. government control, Hasan exercised near complete authority Earlier in the year, Suharto had been reelected as president over the market, having been giving the right to set export by the Parliament for a seventh time, predictably by a volumes and thereby influence prices.

Restocking reserves after a run on one of the country’s ailing banks, Jakarta, 1999. Mass withdrawals were a common occurence during the monetary crisis as confidence in both public and private institutions crumbled. Illegally-cut logs floating on the Kapuas river outside of Pontianak, 2003. Rampant deforestation is a crucial challenge for many Foundation grantees working in natural resource management. A JOURNEY, A NATION 183 184 CHAPTER FIVE

TABOOS OVERTURNED: FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION

The first half of the 1990s, everyone agrees, and swiftness of nation-wide protests. exchange of information between local and was the period of Indonesia’s “reawakening.” Furthermore, while the 1990s had seen a rise international media, and gave added legiti- The New Order government had breached its in middle class dissent, never had a single macy to efforts toward democratization in In- social contract, and oppressed groups stood cause united so many disparate groups. And donesia. up and defied the authorities. the bannings sent journalists to the streets AJI did survive, and now in the new The June 1994 banning of three respected and further fuelled the courageous movement millennium must consider its next tasks. news publications, among them the legendary that was to reverberate beyond economic, According to Santoso, “The struggle now is Tempo, Editor, and DeTik, triggered acts of cultural, even national borders. to fight for journalists’ welfare through public insubordination in support of freedom Important events followed. In August labor unions, and to continuously elevate of expression and association. Suppressed 1994, 85 journalists from various media the standards of journalism in Indonesia.” groups began to institutionalize their non-com- signed a joint declaration honoring freedom The Foundation seems to share this view. pliance with the established order by creating of expression, and created the Alliance of Over the years, it has supported the training an alternative “social space.” Labor organiza- Independent Journalists (Aliansi Jurnalis of journalists in different ways, for example, tions, women’s NGOs, and student alliances Independen – AJI). “It was an extraordinary by underwriting Nieman Fellows and by giving all broke from their state-sanctioned grants for media resource and training formats. A burgeoning sub-culture of centers like the Yogyakarta Institute of resistance produced satire, graffiti, Research, Education, and Publications “happening” art, sexual innuendo, and (Lembaga Penelitian, Pendidikan other forms of anarchic popular cul- dan Penerbitan Yogyakarta – LP3Y). ture. The government responded with Another area of focus has been clamp-downs, bannings, detentions, enhancing journalists’ skills in and even extrajudicial killings. These analyzing and presenting information were regarded as the desperate retali- on matters of public policy, like HIV/ atory acts of a delegitimized state. AIDS or “sensitive” political events. The quest for freedom, democracy, For example, funds were provided for and human rights continued while journalists from East Timor to travel more taboos were overturned. and study how other countries solved Sparked by the unprecedented success problems related to issues of of the 1989 Kedung Ombo demonstra- autonomy and independence. tions against land appropriations for The Foundation also assisted the A defiant Goenawan Mohamad in front public works, grass-roots protests of the Supreme Court, Jakarta, 1996. Institute for the Studies on Free Flow gained wide currency. Controversial of Information (Institut Studi Arus topics such as a government-sponsored lot- time,” said Santoso, co-founder and first Informasi – ISAI), which in 1997 compiled tery, the amendment of the General Elections Chairperson of AJI. “There was so much a series of investigative reports on different Law, justice for political prisoners, the role energy and spontaneity, and we worked areas of conflict and human rights abuses. of the military in parliament, as well as hu- practically around the clock.” AJI’s first eight ISAI, a secular NGO, was established only a man rights abuses in the archipelago, found months were indeed productive – public few months after the 1994 bans. “This heightened public expression. discussions, seminars, and media training seemed to be the right kind of group to The cancellation of the printing and sessions proliferated. promote change and professionalism in the publishing licenses of the three publications Many of its members faced government media,” said Mary Zurbuchen, then the – allegedly for “sowing discord” and harassment. This culminated in March 1995 Foundation’s Representative. “If younger threatening national stability – was a when three editors of Independen, a popu- journalists were to be able to meet this unilateral decision. “It looks as if press lar alternative magazine, were arrested on challenge, they would need experience and freedom in Indonesia is still a matter of charges of publishing without a licence. The support in the difficult area of in-depth personal whim,” said Sidney Jones, then magazine was banned and its editors jailed investigative techniques.” Later, assistance director of Human Rights Watch/Asia. The for two to three years – without trial. By this went to Pantau (Monitor), a journal muzzling of the publications also triggered a time, AJI’s tribulations had caught the atten- monitoring media in Indonesia, and also to shift in relations between the state and civil tion of the international media and human an integrated program of training and society, judging by the unprecedented scale rights organizations. This led to an increased workshops for print media professionals. A JOURNEY, A NATION 185

To the office of vice president, Suharto appointed B. J. On 14 March 1998, following the announcement of Habibie. Habibie, an engineer by training, had lived in the new Cabinet, the market showed its anxiety. The rupiah Germany for many years and was no stranger to Suharto; he fell even further to around 10,000 to the dollar, marking a had known the president since childhood and called him drop in value of nearly 80 per cent since the beginning of the “uncle.” Earlier, in 1989, Suharto had given Habibie wide- monetary crisis. ranging powers and cabinet-level status, putting him in charge The general public also grew more concerned and began of ten strategic state-owned companies, including weapons to lose faith in the government, especially after seeing Suharto manufacturing, steel mills, shipyards, telecommunications, an appoint one of his own children a government minister. The electronics production unit, and the national aviation nepotism that had long marked the New Order government production facility known as IPTN (Industri Pesawat Terbang had never been so evident or shameless. Around that time, a Nusantara). As government minister he enjoyed a close new acronym began to be bandied about – KKN, standing for relationship with Suharto, and it was from this position that “collusion, corruption, and nepotism.” he was chosen to be vice president. It had long been known that special business rights were Bob Hasan and Habibie were symbols of the privilege frequently accorded to the president’s family and close friends. to be obtained from knowing the president. They reinforced Their reach extended to an increasingly wide range of ventures, in the minds of many the perception about what such a special from cloves to insurance, from plastics to petrochemicals. The relationship could bring, namely control over large-scale year before the crisis hit, the family-owned assets were valued projects in which calculations of cost and price were not a in the tens of billions of dollars, most of which had been factor. obtained through government assistance or intervention.

The ill-fated N-250 aircraft under manufacture at the IPTN hangar in Bandung, 1997. 186 CHAPTER FIVE

Finance Minister Mar’ie Muhammad (center) with Bank Indonesia Governor Soedradjad Djiwandono (right) promoting the “I Love Rupiah” campaign, in an attempt to rebuild domestic confidence in the local currency, 1997.

One glaring example was the Clove Marketing Board To the general public it looked as if Suharto was unwilling (BPPC) run by Hutomo “Tommy” Mandala Putra, the president’s to sacrifice the interests of those close to him. The IMF’s faith youngest son. Established in 1991, this board exercised full control in Indonesia was nearly destroyed as well. In fact, it was over the sale of cloves, and was the sole buyer of farmers’ harvests. becoming increasingly clear to a number of senior officials that Its control was so great that it was able to obtain low-interest the biggest obstacle to Indonesia’s overcoming the crisis was credit of hundreds of millions of dollars from the state. Suharto himself. The president’s son (who in 2002 was imprisoned for The president, however, did not seem to notice. On 4 ordering the murder of a judge) received even more exceptional May 1998, in the midst of the ongoing economic crisis, he treatment from the government when he was given special gave his permission for the government to raise the price of permission to build a “national car,” which in fact was produced fuel by 70 per cent. Anger and protests erupted. Riots took by the KIA corporation of South Korea. place. In Medan, two people were killed. Shaken by these events, When the financial crisis hit the country, the common Parliament rejected the fuel price increase, an unprecedented hope was that such practices and privileges would be eliminated. move on its part. The economy had been shaken and people had been hit hard. As if oblivious to what was happening around him, on 9 Everyone was being asked to help bear the burden together. But May Suharto departed for Cairo to attend a summit meeting that was not what appeared to be happening. In late January of developing countries. On 12 May, with Suharto out of the 1998 the government announced that regulation of the clove country, an anti-government demonstration was held on the trade through BPPC would continue. In early February, Tommy’s campus of in West Jakarta. In a clash between national car company was awarded a special incentive in the demonstrators and police, four students were shot and killed. form of a tax exemption on the import of fully-assembled sedans. The country reeled. A JOURNEY, A NATION 187

AMNA KUSUMO

Amna Kusumo is not an artist, as she freely admits. However, she has a profound understanding of the dynamics of the performing arts in Indonesia. She understands both the outstanding potential of Indonesia’s performing arts and of the enormous difficulty in realizing this potential. For more than 25 years, she has been involved in the details of managing a range of types of performances. With support from Ford, in 1999, Amna and a number of colleagues established the Kelola Foundation to promote the growth of the arts in Indonesia by providing learning opportunities, access to funding, and access to information. Kelola is also supported by Asialink (Australia), Asian Cultural Council (USA) and HIVOS (the Netherlands). Indonesia has plenty of talent, but we lack pilot study emerged, and from that came programs has been extremely high. More supporting institutions. Even with talented Kelola. Kelola emerged as a direct response than 300 people registered each year, even performers, you still need an audience and to the needs of the arts community. though there are only places for 16 supporting institutions. There has to be a Kelola opened up a range of opportunities individuals. synergy between artist, audience, and for arts workers in Indonesia. For example, From our experience with the workshops, institutions that can manage the interaction it offers scholarships to take part in arts we’ve found that the hardest thing is to between the two. For example, in the convince people of the importance of 1970s, TIM drew large audiences planning. Artists often find that hard to because it operated with a clear agenda, accept. However, they are becoming it established set timetables, and it aware of the need to structure their facilitated high quality performances. organizations. That’s already a step TIM made sure that standards were met. forward, although many are not ready Over time, TIM educated audiences and to change. It is difficult to alter raised their expectations. established patterns of behavior. TIM and the Jakarta Arts Council It is also difficult to establish funding provided funding to support artists’ strategies for the arts in Indonesia. Lack performances. The level of funding was of funding has always been an obstacle sufficient. TIM handled publicity and in the path of artistic development and other logistical matters. For example, the staging of quality performances. The they prepared and distributed Kelola Arts Funding Program offers an brochures. Artists just had to supply the alternative system of funding that is open, information. All artists had to think competitive, and accessible to individual about was the production. Without an artists and art groups throughout institution of that kind, artists have to Indonesia. Technically, this funding engage in superhuman efforts just to program was implemented to develop survive. They have to work to attract management skills. It is not just access Amna Kusumo at home in Solo, 2003. audiences, sell tickets, obtain funding, to funds that is important, but the and still look after the production on top of management, festival management and stage development of a system. it all. lighting workshops. Kelola works with LPPM So far, most of our partners are from the The Kelola Foundation was born out of a (Jakarta) to provide management training. urban areas. We know that the arts in the perceived need after a series of discussions There are also opportunities to study through rural areas are more complex and more with several individuals actively involved in work placement in established arts tightly integrated into the existing social the arts, including Jennifer Lindsay of Ford organizations, both at home and abroad. For structure. In the rural areas, the arts do not and Rhoda Grauer, an arts administrator from this internship program, Kelola works with exist independently. In order to understand New York who came to see the Indonesian sixteen different partners. If an individual the arts in the rural areas, we are in the Dance Festival. We all agreed that the lack of performed well in a workshop, we advised process of studying the management of supporting institutions had a negative impact him or her to apply to our internship traditional art forms. Even though those on the sustainability of the arts and program. Similarly, if an arts worker had involved are often not consciously aware organizations that supported them. participated in Kelola’s national internship of it, these forms involve their own systems We decided to begin with a survey of program, we encourage him or her to apply of management. We are trying to understand cultural organizations. From this survey, a for an international program. Interest in these the values that underlie these systems. 188 CHAPTER FIVE

WOMEN’S RIGHTS: REINTERPRETING CLASSICAL TEXTS

In a peaceful rural area near Magelang, accepted there. of Fatayat Members (Yayasan Kesejahteraan Central Java, stands the Pesantren Asholihat, In 1997 she returned from university Fatayat) – also a Ford grantee – is instructive. a Muslim boarding school. Nearby is a sleepy “enlightened,” and was promptly entrusted She says, “I realize how potent the approach musholla (prayer house) and dormitories so with leadership of her pesantren’s female is, linking issues of social injustice, gender, minuscule that packing 15 (students) santri. She also threw herself into Muslim and reproductive health within Islamic into each seems a minor miracle. study clubs and organizations. “University jurisprudence. It truly is a bottom-up Hibatun Wafiroh was born in this district life has equipped me with a sense of self- approach, especially in the rural areas where in 1972. The eldest of four children, she grew worth and autonomy. I want more women what you get out of the pesantren is pretty up watching her parents preside over the to feel like I do. Yet despite so much Qur’anic much your whole worldview.” education of young santri, mostly between evidence about the significance of women, The movement has re-examined religious four and 18 years of age. She watched how gender reform has been stubbornly resisted.” texts such as the kitab kuning, which has long kyais and nyais (teachers) were held in awe Hibatun’s interests flourished. Around been used as a tool to entrench the dominant by their pupils, how the teachers were this time, in Java, discussions about gender male view of women’s role in Islamic society. consulted about all sorts of A leading effort here has personal problems, from been the Study Forum for drugs to choice of suitors. the Kitab Kuning (Forum She learned how the role of Kajian Kitab Kuning) and its women has been defined in reinter-pretation of Uqud al- sacred Islamic materials, in Lujjayn, a text focusing on particular in the kitab the rights and respon- kuning (“yellow books”) – sibilities of husbands and local shorthand for wives. The result of this centuries-old handbooks of three-year study, a book classical texts that make up entitled Wajah Baru Relasi the bulk of reading in Suami-Istri (The Modern Javanese pesantren. Face of Husband and Wife Hibatun’s father, K.H. Relationships), was pub- Sakdulloh, the founder of lished with Foundation Pesantren Asholihat, is a funding in 2001. Even member of the provincial though the hermeneutic parliament and an activist in approach is still confined to Muslim social organizations. Reading from the yellow books at the Krapyak pesantren, 2003. elementary review of fiqh Her mother, Nyai Haji (Islamic jurisprudence), the Fasohah, a co-leader of the pesantren, is in Islam and about notions of pluralism project has been widely held as a worthy anything but self-effacing. “As a teacher, she were just beginning to happen. Workshops, "first effort,” for it succeeds in conveying that, was never denied autonomy,” said Hibatun. seminars, and new publications reflected in any just social order, women must be This desire for independence seems to have increased efforts to reinterpret Islamic texts treated as active and contributing agents rubbed off onto her eldest daughter who, in the direction of legal reform and rather than as mere subjects. Yet these efforts defying her parents, went her own way to eliminating discriminatory practices aimed to take women’s rights from a theological determine the shape of her education. at women. perspective have to move gradually. “My parents wanted me to go to a Thanks to the pioneering efforts of the Other Foundation-financed publications pesantren in Kediri – a traditional one,” she Muslim non-governmental organization – address specific issues such as polygamy, recalled. University, meanwhile, was and Ford Foundation grantee – the HIV/AIDS, family planning, abortion, and regarded as off-limits to her. But Hibatun Indonesian Society for Pesantren and women’s sexual rights. These materials serve was unfazed. Having “cried all night” on the Community Development (Perhimpunan to challenge traditional beliefs that eve of being packed off to the Islamic senior Pengembangan Pesantren dan Masyarakat – perpetuate women’s subordination in high school that was chosen by her parents, P3M), the movement to promote dialog on society. This slim and accessible series is she feigned illness and bought herself more reproductive rights among women in either written by or incorporates the views time at home. She used this time to collect pesantren across rural Java and Madura has of people like Hibatun Wafiroh – the new information on the State Islamic University shown signs of success. Hibatun’s own generation of male and female leaders of in Semarang. After a long struggle, she was involvement in the Forum for the Well-being the pesantren. A JOURNEY, A NATION 189

The next day, riots exploded throughout Jakarta. In The year 1998 saw the power of the New Order shrink the mayhem, thousands of shops, hundreds of banks and and a large measure of the government’s support disappear. ATM machines, tens of shopping malls and hotels were For three decades, Suharto had gained his legitimacy from rapid destroyed or burned. As many as a thousand people burned economic expansion. In the early 1990s, the World Bank was to death. No less horrific, the perpetrators not only burned calling Indonesia “the economic miracle of Southeast Asia.” and attacked homes, they also raped women of Chinese Bank statistics showed the proportion of the population living descent. beneath the poverty line dropping from 60 per cent in 1965 to On 15 May Suharto returned to Jakarta. No signs less than ten per cent in 1997. Nonetheless, this remarkable were evident that he would resign. As protests against his achievement did not appear to have strengthened the nation’s government spread throughout Indonesia, and as thousands resiliency, and when a true financial crisis hit, Suharto’s of students occupied the Parliament complex in Jakarta, the administrative system proved ineffective. president’s closest retainers finally decided that their After so many years it became obvious that the New venerable “father of development” could no longer be Order style of management was neither a constant nor stable. supported. On 18 May the unexpected happened: The Suharto government had both changed and declined with Harmoko, head of Parliament and famous for his skill at the times. A regime that in its early days aimed to carry out a currying favor with Suharto, officially requested that the rational economic plan gradually experienced what economist president resign. Sumitro Djojohadikusumo termed an “institutional disease.”

A rioter hurls a Molotov cocktail at police during the protests that preceeded President Suharto’s resignation, Jakarta, May 1998. 190 CHAPTER FIVE

The source of this disease was not apparent at first. In accompanied its birth, the Suharto government continued to fact, after the fall of Sukarno, it looked as if Suharto had found view Indonesia as a nation at war. One always had to be on the an effective cure for the nation’s economic ills. In the beginning lookout for threats to national stability – whether coming from of his presidency, Suharto had worked to restore failing the PKI, PSI, Masyumi, the extreme left, or the extreme right. institutions. He organized the holding of orderly elections, Any opposition was considered a threat. Any source of which Sukarno had shunted aside during the period of Guided political power other than the government was seen as potential Democracy. As a means of bolstering the national economy, competition and therefore had to be subjugated. The Suharto his administration put together a series of five-year development government meddled constantly in the selection process for plans. Each plan, called Repelita (Rencana Pembangunan Lima political party leaders. The president determined who held the Tahun), was spelled out in a well-organized budget which the reigns of the military and who sat on the Supreme Court. His president submitted to Parliament for approval. security apparatus kept a close watch on community At the beginning of his rule, Suharto exercised great organizations and, after the outbreak of protests by students in caution and did not initiate measures based on snap judgments. 1978, tightly reined in all student activities on campuses. It was true institution building. Yet his management style, even This was where the institutionalization process did not while fostering a stable system of government, had another function in a normal fashion. The nation’s political parties, side to it. There was within it a kind of paranoia that made it and even Parliament, did not serve as true conduits for the fragile. public’s hopes and aspirations; their role was effectively as a Even after emerging successfully from the violence that prop for Suharto’s legitimacy. Links between political parties

Handling out clean needles at a Foundation-supported HIV clinic in Kampung Bali, Jakarta 2003. A JOURNEY, A NATION 191

MARIA M. HARTININGSIH

Maria M. Hartiningsih is a reporter with the daily newspaper Kompas in Jakarta. Since the beginning of her career she has been interested in the problems of poverty and marginalized groups in society. In 1987 she received an award from UN Habitat for a report on the homeless in Jakarta. In 1997-1998 she was a visiting scholar at the Jackson School of International Studies, University of Washington, Seattle.

I began my career as a journalist reporting I believe we have only seen the tip of the tion gave me a monthly stipend. This enabled on urban poverty. The issue was very com- iceberg: considerations of “morality” are me to travel to New York, Atlanta, Miami, and plex, because it was connected with the obscuring the true dimensions of the San Francisco to study the course of AIDS in government’s strategy for development. problem. the US since the early 1980s. Environmental destruction was also tied up In August 1997, with funding from Since returning to Indonesia I have with this. After covering the huge environ- Kompas and the Ford Foundation, I begun to study feminism. I want to use the mental conference in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, conducted in-depth coverage of the effects feminist perspective as a way to think about I began to ask, what is sustainable devel- of AIDS on women and children in villages oppression. I am doing this because the opment, and who benefits knife of Big Theory is not from it? After that conference, sharp enough to dissect such I was chosen as a member of problems as rape, which the Indonesian Cohort-1 pro- occurs both in peaceful times gram in Leadership of Envi- and in situations of unrest and ronment and Development armed conflict. (LEAD). This was a program of For a long time now I have the Rockefeller Foundation, felt that women’s sexuality has collaborating with other foun- been used as a tool of the state dations and universities study- for borrowing money. Just look ing the problem of sustainable at the Family Planning pro- development. The program gram. Women’s sexuality also ran from September 1992 un- becomes a tool for defeating til the first quarter of 1994. groups regarded as opponents. Participants from seven coun- Consider the rapes of Chinese tries met for international ses- women in Jakarta in May 1998. sions in Chiang Mai, Thailand, Women’s sexuality is also part and Zimbabwe. of the strategy for defeating In 1995, I began to exam- enemies in wartime. Just look ine the problem of HIV/AIDS at East Timor and Aceh. and found that journalism I have come to think that aroused my empathy. HIV/AIDS many problems are tied to is not just an issue of health; it neoliberalism. The neoliberal has social and economic di- economic system strangles mensions too. It is very closely developing nations with large related to the problem of pov- Maria Hartiningsih at the Kompas office, Jakarta, 2003. debt. It makes us prisoners in erty in the broad sense, and our own country. Neoliberal most of its victims are people from the pro- in Thailand and . economics turns everything into a ductive age-group. After the Rio conference in 1992, commodity, including human emotions and HIV/AIDS is one of the greatest threats Kompas often sent me to other UN physical youth. The media become a tool to Indonesia, especially since in the last conferences: to Cairo in 1994, Copenhagen for influencing and shaping people’s way of three years the number of infected persons and Beijing in 1995, and the Conference on life. Environmental destruction, povery, HIV/ has risen as a result of an increase in the Habitat in Istanbul in 1996. In August 1996 AIDS, oppression and exploitation, use of injected narcotics. The World Health I covered the World Congress to Eradicate including the traffic in women and children Organization estimates that in 2002-2003 Sexual Exploitation of Children, held in – all the problems that lead in the end to there were 80,000-120,000 Indonesians with Stockholm. enslavement and materialism originate in HIV. The actual figure may be ten times that. While I was in Seattle, the Ford Founda- neoliberalism. 192 CHAPTER FIVE and their grass-roots constituents were terminated and only activities limited to sports, the arts, and “scientific discussions.” Golkar, the government party, was allowed to operate at the At first these restrictions spurred opposition. Activists at village level. Mass media publications required permits that UI encouraged students to boycott classes, a campaign that could be withdrawn whenever the government saw fit. Judicial succeeded for about two months. During the next two or three administration was a mere formality; decisions were made by years, however, the new regulations effectively kept students decree, on an extralegal basis. busy and tame. It was the students who balked at these restrictions. It As it turned out, this situation had its benefits. Students began in early 1978 when groups from four Jakarta universities were more interested in preparing for a career than engaging in took to the streets demanding that Suharto not stand as political activities. Opportunities awaited them following presidential candidate in the next election. Thereafter, the graduation, as state and private investment proliferated in the government, through the military, froze the activities of these early 1980s. A host of new companies sprang up. The number universities’ student councils. of existing businesses grew threefold, indicating that glittering That same year, Suharto appointed Daoed Joesoef as careers beckoned. Campuses no longer resounded with protests minister of education and culture. On the president’s orders, and demonstrations. presumably, Joesoef immediately set out to change student life Even then, however, it was clear that the government’s at the universities by decreeing that students were no longer agenda to eliminate political activity from campuses could not allowed to participate in political activities. He put in place an succeed. Four years after the program to normalize campus life agenda to “normalize” campus life. According to Joesoef, was imposed, a new variety of study group emerged – small students were to spend their time “reading, writing, and gatherings of students with changing membership that engaged conducting research, not wasting their time in the streets.” in serious discussions on a variety of socio-political problems. The ministry required all students to study full time – Within five years of their first emergence, their number rapidly between 48 and 52 hours per month. Student union activities expanded – at least in the larger cities. In Yogyakarta alone, were to be overseen by the university’s assistant rector, and there were around 20 such study groups.

Udik, published by PIAR in East Nusa Tenggara, is an influential weekly covering political and cultural issues, 2003. A JOURNEY, A NATION 193

SARAH LERY MBOEIK

Sarah Lery Mboeik is coordinator of the Association for the Development of Initiative and Community Advocacy (Pengembangan Inisiatif dan Advokasi Rakyat – PIAR), based in Kupang, East Nusa Tenggara. In 1999, Mboeik won the prestigious Yap Thiam Hien Award for her contribution to the struggle for human rights. She is well known throughout East Nusa Tenggara for her advocacy on behalf of those whose rights she feels the government has infringed, from refugees from Timor Leste to followers of traditional religions not recognized by the government. As a result of her strong criticisms of the government, she was once arrested and detained by the army while she was in an advanced state of pregnancy. The Ford Foundation has assisted PIAR since the fall of the Suharto government in 1998.

Since May 1998, members of local com- chief. Members of our extended family which consists of fam. My fam is Mboeik. munities in East Nusa Tenggara, in Timor, burned our adat house on the grounds that So, as you can see, society has an intricate, Flores, Rote, and the other islands, have it represented atheistic values. Manenito, or formal structure. suffered flagrant violations of their social, local ritual specialists, have been described Outsiders often identify East Nusa Tenggara economic, and cultural rights. as devil worshippers, although in fact they with poverty. Sometimes politicians promote Most of these violations stem from the are repositories of traditional lore. Even the that view for their own benefit. They make big implementation of a 1974 policy in which reading of traditional prayers and spells is profits out of poverty programs. But poverty is land previously regarded as tanah adat, or attacked as halaik. really the result of an inappropriate traditional land, would be reclas- development paradigm. The model sified as state land. This decision for development here is very launched a long conflict between centralist, based on a capitalist the state and members of local economic system with markets, communities. banks, and so on. East Nusa Perhaps 80 to 90 per cent of Tenggara must be developed in a East Nusa Tenggara’s people manner appropriate for an island belong to adat communities. An ecosystem. It cannot be sectoral, adat community is defined as a with one district implementing its group of people within a defined own programs without regard for area who have specific traditional the other districts. That is values and cultural traits. impossible because of the island’s One problem is that local ecosystem. A building project in one people are unable or unwilling to place can cause erosion and become involved in politics, disaster somewhere else. So this because in the past the government model of development does not was quick to brand such people help the people here. I wonder how as communists. Even traditional much better it would work if religious rituals can be branded as traditional communities were given “atheistic,” and hence associated opportunities to manage natural with communism. On this basis, resources within clearly defined these rituals have sometimes been Sarah Lery Mboeik in her office in Kupang, 2003. areas. forbidden. I am not an economist. I am a Next to the state the biggest offenders are The destruction of adat houses has had villager who has learned from the village representatives of recognized religions. On a dramatic effect. Since adat community community. But I can see that many of the Rote, traditional religions have been declared organizations are centered around these recommendations by experts are not halaik, or atheistic. The recognized religions houses and important decisions are made appropriate for communities characterized first entered East Nusa Tenggara through there, this destruction weakens the legitimacy by economic systems that vary significantly Rote, and this is where the greatest degree of of traditional decision-making processes. from area to area. Economists place humans stigmatization has occurred. The effects of There are many different ethnic groups within the context of a capitalist system. For the stigmatization have been far-reaching, in East Nusa Tenggara. These groups are them, a forest has potential value as timber. even leading to the destruction of adat called klan. There is for example the Rote For traditional communities, however, the houses. Although I myself am Protestant, and klan, which is divided into 18 communities. forest is a complete ecosystem in which my brother is a minister, my father was a tribal The klan is further divided into manggi, humans are but a small part. 194 CHAPTER FIVE

MUSIC OF INDONESIA: THE SMITHSONIAN/MSPI CDS

To hear Philip Yampolsky tell it, the sent ahead to sound out uncharted territories place,” but rather a more extensive adventure began in 1989 with preparations and make initial contacts. “Central Flores, for presentation of selected genres with for the Festival of Indonesia in the United example,” he said. “We had practically no compelling musical or cultural interest. States, which the Ford Foundation was information about the place. And there were And such glorious and startling assisting. cases of miscommunication with local differences emerge! Volumes 8 and 9, for The Smithsonian Institution had just people.” instance, cover a surprising variety of acquired Folkways Records, a private label “One time,” he reminisced, “we were singing styles from the relatively small island specializing in folk and ethnic music from seated underneath a clump of lontar (palm) of Flores, ranging from dissonant duets around the world. This was the perfect trees, recording a beautiful song that was strikingly similar to some Balkan music to vehicle for making the “two new records of hard to get right. We had tried several takes large powerful choruses with very different Indonesian music” that the Foundation first already. Some visitors approached, their musical characters. Indonesia is famous for proposed. Alan Feinstein, the Ford program footsteps making a racket on the dry lontar its orchestras, but how many officer working on the Festival, suggested to leaves. Philip put up his hand to halt them. people knew, before the recording project, the Smithsonian that they involve Yampolsky, This gesture confused the singers, who of the many forms of string music found in at that time one of the few ethnomusic- Kalimantan (volume 13) and South Sulawesi ologists who had done research on lesser- (volume 15)? known Indonesian genres. Ford had already And what of the well-known genres such brought Yampolsky to Medan’s North as gamelan and wayang? Volume 14 presents Sumatra University in 1983 and 1984 to help three lesser-known varieties: wayang Sasak build the ethnomusicology department there. from Lombok, a lively mixture of Javanese- “No,” was Yampolsky’s surprising answer. style puppets, Islamic stories, and Balinese In what he calls “one of the smartest moves I and Sasak musical idioms; gamelan Banjar ever made,” he agreed to help with the from South Kalimantan, clearly related to but project only if it was expanded to 12 CDs. dramatically different from the Javanese Luckily, Ford agreed, and in the end, after model; and dhalang jemblung from further expansions, the complete Music of Banyumas in Central Java, a ‘low-rent’ take Indonesia series stands at 20 volumes. on the classical theater tradition using only Recording started in 1990 and four actor-singers and no instruments or eventually spanned 23 provinces. The puppets. project was a collaboration with the Society “The records are aimed at open-minded, for Indonesian Performing Arts (MSPI, non-specialist listeners,” said Yampolsky, Masyarakat Seni Pertunjukan Indonesia) “the kind of people who would pick up an and involved Indonesian ethnomusicology album of music from Timor or Mentawai teachers and students, anthropologists, and and think, Gee, I’d like to know how this local cultural experts. Each year, sounds!” Here is precisely where ethno- Yampolsky spent five or six months musicology becomes useful, both as an recording in the field with small teams of academic discipline and as a model for Indonesian colleagues, hopping from island approaching Indonesian cultures. Its origin to island, creating, as it were, “an aural as a “movement” within musicology away textbook on Indonesian music.” Then it was from the domination of the western musical back to the US for the task of editing, stopped abruptly, ruining the take yet again. framework allows it to combine musical annotating, and compiling the material. The We had to coax them to sing it one more time, analysis with ethnographic context- final volumes of Smithsonian Folkways’ US and that one finally went off without a hitch.” ualization in exciting ways. “It leads to new edition appeared in 1999; the Indonesian “Naturally,” Yampolsky says, “the aim was interpretations of how musical sound carries edition, published by MSPI, is scheduled for not comprehensiveness, for it was not meanings within a particular culture,” said completion in 2003. possible to represent every island or every the ethnomusicologist Endo Suanda. Team member Jabatin Bangun, now a ethnic group. Rather, it was to make available The Music of Indonesia series, in other dean at the Jakarta Arts Institute (Institut respectful recordings of the astonishing range words, shows us the mystery of other Kesenian Jakarta), said that one of the main of Indonesian musical styles.” The editorial people’s experience – different ways of challenges was finding material in principle was not “one short sample of organizing sound, which ultimately reflect unexplored locations. He was sometimes everything you could possibly hear in one different ways of making sense of life. A JOURNEY, A NATION 195

Scenes from the recording project, clockwise from top left: a Kayan Mendalam woman playing the jews harp, West Kalimantan, 1995; dancers from Biak, Papua, 1994; Toba Batak tuned drums, North Sumatra, 1990; Toraja musicians, South Sulawesi, 1996; singers from the Belu district of western Timor, 1997; a Mongondow kulintang player, North Sulawesi, 1997. 196 CHAPTER FIVE

This is where the students talked and honed their analytical treat him as more of an acquaintance than as a friend. abilities. In their partially sequestered forums, students enjoyed What was to be done? Indonesia, with its lack of true relative freedom in voicing critical perspectives on the New Order political experience, had no institutions to replace its head of government. Inspired, perhaps, by the general rise in national state. Thus the old methods were repeated. The students broke prosperity, there also grew within these groups a desire to help out of the confines of their campuses and took to the streets, society’s less fortunate. Some taught poor children to read, others demanding loudly that Suharto resign, just as they had done in put together educational programs for pedicab drivers. 1978. But this time the situation was different because the “For all of us, our starting point was the Left,” said Rizal students were not alone. Further, demonstrations were Mallarangeng, currently director of happening not only in Jakarta and the liberal Freedom Institute. In the other large cities on Java, but also in 1980s Mallarangeng was an activist college towns in Bali, Lombok, in an underground study group at Sumatra, Sulawesi, and Kalimantan. UGM in Yogyakarta, a school that Tens of thousands of students were holds a prominent place in the history on the streets. Neither the military of leftist thought in Indonesia. Later, nor the police could stop them. after seeing the changes that took Clashes occurred, but unlike the later place in the Soviet Union when violent protest at Trisakti, no one was Gorbachev was in power, Mal- killed. larangeng abandoned his leftist views. Where no opposition political He saw that that kind of socialism, parties existed as a gathering point for where market forces were controlled the resistance movement, informal by the central government, only groups – NGOs for the most part – resulted in stagnation. emerged to serve that purpose from a The nation’s liberals also joined wide range of fields. Another group in opposing Suharto, especially in the arose from the growing middle class: late 1980s when his rule grew the working professionals. Factory increasingly autocratic and – as evidenced by his support for workers and even the general public joined. the clove trading board and the so-called “national” car project As if the moment had been predefined, these widely – when state intervention became indistinguishable from varied groups, whose members occasionally competed and support for his family’s businesses. Attempts to liberalize fought among themselves, began to coalesce and form networks industry and eliminate monopolies – measures for which the and alliances. Though coordination among the bodies was at IMF and the technocrats had lobbied – were aimed at returning times chaotic, it was these groups, in the end, that acted as a the New Order to its original goals. civil society, something that had been almost non-existent in By the late 1990s Suharto’s base of support was steadily Indonesia. shrinking. His legitimacy as president had eroded and even the That is how a political opposition movement emerged – military, whose leaders were of a younger generation, began to even though it was haphazard – and that, too, is why Suharto fell.

Students protesting the closure of retail banks in front of Bank Indonesia, Jakarta, 1999. A JOURNEY, A NATION 197

RIZAL MALLARANGENG

As a student at UGM, Rizal Mallarangeng played an active role in the intellectual life of the university. In the 1980s, like most of his fellow student activists, he adopted a socialist perspective. However, not long after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, he changed his viewpoint. During a period of study in the USA, he became increasingly associated with the right wing in politics. He completed his dissertation with assistance from the Ford Foundation, Fulbright and the daily newspaper, Kompas. Currently, he heads the Freedom Institute. He has occasionally been called upon to assist in the writing of speeches for President Megawati Sukarnoputri. In the theIn eighties, I was a student at left, those who identified with communism, one associated with the right wing, in the Yogyakarta. At the time, issues such as good but most were leftist social democrats. They sense that I supported free trade. All the governance or empowerment were not in were suspicious of business, and saw free senior figures, such as Arief Budiman and Y.B. vogue. I don’t even remember if the term trade as detrimental to the interests of the Mangunwijaya, were associated with the left. “civil society” had been coined yet. Non- disempowered. But rightist economists take I remember when Amien Rais just came government organizations were not yet in the opposite view. They believe that free trade back from America. At the time, Arief’s book, vogue either. If people from NGOs tried to will actually assist the poor. The Peaceful Road to Socialism, had just been take part in debates, they were dismissed We all began as leftists. As activists, we read published. I chaired a panel to discuss the as irrelevant. There were a lot of problems Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta, , or book. We invited Arief to come from Salatiga. with government organizations, too. Quite Sutan Sjahrir. They were all socialists. Amien Rais critiqued the book. When I invited a few of those involved in him, he agreed, saying: “Yes, I development projects were able support socialism.” to buy nice cars and houses. At the In 1986, Mikhail Gorbachev time, student discourse was came to power in the Soviet Union. dominated by charismatic figures I was one of the few activists to such as Goenawan Mohamad, study political science system- Umar Kayam, Y.B. Mangunwijaya, atically. I was from the Faculty of and Arief Budiman. Political Science, whereas my By the end of the eighties, colleagues were from philosophy NGOs were associated with the or law. So, I studied Gorbachev’s struggle against the Suharto rise and the difficulties faced by the regime and with efforts to raise Soviet Union. From my studies, I grass-roots awareness of political came to the opinion that socialism rights. The journal Prisma, which was intrinsically flawed. My friends contained the writings of Dawam said that it was only the imple- Rahardjo and Abdurrahman mentation of the ideology that was Wahid, was very influential. wrong. I didn’t agree. After that, I Gus Dur became involved in became a liberal. Most of my activism not through his role as friends remained on the left. chairman of NU, but as the head Rizal Mallarangeng, Jakarta, 1992. At present, the issues are of an NGO. Gus Dur was chosen as different. The function of NGOs the chairman of NU in 1980. One of his Throughout Indonesian history, socialism has has been taken over by the political parties. programs was to establish a number of small been identified with idealism. The Indonesian The biggest challenge now is the NGOs in NU strongholds. intellectual tradition is painted in different institutionalization of democracy. We have By the early nineties, student activists shades of left. There is no intellectual tradition to improve the quality of social and political and NGOs became more unified. This was associated with the right. participation. The political parties are the largely the result of the Kedung Ombo case. Those who came back from abroad key players. If we want good governance, The phrase “civil society” began to emerge. brought popular leftist theories with them. there has to be a consolidation of the Student activists from Bandung, Yogyakarta, In the eighties, Arief Budiman, Amien Rais, political parties. The political parties must and Jakarta joined NGOs after completing and Nurcholish Madjid returned to work to develop themselves. The question their studies, or established new ones Indonesia and invigorated the intellectual is not whether they are worthy of our trust, themselves. Activists involved in Kedung life of the country. Socialism was also but rather, what other choice is there? Ombo were involved in the establishment associated with opposition to Suharto, Without the political parties, there would of the PRD. because Suharto was so influenced by be no democracy. The only solution is to These activist organizations came in rightists such as Widjojo Nitisastro. improve the political parties. How is that various shades of left. There was the extreme Amongst student activists, I was the only to be achieved, that is the question. 198 CHAPTER FIVE

Was Suharto truly alone in the end? The night before several months before, called on students to cease their protest. his resignation, Suharto convened a meeting at the Presidential In the end Suharto followed Nurcholish Madjid’s Palace with nine men, all distinguished figures in the Islamic suggestion. He must have realized that night that he was truly community – a sign, it would seem, of the growing influence alone. Even his trusted minister of information, Harmoko, had of Islam in Indonesian politics. Two of those present, Nurcholish cast him aside. Earlier when he had announced plans to Madjid and Abdurrahman Wahid, were prominent intellectuals. restructure the Cabinet, 14 of his prospective candidates refused A number of ulama from NU were there, but the person who to join. And when he asked Nurcholish Madjid to head up a stood out was Amien Rais, head of Muhammadiyah who “Reformation Committee,” his request was denied. already had openly challenged Suharto. Even at the height of his rule, Suharto did not seem to The president explained his reason for calling the realize the true nature of his support. The Parliament he had meeting: the students were demanding reforms, and he would crafted was not truly representative. Those who called for his make these reforms. He also said he would be prepared to resign resignation could not claim to be representative, either. Yet the once elections could be organized, hopefully very soon. “I’ve students in the Parliament complex clearly opposed him as did had it with being president,” he said, as reported by Nurcholish countless individuals and organizations around the country. Madjid. According to the old Malay saying, “When there is no Though Suharto gave the impression that he was willing eagle, even a grasshopper can appear like one.” In those heady to concede defeat, Nurcholish Madjid then told him in a polite days, students and community activists emerged as a strong but clear voice, “Reformasi means that you must step down opposition force presenting a united front, even though previous right now.” Only Abdurrahman Wahid disagreed. He felt that alliances between them had seemed quite fragile. A decade such a move would destroy the man. Instead, he proposed that earlier, students had generally distanced themselves from they take the president at his word. After the meeting, Wahid, community-based organizations, particularly ones that had been confined to a wheelchair and half-blind from a stroke suffered established with government assistance for the purpose of

President Suharto addressing Muslim leaders at the palace in Jakarta on 20 May 1998, the day before his resignation. Among those present is the future president, Abdurrahman Wahid (in wheelchair). A JOURNEY, A NATION 199

STEPANUS DJUWENG

In 1990, a group of young Dayak people gathered to express their frustration at the marginalization of Dayak culture in West Kalimantan. They established a study group under the auspices of Pancur Kasih, a Dayak community empowerment consortium in Pontianak. It engaged in research and published material related to Dayak culture and society. Later, this group was established as an independent entity, the Institute for Dayak Studies. This institute has worked to promote and defend Dayak cultural identity within the framework of a multi-cultural Indonesian society. A key figure in the movement is Stepanus Djuweng.

At the beginning of the 1990s, the Dayak ganization that provided advocacy and that provocations, murder is never justified. formed the largest single ethnic group in West published material related to Dayak culture. If you look at the history of West Kalimantan at about 40 per cent of the This began with a small study, an analysis of Kalimantan, the conflicts that have occurred population. Despite this, there was little attempt the political situation in Sambas and Sarawak, have usually been engineered by power hold- to promote Dayak culture in the province. Even that was published in the daily Kompas. From ers. For example, the conflict between Chinese in terms of anthropological and and Dayak communities in social research, there was little 1967 was engineered by the interest. The Dayak were con- military to disrupt rebel supply sidered primitives, nomads, lines. The military used the slash-and-burn cultivators, and Dayak to eliminate the Chinese members of a backward tribe. presence in rural areas. It’s very This was very different from the clear that ethnic tensions are respectful manner in which the not the underlying cause of the Dayak of Sarawak were treated. conflicts. From the statistics, Please note that our group did you can see that after the Dayak- not blame any particular party Madurese conflict in 1950, for this state of affairs. We there was a gap of 17 years un- realized however that for the til the Dayak-Chinese conflict in Dayak to win respect for their 1967. However, since 1967, cultural values and traditions, there have been 14 major con- there was a need to establish flicts between the Dayak and some kind of organization to Madurese communities. That research Dayak culture and to Stepanus Djuweng at work in Pontianak, 2003. means an average of one ma- publish the findings. This jor conflict every 2.6 years. research could also facilitate a decision- there, we became increasingly involved in re- Compared to the previous period, this repre- making process that is based on the true search and development. In 1992, we sents a dramatic increase in the level of conflict. aspirations of the community. established the Institute for Dayak Studies, Re- The increased conflict occurred because The Dayak have suffered from oppression search and Development [Institut Dayakologi of a conspiracy among power holders to for centuries now, with their traditional lands Research and Development]. In 2002, the or- increase the influence of the military. There being seized and exploited without consulta- ganization was restructured to become an is plenty of evidence to support this claim. tion. The irresponsible exploitation of natural association rather than a foundation. At the The Institute for Dayak Studies is involved resources has been facilitated by a process of same time, it was renamed the Institute for in activities to promote reconciliation and officially sanctioned discrimination. During the Dayak Studies [Institut Dayakologi]. peace-building. These aims are achieved not New Order period, four main pieces of dis- In 1994, major conflicts occurred just through such conventional means as criminatory legislation and 200 associated between Dayak and Madurese communities seminars, workshops, and so on, but also regulations had a dramatically negative impact in Pontianak. There were further major through programs intended to empower on the Dayak. In particular, these include the conflicts in Pontianak during 1996-1997, and members of local communities and to improve Forestry Act and the Rural Government Act. again in 2000. These conflicts, involving their economic well-being. In this fashion, we While still a university student, I served as horrific violations of human rights by hope to see an end to the tensions and conflicts executive secretary of Pancur Kasih. I joined members of both communities, affected our that have afflicted Dayak and other com- with other young people to establish an or- perception of our role. Whatever the munities throughout West Kalimantan. 200 CHAPTER FIVE alleviating development-related problems. The change might WALHI had been established for the purpose of be traced to the adoption of the term ‘Community Self-Help protecting and improving the environment through education, Organizations’ (Lembaga Swadaya Masyarakat – LSM) for these study, and training. For it to be able to make an impact, however, groups, as opposed to the previously used “non-governmental it too was forced to confront the government. In mid-1994, organizations,” or NGOs. In 1983 the members of these WALHI activists took the Suharto government to court, alleging organizations were forced to act with caution. Perhaps, in their that it had siphoned off 400 billion rupiah from the budget for minds, the term LSM sounded less confrontational. Ten years forest rehabilitation to subsidize IPTN, the aircraft company on, however, the situation had changed, and confrontation was built by then Minister of Technology B.J. Habibie. what they sought. More frequent were confrontations between YLBHI and These NGOs, whether or not by intent, were driven by the the government. This organization, which had been founded situation to become more involved in influencing public policy. to provide legal assistance to the indigent, soon realized that Politics had become an important part of their existence. For the legal process in Indonesia was strongly influenced by the example, YLKI could not stop at simply providing information existing power structure. In turn, YLBHI’s constant support to the public. It had to devise and promote consumer protection for the poor, whose grievances had formerly gone unaddressed, laws and, in so doing, had to work with a weak and indifferent made government officials furious. They simply were not Parliament. That was the state of the power structure. That structure accustomed to dealing with opposition, especially from the had to be broken down before real change could take place. voiceless poor.

A VCD store owner in Surakarta, Central Java, 2003. He is one of many individuals who have benefited from Talenta Foundation’s programs to build skills and confidence among differently-abled people. An informal discussion among farmers, traditional community leaders and staff of grantee Eltayasa in West Sumatra, 2003. This NGO promotes citizens’ participation in local government planning. A JOURNEY, A NATION 201 202 CHAPTER FIVE

ZOEMROTIN K. SUSILO

After the fall of Suharto, Zoemrotin K. Susilo entered politics, a dirty word for many activists. She even established a political party and accepted a nomination to be a member of parliament. Zoemrotin was not elected, but she still believes in the importance of parties in a democratic system. She believes that nobody should consider herself or himself too pure to become involved in politics. Nonetheless she has grave reservations about the women’s parliamentary quota of 30 per cent. In addition to her other commitments, Zoemrotin is active as a member of Komnas HAM, the National Commission for Human Rights (Komisi Nasional Hak Asasi Manusia). Previously, she was head of YLKI. At the beginning, YLKI was entirely voluntary. those outside. After I was involved, if I met know some NGOs draw strong lines between For the first seven years, YLKI did not receive my friends, they laughed at me. They would themselves and the government. There is no any funding from donors. My salary was not say, “She’s the one with Amien Rais sympathy or understanding between the enough for bus fares, let alone taxis. Because [Speaker of the People’s Consultative two sides. I’m not saying NGOs are always of this, the majority of us were reasonably Assembly].” It doesn’t sound like much, but pure. Everyone knows that there are lots well-off housewives, doing something with it gets to you. of corrupt ones. our spare time. We kept going regardless When I wanted to register as a At present, there is one issue within the whether funding was available. Ford was the candidate, I had to resign from a number of women’s movement that should be addressed. first agency to assist our program, although organizations. That was very difficult for Women are campaigning for a quota of 30 prior to that Friedrich Naumann Stiftung me. I had been involved with YLKI for 25 per cent in the House of Representatives to provided funds for institutional development. years. When I went to campaign in Cilacap, secure strategic positions within the political Before the fall of system. But the reality is Suharto, NGOs were con- that women with the most sidered highly political potential, the ones who because they were in- should be represented, volved in advocacy. Under don’t want the job. the New Order, advocacy This could be because was considered by the gov- of a political atmosphere ernment to be “political that militates against the opposition.” Even during effective involvement of this period, however, peo- women. There has been no ple and organizations real democratization, no were involved in strength- real development of criti- ening civil society. At the cal attitudes. Women’s end of the Suharto period, groups are reluctant to everyone had to work to- enter party politics because gether. Sometimes we party officials have such a traded favors. One of our bad reputation. I know that Zoemrotin K. Susilo testifies at a public parliamentary hearing, 2002. biggest problems was lack conflict is an inevitable part of money. As a result of the of democracy, but there lack of funds, sometimes our results didn’t I got on the train and thought about my must be rules to the game. Most political seem that impressive. situation. I was thinking, “What am I parties have not yet developed a system of At the time, there were two alternatives: looking for? I’m abandoning my NGOs, and ethics. protesting from outside the system, or I don’t really know who my friends are in I am concerned that those who are working within it. I decided to get involved politics.” I thought about the fact that I didn’t campaigning for a quota are not ready for in politics. There was little connection, have any friends left. involvement in the political system. In my however, between those inside the political At the time, I thought that there was a opinion, women must consider the system and those outside. I was isolated. need for a high level of idealism within the implications of the quota very carefully. If Those involved in politics were considered political parties. I thought, surely my women with potential and ability are not odd. That made me lonely. Working is much experience with NGOs would be valuable in willing to enter the arena, the 30 per cent easier when you feel that you are working developing a political party. But it seemed quota will only be achieved through the together with other people. I got involved not. I still think it is foolish of us to refuse selection of low-quality representatives. in party politics thinking that I wanted to to work with politicians or the government. That will do far more damage than good to create a synergy between those inside and The government cannot just be dismissed. I the women’s movement. A JOURNEY, A NATION 203

FARHA CICIEK

Unhappy with the system of recruitment into student organizations when she attended university, Farha Ciciek refused to join them. Among other things, she felt that the orientation of student organizations at the State University for Islamic Studies (Institut Agama Islam Negara – IAIN) was not in accord with Islamic values – even less so, in fact, than at the explicitly secular Organisasi Siswa Intra Sekolah (OSIS), a student body with which she had been involved during high school. However, her non-involvement in student organizations did not prevent Ibu Ciciek from promoting the interests of women, during her university years and beyond. Working together with Ford, Ibu Ciciek now leads Rahima, an organization that addresses women’s issues by adopting a religious approach. Rahima’s adoption of a religious approach reasons why inheritance laws appeared to addressed a range of contentious issues to women’s affairs goes back to Yogyakarta, favor men, why polygamy had been related to pluralism. One such is the where my student friends and I formed a regarded as permissible. Despite our question of Islamic law. In order to explore discussion group. Many such groups focused limitations, we translated books on women’s the issue, we sought funding from Ford. on issues of interest to the student body; rights and Islam. These efforts were Members of other religions, in particular, ours focused on women’s issues. When we accompanied by lively discussions. need to be educated about Islamic law, so instituted a public discussion, an Since the establishment of Rahima, I we sought funding to publish information extraordinarily large number of students on the issue. We published 3,500 copies of expressed interest. People had to our publication, and distributed it through squeeze into the library. We were friends and associates from women’s shocked to discover how important groups associated with other religions. these issues were to the student body, Still, the issue of religious law remains what strength of feeling existed. contentious. Some community groups are So, back in 1987, we tried to open a struggling to promote the implementation forum for a women’s perspective on of Islamic law, according to a very narrow economic and political issues, as well as interpretation of what that entails. Their other issues specifically affecting the version of Islamic law is what I would status of women. Of course, many people describe as “frozen” – my apologies to felt threatened by us, and many attacked those who adhere to this interpretation of us on religious grounds. Islam. Their view of Islamic law is based Their fears were based on a very on perceptions that are centuries old. narrow perception of what religion is. We are not opposed in principle to Even though I was at school at IAIN, I Islamic law. It’s just that we vary in our was considered a leftist, because I openly interpretation of what Islamic law is. We addressed economic and social issues. disagree with those who insist that Islamic In fact, I maintained a religious law is a signed and sealed package. Islamic perspective while addressing these law must be interpreted according to the questions – even my thesis was on time, period, and place in which it “Poverty from the Perspective of the operates. It is by nature flexible. And it is Koran.” our commitment to this viewpoint that has Our group believed that attempting Farha Ciciek speaking at a seminar in Madura, 2002. created friction with more traditionalist to address economic and social issues streams of thought. in no way conflicted with religious values. have seen a number of developments. These Speaking personally, I am opposed to We believed that God was on the side of involve an evolution in the consciousness the idea of the unity of state and religion. justice, which includes social justice. We of the women involved, as well as changes An attempt to create such a unity will result were also well aware that interpretation of in the social, political and economic in the erosion of religious values. Religion the Koran is heavily influenced by the context. Other issues that have come up will be used to achieve political ends, and prejudices of the interpreter, who can include religious radicalism, and the lack will therefore lose validity and legitimacy promote a range of viewpoints. of a connection between traditionalist as a spiritual path. For me, religion is a So, we endeavored to interpret the women’s groups and modernist groups. personal matter. In dealing with this world, Koran from a women’s perspective. Our In a country like Indonesia, pluralism is we should use the intelligence God gave us strategy was to analyze the context in which inevitable. Through our publication, Suara to solve problems, rather than invoking the Koran was delivered. We examined the Rahima [Voice of Rahima], we have religion. 204 CHAPTER FIVE A JOURNEY, A NATION 205 206 CHAPTER FIVE A JOURNEY, A NATION 207

A diverse group of these self-help organizations eventually their needs and that the compensation being offered was either grew into a resistance movement. According to Zoemrotin too low or had been siphoned off by greedy officials. Susilo, a founder of YLKI, when every instance of advocacy In the face of this refusal to vacate, local officials used a launched by community organizations was seen as opposition, method they had found to be effective in the past: force. One they had no other choice. In the words of the “disappeared” example was 60-year-old Samadi, a resident of the hamlet of grass-roots poet Wiji Thukul, “There is only one word, and Nglanji. When he refused to accept the compensation package that is ‘Fight’!” on offer from the government, he was taken to the office of the The opposition initially found common cause in 1986 local military official. There, in the presence of the sub-district in the poor area of Central Java known as Kedung Ombo. head, he had his face slapped until he finally consented to Located 90 kilometers southeast of Semarang, Kedung Ombo putting his thumbprint on the agreement. In doing so, he was the government’s choice of a site for the construction of a relinquished 2700 square meters of land (approximately three- large dam and reservoir. Most of the farm families from the 37 quarters of an acre) for the token price of 1.5 million rupiah. villages along the Serang River that would be affected by the Samadi also owned a small parcel of rice paddy with a project had lived in the area for many years. Even though the hut. Tempo magazine, in an extensive report on Kedung Ombo, government set aside new land for them and gave its promise detailed how he erected a ten-meter flagpole in front of this of resettlement assistance, not all of the families were willing to hut from which he flew the Indonesian flag. By doing so, he leave. They argued that the land promised was insufficient for said, “I can still feel I own a piece of my country.”

Local farmers stake their claim to land converted into a golf course in West Java, 1998. Fishing boats rest on a riverbed left parched when waters were diverted as a result of the Kedung Ombo dam, 1992. Studying at the Krapyak pesantren in Central Java, 2003. 208 CHAPTER FIVE

Regardless of whether it was his country, Samadi and his When the activists enlisted the support of foreign NGOs, neighbors were disenfranchised. A number of local residents however, the situation changed. Involvement by the International were arrested on charges of stealing logs from state owned land. NGO Forum for Indonesia (INGI) was not something the Dozens of others, when receiving new identity cards, saw that government could easily brush off. Legal activist Abdul Hakim the letters “ET” had been stamped on them. Signifying “Eks Garuda Nusantara, who headed INGI, organized support within Tahanan (politik)” or “Former Political Prisoner,” this code was the forum for the Kedung Ombo farmers. This primarily took a fearsome accusation that the card’s bearer had been involved the form of sending reminders to the World Bank that it was with the banned PKI. Residents were informed that if they providing a major portion of the funding to build the dam. Now were willing to join the the Bank was forced to listen. government’s transmigration Scholar and activist Arief resettlement program, these Budiman remarked, “The letters would be removed Kedung Ombo case was the from their cards. first in Indonesia in which co- At the end of August operation between Indonesian 1986, a group of the Kedung and international NGOs pro- Ombo area residents took duced visible results.” their complaint to the The Kedung Ombo Yogyakarta office of YLBHI. model was not, in fact, indicative In February 1987, after learn- of the kind of political resistance ing that their compensation that would emerge a decade later. package had been reduced, However sharp their criticism of they brought their case to the the government, the NGOs Central Java Regional Parlia- advocated gradual change in the ment in Semarang. Then, power structure. Even so, the after a futile six-month wait, Kedung Ombo experience they filed a complaint with helped to instill in community the main office of the YLBHI in Jakarta. organizations a greater sense of confidence when confronting By this time, a number of community organizations had the government. They gained political support and funding from become involved in the case. The students were the most active Indonesia’s official foreign donors as well as from private organizers. Joining them was the late Y.B. Mangunwijaya, a organizations in those countries. Although government priest and famed author, who soon became the leading figure supporters accused them of being unpatriotic, it was not so easy of the movement. Activism on behalf of the farmers gained for the government to act against its perceived foes. Because by widespread publicity. then the government could no longer rely on the steady flow of The government attempted to stifle coverage of the issue. petrodollars, it was forced to bow to pressure and take world It put curbs on the press, forbidding it to mention the dispute. opinion into greater consideration.

Y.B. Mangunwijaya, a leading figure in the movement for justice for the Kedung Ombo farmers, at his home in Yogyakarta, 1986. A JOURNEY, A NATION 209

LIES MARCOES-NATSIR

After graduating from IAIN in 1986, Lies Marcoes-Natsir became involved in research through her work with a small group of Dutch academics. She became increasingly interested in anthropology and in issues related to gender. Ibu Lies is now involved with an American donor agency in Jakarta.

The involvement of religious communities Islamic concerns regarding these issues. At for this purpose. The pesantren program in economic development programs was first P3M, we approached questions related to greatly helped to win acceptance for the implemented through LP3ES during Dawam reproductive health from the perspectives of President’s instruction. Rahardjo’s time. LP3ES had a program for both gender and Islam. I can understand those who say that we Muslim communities involving community In my opinion, of all programs conducted are using Islam to achieve our agenda of development among the pesantren. within pesantren, none has come close to democratization. However, I don’t think that LP3ES believed that the pesantren could achieving the success of the gender issues is fair criticism. Let me go back to the issue form the basis for economic development. program that my colleagues implemented. of gender that I mentioned earlier. One of In 1987, P3M was founded with the support This program assisted other, non-religious the factors that has promoted the movement’s of a number of former LP3ES activists. P3M feminist groups to publicize gender issues. success has been the willingness of Islamic was involved in all aspects of groups to acknowledge that there pesantren life, and it used the are problems within the Islamic pesantren culture, the prestige of community that need to be pesantren leaders, and scriptural addressed. So, it is not secular backing to achieve its aims. feminists who first identified the But after several years these problem, but Islamic groups programs did not bring about the themselves. And these groups expected change. Unfortunately, I were particularly open to the think our colleagues tended to possibility of finding the answers romanticize the pesantren cul- to these problems in religious ture somewhat, and assumed a sources. The debate within Islam level of equality and simplicity itself was extremely productive. within these communities that did We are the most progressive not exist. In fact they found the of all countries in the Islamic pesantren to be extremely hier- world. Compare Indonesia to archical, authoritarian, and Malaysia or the Middle East. In resistant to change. This environ- some of those countries even the ment made the implementation of discussion of gender issues is economic development programs explicitly forbidden. Our degree problematic. Our colleagues ben- of progress is extraordinary, with efited from their experience, Lies Marcoes-Natsir speaking at a the National Women’s Committee however, and modified their pro- women’s peace rally in Jakarta, 1998. and a large number of activist grams accordingly. groups playing a significant role. At the end of the 1980s, there was still a At the time, there was widespread resistance All these things were possible because Islamic great deal of resistance to gender issues to the feminist perspective, and feminists were groups were prepared to go through a because of the lack of a religious perspective ill-prepared to deal with religious objections process of introspection. As a result, the on them. Even though I graduated from IAIN to their arguments. However, the gender- interpretation of has been I was widely associated with Kalyanamitra in issues program conducted at the pesantren enriched. Jakarta, which was considered radical went a long way to overcoming this resistance. Now we also have a 30 per cent quota feminist in orientation. It was extremely Also, this program gave the government for women in the DPR. Despite the debate difficult. There was no institutional backing momentum for its gender-mainstreaming on the quality of these representatives, for exploring gender issues from a religious program, which was initiated by an gender issues are now an item on our perspective. instruction issued by President Abdurrahman nation’s political agenda. This may make At about that period I joined P3M. I Wahid in 2000. Gender issues were to be government more sensitive to the problems became aware that it was impossible to addressed at all stages of developmental of other minorities and marginalized address gender issues without addressing planning. There was to be an assigned budget groups. 210 CHAPTER FIVE

The Kedung Ombo experience sparked something else: a more In August 1996, Budiman Sudjatmiko was arrested. radical orientation on the part of anti-Suharto forces. Some of Because of threats against his life, he and several colleagues had the students who had helped defend the village farmers taken refuge at the home of a young Catholic cleric in the subsequently joined together to form the Democratic People’s Jakarta suburb of . But after ten days, state intelligence Party (Partai Rakyat Demokratik – PRD), the first political agents found them. organization that would directly challenge the New Order. Soesilo Soedarman, coordinating minister for politics and A few years later, on the evening of 22 July 1996, at the security, announced that PRD was behind the riots that had neon-lit office of YLBHI in Jakarta, a 26-year-old activist by taken place in Jakarta the previous month. President Suharto, the name of Budiman Sudjatmiko led a ceremony to inaugurate apparently convinced that this was true, had already discussed the new party. The people in attendance, most of them young this matter at a cabinet meeting. At the meeting, it was reported and scruffy-looking, all wearing red kerchiefs around their necks, that Suharto likened PRD to PKI, the banned Indonesian were in open violation of the New Order’s regulations against Communist Party. the formation of new parties. While it was true that not all As was later revealed, there was in fact no connection other opposition groups agreed with PRD’s positions, the party’s between PRD and the riots of 27 July. On that day at around emergence helped to foster more widespread determination six AM, seven trucks pulled up outside the offices of the and courage. mainstream National Democratic Party, PDI, on Jalan PRD argued that in order to bring down the New Order Diponegoro in central Jakarta. With the assistance of military and to establish democracy, a clear political program and an and police personnel, dozens of men with clubs and rocks in efficient organization were needed – in other words, not an their hands jumped from the trucks. First they pelted the PDI NGO. The country needed new political parties. PRD further offices, then stormed in. The dozens of people inside fought argued that these parties would spark a new and lively political back, but they were soon overpowered and fled outside. The scene minus the ineffective and ailing government institutions violence then moved beyond the perimeter of the complex. A that had proved useless, as was seen in Suharto’s final days. crowd of angry young people, responding to the attack on the

Head of the PRD, Budiman Sujatmiko, in a police vehicle after a court appearance, Jakarta, 1996. A JOURNEY, A NATION 211

IRID AGOES

Dr. Irid Agoes is Director of the Indonesian International Education Foundation (IIEF), which is currently administering the Indonesian portion of the Ford Foundation’s International Fellowships Program (IFP) – the largest single grant in the history of the Foundation. Dr. Agoes is overseeing the annual selection of 45 marginalized students from a pool of 6,000 for fellowships to obtain a master’s degree overseas. She hopes that through this program her dream of the world becoming a more peaceful place will be realized.

I had my first direct working relationship just consider Indonesian women, it is half a Indonesians, especially those coming from with the Ford Foundation in 1999, when I per cent. We look for students who have a marginalized background, is the fact that became the IIEF director. Ford is our biggest good track records with regard to their it is very difficult to get the English donor in terms of scholarship opportunities, leadership experience in their communities. proficiency level that is expected for and the first one I saw that year was the They can be academics, they can be people graduate studies overseas, or even within “Culture and Society” program offered to who are active in NGOs. And the great thing Indonesia; for example, UI asks for 550 Indonesians accepted in graduate-degree is, there is no age limit. This factor is TOEFL level. The way we overcome that courses, had a strong GPA and a great especially important for women, because hurdle is by training the students in English commitment to their education, but they do not always obtain their educational prior to their departure. Another desperately needed financial assistance. challenge is their difficulty with writing Then in 2000, we saw an opportunity to help academic papers. Ford and IIEF are students from East Timor who could not helping by assisting universities outside of finish their studies after the former Java get training, but I think there is still a province’s referendum. Many East Timorese lot of hard work ahead, because our were studying in Indonesia at the time and universities, as well as junior high and they were cut off from their parents, and senior high schools will have to change the so we looked at this as an opportunity to curriculum. If Ford really wants to have a help them, not only as individuals, but to successful program, we cannot do it help build the new country of East Timor. halfway. We must figure out the real So we started the East Timor Scholarship problems inherent in the Indonesian Program, for East Timorese who were still education system and correct them as soon at Indonesian universities and wanted to as possible. finish their studies. As a direct result of Ford My involvement with the Ford and IIEF’s starting that program many other scholarships is more than just a dream donors started to help out, and by the time come true. I am an interculturalist; I was East Timor became completely trained as an interculturalist; my degree independent, 200 of our students had is as an interculturalist; and an graduated. interculturalist’s hope is to have a peaceful Our biggest program at the moment is world. Marginalized people all over the administering the Indonesian portion of the Irid Agoes interviewing a scholarship world must have the chance to obtain a the Foundation’s IFP. This, for Ford, is kind applicant in Jakarta, 2003. master’s-level education. With their new of a signature program. It provides goals all in one go. They may have to skills and enthusiasm, they can then return opportunities for advanced study to interrupt their studies due to having to to their homelands, to their home exceptional individuals. By exceptional I work, getting married, and starting a family, environment, to their villages, and help mean not only the best and brightest, but, where traditionally the woman is the one others. And while some programs focus on in particular, the marginalized. All the who stays home with baby. Then, when the creating a better world through the elites individuals applying for this program must children are a little older they can resume of a society, Ford is looking at ways to have come from disadvantaged or underserved their own education. For 2003 we have, more equity, again through the societies, and in Indonesia that is mostly again, 6,000 applicants, from which we must marginalized. And I believe many of us outside of Java. The program started in make selections to get 45 recipients. administering this program know that it 2001 and we had 6,000 applications for 45 With the experience gained from is not only the marginalized that are scholarships. administering this program, we know it is learning from us – it is we who are learning This is a program very different from not only Ford that must be involved as a from them, as well. This is something that other scholarship programs, because in funder – many more donors are required should be picked up and carried along by Indonesia only 1.4 per cent of the population because the need is very clear, very big and others so that the world can be a more is educated above high-school level. If you very urgent. One obstacle faced by many peaceful place in the future. 212 CHAPTER FIVE

BOOSTING BOOKS: PROGRAM PUSTAKA

It was 1998, a year after the Asian economic of paper had risen a staggering 250 per cent. contemporary – in book covers has crisis had devastated the Indonesian Publishers around the country were wiped renewed the commercial appetite for titles economy, and shortly after Suharto’s fall out virtually overnight. in literature and the humanities. Suddenly from power. Ira Suharno was a scientific The idea behind Program Pustaka was books have become more attractive, and researcher who put her faith in children – to subsidize publishers to encourage the generally more affordable. more particularly, in the education that production, not necessarily of popular On the down side, meanwhile, relaxed would shape children into the new books, but of high-quality titles in the social monitoring has left loopholes in the generation. She was impressed by a French sciences and humanities. The relatively program. Among the challenges have been book on environmental education that was relaxed terms and conditions offered by the profiteering from the extra pages that can aimed at children between the ages of five program were further relief to hard-pressed be created by increasing font size and and 12. She carried the book around for publishers. By the end of 2002, Adikarya widening margins, deliberate overpricing, weeks, until finally she decided to sit down had received some 1,800 manuscripts from and patchy distribution. In Indonesia, and translate it, “just for the heck of it.” Four over 100 publishing companies. distribution is the publishers’ nemesis; in the months later, she was done. The Ford Foundation has determined worst cases, distributors gouge 50 to 70 per Initially, she wasn’t too concerned about only the grant structure. It has played no cent of the retail price. The practice is made publishing her effort. “I would have been role in deciding the selection of books. That worse by the false assumption that happy enough to use it as teaching material,” job rests with a local panel chosen by subsidized publications are naturally slow she said. She showed it to publishers and Adikarya and which, by most accounts, does sellers. Publishers lack any commercial most of them agreed that it would be a its job with integrity. reason to sell the stock, which consequently tough book to sell. The large number of useful books rots in dusty warehouses rather than basks Save one. Penerbit Djambatan, one of published so far has encouraged a battered in the light of bookstore shelves. the country’s oldest publishing houses, was industry and boosted the morale of local Fortunately, the Ford Foundation has interested. In October 2001, Suharno finally authors. From the beginning of Program been supportive of the benchmarks saw her name on the cover of her book. Pustaka I to the end of Program Pustaka III achieved, and Program Pustaka was Academics, government officials, school in 2002, 445 titles were subsidized. The assessed and amended in 2002. Review and principals, members of non-governmental project reflects a healthy respect for reprints monitoring mechanisms are more stringent, organizations, and environmental advocates and translations, and a laudable effort to with more scrutiny of the contracts that attended the launch. Soon, the book had promote new talent. The Yogyakarta book applicants must submit. New guidelines for started to make its way onto primary school industry has thrived precisely for this reason, retail pricing and print runs are enforced, curricula. as many small publishers there have and author consent is formally documented. Belajar Mencintai Alam (Learning to burrowed into hitherto untapped material, A new and encouraging thrust of the Love Nature), was supported by the Ford- such as local graduate theses previously program focuses on regional publishing, financed Program Pustaka. The program buried in dusty university archives. with notable successes in Makassar and was founded in 1998 under the auspices of One heartening result of the program Pontianak. The program now provides the Adikarya Foundation, a subsidiary of the has been the rise of a new book design additional assistance such as collaboration Indonesian Publishers Association (Ikatan culture. This was fostered by Bentang with local cultural centers in organizing Penerbit Indonesia). Program Pustaka was Budaya, a Yogyakarta-based publisher. The activities like readings and book originally set up to offset the crisis that at use of exquisite artwork – traditional or galleries. And in the revised Program the time was paralyzing the book industry. Pustaka, 20 per cent of the print run is The outlook was certainly now donated to libraries, book bleak, because in just a few clubs, and book galleries months the price around Indonesia. A JOURNEY, A NATION 213

LILIS N. HUSNA

Before the organization decided to remove itself from the political arena, many senior members of NU were involved in politics. Lilis N. Husna first became aware of the interaction between Islam and politics during her association with NU and the . She also served a term in the People’s Consultative Assembly. She was not selected for further terms because, she says, she was too critical of the status quo. Currently Ibu Lilis is involved in the Institute for the Study of Pesantren and Community (Lembaga Kajian Pesantren dan Masyarakat – Lakpesdam), a think tank operating under the NU umbrella. Since 2000, Lakpesdam has cooperated with Ford to implement the Forum Warga (Citizens Forums) program, which aims to create political space for the common people.

Community organizations should, of It is the usual problem of development: how was a breakthrough – a group that had been course, be involved in the process of to ensure that programs meet the needs of completely ostracized from community affairs democratization. However, many in Indonesia those they are meant to benefit. was engaged in a constructive dialog for have been unable to develop into mass Several interesting lessons were learned everyone’s benefit. movements. For example, within NU, the from the Cilacap workshop. One of the major Next year another interesting event majelis taklim, or council of elders, issues related to a prostitution complex occurred. When the village conducted its addresses itself exclusively to religious and annual audit, citizens were concerned about spiritual issues. As a community organization, the source of revenues. An investigation found NU should be able to engage in negotiations that a large portion derived from the to further members’ interests and to create prostitution complex. Each sex worker and political space for them. The lack of political each brothel manager had been required to involvement results from the dysfunctional contribute according to a formula. Many system left by the New Order. Unfortunately, members of the community were shocked to it is not only the majelis taklim that is discover that much of their municipal dysfunctional, but almost all mass-based revenues derived from prostitution. community organizations. The council determined that the funds Currently, most religious organizations raised had been assigned to building the are overwhelmingly preoccupied with ritual fence. However, some people were still and dogma, not with facilitating change or unhappy, for three reasons. Religious law representing the social and economic forbade prostitution, and therefore these interests of their members. There is no funds were illegal. Regional regulations had concept of collective bargaining. Power is still ordered the complex to close, so it was wrong regarded as the exclusive preserve of the elite. for the government to continue to collect There is a lack of institutions representing revenue from it. And it was seen as civil society. That is what we are trying to inappropriate for a disadvantaged group such change. as prostitutes to be pressured to provide Forum Warga was established to help revenues for the community. develop grass-roots democracy. It is a re- Lilis N. Husna in her office in Jakarta, 2003. It was extremely unusual for these people grouping of various elements within the to address such issues in a broad-minded community so that they have a voice in local located in the village. There was some fashion, particularly with religious officials decision-making. Most of Forum Warga’s discussion as to how this complex could be heavily represented on the council. The case programs relate to good governance or eliminated. Some suggested simply burning has still not been resolved. The important decentralization. it to the ground, arguing that it created thing, however, has been the establishment Lakpesdam has helped establish Forum conflict within the community. Eventually, of a framework by which such questions can Warga in Jepara, Wonosobo, and Cilacap on representatives of the complex itself were be addressed. Other issues that Forum Warga the island of Java. We began with village asked to put their view. The meeting began has dealt with range from monopolies in the workshops. These focused on economic and with threats and recriminations, but ended textile industry to intra-village conflicts. financial issues such as budgeting, an issue in a compromise. It was agreed to build a People understand that they have the right that has become increasingly important in the fence to separate the complex from the and the capability to express their views and context of regional autonomy. We also village, and that one of the managers of the defend their interests. Our role is to promote facilitated the involvement of community complex would continue to work with Forum this idea, even if politicians have themselves members in the formulation of village policy. Warga to develop mutual understanding. This not yet come to terms with its implications. 214 CHAPTER FIVE

PDI office, went on a rampage. They set fire to several buildings endless stream to show their support for the faction, which in the area, including a government office. In all, five people had refused to relinquish control of the party’s offices. In a died and 149 were injured. matter of days the site had turned into a center of resistance. The fury seen in the streets that day could be likened to Banners and posters jostled for space. A stage was erected. People a pressure cooker that had suddenly exploded. The PDI offices made strident speeches against the New Order. had become a symbol of the ongoing struggle between two With this as their base, a number of groups active in the factions in the party – one led by the government-supported pro-democracy movement mobilized support for Megawati. Soerjadi, the other by Megawati Sukarnoputri, daughter of President Suharto, who had simply wanted to rid the PDI of his Indonesia’s first president, whom the government refused to predecessor’s daughter, saw public sympathy abound for the very recognize as the party’s rightful leader. Because Megawati’s person he had wanted to oust. He ordered the military to take faction considered her to be the rightful leader – she did in fact control of PDI offices, by force if necessary. This is what had have more support than Soerjadi – its members had taken over sparked the riots of 27 July. PRD was not involved at all. the party’s offices. Unlike the past, in this conflict Suharto seemed to have This was a clear challenge to the government. lost his renowned ability for playing his cards with patience. In Unexpectedly, thousands of Jakarta residents and people from the public view, he was making a mountain out of a molehill. other cities showed their support for Megawati’s camp by The PRD movement was militant, but small, and PDI’s sending financial and in-kind donations. Visitors arrived in an Megawati was no real threat to him.

Police raid the PDI headquarters in Central Jakarta, 27 July 1996. A JOURNEY, A NATION 215

DEDE OETOMO

Dede Oetomo is a multi-talented person. Among his many skills and abilities he is a DJ. While working on his doctorate at Cornell, he once played at a party for the noted political scientist, Ben Anderson, whose favorite pop group, Dede says, is the Jackson Five. During his stay in chilly Ithaca, Dede played a major role in the social life of the town. On at least one occasion Abdurrahman Wahid, prior to his ascension to the presidency, spent a night on the plain mattress in Dede’s guestroom. In addition to being a respected academic in linguistics, a member of the radical PRD, and an expert on gender in East Java, Dede, who was born in 1953, is one of Indonesia’s foremost campaigners for gay rights. The public discourse on HIV/AIDS in our in the 1990s, it is little wonder that the public funding provided by Ford. Several of my community is still limited, and does not is confused. lecturers were educated at IKIP [Teachers’ address the root causes of the disease or I feel that most people are still reluctant Training College] Malang, where the English policies for treating it. Rather, confusion, to discuss issues related to sexuality openly department was established with funding misinformation, and complacency have and explicitly. There is a feeling that such provided by the Foundation. characterized the whole issue, even though discussion is not in accordance with “Eastern I received travel grants from Ford to go epidemiological research demonstrates a values.” However, this reflects a hypocritical to Cornell in 1978 and in 1984. Cornell’s dramatic increase in rates of infection Modern Indonesia Project, where I within specific groups, such as the users engaged in Indonesian area studies of injectable drugs and transsexuals, and while I taught the , within specific geographic zones, such was established by Professor George as and Papua. McTurnan Kahin and Professor John M. While everyone is aware that AIDS Echols in the early 1950s with funding is spread through sexual contact, little from the Ford Foundation. I received a specific information is available. People research scholarship to assist with my are not necessarily aware that the most dissertation from the Social Science dangerous forms of contact are vaginal Research Council, during 1983-1984, and anal intercourse, or that the which was also funded by Ford. After I receptive partner is at much greater risk. graduated, I became involved in The level of knowledge about the research projects on gender, sexuality, transmission of HIV is still low. Thus, and HIV/AIDS in Indonesia, many of policies designed to protect the which were and are funded by Ford. community have been extremely Those to whom I have taught the haphazard and poorly constructed. Indonesian language have included Many policies designed to prevent many who have gone on to become the spread of HIV have been unrealistic. significant scholars, including Robert For example, there have been campaigns Hefner, Joseph Errington, Joel Kuipers, advising sex workers to refrain from Daniel Fietkiewicz, Yoshiko Yamamoto, having sexual intercourse, or advising Margaret Wiener, Abby Ruddick, them to remain faithful to a single Suzanne Siskel, John McDougall, Jeffrey partner. Slightly more realistically, many Winters, Jeff Hadler, Audrey Kahin, Greg Dede Oetomo at a conference in Surabaya, 1987. campaigns have focussed exclusively on Acciaioli, Matthew Cohen, Jan Mrázek, condom use, without any attempt to publicize elitist viewpoint. Among members of the Brenda Yanni, Anne Schiller, Suzanne strategies for integrating condom use into a working class, discussion of sex-related Brenner, Karl Heider, Leslie Morris, Frances general pattern of safer sex, which may or issues tends to be relatively open. The Ford Gouda, Tim Jessup, Barry Drummond, Terry may not entail the use of a condom. Foundation has been developing a range of George, and Peter Slomanson. Regarding condoms, particularly in gay and programs to foster open discussion of issues I still remain in contact with many of these transsexual circles, there is little discussion related to sexuality; to recognize the diverse former students, both to discuss matters of of the need for water-based lubricants, and range of sexual behavior; and to address lethal professional interest and out of personal so far no program for the prevention of the hypocrisy. friendship. In fact, many of these people send spread of HIV/AIDS provides lubricants for I studied English at junior high school their own students to me if their research its clients. With the amount of unconstructive with a book, English for the SLTP [junior areas focus on East Java, the Chinese in and ill-informed debate among policy makers high school], which was developed through Indonesia, gender, sexuality, or HIV/AIDS. 216 CHAPTER FIVE

For the government, however, the establishment of PRD casting the ballots that chose the president). This would and the growing popularity of Megawati were sure signs that demonstrate that Suharto would not forever be elected by a something more dangerous was afoot. Pro-democracy groups docile Parliament. No less important was the desire to show that had never before been known for their effectiveness had that elections need not be a forced ritual. begun working together. Some had been active for several years. KIPP had yet another agenda: the establishment of a There were other, newer ones as well, including the Alliance of united opposition front. This paved the way for 30 NGOs and Independent Journalists (AJI), established after the government other organizations that supported Megawati to found the forced the closure of three magazines, Tempo, DeTik, and Editor. Indonesian People’s Council (Majelis Rakyat Indonesia – MARI). In 1996, these diverse groups banned together to form the This became the central force in the pro-democracy movement. Independent General Election Monitoring Committee (Komite The organization was not yet one year old when the 27 Independen Pemantau Pemilu – KIPP). Its aim was to observe July riots took place, but from the very time that MARI was the general elections to be held the following year and to guard established, the government seemed willing to do anything to against the government’s manipulating the voting process in crush it. Two days before the July riots, Suharto himself had favor of Golkar, as it had been accused of doing in the past. spoken publicly of the danger of “bald-faced devils” who were The theory was that if KIPP served as an effective contributing to the political tension of the day. These devils, watchdog, there would be a reduction in the number votes he said, must be exorcised. reported for Golkar. PDI, which had advanced Megawati as its In late October, Minister Soesilo Soedarman announced presidential candidate, would then have a greater chance of that of the more than 6000 registered community organizations mounting a serious challenge to Suharto (at the time, in Indonesia, 32 were “problematic.” At the same time, he made presidential elections were indirect, with parliamentarians a veiled threat. “Don’t be surprised,” he said, “if, at some point,

Besides newspapers and magazines, even certain theater performances were banned – such as the Opera Kecoa (Cockroach Opera), a production of the Comma Theater led by Nano and Ratna Riantiarno. A JOURNEY, A NATION 217

RATNA RIANTIARNO

High-school students these days know all about handphones and designer shoes. But when Ratna Riantiarno brings them to the Jakarta Arts Building (Gedung Kesenian Jakarta – GKJ) or the Taman to watch a performance, they look around in surprise and say, “Wow, this is the first time I’ve ever been here!” As an artist whose career in the theater is about twice as long as those students are old, Ibu Ratna is moved. Working with the Jakarta Arts Council (Dewan Kesenian Jakarta – DKJ) she directs a program to build high- school students’ appreciation for the performing arts. We started from a concern about society’s see it like this: attending a performance is work of art. declining interest in and appreciation of the one element in the process of experiencing When I was young, I saw a performance arts. People see the arts as just entertainment art. Even though the audience is passive, it of Balinese dance. Really beautiful. I – it’s OK if we have it, it’s OK if we don’t. They has “prepared its heart,” made it available immediately began to study it, and I enjoyed don’t see the arts as integral and necessary to art. This is the necessary first step to it greatly. Later, when I was practicing for a normal human life. In order to inspire appreciation and respect for art. Balinese dance at TIM, I saw Arifin C. Noer’s interest in the arts, we at the DKJ have been The next step is to investigate how to actors rehearsing theater. I thought, since I conducting a program in was already experienced in dancing “Performing Arts Appreciation for on stage, that theater would be easy High-school Students” since 1998. for me. After I joined the company, The program has two parts. I found that there was a lot that I First, we bring artists and their still had to learn. So the whole of performances right into the schools the process of watching and then so students and teachers can enjoy performing takes place inside us the arts directly. Second, to give and can expand our understanding students and teachers a more of the experience of art. complete picture of what the arts This complete process is what involve, we also bring them to we are now trying to promote professional-level theaters and through DKJ. Our performances got performance halls, where they can warm and positive responses from look behind the scenes at the students, but there were also backstage areas, the sets, requests for opportunities to learn properties, costumes, and lighting. how to play instruments, how to After any performance in our dance, how to act – basically, how program, whether it is at a school or to become performers. Because of in a theater, we hold a question and this, we eventually added a new answer session so the students can program in which we provide talk with the artists and performers. extracurricular instruction – mainly Our program has made it pos- in traditional arts, so far – at sible for students to see selected high schools. performances by well-known artists Students tell us that before our and performing groups such as W. program they never knew about arts S. Rendra, the late Gusmiati Suid, events and theaters in Jakarta; their Putu Wijaya, Boi Sakti, Teater Koma, parents or schools don’t take them Teater Payung Hitam, Teater Kubur, Ratna Riantiarno (left) in Tenung, an adaptation to performances. So this is not a Dhalang Suket, Teater S’Mas, Seni of Arthur Miller’s The Crucible, Jakarta, 1992. problem of their not having the Didi Mime, and Agus PM Toh. We money to attend. The calendars of have also offered presentations of traditional become an active participant in performance, events from the cultural centers also don’t arts from many regions and ethnic groups of so that a shift of roles occurs: the individual reach them. As for an arts curriculum in the Indonesia – from Papua, , Jambi, and moves from the passive role of audience to schools, it doesn’t exist. Our hope is that Cirebon, from the Bugis, Minang, Badui, the active role of performer. For this one through this program students will gain a Betawi, and Batak. needs “strength of heart” and also time in more complete understanding of the arts they Why should people appreciate the arts? I order to undergo the process of creating a see, study, and perform. 218 CHAPTER FIVE

A street mural in Yogyakarta, 2003, created as part of an artistic exchange project. Yog yakarta artists, the Apotik Komik group,visited San Francisco with Foundation support, and the Clarion Alley Mural Project from San Francisco came to Yogyakarta. Each group created public murals and installations in the host city. A JOURNEY, A NATION 219

FRED WIBOWO

Recently, the proportion of television time dedicated to portraying traditional art forms has increased. This has not happened by accident; it is the result of intensive advocacy. In 1996, Fred Wibowo and several of his colleagues in Yogyakarta expressed their dissatisfaction with the way that television portrayed the traditional arts. Commercial television ignored them, while government- controlled stations saw them merely as aids to propaganda. With colleagues, Fred Wibowo worked to create an increased acceptance of these forms among the mass media. To some extent this advocacy has succeeded. The current popularity of traditional arts on commercial television indicates that these “old-fashioned” forms are both commercially viable and relevant to audiences.

I first became involved in traditional arts the arts merely as a sweetener to make arts can be commercially viable. We now see broadcasting in 1996. Prior to that, I had often government propaganda more palatable to television broadcasts of wayang kulit discussed such issues with Jennifer Lindsay, village audiences. [shadow puppetry] on Indosiar, Kethoprak then Ford program officer. I expressed my We encouraged representatives of private Humor on RCTI, Ludruk Glamour on SCTV, dissatisfaction with Indonesian television radio and television stations to take part in Lenong Rumpi, and other genres. These which then fell into two categories. There was workshops and in other interactive processes popular programs demonstrate, however, TVRI, which was more or less a government with traditional artists in order to create pilot that when the traditional arts are performed propaganda organ, and there was private programs suitable for broadcast. If these on radio and television, significant modifi- television, which was extremely cations to the form usually occur. commercially oriented. Stations in There is an inevitable process of both categories showed little interaction with the media. As appreciation for the traditional media guru Roger Fidler states, arts or for any expression of the media create change while at regional values. the same time are affected by There was a perception change. He calls this “media- among Indonesia’s artists that the morphosis.” Through a process government was trying to stand- of interaction between the media ardise the arts across the nation and the art form, something new and to make them subordinate to emerges. the propaganda needs of the rul- Unfortunately, to date, almost ing regime and the commercial all performances of traditional interests of businesses associated arts on television have been with it. Like many other artists, I Javanese. By contrast, radio was appalled at this development stations have broadcast genres of and deeply worried that the true traditional music from different expression of regional and tra- Fred Wibowo (standing) in his studio in Yogyakarta, 2003. areas and cultural groups, ditional values contained in the including relatively obscure and customs and arts of Indonesia’s communi- programs achieved high ratings, the private isolated ones. ties would be suppressed. This would amount sector would naturally be expected to show Traditional arts are usually intimately to something approaching cultural genocide, more interest. related to the social structure and values the wilful destruction of an entire social en- We wanted to establish that even though of the group from which they emerge, but vironment. radio and television stations are managed as when only small segments of a I told Jennifer that I thought the media commercial ventures, they could be involved performance are staged or broadcast, this were the key. Radio and television did not in fostering a multi-ethnic, pluralistic society link is often broken. It might be easiest to allow traditional artists to engage with in which every segment, every ethnic group, address this issue by using documentaries. audiences on political and social issues. has a means of self-expression. We sought to Unfortunately, this format is still unpopular There was a need to create the possibility for establish that the media could play a bridging with Indonesian television stations. After such engagement. role in the establishment of a cross-cultural being subjected to intensive lobbying, SCTV One of the problems was that the owners context that respected all the manifestations has created a documentary program of private radio and television remained of human expression. covering the traditional arts, under the unconvinced that broadcasts of traditional We have reached the stage where the own- name Potret [Portrait]. Indosiar and ANTV arts could be commercially viable. On the ers of radio and television stations are con- have also begun efforts in the same other hand, the managers of TVRI considered vinced that at least some forms of traditional direction. 220 CHAPTER FIVE the government takes steps against these organizations.” Thus, with a terrific jolt the 1990s ended without Suharto. Although he did not provide a list of names, the number was Since that time, the country has been experimenting with about the same as the list of organizations that had joined to democracy in ways sometimes nerve-wracking, but often form MARI. Thirty people from among the council were later inspiring. The experiment began after that colorless, ten-minute arrested, a move by the government that caused most activists ceremony on 21 May 1998, when B. J. Habibie became the to duck and cover. third . Amid the reservations of many, After that, the 1997 general elections proceeded as the Suharto had selected Habibie as his vice president. For Suharto, government had planned. Suharto was elected president for though, his choice of vice president had always been immaterial the seventh time. He thought he had succeeded in showing – the position was decorative at most. that KIPP, MARI, and the other opposition groups had no real As was the case with so many of the more prominent power, that they were but short-lived voices of dissent. He was figures in the New Order government, Habibie had no wrong. As repression became more widespread, there came to experience as a political leader. What’s more, having lived in be more and more agreement among the opposition groups Germany for many years, he was often unable to interpret and the public that Indonesia needed a change of regime. the nuances of Indonesian politics. The question was: would The monetary crisis, which had begun as a distant tremor, he be able to survive? He did, though only until the general eventually – and unexpectedly – provided the opportunity for elections the following year. Even though they resulted in his change. When Suharto began to fall, there was no one to support dismissal, they were the freest elections Indonesia had seen him. since 1955.

President Suharto’s seventh, and final, inauguration. 11 March 1998. A JOURNEY, A NATION 221

RIBUT SUSANTO

Riau is a province extremely rich in oil, but under the Suharto regime most of its wealth was siphoned to Jakarta. Local residents, particularly those of Melayu descent, are increasingly protesting what they view as unfair central government policy. With the fall of Suharto, the question of control of oil resources has come under heavy debate, with a strong argument being made for increased control by locals. Ribut Susanto, of the Riau Mandiri Foundation, is one person from his province who has made it his mission to seek justice from Jakarta.

The fall of President Suharto and the to environmental waste, disadvantaged people, program only in Dumai. subsequent enactment of the Regional and land cases. It provides education to Recently, there have been increased calls Autonomy Law have resulted in a great develop the resources of organizations for an independent Riau. This is partly a direct benefit for Riau. Riau has received a throughout Riau. NGOs have developed reaction against perceived central significant cash inflow due to its forest and rapidly in Riau. In June 1998, five community government injustices. It is also something other natural resources. In the past, Riau’s self-help organizations existed; now there are of a negotiating gambit. It is extremely ironic annual budget was around 400 billion rupiah. 400. This has created an almost euphoric that Riau is the second poorest province in Now, the figure is closer to 8 trillion. This Sumatra after Lampung. In the 1970s has enabled regional and city and 1980s, Riau’s oil reserves provided governments to carry out more local Indonesia with up to 60 per cent of its development programs, such as the foreign exchange. building of bridges, hospitals, roads, and The increase in the budget to 8 schools. Of course, there have been trillion rupiah is still not enough. Caltex power struggles between provincial and alone pays Pertamina 17 trillion rupiah district governments, and the inevitable each year. Pertamina passes on a mere claims of budgetary irregularities. 6.2 trillion to the Department of Finance. Unfortunately, the increased budget Riau only receives 1.2 trillion of that. So, has not resulted in an improved level of 17 trillion rupiah, only 1.2 trillion of community participation in the comes back to Riau. Of course the local planning and formulation of community considers that unfair. development projects. This is what the Riau is also suffering an identity Riau Mandiri Foundation wants to crisis, something experienced also in facilitate – we want to bring autonomy Papua and Aceh. For example, it is now to the community. This could be expected that the heads of city, district, achieved through the village planning and provincial governments will be process, for example. members of the Melayu ethnic group. At present, if a community wants to At present, all government heads are improve the welfare of its members, Melayu. A large number of Riau’s there is no clear path to achieve this. At residents, however, come from other the village level, the Regional groups. If I’m not mistaken, 45 per cent Development Planning Board may make of the population of Riau comes from proposals, but it does so without non-Melayu backgrounds. community participation. Usually, the Ribut Susanto outside his office at Riau Mandiri, 2003. In the past, outsiders dominated headman decides by himself. Over the Riau. I can understand why locals felt past two or three years, however, the atmosphere among those in this sector. disenfranchised. They were unfairly community has begun to become Riau Mandiri was originally established discriminated against. For example, with the empowered. In 1999, Riau Mandiri, together by a group of friends involved in the Riau division of land by a palm-oil operation, with 13 other organizations, launched a civil University Nature Lovers Club. The group felt newcomers would get two hectares, while action against the local government, on the that it would be able to achieve little within locals who surrendered their land received grounds that the budget had been formulated the confines of the university, and so Riau nothing. Many injustices occurred under the without sufficient consideration for Mandiri was established in 1989. In 1999, Suharto regime. Now, the community is community interests. Riau Mandiri worked with Ford to establish claiming back assets that they feel were taken Riau Mandiri runs several programs. It a program to foster community involvement from them. That’s why unrest has occurred has established the Riau Forest Resources in the formulation of the state budget. This throughout Riau, with struggles over land Network to conserve forest resources. It also program has expanded from a single city to frequently taking place between locals and conducts programs to address issues related three districts. At first, Ford sponsored the newcomers. 222 CHAPTER FIVE

Under Megawati, the faction of the Indonesian speech as president, Habibie asked only that he be remembered Democratic Party that she led reestablished itself as PDI-P, the as a person who had restored democracy in Indonesia. Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle. It quickly emerged But democracy could not, of course, be restored by one as the nation’s leading political contender. Megawati’s own person, let alone by someone who had been so close to Suharto prestige had been greatly bolstered by the so-called “27 July and who had never been known as a supporter of democratic Incident.” The public saw her as having been unjustly freedoms. History will note, however, that under Habibie the persecuted. In the 1998 general election, her party prevailed. press was unshackled, political parties were allowed to form PDI-P’s victory did not automatically give Megawati the freely, and the country’s regions were granted autonomy. presidential chair her father had occupied. The party, enthralled Notably, East Timor was also freed – 20 years after Suharto perhaps by its victory at the polls, had not bothered to form a had brought it into Indonesia by force – even though the process coalition in Parliament. Thus, when Abdurrahman Wahid was precipitous and resulted in bloodshed. stepped forward and nominated himself as president, Megawati It is possible that Habibie had no real plans for reform found herself without the votes to defeat him. So Wahid, himself on this scale – he was after all a “Suharto man” – but was forced an unelected Parliamentary representative, became Indonesia’s to take these measures. Habibie had been the target of continual new president. attacks by students and the pro-democracy movement – the Wahid was inaugurated as Indonesia’s fourth head of state actual victors in the felling of Suharto. His position was like with Habibie in attendance, and with that the world witnessed a that of the military. He was not integral to change. In fact he peaceful changing of the guard unprecedented in Indonesia’s was viewed with suspicion and as a possible barrier to change. history. The country’s new president made no high-sounding But with the surge of democratic sentiment around him, promises. The outgoing leader did not complain. In his final Habibie had no choice but to adapt.

Abdurrahman Wahid is congratulated by B.J. Habibie, marking Indonesia’s first peaceful presidential succession, Jakarta, 1999. Pancur Kasih is one of a number of NGOs throughout Indonesia that helps villagers use maps to protect communal lands from external encroachment, Pontianak, 2003. A JOURNEY, A NATION 223

YAYAH KHISBIYAH

Muhammadiyah is often considered unsympathetic, even antagonistic, to Indonesia’s local arts and cultures. Yayah Khisbiyah has worked to overcome this divide between the highly influential Islamic organization and the arts community. Ibu Yayah hopes that members of Muhammadiyah will learn to appreciate local cultures and art forms, without considering them antagonistic to their religious beliefs. She says that there is still a tendency among members of Muhammadiyah to identify with the Arab world in matters related to the arts, rather than with their own cultures, on the grounds that anything derived from the Arab world is intrinsically Islamic. Ibu Yayah, who graduated with a degree in psychology from the University of Massachusetts, teaches at Muhammadiyah University in Surakarta (Solo).

The concept for the program that I there are many Muhammadiyah hospitals and which is an intrinsic part of life in this country. developed in cooperation with the schools around the country. I worked in the At times, we have been considered too Foundation emerged after I started teaching area of education. Muhammadiyah operates radical in our attempts to foster an in Solo, in 1997. I had just finished college 160 higher educational institutions appreciation of the arts within in Massachusetts, prior to which I had been throughout Indonesia, as well as thousands Muhammadiyah. Within the organization in Yogya. I quickly became aware that the of secondary and primary facilities. So, I felt there is a school of thought that supports the academic environment in Solo was extremely that we could achieve change by changing arts only so far as they can be used in isolationist. There was a strong orthodoxy school policies. missionary activities. For example, wayang deriving from a conventional and [puppetry] is adapted to present narrow interpretation of Islam. Islamic teachings. Dance is When I looked at the bigger modified so that no body parts are picture, I came to realize that the exposed. We don’t really object to university was not unusual. There this, but we do feel that it misses was a strong prejudice against the the point that the arts should be arts, particularly those influenced appreciated on their own terms, by local cultures. This prejudice as articulated by artists, and not derived from a perception that made to serve some didactic local cultures have been heavily purpose. That viewpoint is still influenced by the values of other rejected by many conservative religions, such as Hinduism and religious figures. The arts are still Buddhism. Thus, local arts were expected to conform to Islamic deprecated or even considered values, which have been defined haram, forbidden under religious in narrow terms. law. Of course there has been Within Muhammadiyah there resistance to our ideas. We is a body, Majelis Tarjih, whose expected that and planned for it. function is to issue rulings on Yayah Khisbiyah at a seminar in Surakarta, 2001. The best means for overcoming this doctrinal issues. These rulings are resistance is through discussions presented in an easy-to-understand format, I am currently conducting a pilot study with between arts and religious figures. in books and pamphlets and so on. One such Ford support for developing appreciation of We have also tried to change the way of book is entitled Muhammadiyah Guide to local arts in six schools. I have become aware thinking of Muhammadiyah leadership. For Living in Accord with Islam. This book, that while discussions with religious figures example, we held a special performance for which is still in use, states that the arts are within Muhammadiyah are important, it will them in which we invited Sardono W. Kusumo intrinsically makruh, detrimental to take a long time before they result in direct to stage a performance of his Opera believers, because they distract people from change. So, we are also involved in fostering Diponegoro. That was quite controversial. God. an appreciation of art in schools. We are The leaders asked why Nyai Loro Kidul was In order to create a dialog, I tried to focusing on primary schools, where there is portrayed so provocatively. At first, they didn’t facilitate discussions between religious still hope for the kids. The program is not see this in the context of Prince Diponegoro’s figures from Majelis Tarjih and experts in intended to develop accomplished artists, but resistance to the blandishments of the queen, local culture and society. at least an appreciation of local cultures in a of his struggle for purity, but we had a lively Muhammadiyah fulfils both a social and pluralistic society. I want Indonesia’s younger talk afterwards. Frequent discussions are a religious function. Two focus areas for the generation, including the students of extremely important, but we are fully aware organization are health and education, and Muhammadiyah, to appreciate pluralism, that it will take time to achieve change.

226 CHAPTER FIVE

During Habibie’s short-lived presidency, Indonesia shed Amid the country’s institutional ruins, the political parties much of its fear. The military, which for years had been used that had come out ahead in the elections proved to be incapable by the government to suppress dissent, saw its power of stimulating change. The elections, which had been organized diminished. In the face of strong opposition from the pro- in the space of just one year, brought representatives with no democracy movement, Habibie backed away from pushing a political experience to Parliament. With a nearly complete lack proposed Internal Security Act through Parliament. The nation of exemplary models from the New Order’s 32-year history, was no longer marching in one step. Noisily, messily, sometimes they had nowhere to look for guidance. In addition, the system even frighteningly, Indonesia was rediscovering its pluralism. that brought them to office had been in place since Indonesia’s This search continued during Wahid’s presidency. He beginnings: legislators gained their seats not through direct was not the most capable executive, perhaps, but as the leader elections but through appointment by their political parties. of NU and as a respected figure in the NGO movement, he With no obligation to answer to the electorate, legislators could was no stranger to differences. get away with practically anything, including the buying and The role of Pancasila in national life was demoted from selling of votes. that of being the sole guiding principle for organizations. Village Indonesia finally faced the reality that democracy, a governments ceased to have to conform to a single centrally- system for dealing with differences, would not lead down a determined structure. Traditional communities were no longer well-ordered garden path. Instead, it was a road full of deep threatened with being torn further from their roots. Laborers potholes, strewn with sharp nails, filth, and ill-intentioned as well as journalists could form their own organizations. Islam people. Not everyone could survive there. no longer meant one community with a single interpretation. That was the issue that the people who had sought to Indonesians of Chinese descent no longer were afraid to stage topple Suharto now faced: how to promote the democratic wayang potehi performances at their Confucian temples. freedoms they had so recently found? Many chose not to travel Women were no longer defined as mere pillars of the the political route. In fact, going into politics was a step they bureaucracy, but became active in bringing forward progressive avoided. According to Zohra Andi Baso, an activist from ideas, from issues of reproductive rights to new interpretations Makassar, they were filled with “romantic notions.” They of scripture. thought that by keeping their independence from political Not all was painless, however. In Papua and in Aceh, parties and Parliament, they could remain untainted. In fact, it local calls for separation from the republic intensified. In West left them without the leverage they would need to institute Kalimantan, horrifying clashes ignited between the indigenous change. Dayak people and Madurese settlers. In early 1999, conflict The outburst of diversity after the fall of the New Order between Muslims and Christians erupted in Ambon, a fierce paved the way for a variety of modes of political engagement. dispute that spread rapidly and proved difficult to quell. For example, Lilis N. Husna, an activist in NU, established a With Indonesia’s legal institutions as corrupt as ever, and Forum Warga whose mission was to steadily build influence with the nation’s security apparatus blithely offering assistance within the existing political structure. She hoped that the messy in the form of men and arms to whatever party would pay for democratic methods of the early post-Suharto days would evolve them, conflict resolution continued to take place outside the into more stable and civil forms. courtroom, often with violence. In many areas, particularly in Democracy is indeed a huge experiment. It offers no large cities, groups of uniformed thugs sprang up. Acceptable promise of perfection. It is a continuous journey to improve, methods that might entice conflicting parties to come to the to change, and to give shape to a better society though orderly negotiating table were abandoned. Compromise no longer and non-violent means. It is a journey that demands humility. existed. And in this story, that journey is called Indonesia. A JOURNEY, A NATION 227 APPENDICES 228 CELEBRATING INDONESIA

LIST OF ACRONYMS

ADC Agricultural Development Council IGGI Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia AJI Aliansi Jurnalis Independen (Alliance of IIE Institute of International Education Independent Journalists) ILO International Labor Organization APIK Asosiasi Perempuan Indonesia untuk IMF International Monetary Fund Keadilan (Indonesian Women’s Association for Justice) INGI International NGO Group on Indonesia BAPPENAS Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional IPB Institut Pertanian Bogor (Bogor Institute of (National Planning Board) Agriculture) BKKBN Badan Koordinasi Keluarga Berencana IPTN Industri Pesawat Terbang Nusantara Nasional (National Family Planning (Indonesian National Aircraft Industry) Coordinating Board) IRRI International Rice Research Institute BPN Badan Perancang Nasional (Central ISAI Institut Studi Arus Informasi (Institute for Planning Bureau) the Studies on Free Flow of Information) BPPC Badan Penyangga dan Pemarasan Cengkeh ISEI Ikatan Sarjana Ekonomi Indonesia (Clove Support and Trading Board) (Association of Indonesian Economists) BPS Badan Pendukung Soekarnoisme ITB Institut Teknologi Bandung (Bandung (Sukarnoism Support Group) Institute of Technology) BPTRI Balai Perguruan Tinggi Republik Indonesia JEN Jaringan Epidemiologi Nasional (National (National Center of Higher Education) Epidemiological Network) CGMI Consentrasi Gerakan Mahasiswa Indonesia KEPAS Kelompok Penelitian Agro-eko Sistem (Indonesian Students Movement Center) (Agro-Ecosystem Research Group) CIFOR The Center for International Forestry Research KIPP Komite Independen Pemantau Pemilu CIO Congress of Industrial Organizations (General Election Monitoring Committee) CSIS Center for Strategic and International Studies Komnas HAM Komisi Nasional Hak Asasi Manusia (National Human Rights Commission) DPR Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (House of Representatives) Kopassus Komando Pasukan Khusus (Army Special Forces Command) ECA Economic Cooperation Administration Kopkamtib Komando Pemulihan Keamanan dan FEUI Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Indonesia Ketertiban (Command for the Restoration (Faculty of Economics, University of of Security and Order) Indonesia) Leknas Lembaga Ekonomi dan Kemasyarakatan Golkar Golongan Karya (Functional Group) Nasional (National Institute for Economics HSI Himpunan Sarjana Indonesia (Union of and Social Research) Indonesian Scholars) LIPI Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia HKBP Huria Kristen Batak Protestan (Indonesian (Indonesian Institute of Sciences) Batak Protestant Church) LKEN Lembaga Kajian Ekonomi Nasional HMI Himpunan Mahasiswa Islam (Islamic (National Institute for Economic Research) Students Federation) LP3ES Lembaga Penelitian, Pendidikan, dan IAIN Institut Agama Islam Negara (State Institute Penerangan Ekonomi Sosial (Institute for for Islamic Studies) Social and Economic Research, Education, IFP International Fellowships Program and Information) APPENDICES 229

LP3Y Lembaga Penelitian, Pendidikan, dan PNI Partai Nasional Indonesia (Indonesian Penerbitan Yogyakarta (Yogyakarta Institute Nationalist Party) for Research, Education, and Publications) PPP Partai Persatuan Pembangunan (United LPEM Lembaga Penyelidikan Ekonomi dan Development Party) Masyarakat (Institute of Economic and PRD Partai Rakyat Demokratik (Democratic Social Research) Peoples Party) LPPM Lembaga Pengembangan dan Penelitian PRRI Pemerintah Revolusioner Republik Manajemen (Institute for Development and Indonesia (Revolutionary Government of Management Research) the Indonesian Republic) LSM Lembaga Swadaya Masyarakat (Community PSI Partai Sosialis Indonesia (Indonesian Self-help Organization) Socialist Party) Malari Malapetaka Limabelas Januari (The January th Repelita Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun (Five- 15 Incident) Year Development Plan) MARI Majelis Rakyat Indonesia (Indonesian Seskoad Sekolah Staf Komando Angkatan Darat Peoples Council) (Army Staff College) Masyumi Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia Sticusa Stichting Culturele Samenwerking (Consultative Council of Muslim Indonesians) TII Tentara Islam Indonesia (Indonesian Islamic Army) MIPI Majelis Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (Indonesian Council for Science and TIM Taman Ismail Marzuki Learning) TMII Taman Mini Indonesia Indah (Beautiful NICA Netherlands Indies Civil Administration Indonesia in Miniature) NIGO Nederlandse Indische Guerilla Organisattie TRIP Tentara Republik Indonesia Pelajar (Dutch Indies Guerrilla Organization) (Republican Youth Army) NU Nahdlatul Ulama UGM Universitas Gadjah Mada () P3M Perhimpunan Pengembangan Pesantren dan Masyarakat (Indonesian Society for Pesantren UI Universitas Indonesia (University of and Community Development) Indonesia) PDI Partai Demokrasi Indonesia (Indonesian USAID United States Agency for International Democratic Party) Development PDI-P Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan USIS United States Information Service (Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle) WALHI Wahana Lingkungan Hidup (Indonesian Permesta Perjuangan Semesta (Universal Struggle) Environmental Forum) PIAR Pengembangan Inisiatif dan Advokasi WALDA Wahana Lestari Persada (Movement for Rakyat (Association for the Development of Preservation of Homeland) Initiative and Community Advocacy) YIIS Yayasan Ilmu-ilmu Sosial (Social Sciences PKBI Perkumpulan Keluarga Berencana Indonesia Foundation) (Indonesian Planned Parenthood Association) YLBHI Yayasan Lembaga Bantuan Hukum Indonesia PKI Partai Komunis Indonesia (Indonesian (Indonesian Legal Aid Foundation) Communist Party) YLKI Yayasan Lembaga Konsumen Indonesia PMKRI Perhimpunan Mahasiswa Katolik Republik (Indonesian Consumers Association) Indonesia (Indonesian Catholic Students YPMD Yayasan Pengembangan Masyarakat Desa Association) (Village Community Advancement Foundation) 230 CELEBRATING INDONESIA

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INDEX

Abadi 106 BPPC 186 43, 48, 56, 60; as minister 45, 119; career Abdullah, Hamid 113 BPS 96 of 46-47; and Ford 52, 55; and PRRI 57; Abdullah, Taufik 15, 124, 129, 131 BPTRI 38 and Suharto 67,189; and CIA 71; and Acciaioli, Greg 215 Brawijaya University 17 YLBHI 80; and UN 124-125 ADC 77 Brenner, Suzanne 215 Djokosutono 45, 58, 60 Adelman, Irma 50 Bresnan, John and Sukarno 14, and Sumitro Djuweng, Stepanus 199 Aditjondro, George 137 46, and Widjojo 51, and Starch 52, and Doyle, Leonard 58 Affandi 62 IRRI 74, as Representative 95, and Geertz DPR 86, 202 Afiff, Saleh 46, 56, 58, 59 117; career of 120 Drummond, Barry 215 Agoes, Irid 211 British Council 46, 48, 82, 96, 117 Dullah 62 AJI 184, 216 British Petroleum 137 Dulles, Allen 71 Akhmadi, Heri 122 Brooks, Karen 50 Dulles, John Foster 71 Alatas, Ali 120 Brown, Dyke 72, 76, 81 Durasit, Durtje 113 Al-Azhar Indonesia University 39 Buchairi 123 Dye, Richard 126 Alfian 15, 113, 129 Budiarjo, Carmel 60 Alfian, Ibrahim 113, 129 Budiman, Arief 197, 208 East Timor 129, 172, 184, 211, 222 Algamar 15 Bundy, McGeorge 91 ECA 48, 55 Ali, Mukti 127 Bush, George W. 58 Echols, John M. 82, 215 Allison, John 69 Editor 184 Amin, Ali Basyah 129 Cardoso, Fernando Henrique 130 Eltayasa 200 Amsterdam, University of 123 Castles, Lance 113, 129 Equinox Publishing 31 Andalas University 168 CGMI 60, 96 Erasmus Huis 45 Anderson, Benedict 215 Chalid, Idham 83 Errington, Joseph 215 Ang Giok Hun 91 Choa, Andrew 27, 29, 55 Annan, Kofi 143 CIA 47, 57, 71, 100, 126 Faletto, Enzo 130 Anwar, Rosihan 90 Ciciek, Farha 203 FAO 77 Arifin, Marzuki 106 CIDA 159 Fasohah 188 Arnold, Edwin 72, 76, 81 CIFOR 165 Fatayat 188 ASEAN 15 Cikini Affair 90 Feinstein, Alan 194 Ashabranner, Brent 26 CIO 55 Festival of Indonesia 194 Asholihat pesantren 188 Citra Usadha 21 FEUI 35, 43, 44, 48, 50, 52, 55, 57, 60, 64, Asia-Africa Conference 76 Club of Rome 128 65, 67 Asialink 187 Cohen, Matthew 215 Fietkiewicz, Daniel 215 Asian Cultural Council 187 Columbia University 120 Florida, Nancy 138, 176 151 Comma Theater 216 FNS 122 Australian National University 73 Cornell University 15, 53, 55, 73, 82, 95, 107, Folkways Records 194 137, 138, 170, 215 Ford Motor Company 10 Bachtiar, Harsja 15, 117, 129, 131 Couteau, Jean 62 Ford, Henry and Edsel 10 Bahasuan 28 CSIS 44, 106 Freedom Institute 196 Bangun, Jabatin 194 Cunningham, Clark 128, 129 Freeport McMoRan 137 Bank Indonesia 196 Cunningham, Miss 14, 28, 55 Friedrich Naumann Stiftung 202 BAPPENAS 39, 44, 50, 59, 73 Fulbright Scholarship 73, 197 Baso, Zohra Andi 149, 226 Davis, Roscoe 32 Fuller, William 119 Beatles, The 96, 100 Davisson, Malcolm 58 Bell, David 100 Dawood, Dayan 129 Gaither Report Berita Buana 83 Deblog, I Gusti Made 63 Gardner, Paul 101 Berkeley Mafia 15, 50, 126, 127 DeTik 184 Garuda Indonesia 150 Berkeley, UC 15, 39, 43, 46, 48, 50-51, 55- Dharma Wanita 149 Geertz, Clifford 15, 113, 117, 120, 124, 129, 60, 64, 91, 95, 117, 123, 126, 127 113 133 Berresford, Susan V. 30 Djanin, Arif 91 Gelanggang 124 Biki, Amir 135, 136, 139 Djiwandono, Bianti 143 George, Terry 215 BKKBN 83, 97, 108, 147 Djiwandono, Soedradjad 15, 131, 186 Glassburner, Bruce 57, 58, 64, 126 Blaisdell, Thomas 58 Djogo, Tony 162, 165 Golkar 106, 154, 156, 168, 172, 192, 216 Bonnet, Rudolf 62 Djohan, Bahder 81, 119 Gorbachev, Mikhail 196 Boston University 107 Djojohadikusumo, Sumitro and the Gouda, Frances 215 BPN 47, 50 technocrats 39, 50, 58-59, 126; and FEUI Grauer, Rhoda 187 232 CELEBRATING INDONESIA

Green, Marshall 101 International Rice Genebank 74 Lange, Oscar 64 Gunder Frank, Andre 130 IPB 77 Lasky, Harold 48 IPTN 185, 200 LBH APIK 159 Habibie, B.J. 67, 181, 185, 200, 220, 222, IRRI 74, 77 Leknas 95, 129 226 ISAI 184 Lempad, I Gusti Nyoman 62 Hadisumarto, Djunaedi 44, 56, 58 ISEI 47 Lev, Daniel 129 Hadler, Jeffrey 215 Ismael, Julius E. 50, 56, 58, 60 Liem Sioe Liong 142 Hakim, Lukman 122 ITB 65, 122 Lightfoot, William 73 Haley, Bill (and the Comets) 44 Lindsay, Jennifer 187 Halim, Barli 60 J.W. Marriott Hotel 83 LIPI 15, 95, 129, 130, 138 Hamengku Buwono IX 49, 53, 59, 113 Jackson Five 215 Livingstone, Miss 29 Hamid, Sandra 31 Jakarta Arts Institute 194 LKEN 131 Hanifah 147 Jassin, H.B. 94 London School of Economics 117 Hanusz, Mark 31 Jaya 83 LP3ES 122, 209 Hardjosoemantri, Koesnadi 170 JEN 145 LP3Y 184 Harian Kami 106 Jessup, Tim 215 LPPM 47, 119 Harian Rakjat 90 Joesoef, Daoed 42, 47, 56, 64, 192 LSM 200 Harmoko 189 Johannes, Herman 91 Lubis, Mochtar 80, 90, 115 Harris, Michael 14, 27, 52, 55, 58, 63, 126 Jones, Sidney 26, 80, 184 Lubis, Todung Mulya 80 Harsono, Andreas 31 Jufri, Fikri 44, 106 Lutfi, Amir 113 Hartiningsih, Maria 191 Harvard University 15, 73, 107, 119 Kadarman 119 Machdan, Hasjim 80 Hasan 27 Kahin, Audrey 215 Madjid, Nurcholish 150, 197, 198 Hasan, Bob 182, 185 Kahin, George McT. 53, 120, 215 Mahmud, Syamsuddin 113, 129 Hasanah 29, 55 Kamaruszaman 27, 28 Makagiansar, Makaminan 131 Hasanuddin University 38, 43 Kampung Bali 27 Malari Incident 103, 105, 106, 107, 122, 125 Hasibuan, Albert 80 Kartodirdjo, Sartono 123 Malik, Adam 59, 144 Hasibuan, Sayuti 39, 91 Katjasungkana, Nursyahbani 159 Mallarangeng, Rizal 196, 197 Hatta, Mohammad 43, 45, 53, 115 Kayam, Umar 52, 128, 129, 170, 179, 197 Mangkusuwondo, Suhadi as a student 42, 44- Hawkins, Everett 46, 48 Kebon Sirih office 26, 27, 30 45; on Sumitro 46; as a technocrat 56, 58- Hefner, Robert 215 Kedung Ombo 137, 184, 207, 208 59; and PSI 57; at Berkeley 60; on foreign Heider, Karl 215 Kelola Foundation 187 investment 115 Helmi 168, 169 Kennedy, John F. 95, 120 Mangunwijaya, Y.B. 197, 208 Hermanu 136 KEPAS 162 Mao Zedong 130, 133 Higgins, Benjamin 46 Kertonegoro 91 Marcoes, Ferdinand 143 Hill, F.F. “Frosty” 27, 120 Keyfitz, Nathan 50 Marcoes-Natsir, Lies 209 Hilton Hotel 121 Keynes, John Maynard 39, 48, 64, 100 Mardanus 107 HIS 60 Keynesian economics 50, 56, 67 Margaret Sanger Institute 108 HIVOS 187 Khisbiyah, Yayah 223 MARI 216, 220 HKBP 30 KIA Corporation 186 Marshall Plan 10, 48, 52, 55, 72 HMI 39 Kidner, Frank 58 Martokusumo 80 Hoffman, Paul 10, 52, 72, 76, 81 KIPP 220 Marwadewa University 151 Hotel Des Indes 14, 52, 55 KITLV 123 Marx, Karl 100 HuMa 155 Kittikachorn, Thanom 116 Mashuri 123 Human Rights Watch/Asia 80, 184 Kleden, Ignas 124 Masyumi 86, 90, 94, 106, 112, 148, 190 Humardhani, Sudjono 107, 144 Koentjaraningrat 131 Mattulada 129 Husna, Lilis N. 213, 226 Koes Bersaudara 96 Mboeik, Sarah Lery 193 Hutabarat, Marihot 44 Kolopaking, Soenario 44, 58, 64 McDougall, John 215 Hutabarat, Paul 44 Komnas HAM 139, 202 McGill University 60 Komnas Perempuan 95 Mears, Leon E. 58 IAIN 203 Kompas 83, 120, 123, 159, 191, 197, 199 Merdeka 126 Ibrahim, Madjid 129 Konphalindo 165 Miller, Frank 43, 81, 95, 100, 120, 126 Ibrahim, Syarif 113 Kopassus 158 MIPI 131 IEF 95 Kopkamtib 105, 106 MIT 15, 46, 126, 128 IFP 73 Kopri 168 Modern Indonesia Project 53 IGGI 112, 115 Korten, Frances 169 Moerdani, L.B. 136, 139 IIE 72 Krakatau Steel 121 Moertopo, Ali 105, 106, 107 ILO 77 Krapyak pesantren 207 Mohamad, Goenawan 31, 197 IMF 50, 118, 182, 186, 196 Kuipers, Joel 215 Moniaga, Sandra 155 Independen 184 Kuntjoro-Jakti, Dorodjatun 56, 64, 106, 115 Mook, Hubertus van 49 Indonesia Raya 90, 106, 121, 122 Kuntjoro-Jakti, June 27 Morris, Leslie 215 INGI 137, 208 Kusumo, Amna 187 MPR 202 Institute for Dayak Studies 199 Kusumo, Sardono 223 Mrázek, Jan 215 APPENDICES 233

MSPI 194 PKBI 97, 108 Sakdulloh, K.H. 188 Muhammad, Mar’ie 186 PKI in 1965 39; and the Soviet Union 53; Salim, Agoes 125 Muhammadiyah 97, 150, 172, 198, 223 propaganda campaigns of 57, 94, 106; and Salim, Emil on Sumitro 46; and Ford 56; and Music of Indonesia 194 student groups 60; and FEUI 64; and PSI 57; as a technocrat 58, 127, 131; and Seskoad 65; downfall of 67, 101; and FEUI 64; at Berkeley 91; as a minister 137 Nahdlatul Ulama 83, 156, 172, 198, 213, 226 Sukarno 86, 96; and Masyumi 148; and Samadi 207 Naim, Mochtar 129 Suharto 190; stigma associated with 208, Sanata Dharma University 113 Nasution, Abdul Haris 86, 162 210 Santoso 184 Nasution, Adnan Buyung 80, 105, 115 Platters, The 44 Saroso 58 Nehru, Jawaharlal 48 PMKRI 57 Sarwono, Sophie 97 Netherlands School of Economics 46 PNI 57, 90, 172 Sastroamidjojo, Ali 46, 52, 53, 62, 72, 81 Netherlands Trading Company 86 Pope, Allen 71, 72 Sastroamidjojo, Kurnianingrat Ali 82 New Order 50, 67, 162, 170, 185, 196 PPP 150, 156, 158, 172 Satya Wacana Christian University 137 New York, State University of 100 Prawiranegara, Sjafruddin 46, 119, 148 Schell, Orville 100 NICA 38, 42 Prawiro, Radius 91 Schiller, Anne 215 Nieman Fellowship 31, 184 Prawirohardjo, Sarwono 131 Schlegel, Stuart 129 NIGO 90 PRD 210, 214, 216 Schmitt, Hans 58 Nitisastro, Widjojo and Ford 24, 43, 53; and Prijono 96 Schumacher, E.F. 128, 130 BAPPENAS 39, 73; FEUI 42, 45, 56, 67; Princen, H.J.C. 80 Schumpeter, Joseph 100 career of 50-51; and PSI 57; as a Prisma 122, 126 SEATO 96 technocrat 58-59, 126-127, 131; at Pronk, Jan Pieter 115 Sedyawati, Edi 173 Berkeley 60; in China 64; and Suharto 91, PRRI and Sumitro 43, 47, 57, 126; and Senen Mall 103 197; on corruption 121 CGMI 60; war against 69; and CIA 71, Seskoad 65, 67 Nkrumah, Kwame 48 100; and Sukarno 94 Shadily, Hassan 82 Noer, Arifin 217 PSI and Sumitro 56; and the technocrats 57; Shakespeare 73 Nommensen University 39, 91 stigma associated with 64, 106, 112 ,148; Siasat 124 North Sumatra University 194 and Sukarno 86, 94; downfall of 90; and Sibarani, Victor 80 Notosusanto, Nugroho 123 Soedjatmoko 124; and Suharto 190 Silalahi, Harry Tjan 44 Nusa Cendana University 165 Puri Lukisan 62-63 Simanjuntak, Marsillam 106 Nusantara 106 PWI 168 Simatupang, Batara 58 Nusantara, Abdul Hakim Garuda 80, 155, Simatupang, T.B. 119 208 Quinn, Phineas 73 Singarimbun, Masri 74 Siregar, Hariman 105 Oetomo, Dede 215 Rahardjo, Dawam 133 Siskel, Suzanne E. 31, 95, 215 Oey-Gardiner, Mayling 73 Rahima 203 Siswomartojo, Sadarjoen 131 Ojong, P.K. 80 Rais, Amien 150, 197, 198, 202 Sitorus, Bistok 91 Old Order 170 Ramon Magsaysay Award 124 Situmorang, Sitor 124 Opera Kecoa 216 Ramparts 126, 127 Sjahrir 197 Rand Corporation 126 Sjahrir, Sutan 57, 90, 125 P3M 188 Ransom, David 126 Slomanson, Peter 215 Pabottingi, Mochtar 171 Ranuwihardjo, Sukadji 91 SMERU 131 Padi Centra Program 77 Rasyad, Sjahriar 90 Smith, Adam 39 Padjadjaran University 65 Rendra, W.S. 170 Smithsonian Institution 194 PaEni, Mukhlis 113 Republika 159 Smithsonian/MSPI CDs 172, 194 Pamuntjak, Laksmi 31 Riantiarno, Nano 216 Social Science Research Training Stations Panca Warga 108, 147 Riantiarno, Ratna 216, 217 Program 15, 128, 129 Pancasila 136, 158, 162 Riau Mandiri Foundation 221 Soebandrio 97, 100, 108, 120 Pancur Kasih 199 Rifka Anissa 21, 158 Soebandrio, Hoeroestiati 97, 108, 147 Panggabean, Maruli 115, 127 Robison, Richard 116 Soedarman, Soesilo 210, 216 Panglaykim 42, 91, 115 Rockefeller Foundation 46, 55, 73, 74, 81, 191 Soedjatmoko on Suwarto 65; and Malari 106; Panji, Sujono Suroso 123 Ruddick, Abby 215 and Ford 107, 117, 123, 126, 129; career Papandreou, Andreas 58, 126 Rudini 137 of 124-125; ideas of 127, 128 Parker, Harrison 27, 29 Rukmana, Siti Hardiyanti (Tutut Suharto) 181 Soehoed, A.R. 50 PDI 158, 172, 210, 214, 216 Rumansara, Augustinus 137 Soemardjan, Selo career of 53; at Cornell 95; PDI-P 222 Rusk, Dean 120 and Geertz 117; and social science research Pedoman 90, 121 Ryder, Brooks 108 stations 128; and Ford 129; and Leknas Pekerti, Anugerah 119 131 Pelzer, Karl 77 Sadikin, Ali 80, 83, 108, 112, 121, 162 Soemarlin, J.B. 56, 60, 64 Pertamina 50, 118, 121, 122, 221 Sadli, Mohammad on Widjojo 50; at FEUI Soenardjo 91 Petition of Fifty 158 53, 64, 126; and Ford 56; as a technocrat Soerjadi 214 Petition of Twenty-Six 154, 156 58-59, 127, 131; and Seskoad 65, 67; and Soetanto, T.S.S. 131 PIAR 193 Suharto 91; on corruption 118 Soewardjono 109 Pirenne, Ari 123 Sajogyo 77 Sombolinggi’, Laso’ 157 234 CELEBRATING INDONESIA

Sonobudoyo Museum 138 Suwarto 59, 65 Warman, Minang 80 Sorbonne 43 Suyono, Haryono 83, 109, 147 WARSI 24 Soviet Union 82, 196, 197 Syahrir 106, 107 Washington, University of 191 Spencer, Edson 24 Syiah Kuala University 113, 129 Weldon, Peter 73 Spies, Walter 62 Wertheim, W.F. 77 Spoelberch, Guillaume de 125 Talenta Foundation 200 Wesleyan University 177 SPSI 168 Tamamoto, Yoshiko 215 WHO 77, 191 Sri Hadi 58 Taman Ismail Marzuki 170, 187, 217 Wibowo, Fred 219 Sritua, Arief 39 Taman Kebon Sirih 55 Widyantoro, Ninuk 108, 147 Sriwijaya University 47, 146 Taman Mini Indonesia Indah 50, 135 Wiener, Margaret 215 St. Xavier University 73 Tambu, Charles 124, 125 Wijaya, Putu 217 Stanford University 46 Tampubulon, Pansa 50 William and Mary College 73 Starch, Elmer 52 Tan Goan Po 57, 58 Wilopo 52, 81 Sticusa 44, 62 Tan Malaka 197 Winters, Jeffrey 215 Suanda, Endo 176, 177, 194 Tan, Mely G. 15, 95, 131 Wirjosandjojo, Sukiman 76 Suara Karya 106 Tanaka, Kakuei 103 Wisconsin, University of 15, 53, 91, 123, 126 Subroto and FEUI 56, 60, 64, 126; as a Tanjung Priok Incident 135, 136, 139, 142, Witoelar, Erna 143 technocrat 58-59; and Seskoad 65, 67; and 144, 162, 179 Wiwoho, Permadi Satrio 143 Suharto 91 Tasrif, Suardi 80 Wolff, John 73 Sudarsono, Juwono 117, 120 Taylor, Paul 58 World Bank and Widjojo 50; and Sudarsono, Priharumastinah 117 Tempo 44, 82, 118, 136, 184, 207 development 77, 151; and Kedung Ombo Sudarsono, Vishnu 117 Thayeb, Syarif 43 137, 208; and monetary crisis 182; on Sudjatmiko, Budiman 210 Thee Kian Wie 46, 131 Indonesia’s economy 189 Sudjojono 62 Thomas, Franklin 24, 30 World Neighbors 165 Sudomo 106, 112 Thukul, Wiji 203 World War II 48, 77 Suganda, Tatang 80 Tjandrasasmita, Oka 123 Woyla Incident 150 Suhadi 115 Tjokorda Agung Sukawati 62 WWF 137 Suharto and New Order 14; and Ford 24; and Tjokorda Bagus Astika, 62 selection of ministers 43, 83, 170; and Tjokorda Gede Agung Sukawati 62 Yale University 77, 123 corruption 47, 50, 118, 121, 142, 185, Tjokorda Raka Sukawati 62 Yamin, Muhammad 62, 123 186, 200, 221; and the technocrats 51, 53, Toh, Agus PM 217 Yampolsky, Philip 194 59, 91, 126; rise of 65,74, 101, 120; career Tol, Roger 138 Yanni, Brenda 215 of 67,190; and YLBHI 80; and family Tolleng, Rahman 106 Yap Thiam Hien 80, 115 planning 97, 108; and Malari 105; and Toyota 112, 170 Yayasan Asih Budi 100 opposition 107, 143, 154, 156, 192, 196- Toyota Astra 103 YIIS 53, 95, 129 97, 210, 214, 216, 220, 222, 226; as Trisakti University 186, 196 YLBHI 80, 122, 200, 208, 210 president 123, and Islam 144; and Tuloli, Nani 113 YLKI 143, 200, 202, 207 Pancasila 148,162; resignation of 181, TVRI 130 YPMD 137 189, 193, 198, 202 Suharto, Tien 156 Udayana University 151 Zamarski, Lucien 69 Suharto, Tommy 186 Udik 192 Zurbuchen, Mary S. 31, 95, 184 Suid, Gusmiati 217 UGM 39, 52, 65, 91, 113, 123, 126, 170, Sukardjo 27, 30 196 Sukarno policies of 14, 64, 71-73, 86, 91, 101, ul-Haq, Mahbub 133 120, 131; attempted assassination of 53; USAID 27, 83, 119, 126, 143 and opposition 57, 60, 67, 94, 96, 100, USC 119 122, 148; fall of 74, 90, 106, 190; and Ford USIS 96, 100 78-79, 81; and family planning 83, 97; and Soedjatmoko 124; writings of 197 Vivayuba 44 Sukarnoputri, Megawati 14, 64, 120, 214, Vries, E. de 77 216, 222 Sumawinata, Sarbini 64, 131 Wafiroh, Hibatun 188 Sumitro, General 105, 106, 107 Wahid, Abdurrahman as president 14, 44, Surjomihardjo, Abdurrachman 123 117; and selection of ministers 129, 143; Suryadi, Charles 145 and Suharto 198; policies of 209, in Ithaca Susanto, Ribut 221 215; inauguration of 222 Susilo, Zoemrotin 143, 202, 207 Walad, Muzakkir 113, 129 Sutawan, Nyoman 151 WALDA 157 Sutherland, Beatrice 69, 71 WALHI 143, 155, 200 Sutjipto 123 Walinono, Hasan 129 Sutowo, Ibnu 50, 118, 121 Wardhana, Ali and Ford 43; on Widjojo 50; as Sutrisno 136 a technocrat 56, 58-59, 131; and PSI 57; Suwarno, P.J. 113 at FEUI 64, 131 APPENDICES 235

PHOTO CREDITS

Every effort has been made to trace or contact all copyright-holders for the below images. The publisher would like to extend appreciation to the staff of the Lontar Foundation, Tempo Magazine and the Indonesian Press Photo Service (IPPHOS) for their generous assistance in providing the archival images found in this volume. Lastly, appreciation is due to Sinartus Sosrodjojo and JiwaFoto Agency for the images taken during arduous photoshoots throughout the archipelago.

Page 4-5 PCA; 8-9 JiwaFoto/Edy Purnomo; 11 Rob Pearce; 12- Goenawan Mohamad; 130 Tempo/Edy Herwanto; 131 Tempo/ 13 courtesy Ford Foundation; 14 courtesy Ford Foundation; Ali Said; 132 Owen Franken; 133 Tempo/E.H. Kartanegara; 134- 15 courtesy Mely G. Tan; 16 Paul Berry/Garrett Solyom; 17 135 PCA; 136 Tempo/Ilham Soenharjo; 137 JiwaFoto/Roy Ray Witlin; 18-19 Ray Witlin; 20 courtesy Ford Foundation; Rubianto; 138 JiwaFoto/Deny Salman; 139 Gatra; 140-141 21 JiwaFoto/Deny Salman; 22-23 JiwaFoto/Roy Rubianto; 24 JiwaFoto/Deny Salman; 142 JiwaFoto/Edy Purnomo; 143 courtesy Sekretariat Negara; 25 Rob Pearce; 26 top courtesy Tempo/Rully Kesuma; 144 Djoni Litahalim; 145 JiwaFoto/Deny Ford Foundation, bottom John Dixon; 27 courtesy Ford Salman; 146 Owen Franken; 147 Tempo/Maman ; Foundation; 28-29 courtesy Ford Foundation; 30 courtesy Ford 148 IPPHOS; 149 courtesy Zohra Andi Baso; 150 Tempo/Ed Foundation; 31 courtesy Ford Foundation; 32 JiwaFoto/Roy Zoelverdi; 151 JiwaFoto/Roy Rubianto; 152-153 Ray Witlin; Rubianto; 34-35 IPPHOS; 36-37 IPPHOS; 38 IPPHOS; 39 154 IPPHOS; 155 JiwaFoto/Rama Surya; 156 PCA; 157 The Jakarta Post/Arief Suhardiman; 40-41 IPPHOS; 42 JiwaFoto/Rama Surya; 158 Tempo/A. Margana; 159 Tempo/ IPPHOS; 45 IPPHOS; 46 Tempo/Bur Rasuanto; 47 IPPHOS; Amatul Rayyani; 160-161 JiwaFoto/Deny Salman; 162 courtesy 48 Tempo/Bur Rasuanto; 49 IPPHOS; 50 Tempo/Bur Ford Foundation; 163 top Ray Witlin, bottom courtesy Ford Rasuanto; 51 courtesy John Bresnan; 52 courtesy Ford Foundation; 164 Ray Witlin; 165 courtesy Tony Djogo; 166- Foundation; 53 Tempo/Ed Zoelverdi; 54 courtesy Ford 167 Rob Pearce; 168 Tempo/Saur Hutabarat; 169 courtesy Helmi; Foundation; 55 courtesy Ford Foundation; 56 IPPHOS; 57 170 Clark Cunningham; 171 JiwaFoto/Deny Salman; 172 IPPHOS; 59 Djoni Litahalim; 60 IPPHOS; 61 IPPHOS; 62 JiwaFoto/Roy Rubianto; 173 Tempo/Herdianto Santoso; 174- Rio Helmi; 63 courtesy Museum Puri Lukisan; 64 IPPHOS; 175 courtesy Philip Yampolsky; 176 Tempo/Kastoyo Ramelan; 65 IPPHOS; 66 IPPHOS; 68-69 IPPHOS; 70 IPPHOS; 71 177 KOMPAS/Agus Susanto; 178 top Ray Witlin, bottom IPPHOS; 72 IPPHOS; 73 courtesy Mayling Oey-Gardiner; courtesy Philip Yampolsky; 179 Tempo/Rully Kesuma; 180-181 74 Ray Witlin; 75 PCA; 76 IPPHOS; 77 Tempo/G.J. Saptono; 182 Dimas Ardian; 183 JiwaFoto/Edy Purnomo; 184 Aditjondro; 78-79 IPPHOS; 80 JiwaFoto/Deny Salman; 82 Dimas Ardian; 185 SWA Sembada; 186 Arif Ariadi; 187 JiwaFoto/ IPPHOS; 83 Tempo/Martin Aleida; 84-85 JiwaFoto/Deny Deny Salman; 188 JiwaFoto/Deny Salman; 189 JiwaFoto/Roy Salman; 86 IPPHOS; 87 IPPHOS; 88-89 IPPHOS; 90 Rubianto; 190 JiwaFoto/Deny Salman; 191 JiwaFoto/Roy IPPHOS; 91 Tempo/Putu Setia; 92-93 IPPHOS; 94 IPPHOS; Rubianto; 192 JiwaFoto/Roy Rubianto; 193 JiwaFoto/Roy 95 courtesy Mely G. Tan; 96 IPPHOS; 97 Tempo/Martin Aleida; Rubianto; 194 courtesy Ford Foundation; 195 courtesy Philip 98-099 IPPHOS; 100 courtesy Ford Foundation; 101 IPPHOS; Yampolsky; 196 Kemal Jufri; 197 Tempo/Sony Soemarsono; 198 102-103 Tempo/Syahrir Wahab; 104 Tempo/Ali Said; 105 courtesy Sekretariat Negara; 199 JiwaFoto/Edy Purnomo; 200 Tempo/Syahrir Wahab; 106 Tempo/Ed Zoelverdi; 107 Tempo/ JiwaFoto/Deny Salman; 201 Rob Pearce; 202 Tempo/Bagus Ed Zoelverdi; 108 Dick Swanson; 109 top Dick Swanson, Indahono; 203 courtesy Farha Ciciek; 204-205 JiwaFoto/Deny bottom courtesy Ford Foundation; 110-111 IPPHOS; 112 Salman; 206 Tempo/Rully Kesuma; 207 Gatra; 208 Tempo/ Tempo/Yunus Kasim; 113 Tempo/Fachrul Rasyid; 114 Yuyuk Sugarman; 209 courtesy Lies Marcoes; 210 Tempo/Bodi IPPHOS; 115 Tempo/Bur Rasuanto; 116 Tempo/Syahrir CH; 211 JiwaFoto/Sinartus Sosrodjojo; 212 Untung H. Bimo; Wahab; 117 courtesy Juwono Sudarsono; 118 Djoni Litahalim; 213 JiwaFoto/Sinartus Sosrodjojo; 214 Gatra; 215 Tempo/ 119 Tempo/Teguh Puradisastra; 120 JiwaFoto/Dimas Ardian; Budiono Darsono; 216 courtesy Ratna N. Riantiarno, design 121 Djoni Litahalim; 122 Tempo/Harianto Iman Rahayu; 123 Untung H. Bimo; 217 Tempo/Hidayat SG; 218 JiwaFoto/Deny Tempo/M. Cholid; 124 courtesy Ford Foundation; 125 courtesy Salman; 219 JiwaFoto/Deny Salman; 220 Hadiyanto; 221 Ratmini Soedjatmoko; 126 John Hanusz; 127 Tempo/Djoni courtesy Ribut Susanto; 222 Kemal Jufri; 223 KOMPAS/Ardus Litahalim; 128 courtesy Clark Cunningham; 129 Tempo/ Safega; 224-225 JiwaFoto/Edy Purnomo; 226 Eddy Hasby. 236 CELEBRATING INDONESIA

STAFF AND CONSULTANTS IN INDONESIA

Many individuals have served in one or more capacities with the Ford Foundation's Jakarta office. A variety of titles and classifications have been used over the years, just as terms of reference and job descriptions have changed to suit evolving needs and opportunities. The lists below were compiled from archival records and current office files. The institutional memory of current and former staff was, as always, an invaluable trove of information and unforgettable stories. The editors of this book hope that the lists are as accurate and complete as possible, but acknowledge that there are likely to be oversights. We sincerely apologize for all omissions and errors.

ADMINISTRATIVE AND SUPPORT STAFF

This list covers the wide range of Indonesian employees such as drivers, office assistants, general service officers, accountants, receptionists, secretaries, executive assistants and grants administrators. Current employees' names are printed in bold.

Aatje Winarto Janice Tirta Suhadi Pratiwi Setianto Abas Jannes Pospos Pudji Agustine Abdul Halim Johanna Tobing Rameni Adnan I. Madewa Joyce Kansil S.P.L. Tobing Amin Soewondo Jozefa Sudarmo Sadiah Arudji Durachim Kirchner Sadli Aty Rosmiati Kontangan Salmiah Achmad Awab Kristiani Wirawan Saman Ayu Cahyo Adi Lessy Ryan Samuel P.D. Anantadjaya Babsye Lucy Kusnadi Sundjaja Sarip bin Idris Bahaswan Lucy Loppies Sarwani Basir M. Syarief Sayuti Binsar Simatupang Mansuri Solam Manullang Boentje Maruly Sinaga Sophia Pandelaki Cecep Kosasih Max Sariwating Sophie Saerang Chairuddin Syahar Mayling Oey Sudjono Chalid Umar Meity Suwarno Sukardjo Desirree Hosea Tasik Mudasir Sukarno Dewi Azhari Nani Supolo Suparman Dino Rachmanto Napih Djanah Suparman Tugiman Djuki Nazabuddin Suratman Effendi Ngurah Susanna Tinondighang Enim Nico Sariwating Sutrisno Erya Kamal Nina Gussman Tapsir Maulana Evelyn Nurdjaya Nina Purwandari Titiek Nursatiyah Faiq Hinduan Nina Soetarinah Tjuk Sukadi Frida Kuhuwael Ning Anhar Tusin Totong Hassan Niniek Malangjudo Ukat bin Yahya Hedy Tato Ninuk Smith Urip Suhodo Himawan Djaja Endra Noegrahvidha P. Denis Utje Lekatompessy Icih Nonny Lerrick Uweng Suhanda Iing Holil Nova Kasaulya Venia Maharani Ilyas Nur Dharmantini Handoyoputro Winata Imam Djamhuri Paschetta Sarmidi Yetty Machribi Ina Jusuf Peter Latuheru Zainal Abidin Irman Hidayat Peter Yap Zulhana Iwan Setiawan APPENDICES 237

PROGRAM STAFF

This is a list of the Representatives or heads of the Jakarta office (whose names appear in bold), Program Officers (the individuals who develop and manage grant- making portfolios in collaboration with a team of local administrative and support staff) and individuals who were not direct employees of the Foundation but served in long-term consulting or advisory positions with the office. To avoid duplication, any individuals who were employed both as consultants and as program staff are mentioned only on the list below.

Elmer Starch R 53–55 Roger Montgomery PS 76–79 Michael S. Harris R 55–61 William Cummings PS 77–81 William I. Lightfoot AA 55–58, AR 58–65 Michael Smith PS 77–80 John D. Blumgart AR 58–60 Sidney R. Jones atR 77–79, PO 79–80 Charles P. McVicker AR 58–60, PA 60–63 Peter Burbridge PS 78–81 Frank J. Miller PA 59–60, AR 60–61, R 61– Michael Morfit PS 78–80, PO 80–81 65 & 67–69 John A. Dixon APO 78–79, PS 80–81 John J. Bresnan AR 61–65, R 69–73 Tom G. Kessinger RD 79, R 79–87 Daniel S. Lev RA 61–62 E. Walter Coward PO 80–81 Donald C. Holmes atR 62–65 Terrance W. Bigalke atR 80–82, APO 82–83, Stephan A. Douglas TA 63–65 PO 83–83 Gary Hansen TA 63-65 S. Ann Sutoro PO & PS 81–82, PO 82–84 Lester M. Stone atR 64–66 Wiley Henry Mosley PO 82–84 Ingvar Forsberg atR 67–69 Mark Poffenberger PO 82–87 Brooks Ryder PS 67–72 Frances F. Korten PO 83–88 John M. Newmann TA 67–68, PA 68–69, atR 69–70 Mary S. Zurbuchen APO 84, PO 85–87, Theodore Smith atR 67–72, aR 73, R 76–79 R 95–00 Paul E. Booz AR 68–71 Michael J. Dibley PO 85–88 Gray W. Wilson AA 68–70 Bianti S. Djiwandono APO 85–87, PO 87–88, C 89-98 Adelaide B. Zamora PS 69–70 David Winder R 87–92 Edgar C. McVoy PS 69–71 Alan Feinstein PO 87–94 George E. Loudon TA 69–71 Frances Seymour APO 87–89, PO 89–92 Robert P. Greene atR69–72, AR 72 John S. Ambler PO 88–90 William A. Schaffer PA 70–74 Cynthia L. Myntti PO 90–93 Robert J. Van Leeuwen TA 70–72, PA 72–73, atR 73–75 Suzanne E. Siskel PO 90–91, AR 92–97, Barry D. Gaberman PA 71–73, atR 73–75 R 00-present Kenneth Colin Rosser PA 72–74, PS 74 Paul C. Fay PO 92–96 Guillaume de Spoelberch R 73–76 Rosalia Sciortino PO 93–99 James J. Bausch AR 73–75 Jennifer Lindsay PO 95–99 Peter Weldon PS 73–77 Jeffrey Y. Campbell PO 96–00 Robert D.A. Shaw PA 73–77 Hans-Göran Antlöv PO 98–present Edward Heneveld PS 74–79 Meiwita P. Budiharsana PO 99-present Howard Benjamin Fisher PS 74–79 Diah Yulinar Rahardjo PA 99-02 Menno H. Van Wyk atR 74–77 Philip Yampolsky PO 00–present Sheldon Shaeffer APO 74–77 Firsty Husbani PA 01-03 Brent K. Ashabranner AR & PO 75–80 Ujjwal Pradhan PO 01–present

AR=Assistant Representative, atR=assistant to Representative, aR=Acting Representative, R=Representative, AA=Administrative Associate, PA=Program Associate, TA=Training Associate, PS=Project Specialist, APO=Assistant Program Officer, RD=Representative Designate, RA=Research Assistant, PO=Program Officer, C=Consultant 238 CELEBRATING INDONESIA

CONSULTANTS

Over the past 50 years, a very large number of people have served in a wide range of advisory, administrative, and consultative positions. Some consultants served long term, while others had very brief assignments. In the case of a few expatriates, only a surname was listed in available reports. We have endeavored to include all consultants, but the possibility exists that some names inadvertently may have been omitted.

William I. Abraham, Achadiati Ikram, Adriani Sumampouw Manring, Kurt Martin, Masdar F. Mas’udi, Betty Matthews, Soemantri, Agus Purnomo, Alfian, Amna Kusumo, Virgil L. Jack Mathias, Mattulada, Theodorus Cornel van der Meij, Colin Anderson, David Baradas, J.A. Barnett, Richard Batt, A.L. McAndrews, David McCauley, A. Colin McClung, Peter Becker, Richard C. Bedford, C.E. Beeby, Timothy E. Behrend, McDonald, John H. McGlynn, E. Edwards McKinnon, Gordon Joel Bell, Martin Bell, Sita Thamar van-Bemmelen, Christopher McLean, Geoffrey McNicoll, Leon A. Mears, Charles B. Mehl, P.A. Bennett, John Bentley, Paul Th. Berghuis, Robert Bernstein, Annella Manalo Mendoza, Walter Mertens, Meuthia Ganie Warren Bilkey, Mark Blang, James Boon, Anne Booth, Elizabeth Rochman, Elizabeth Meyer, Jon Miksik, Paul Minault, Bert Booz, Wilhelm Boucherie, Bennet Bronson, Edward Bruner, Miripolsky, Judith Mitoma, Mochtar Buchori, Frank Momberg, Bryan R. Bruns, Henny Buftheim, Harrison Bryan, John A. Christine Morfit, Stephanie Morgan, Elizabeth Morris, Morrisey, Butler, Richard Buxbaum, Jean Capelle, Harold Carpenter, Arthur T. Mosher, Kenneth E. Mueller, Mervin E. Muller, Bryan Carson, J.G. Casparis, Lance Castles, Ian Catford, Sol Thomas Murray, Robert Myers, Michio Nagai, Mitsuo Chafkin, Robert Chambers, Robert Chandler, Chandra Kirana Nakamura, Edward van Ness, Robert Northrup, Richard Noss, Prijosusilo, Srisaksidi Charmonman, Shubha Chaudhuri, J.P. Nursyahbani Katjasungkana, Nuryadi M. Yasin, Geoffrey Clark, Jarret Clinton, David Cole, William Collier, Elizabeth Oldam, Burton Onate, Wyn Owen, James Palmore, Jan Palte, Fuller Collins, Gordon Conway, Richard Cooper, Geoff Corner, Gustav Papanek, Richard Patten, Richard Pearse, James Pedersen, Richard Cullen, Ralph Cummings, Clark Cunningham, Christian Pelras, Nancy Peluso, Anugerah Pekerti, Gordon Christopher Dagg, Claudie D’Andrea, Maja Daruwala, Perkin, Marc Perlman, Joseph Perrigo, A.K. Pickering, G.R. Daugherty, Alison Davis, Ruth Darusman, Isodoro P. David, Platt, Lincoln Polissar, J. Perry Polson, William Pounds, Pudentia Digby Davies, John Anthony Day II, Durstine, Richard Dye, MPSS, Andrew Quarmby, Diana Quarmby, Rachmad Soetopo, J.F. Edward, Fred Eggan, Samuel Eilenberg, Warwick Elley, Erna Rahmi Sofiarini, Carlos Ramos, Raj Rao, Victoria C. Read, Linda Witoelar, Errol Jonathans, Hans-Dieter Evers, Fahmi Mu’thi, Redman, Morris Rieger, Rifqi, Gerard Rixhon, Beryl J. Roberts, Wally Falcon, Fazlur Rahman, Eric Fell, Joseph Fischer, Lawrence Marguerite Robinson, Jessie Robredo, Everett M. Rogers, Jeff A. Fisher, Don Michael Florney, Maria Cristina Formaggia, Romm, Edward Rubin, Abby Cole Ruddick, Rudolf Sinaga, Jefferson Fox, Ronald Freedman, Stephanie T. Fried, Reuben Eric Rusten, Danilyn Rutherford, Vernon Ruttan, Samsuri, Frodin, Edward Fuller, Galuh Wandita, Jack Garlington, Samsuridjal Djauzi, Sans Hutabarat, Sapto Raharjo, Sarimawar William Gates, Clifford Geertz, Adrienne Germain, Richard Djaja, Madhu Sarin, Lyle Saunders, Stuart Schlegel, William Gilbert, Malcolm Gillis, C.H. Gladwell, Bruce Glassburner, Peter Seddon, Anthony Seeger, Bernard Sellato, Setyadi, E.P. Sharman, Goethals, Goris Lewoleba, Clive Gray, Omar Dean Gregory, S.V.S. Shastry, Robert Shaw, Sih Yuniati, Jeanne Sinquefield, Gordon Groves, John G. Gurley, James Hagen, Peter Hagul, Sinta Nuryah A. Wahid, Ismael Sirageldin, Martua Thomas Arthur J. Hanson, Mark Hanusz, Haryo Habirono, Oscar Sirait, Sjarifah Sabaroedin, John Slocum, Leslie Small, David Harkavy, Arnold Harberger, Jimmy Harris, John R. Harris, N. Smith, Michael Smithies, W.G. Solheim, Bronwen Solyom, Haryono Suyono, Priscilla Hayner, Everett D. Hawkins, Ole George Spiva, Sri Rumiati Atmakusumah, Eugene Staley, Carol Hendrickson, Hendro Sangkoyo, R. William Hodge, William Stoney, Alan M. Strout, Martha Stuart, David J. Stuart-Fox, Hollinger, Robert Hornick, Roger Howley, Philip S. Hughes, Richard B. Sturgis, Ippei Sugiura, Suhardi Suryadi, Sumartini Graeme Hugo, Terence Hull, Valerie Hull, Jon M. Huntsman, Hadad, Sun Yik Ching, Beatrice Sutherland, F.X. Sutton, Jr., Ibrahim Alfian, Kay Ikranegara, Irawaty Pulungan, Iwan Williams Sweeney, F.B. Sweeting, Syaiful W. Harahap, Jaya Azis, Iwan Tjitradjaja, Robert Jackson, S.B. Joedono, Gavin Syamsuddin Mahmud, Andrew Symington, Tatan Sjuflana, Jones, Robert M. Johnson, Rosall Johnson, George Kahin, Eligio Tavanlar, Donald Taylor, Gary Theisen, Terzo, Jan Kamala Chandrakirana, Karlina Leksono-Supelli, Kathpalla, Thomas, R. Murray Thomas, Peter Timmer, Roger Gerard Tol, Robert Kerwin, Nathan Keyfitz, Asmeen Mariam Khan, Philip Andrew Toth, Toto Sugito, Tri Nugroho, Edward Triebe, Ashley Kochman, Koesoebiono, Nathan M. Koffsky, Christina F. Kreps, Maxwell Turner, Umar Kayam, Andrew P. Vayda, Anmol Vellani, Krisnawati Suryanata, Hans E. Krusa, William R. Kunsela, Wolf E. deVries, Mildred L.E. Wageman, Valerie Waken, Richard Ladejinsky, Keith C. F. Lathrope, Michael Leigh, Gilbert Levine, Weckstein, Louis T. Wells, Benjamin White, Lawrence White, Lily Patir Kak, Lily Zakiyah Munir, Jan Livingstone, Robert Vincent Whitney, Theodore Wiese, Barbara Wiggin, Kenneth Loken, Lola S.T. Wagner, William A. Loxley, Lukman Sutrisno, Williams, Wimar Witoelar, Yang Yiqi, Alwin J. Young, Edwin Elizabeth Lyons, Paul MacAvoy, J.P. Malingreau, Timothy Young, Melvin Zelnick. FORD FOUNDATION

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Dilarang mengutip atau memperbanyak seluruh atau sebagian isi buku ini tanpa izin tertulis penerbit.

Hak Cipta dilindungi undang-undang.

Perempuan dari desa di Tengger, Jawa Timur, 1990. Pengantar: Sebuah Perayaan...... 9

————————————————BAB SATU———————————————— Orang-orang dari Salemba ...... 35 Sayuti Hasibuan ...... 39 Selo Soemardjan ...... 53 Daoed Joesoef ...... 43 Semalam bersama Teknokrat ...... 58 Begawan Ekonomi: Sumitro Djojohadikusumo ...... 46 Puri Lukisan Ubud ...... 62 Teknokrat Nomor Satu: Widjojo Nitisastro ...... 50

————————————————BAB DUA———————————————— Amerika, Amerika...... 69 Mayling Oey-Gardiner ...... 73 Sukadji Ranuwihardjo ...... 91 Revolusi Hijau: Swasembada Pangan ...... 74 Mely G. Tan ...... 95 Sajogyo ...... 77 Sophie Sarwono ...... 97 Yayasan Lembaga Bantuan Hukum Indonesia ...... 80 Rumpang yang Singkat ...... 100 Haryono Suyono ...... 83

————————————————BAB TIGA———————————————— Malari, Minyak, dan Mahbub ul-Haq ...... 103 Syahrir ...... 107 Sartono Kartodirdjo...... 123 Kampanye Keluarga Berencana ...... 108 Cendekiawan Publik: Soedjatmoko ...... 124 Ibrahim Alfian...... 113 Artikel Ramparts: Gosip, Cerita, dan Konspirasi...... 126 Juwono Sudarsono ...... 117 Taufik Abdullah ...... 129 Anugerah Pekerti ...... 119 Thee Kian Wie ...... 131 Profesor Amerika yang Mencintai Indonesia ...... 120

————————————————BAB EMPAT———————————————— Yang Tunggal, Yang Tanggal ...... 135 Augustinus Rumansara ...... 137 Laso’ Sombolinggi’...... 157 Melestarikan Masa Lampau: Naskah dan Mikrofilm ..... 138 Nursyahbani Katjasungkana ...... 159 Erna Witoelar ...... 143 Tony Djogo ...... 165 Charles Suryadi...... 145 Helmi ...... 169 Ninuk Widyantoro ...... 147 Energi Komik: Umar Kayam ...... 170 Zohra Andi Baso ...... 149 Edi Sedyawati...... 174 Nyoman Sutawan ...... 151 Endo Suanda ...... 177 Sandra Moniaga ...... 155

————————————————BAB LIMA———————————————— Sebuah Perjalanan, Sebuah Bangsa ...... 181 Mendobrak Tabu: Kebebasan Berekspresi ...... 184 Lies Marcoes-Natsir...... 209 Amna Kusumo ...... 187 Irid Agoes ...... 211 Hak Perempuan: Menafsir-ulang Naskah Klasik ...... 188 Menggerakkan Buku: Program Pustaka ...... 212 Maria Hartiningsih ...... 191 Lilis N. Husna ...... 213 Sarah Lery Mboeik ...... 193 Dede Oetomo ...... 215 Seri Musik Indonesia: CD-CD Smithsonian/MSPI ...... 194 Ratna Riantiarno ...... 217 Rizal Mallarangeng ...... 197 Fred Wibowo...... 219 Stepanus Djuweng ...... 199 Ribut Susanto ...... 221 Zoemrotin K. Susilo ...... 202 Yayah Khisbiyah...... 223 Farha Ciciek ...... 203

Daftar Singkatan ...... 228 Daftar Pustaka ...... 230 Indeks ...... 231 Kredit Foto ...... 235 Staf dan Konsultan di Indonesia ...... 236 8 MEMYAMBUT INDONESIA SEBUAH PERAYAAN 9

PENGANTAR SEBUAH PERAYAAN

erita tentang 50 tahun keberadaan Ford Foundation di Indonesia terkait dengan dua isu besar yang Cmewarnai hubungan antar bangsa pada paruh kedua abad ke-20: berdirinya negara-bangsa serta terjadinya modernisasi dan pembangunan. Cerita ini juga membeberkan riwayat sebuah organisasi Amerika Serikat yang berusaha berperan efektif dan relevan di dunia yang berubah dengan cepat. Karya Ford Foundation, di Indonesia dan di tempat lain, berakar pada budaya filantropi Amerika. Budaya ini muncul pada akhir 1800-an dan merupakan akibat dari tiga hal: perluasan industri di Amerika, cita-cita tentang reformasi sosial, dan sistem perpajakan yang mendorong tumbuhnya kedermawanan. Sejak awal berdirinya, Ford Foundation tidaklah berfungsi sebagai badan amal (charity), yang menyediakan jasa atau bantuan langsung kepada mereka yang membutuhkan, tapi sebagai filantropi. Menurut kamus, filantropi berarti “suatu usaha aktif untuk memajukan kesejahteraan manusia.” Ford Foundation bekerja untuk menciptakan perubahan positif di bidang kerja yang strategis. Misi Ford Foundation adalah: memperkuat nilai-nilai demokratis, mengurangi ketidakadilan dan kemiskinan, mendukung kerjasama internasional, dan meningkatkan karya manusia.

 Memajangkan tenun ikat Dayak di Pontianak, Kalimantan Barat, 2003. Membantu pewarisan seni tradisional, termasuk tenun dan tekstil, ke generasi muda merupakan salah satu tema dari kegiatan pendanaan Ford Foundation di Indonesia dalam bidang seni dan budaya. 10 MEMYAMBUT INDONESIA

Ford Foundation didirikan pada 1936 sebagai organisasi Di negara-negara tempat Ford Foundation mulai bekerja filantropi lokal di negara bagian Michigan, Amerika Serikat, sejak 1950-an, hanya dua yang masih mempunyai kantor dengan memanfaatkan sumbangan saham Ford Motor perwakilan: India (kantor dibuka pada 1952) dan Indonesia Company dari Henry dan Edsel Ford bersaudara. Sesudah (1953). Saat ini di Asia, Ford Foundation juga mempunyai kekacauan dan kehancuran Perang Dunia II, dan dengan perwakilan di Cina dan Vietnam, dan pernah mempunyai mengantisipasi tambahan hibah dari keluarga Ford, maka Ford kantor di Bangladesh, Burma, Jepang, Malaysia, Pakistan, Foundation melakukan sebuah studi (yang dikenal sebagai Filipina, dan Thailand. Pada 1950-an Ford Foundation “Laporan Gaither”) untuk mencari arah baru. Pada 1950, memandang Indonesia sebagai “sebuah negara yang Dewan Penyantun Ford Foundation mengambil keputusan mempunyai makna unik.” Alasannya: perubahan di Indonesia yang bersejarah dengan memperluas kerja organisasi ini menjadi berlangsung cepat dan bergejolak, dari negara jajahan menjadi sebuah yayasan nasional dan internasional. Keputusan tersebut negara merdeka; kebutuhannya besar untuk meningkatkan mengutamakan perdamaian. “Di antara semua masalah sumber daya manusia; dan karena Indonesia kelihatannya hubungan antarmanusia,” demikian Dewan Penyantun, (dalam paradigma politik zaman itu) memiliki “suatu peluang “tantangan yang paling besar adalah mewujudkan perdamaian yang nyata untuk membangun secara demokratis.” Memang di seluruh dunia.” Dewan Penyantun mengatakan hanya pada masa-masa awal Perang Dingin, para pemimpin Ford dengan meningkatkan kondisi sosial dan ekonomi masyarakat Foundation, sebagaimana juga pemerintah Amerika, prihatin di seluruh dunialah maka perang bisa dihindari. Mereka dengan merebaknya komunisme di Asia, dan Indonesia mengamanatkan agar dana Ford Foundation dikelola sebagai dipandang sebagai wilayah pertarungan antara totalitarianisme sumber daya yang bisa mendukung cita-cita dan pekerjaan itu dan masyarakat merdeka. secara abadi. Lama-kelamaan Ford Foundation juga melakukan Pada 1952, sebuah tim Ford Foundation yang divestasi saham Ford Motor Company, dan keluarga Ford tak mengunjungi Indonesia berkesimpulan bahwa Indonesia sangat lagi dilibatkan dengan urusan-urusan organisasi ini. memerlukan para administratur yang cakap dan harus Di bawah presiden pertama, Paul Hoffman, Ford meningkatkan produksi beras, mutu kesehatan, dan mutu Foundation mulai bekerja di luar Amerika, dengan memusatkan pendidikan bahasa Inggris. Indonesia waktu itu berpenduduk perhatian pada negara-negara yang baru muncul atau merdeka, 75 juta, populasinya keenam terbesar di dunia. Ia juga mereka yang tengah berjuang membentuk pemerintahan yang mempunyai sumber daya hutan yang luas serta kekayaan laut demokratis. Sebelum memimpin Ford Foundation, Hoffman dan mineral. Tapi penduduknya melarat karena meluasnya adalah salah satu arsitek utama Marshall Plan di Eropa. Ia kemiskinan sesudah masa Malaise, pendudukan Jepang, serta mengembangkan program luar negeri dengan memusatkan perang kemerdekaan 1940-an. Hanya sepuluh persen orang perhatian pada kebutuhan setiap negara, berkonsultasi dengan Indonesia yang mampu membaca. Ini beda dengan India, di pemerintahnya tentang kepentingan mereka, dan membangun mana penduduknya dididik oleh Inggris untuk menduduki kantor perwakilan Ford Foundation agar mereka bisa bekerja jabatan dalam birokrasi. Kebijakan kolonial Belanda sangat tidak jauh dari kegiatannya. Ini prinsip operasi Ford Foundation membatasi kesempatan “penduduk asli” untuk mendapatkan di seluruh dunia yang bertahan sampai hari ini. pendidikan.

Sawah pertanian di lereng Gunung Merapi, Sumatera Barat, 2003. Membantu peningkatan produksi padi merupakan salah satu prioritas awal karya Ford Foundation di Indonesia. SEBUAH PERAYAAN 11 12 MEMYAMBUT INDONESIA SEBUAH PERAYAAN 13 14 MEMYAMBUT INDONESIA

Pemerintah Indonesia menyambut kedatangan Ford Foundation menetapkan kebijakan dan mendelegasikan Foundation, dan Presiden Sukarno sendiri merestui program wewenang penyaluran dana dan operasi kepada presiden dan peningkatan bahasa Inggris dan pelatihan pegawai negeri. Dalam staf senior yang bekerja di New York dan 12 kantor (sekarang sebuah memoar yang tak diterbitkan, salah satu wakil Ford ini) di berbagai negara. Program-program di Indonesia dikaitkan Foundation pada masa-masa awal di Jakarta, John Bresnan, dengan program di negara-negara lain di seluruh dunia, guna menyatakan bahwa “sebuah organisasi filantropi swasta Amerika mendukung pertukaran gagasan dan strategi, serta mendukung seperti Ford Foundation bisa menjadi sebuah alternatif [bagi kerja sama internasional di antara para staf dan penerima hibah. Sukarno] ketimbang pemerintah Amerika Serikat” (negara yang Keadaan Indonesia hari ini sangat berbeda dengan 1953. dengan enggan mendukung perjuangan kemerdekaan Indonesia). Sekarang terdapat 212 juta penduduk dengan tingkat melek Sebuah kantor di Hotel des Indes dibuka pada Juni 1953, tapi huruf mendekati 90 persen dan pendapatan per kapita tumbuh kegiatannya berjalan sangat lambat. Baru dengan kedatangan dari $30 pada awal 1960-an ke sekitar $900 saat ini. Sekolah, seorang mantan aktivis buruh bernama Michael Harris, yang sarana kesehatan, komunikasi modern, dan prasarana dasar mengambil alih kepemimpinan Ford Foundation di Jakarta pada sudah menyebar ke seluruh pelosok negeri. Berbagai pemerintah 1955, organisasi ini bergegas memainkan perannya. – dari Demokrasi Terpimpinnya Sukarno ke Orde Barunya Selama 50 tahun kerjanya di Indonesia, Ford Foundation Suharto, disisipi kepemimpinan singkat B.J. Habibie dan telah mengeluarkan dana sebesar US$420 juta (dalam dollar Abdurrahman Wahid, hingga pemerintahan Presiden Megawati sekarang) di berbagai bidang. Untuk seluruh dunia, jumlah hibah Sukarnoputri – berjuang untuk meningkatkan taraf hidup dan pinjaman Ford Foundation sebesar $12 milyar. Ford rakyat, keadilan sosial, dan toleransi terhadap keragaman. Foundation tetap merupakan organisasi independen, nirlaba, dan Berbagai kebijakan pemerintah dan dampaknya, bersama nonpemerintah, yang tak menerima sumbangan dari pemerintah dengan perubahan sosial-ekonomi global dan lokal, menjadi atau lembaga donor mana pun. Dewan Penyantun Ford konteks bagi semua upaya Ford Foundation.

Michael Harris, wakil Ford Foundation di Indonesia, dengan sekretarisnya, Miss Cunningham, di kantor mereka di Hotel des Indes, 1957. Hotel des Indes, tempat Ford Foundation membuka kantor pertamanya di Indonesia pada 1953. SEBUAH PERAYAAN 15

Selama masa 50 tahun ini, program-program bantuan bidang ilmu-ilmu sosial, dan perencanaan pembangunan Ford Foundation di Indonesia juga berubah dan berkembang. nasional. Perhatian itu menjadi tonggak kerja Ford Foundation Perubahan terjadi sesuai dengan hasil analisis para staf tentang pada 1970-an, tapi ia tetap mendanai pendidikan tinggi bagi bagaimana cara mereka mencari peluang untuk mewujudkan orang-orang Indonesia. Pendekatan Ford Foundation kali ini perubahan yang diharapkan. Kegiatan pada dasawarsa pertama sangat dipengaruhi oleh analisis antropolog Clifford Geertz pada dipusatkan pada pendirian fakultas-fakultas ekonomi, lembaga 1971 tentang pendidikan ilmu-ilmu sosial. Geertz menulis pelatihan guru, dan peningkatan kemampuan berbahasa bahwa “kehidupan intelektual di Indonesia bersifat sentralistis, Inggris. Kebanyakan hibah pada waktu itu diberikan untuk terlalu diatur, praktis, dan sangat dipengaruhi oleh para bidang pendidikan; ada lebih dari 300 guru dan pejabat ekonom.” Geertz mengatakan bahwa ilmu-ilmu sosial perlu pendidikan yang belajar di luar negeri. Belakangan, banyak digugah melalui suatu program pelatihan lewat universitas- dari mereka yang menempati posisi kunci dalam pemerintahan universitas di daerah, “dengan warna kedaerahan,” yang analisis dan universitas. Yang paling terkenal dari mereka adalah dan metode penelitiannya didasarkan pada kerja lapangan sekelompok “teknokrat” yang belajar di berbagai universitas daripada teori-teori abstrak. Hasilnya, Ford Foundation terkenal di Amerika Serikat seperti University of California, membantu pendirian Pusat Pelatihan dan Penelitian Ilmu Sosial, Berkeley, dan Massachusetts Institute of Technology, dan sering dan memperluas dukungannya untuk ilmu-ilmu sosial selain disebut “Mafia Berkeley.” ekonomi. Pada 1965, ketegangan politik memaksa penutupan Memasuki 1980-an, perhatian kepada ilmu sosial ini sementara kantor Ford Foundation di Jakarta. Ketika dibuka memperkuat kapasitas Ford Foundation untuk membantu kembali pada 1967, Ford Foundation memutuskan untuk Indonesia memerangi kemiskinan di daerah pedesaan, tempat menambah kegiatan baru dengan mendukung program tinggal 80 persen penduduknya. Pada 1982 Bank Dunia Keluarga Berencana, penelitian tentang padi, pelatihan di menggolongkan Indonesia sebagai “negara berpendapatan

Taufik Abdullah (Cornell), Alfian (Wisconsin), Harsja Bachtiar (Harvard), Soedradjad Djiwandono (Wisconsin), Mely G. Tan (UC Berkeley), dan Algamar (Wisconsin) di depan Sather Gate, UC Berkeley, untuk sebuah pertemuan para penerima beasiswa Ford Foundation yang diseleksi oleh Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (LIPI), 1966. 16 MEMYAMBUT INDONESIA SEBUAH PERAYAAN 17

dan Para peneliti dari Universitas Brawijaya, Malang, sedang mewawancarai petani tentang cara mereka bercocok tanam. Penelitian ini didanai Ford Foundation. Konservasi naskah kuno dalam Keraton Surakarta. Ford Foundation membantu mengawetkan, menyusun katalog, serta membuat mikrofilm dari naskah-naskah lapuk sejak 1984. menengah.” Bersama negara-negara ASEAN lainnya, Indonesia mempelajari, mendokumentasi, dan melestarikan tradisi-tradisi dinilai telah memiliki stabilitas politik dan pertumbuhan di Indonesia yang begitu kaya dan beragam. ekonomi lumayan selama beberapa tahun. Tapi stabilitas ini Antara 1981 dan 1995, kantor di Jakarta juga merangkap diwarnai dengan tekanan militer, pelanggaran hak asasi sebagai kantor wilayah Ford Foundation Asia Tenggara, sehingga manusia, dominasi elit bisnis dan militer Indonesia, dan perhatian geografis serta dampak kerjanya semakin meluas. Pada membesarnya jurang antara miskin dan kaya. masa ini pemberian dana di Indonesia, Filipina, Thailand, dan Keadaan ini mendorong Ford Foundation untuk Vietnam dikelola dari Jakarta, dan staf di Indonesia seringkali semakin menekankan program-programnya dalam pengelolaan menangani kegiatan yang sejajar di negara-negara itu. sumber daya air dan tanah oleh masyarakat setempat, Pada 1990-an, makin jelas bahwa gerakan melawan rezim peningkatan hasil agro-ekosistem yang memperhatikan sektor Orde Baru – yang sebelumnya terpecah-pecah – semakin tenaga kerja informalnya, dan peningkatan keterlibatan meningkat dan muncul dari berbagai sektor. Gerakan ini dipicu masyarakat pada pembangunan. Program lain pada masa ini oleh kesenjangan ekonomi, korupsi, dan tidak adanya adalah bantuan untuk berbagai organisasi nonpemerintah yang kebebasan berpolitik. Para penerima hibah Ford Foundation baru tumbuh dan berjuang untuk penegakan hukum dan hak juga makin banyak bekerja untuk mewujudkan keadilan sosial. asasi manusia, lingkungan hidup, kepentingan konsumen, dan Ada yang bekerja dengan organisasi budaya minoritas kesetaraan gender. Yang juga sama pentingnya adalah memperjuangkan “hak berbeda,” ada organisasi perempuan meningkatnya bantuan untuk pekerjaan di bidang penafsiran yang berusaha meningkatkan kesehatan reproduksi dan dan penghargaan budaya, agar orang Indonesia bisa tetap kesejahteraan wanita, ada yang mendukung kampanye 18 MEMYAMBUT INDONESIA SEBUAH PERAYAAN 19 20 MEMYAMBUT INDONESIA SEBUAH PERAYAAN 21

Seorang pelatih dari Rifka Anissa, mitra Ford Foundation dalam kesehatan reproduksi, bicara pada sebuah latihan untuk polisi Yog yakarta tentang cara menanggapi kekerasan domestik, 2003. Seorang ibu dengan bayinya di depan sebuah klinik di Bandung, 1985. Memperbaiki kesehatan ibu-anak merupakan salah satu fokus bantuan pendanaan Ford Foundation pada 1980-an. Seorang pekerja seks di Singaraja, Bali, belajar bagaimana memasang kondom di sebuah klinik milik Citra Usadha, mitra Ford Foundation, 2003. kebebasan pers di kalangan wartawan, dan ada kelompok hari diharapkan bisa menjadi pemimpin bagi masyarakatnya masyarakat yang menuntut hak-hak mereka atas sumber daya masing-masing. hutan. Pada milenium baru ini ada beberapa bidang kerja yang Selama 50 tahun bekerja di Indonesia, Ford Foundation juga baru buat Ford Foundation. Dukungan ini mencakup tetap menekuni masalah pendidikan, dengan mendukung antara lain hibah bagi organisasi-organisasi Muslim yang berbagai program beasiswa yang berkembang sesuai dengan mencari penafsiran alternatif tentang berbagai isu sosial dan perubahan keadaan dan kebutuhan negeri ini. Program beasiswa gender; bantuan untuk lembaga-lembaga agama yang awalnya dirancang untuk menyediakan dosen di bidang-bidang mengembangkan penghargaan terhadap kesenian tradisional; yang dianggap sangat penting bagi bangsa yang baru merdeka, dan dukungan bagi para pendidik untuk merancang kurikulum misalnya pendidikan dan ekonomi. Program berikutnya kesenian di sekolah-sekolah yang menghargai keragaman ditujukan untuk menyediakan tenaga-tenaga ahli dalam bidang- budaya. Hibah baru di bidang pemerintahan lokal dan bidang khusus, misalnya dokumentasi dan revitalisasi budaya, partisipasi warga juga berkembang pesat. Minat Ford kependudukan dan kesehatan reproduksi, serta pembangunan Foundation pada praktek filantropi di Indonesia, termasuk juga desa. Saat ini kegiatan baru yang cukup penting adalah perhatian pada kesinambungan dan pertanggungjawaban membantu studi pascasarjana untuk orang-orang berbakat dari organisasi-organisasi warga dan lembaga nirlaba, juga terwujud daerah dan golongan yang “kurang dilayani,” yang di kemudian dalam pemberian hibah. Semua kerja ini didasari prinsip-prinsip 22 MEMYAMBUT INDONESIA SEBUAH PERAYAAN 23 24 MEMYAMBUT INDONESIA

Ford Foundation yang menghargai keragaman dan pendek saja. Sebenarnya, ada banyak hasil sampingan yang tak mengutamakan kehidupan bersama secara damai di antara diperkirakan tapi mempunyai arti penting, seperti ketika sebuah berbagai budaya yang berbeda-beda. masyarakat mengelola pengaturan irigasi dan hutan, hal itu Catatan hibah Ford Foundation kepada ribuan orang dan ternyata membuat warga mempunyai kemampuan memimpin, lembaga selama setengah abad ini juga menunjukkan adanya yang kemudian jadi menonjol sesudah diberlakukannya perubahan dalam pendekatan filantropis organisasi ini. Pada awal otonomi daerah di seluruh Indonesia. kerjanya, bantuan dana Ford Foundation sering dirancang Hubungan antara donor dan mitranya memang bersama pemerintah Indonesia (termasuk universitas), tapi merupakan masalah yang paling peka dalam dunia filantropi belakangan ia mengembangkan kerja sama yang makin beragam internasional. Ford Foundation mewajibkan mitranya untuk dengan berbagai organisasi membuat laporan tapi nonpemerintah dan lem- tidak campur tangan atau baga swasta juga. Awalnya, mengatur secara berlebih- pendekatan yang dilaku- an. Dalam ceramahnya kan terutama lewat pada peringatan 40 tahun pelatihan, penguatan lem- Ford Foundation di Indo- baga, dan penyediaan ahli nesia, ekonom terkemuka dari luar Indonesia. Be- Widjojo Nitisastro me- lakangan, Ford Founda- ngatakan bahwa “sesudah tion banyak mendukung menggerakkan suatu pro- pembentukan jaringan gram, [Ford Foundation] antar mitra, pengawinan itu tidak lagi mencampuri penelitian dengan ke- urusan sehari-hari di dalam bijakan, dan pengem- pelaksanaan program itu.” bangan pengetahuan melalui prakarsa masyarakat. Ford Kemauan untuk selalu belajar, mencoba, dan Foundation terus berupaya membantu dan memudahkan menyesuaikan diri, merupakan ciri kerja Ford Foundation kerjasama yang melibatkan organisasi nonpemerintah, peneliti di Indonesia dan tempat-tempat lain. Untuk mengukur akademis, dan pemerintah, serta menyediakan berbagai bentuk kinerjanya, Ford Foundation berpendapat bahkan proyek dukungan kelembagaan guna memulai pertukaran pikiran dan yang gagal mencapai tujuannya pun masih bisa menguji gagasan-gagasan baru. menghasilkan pelajaran dan pengalaman yang bermanfaat Dalam semua pekerjaannya, keluwesan, kesabaran, dan untuk masa depan. Kerja sama Ford Foundation dengan kesetiaan jangka panjang Ford Foundation pada isu-isu penting organisasi lokal, di mana proses saling belajar dan membuat sosoknya menonjol. Bantuan tak hanya diberikan menemukan gagasan baru bisa berkembang, memerlukan untuk mendanai proyek jangka pendek, tapi juga diberikan sebuah lingkungan yang saling menguntungkan dan saling untuk menjamin kesinambungan organisasinya. Bantuan dari menghormati. Akhirnya, dialog serta pertukaran gagasan Ford Foundation sering dilihat sebagai investasi kepada orang, dan pemikiran kritis ternyata bisa sama pentingnya dengan lembaga, dan gagasan, tanpa selalu tertuju pada hasil jangka aliran dana.

Presiden Suharto menyambut Presiden Ford Foundation Franklin Thomas (tengah) dan ketua Dewan Penyantun Ford Foundation Edson Spencer, 1989. Bermain di keramba ikan, Bukittinggi, Sumatera Barat. Perangkap ikan ini adalah temuan para petani yang bekerja bersama-sama WARSI, mitra Ford Foundation, yang mendukung pengelolaan sumber daya alam oleh komunitas setempat. SEBUAH PERAYAAN 25 26 MEMYAMBUT INDONESIA

Kantor kedua Ford Foundation di Taman Kebon Sirih, Jakarta Pusat.

Sidney Jones dan Brent Ashabranner pada 1978, ketika menghadapi banjir rutin yang sering dialami staf Ford Foundation di kantor Taman Kebon Sirih. SEBUAH PERAYAAN 27

Pada awal 1960-an, untuk menuju kantor Ford Foundation di (USAID), dan Departemen Luar Negeri Amerika Serikat. Taman Kebon Sirih, seorang pengunjung biasanya datang dengan Ketika Ford Foundation mulai bekerja di Indonesia, becak menyusuri jalanan sempit Kampung Bali, atau terdapat kelangkaan di kalangan orang Indonesia yang bisa menyeberangi sebuah jembatan kecil yang melintasi sungai di menangani kegiatan seperti pelatihan guru atau kursus bahasa, dekatnya. Waktu itu, Ford Foundation menempati sebuah dapat mengajar keterampilan teknis pada pegawai negeri, atau rumah, sehingga tata letak ruang rapat, ruang kerja, dan gudang mampu membuat perencanaan pembangunan. Satu-satunya harus mengikuti gaya rumah hunian itu. Karena lokasinya yang cara untuk memenuhi keperluan ini adalah dengan rendah dan dekat sungai, pada musim hujan halamannya sering mempekerjakan konsultan internasional dan dosen dari kebanjiran, dan seringkali lantai kantor ikut terendam. Seorang universitas-universitas Amerika. Para “tenaga ahli” itu mantan wakil Ford Foundation ingat bagaimana para staf harus ditempatkan di daerah-daerah seperti Malang, Medan atau menguras air yang merembes dari tembok, membawa pulang Yogyakarta, sementara sarana pekerjaan dan pendukungnya arsip yang basah – dan sekali-sekali uang kertas – untuk diseterika. diatur oleh kantor Ford Foundation di Jakarta. Pada 1970-an Hingga pertengahan 1970-an, staf program Ford Ford Foundation menggunakan sebuah rumah di Jalan Daksa Foundation cenderung dipilih dari orang Amerika, berkulit III, Kebayoran Baru, sebagai wisma tamu bagi para karyawan putih, dan laki-laki. Pada zaman itu orang yang mau dan proyek dan konsultan yang berkunjung ke Jakarta. Banyak mampu bekerja di luar negeri seringkali adalah mereka yang orang asing yang bekerja untuk proyek-proyek yang didanai sudah bergabung dengan korps diplomatik atau organisasi Ford Foundation masih mengingat malam-malam bantuan luar negeri; jadi tak mengherankan kalau beberapa menyenangkan ketika mereka saling berbagi cerita di “Wisma kali memang pegawai Ford Foundation diambil dari lembaga Ford” dan menikmati masakan legendaris Hasan, pengurus macam United States Agency for International Development rumah itu.

Memeriksa konstruksi perumahan Ford Foundation di Kebayoran Baru, Jakarta: Kamaruszaman, Andrew Choa, F.F. “Frosty” Hill, Harrison Parker, Michael Harris, dan seorang kolega, 1957. Kantor Ford Foundation yang sesak di Hotel des Indes, 1957. Nama-nama yang ditulis di belakang foto: Kamaruszaman, Miss Cunningham, Bahasuan, June Kuntjoro-Jakti, Tony, Sukardjo, Andrew Choa, Hasanah, Harrison Parker, dan Miss Livingstone. 28 MEMYAMBUT INDONESIA SEBUAH PERAYAAN 29 30 MEMYAMBUT INDONESIA

Mulai akhir 1970-an di bawah kepemimpinan Franklin Dewan Penyantun. Di Jakarta, program officer perempuan Thomas, Ford Foundation melakukan perubahan kelembagaan pertama diangkat pada 1977; pertengahan 1990-an, wakil Ford yang cukup penting, sehingga ia juga mengubah sosok Foundation dan tiga dari empat program officer adalah kepegawaian dan misi publiknya. Penyusutan sumber daya juga perempuan. Pada saat yang sama, kepemimpinan Ford mendorong Dewan Penyantun memutuskan tindakan Foundation membuka peluang untuk maju bagi orang penghematan sehingga karyawan Ford Foundation di seluruh berprestasi dari mana pun, sehingga makin banyak orang dari dunia diciutkan hampir separuh. Beberapa kantor ditutup luar Amerika Serikat diangkat menjadi staf di New York dan di karena Dewan Penyantun berpendapat akan lebih berhasil jika berbagai kantor wilayah, termasuk Indonesia. Proses Ford Foundation mengurangi jumlah negara yang dilayani. “internasionalisasi” ini mendapatkan dukungan kuat dari Susan Pada saat yang sama, Thomas mendorong para staf untuk V. Berresford yang kini merupakan presiden Ford Foundation. menyediakan bantuan langsung kepada organisasi lokal, supaya Bagi para pengunjung kantor Ford Foundation di Jakarta mereka memutuskan kapan dan bagaimana bantuan teknis dari – yang pada 1990 telah pindah dari Taman Kebon Sirih ke lokasi luar negeri digunakan; peran “tenaga ahli” dengan demikian yang sekarang di Jalan Jenderal Sudirman – wajah-wajah yang berakhir. Semua perubahan ini mengurangi peran para staf paling dikenal adalah para staf lokal yang mengabdikan kariernya program Ford Foundation dalam hal-hal operasional setiap pada kegiatan Ford Foundation di Indonesia. Karyawan- proyek. Mereka bisa menjadi lebih terlibat dalam merancang karyawan internasional datang dan pergi silih berganti, tapi orang- dan memantau programnya. orang Indonesia yang menjadi staf administrasi, sekretaris, dan Beberapa pertimbangan lain juga mulai mengubah sosok staf pendukung tetap menjadi kunci bagi terciptanya suasana dan staf Ford Foundation di seluruh dunia. Keragaman gender, lokal dan kelangsungan perluasan kerja Ford Foundation di etnik, dan kewarganegaraan mulai diperhatikan dalam Indonesia. Para staf lokal memiliki jaringan informal dan ikatan pemberian dana dan penerimaan karyawan. Ford Foundation profesional yang sangat kuat; kesetiaan mereka tentu saja memperhatikan ini pada semua aras organisasinya, termasuk memperkuat prestasi Ford Foundation selama bertahun-tahun.

Sopir dan pembantu kantor Ford Foundation di depan Hotel des Indes: Winata, Totong, Sukardjo, Sarwani, Abas (berdiri), Basir dan Bahasuan, 1957.Dari masa ke masa: staf Ford Foundation dari Indonesia dan kantor-kantor lainnya di Asia Tenggara. SEBUAH PERAYAAN 31

Ketika para staf Ford Foundation bertemu untuk menggambarkan semua aspek kehidupan Indonesia modern. mendiskusikan rencana perayaan 50 tahunnya di Indonesia, kami Banyak orang, lembaga, program, dan pegawai yang terkait sepakat bahwa sejarah perlu ditulis untuk mitra dan rekan kerja dengan Ford Foundation yang tak terhindar untuk tak disebutkan kami di Indonesia dan luar negeri. Selain berjibunnya laporan, di sini. Tapi kami berterima kasih atas kerjasama mereka dengan penilaian, brosur, majalah, dan buku mengenai kegiatan mitra, Ford Foundation. Kami berharap potret Ford Foundation di menurut kami juga diperlukan suatu renungan tentang Ford Indonesia ini bakal bermakna untuk semua mitra dan kolega Foundation dalam konteks setengah abad kemerdekaan kami dalam lima dasawarsa terakhir. Indonesia. Buku yang paling baik, kami kira, bisa menunjukkan Kalau meletakkan buku ini dalam konteks sejarah, karya Ford Foundation melalui mata dan suara orang Indonesia bolehlah dicatat bahwa gagasannya mulai muncul sesaat setelah – mereka yang telah berinteraksi dengan lembaga ini. serangan teroris 11 September 2001, di mana suasananya penuh Maka staf Ford Foundation mulai bicara dengan orang- ketegangan, ketakutan, dan ketidakpercayaan di antara berbagai orang yang bisa jadi subyek maupun aktor dalam proyek buku masyarakat di seluruh dunia. Kami tak menduga bahwa ketika ini. Kami beruntung karena salah satu eseis terkemuka, persiapan buku ini mulai berjalan, ternyata ada bom-bom Goenawan Mohamad, redaktur pendiri majalah Tempo dan meledak sehingga Indonesia pun jadi bahan liputan media mantan Nieman Fellow dari Harvard, bersedia menulis naskah internasional. Indonesia mendapat serangan teroris di tanahnya utama. Dia kemudian menyusun sebuah tim yang kuat, sendiri, oleh warganya sendiri, dan negeri ini pun segera melesat termasuk: antropolog dan wartawan Sandra Hamid; wartawan dari sebuah negeri yang agak jarang diberitakan menjadi sebuah dan juga mantan Nieman Fellow Andreas Harsono; dan penulis negeri yang dianggap sarang teroris. Bukan inilah citra Indonesia Laksmi Pamuntjak. Mark Hanusz dari penerbit Equinox dengan atau gambar tanah air yang dibayangkan oleh mereka yang suara tak kenal lelah mengelola sejumlah penerjemah, editor, korektor, dan wajahnya muncul dalam buku ini. Seperti Goenawan dan fotografer. Tim ini diberi kebebasan dalam memeriksa arsip- Mohamad menulis pada akhir buku ini, orang-orang Indonesia arsip Ford – dari dokumen persiapan program hingga penilaian kini sedang menjalankan sebuah eksperimen besar, yang bagi eksternal maupun kritik internal, serta daftar lembaga dan sebagian besar dari mereka, adalah perjalanan menuju masyarakat perseorangan yang telah menerima dana. Para periset mencari yang adil, sejahtera, dan inklusif. Eksperimen ini sekarang jadi gambar dari setiap dasawarsa yang ada dalam buku ini; dan lebih penting agar visi dan cerita mereka bisa dimenangkan. mantan pegawai Ford Foundation maupun staf sekarang juga Buku ini juga merupakan sebagian dari suatu hajatan besar memberikan foto-foto koleksi pribadi. untuk memperingati 50 tahun Ford Foundation di Indonesia. Akhirnya, para penulis membuat sebuah karangan yang Kami ingin merayakan keragaman dan kemajemukan negeri ini. berisi wawancara, kenangan pribadi, dan sampiran (sidebar). Kami juga ingin menghormati kinerja para kolega dan mitra Mereka bebas untuk menyajikan isi dan menafsirkan makna, dan kami, serta menyatakan penghormatan kami yang sedalam- bebas juga memilih orang untuk diwawancarai. Hasilnya, sebuah dalamnya atas keteguhan dan daya cipta orang Indonesia ketika pandangan yang kritis terhadap pembangunan negeri ini, maupun mempertahankan kemerdekaan bangsanya dan menghadapi orang-orang yang terlibat di dalamnya, dengan mengungkapkan cobaan di masa depan. Buku ini menyajikan suara dari beberapa beberapa isu besar dan tantangan yang dihadapi Indonesia dalam orang yang berperan membangun negeri ini selama 50 tahun 50 tahun terakhir. Para penulis memilih untuk menjelaskan isu- serta menggambarkan tantangan yang pernah mereka hadapi. isu ini dan aktor-aktor yang ada di balik sejarahnya. Tujuannya Kami bersyukur karena sempat ikut mengambil peran, bukan menghakimi dengan standar masa kini, tapi juga bukan bagaimana pun kecilnya, dalam upaya membangun Indonesia. menawarkan kesan yang dipercantik terhadap warisan yang mereka Sekarang pun kami gembira melanjutkan perjalanan panjang tinggalkan untuk generasi mendatang. ini, bersama-sama dengan mitra kami, yang lama maupun yang Mengingat luasnya topik ini – yang mencakup bukan saja baru, untuk memasuki Indonesia di abad XXI. segala macam pekerjaan Ford Foundation, tapi juga kompleksitas Indonesia selama 50 tahun pertamanya – kami sadar bahwa para Suzanne E. Siskel dan Mary S. Zurbuchen penulis buku ini harus sangat selektif. Ia pasti tak akan mampu Jakarta, Oktober 2003 32 MEMYAMBUT INDONESIA SEBUAH PERAYAAN 33 BAB SATU: ORANG-ORANG DARI SALEMBA

BAB SATU ORANG-ORANG DARI SALEMBA

ejarah, ternyata, bisa bermula di sebuah sekolah yang centang perenang. Cerita ini dimulai dari sebuah Sbangunan dengan arsitektur kolonial yang hambar di Jalan Salemba No. 4, Jakarta. Tak jauh dari kamar mayat milik rumah sakit umum, yang dulu disebut oleh sopir opelet dengan “CBZ” – kependekan untuk bahasa Belanda “Centraal Burgerlijk Ziekenhuis” – tapi kini dikenal sebagai Rumah Sakit Umum Pusat Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo, ada sebuah jalan kecil. Gang itu memisahkannya dari gedung bernomor enam, bangunan yang beberapa tingkat lebih cantik, tempat kuliah Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Indonesia. Jika berbelok ke kiri, kita akan melewati semacam gerbang. Lewat pintu itu, kita akan memasuki sebuah halaman dan akan melihat dua ruang kuliah serta sebuah aula yang terkadang disebut “amfi” – mungkin karena susunan tempat duduknya yang kian meninggi ke arah belakang. Kita masih harus berjalan terus beberapa meter lagi, dan Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Indonesia (FEUI), sekolah yang dimulai dengan tambal sulam itu, terletak di sana. Di tahun 1950, tak ada seorang pun yang berpikir bahwa salah satu bagian dari sejarah Indonesia modern berangkat dari sini. Tapi hasrat untuk sebuah Indonesia yang modern bukan sesuatu yang asing di gedung-gedung Salemba itu. Hanya sebulan setelah proklamasi kemerdekaan diumumkan, di ruang kebidanan CBZ bertemulah beberapa orang dokter. Mereka disertai beberapa orang lain yang bukan dokter, sebab mereka

 Reuni mahasiswa Universitas Indonesia di Jalan Salemba No. 4, 1958.  Fakultas Kedokteran UI, Jakarta, 1956. 36 BAB SATU ORANG-ORANG DARI SALEMBA 37 38 BAB SATU tak sedang berunding soal medis. Mereka membahas perlunya memerlukan tenaga mereka, atau bahwa siapa tahu, sebuah sebuah lembaga yang mempertautkan Fakultas Kedokteran – kesempatan nanti akan terbuka untuk mengembangkan diri. yang benih dan bentuknya sudah ada sejak abad ke-19, ketika Tapi di tahun 1948, NICA mengirim dua pegawai masih sering disebut sebagai “sekolah dokter Jawa” – dengan Belanda, seorang kolonel dan seorang dokter, untuk jurusan-jurusan lain. Di ruang itulah ide untuk melahirkan mengambilalih CBZ. Beberapa tenaga Indonesia yang masih Balai Perguruan Tinggi Republik Indonesia (BPTRI) diolah tinggal menolak untuk bekerja sama. Mahasiswa kedokteran pertama kali. Sebutan “universitas” atau “universiteit” tak pergi kuliah bukan lagi ke Salemba No. 6, gedung di sebelah dipakai sebab dianggap kebarat-baratan. rumah sakit itu, tapi ke rumah para dosen. Dengan cara itu Orang-orang yang bertemu di ruang kebidanan itu sadar BPTRI, sebagai ekspresi semangat “republiken” yang setia kepada bahwa sebuah republik yang baru dilahirkan dengan modal Republik Indonesia, bertahan. Ketika kemudian NICA hanya 1.000 orang berpendidikan modern – 1.000 di antara mendirikan Nood Universiteit van Indonesië atau Universitas 70 juta penduduk – membutuhkan sebuah lembaga pendidikan “Sementara” Indonesia di akhir 1949, para pengajar juga yang lebih tinggi. Pemerintah kolonial Belanda praktis tak menampik untuk ikut. meninggalkan apa-apa. Toh NICA melanjutkan rencananya. Beberapa fakultas Tapi cita-cita itu nyaris kandas di tengah jalan. Menjelang didirikan di kota-kota lain: Surabaya (Fakultas Kedokteran dan akhir 1945, pasukan Sekutu menduduki Jakarta dan kekuasaan Kedokteran Gigi), Bandung (Fakultas Teknik), Bogor (Fakultas Belanda datang bersamanya. Nederlands Indies Civil Pertanian dan Kedokteran Hewan), dan Makassar (Fakultas Administration (NICA) didirikan untuk mengatur Indonesia. Ekonomi). Semua fakultas itu digabung dalam sebuah Tak urung, banyak cendekiawan menolak berada dalam universitas yang disebut Universiteit van Indonesië. Perguruan penjajahan kembali. Sebagian dari staf Fakulteit (kemudian tinggi inilah yang kemudian menjadi Universitas Indonesia, “Fakultas”) Kedokteran dipindahkan ke Jawa Tengah yang lazim disingkat “UI,” setelah Belanda akhirnya mengakui masih dikuasai pemerintahan Republik Indonesia, yang belum kedaulatan Republik pada Desember 1949. Pada tanggal 2 lagi berumur enam bulan. Sebagian yang lain tetap di Jakarta, Februari 1959, BPTRI bergabung dengan Universitas dengan pertimbangan bahwa rumah sakit CBZ masih Indonesia, meski melalui perundingan yang panas.

Kuliah di Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar, 1952. ORANG-ORANG DARI SALEMBA 39

SAYUTI HASIBUAN

Sayuti Hasibuan termasuk dosen Universitas HKBP Nommensen yang dikirim studi lanjut pada 1961 ke Amerika Serikat. Sebagian besar rekannya berasal dari Pulau Jawa tapi Hasibuan datang dari Medan. Hasibuan belajar ekonomi sumber daya manusia di UC Berkeley. Pertikaian internal Nommensen, karena isu marga maupun agama, membuat Hasibuan, seorang Muslim, merasa tak tenang dan keluar. Dia pindah ke Jakarta dan kini bekerja sebagai dosen Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Al-Azhar Indonesia. Dia tertarik dengan teori tentang Islamisasi ekonomi dan pemakaian syariah Islam di Indonesia. Universitas Nommensen didirikan pada 1954. juga soal senioritas. Saya kira soal senioritas saja. Orang pintarnya memang banyak Fakultas Ekonomi memakai banyak dosen dan pendekatan dalam menentukan kebi- tetapi koneksitas dosen FEUI itu hanya Belanda yang bekerja di perkebunan. Saya jakan ekonomi, seperti melawan Presiden beberapa jam. masuk Universitas Nommensen tahun 1955. Suharto. Sumitro ini melawan, sedang Widjojo Universitas Nommensen sampai sekarang Pada tahun-tahun itu ada maksud pengem- tak pernah melawan. Kepada , belum terbangun. Memang mahasiswa bangan bersama Ford Foundation. Saya asisten pribadi Suharto, dia juga melawan. banyak, tapi kontribusi human knowledge berangkat ke Berkeley 1961. Saya itu apa? Bukan Nommensen saja, kembali 1965 sambil menyelesaikan tapi seluruh universitas di Indo- disertasi dan mengajar. Waktu itu Partai nesia. Saya harap saya salah. Komunis Indonesia sangat aktif. Tidak mudah membangun Saya aktif di Himpunan Mahasis- Nommensen. Di sana terjadi perten- wa Islam. Saat itu suasananya tegang tangan antara yayasan dan univer- antara mahasiswa Islam dan komu- sitas. Berebut siapa kuasa? Siapa nis. Saya berpikir untuk pergi dari dosen? Siapa rektor? Nommensen Medan. Kebetulan ada tawaran studi dikuasai yayasan dan yayasan lanjut dari Ford Foundation. Ini dikuasai gereja HKBP. Yayasan kesempatan baik. Sewaktu saya jadi biasanya penuh konflik, mulai dari dosen, perselisihan tambah keras. gaji dosen, siapa yang dikirim dan Saya di sana sampai 1971. siapa yang tidak boleh dikirim, siapa Tahun 1971, saya diminta Prof. yang menjadi rektor, hingga bagai- Sumitro Djojohadikusumo untuk mana menggunakan dana. Ini dulu membantu Angkatan Bersenjata sewaktu saya di sana, entah sekarang. Republik Indonesia (ABRI). Mereka Kerja sama antaruniversitas, waktu itu mengeluarkan banyak misalnya antara universitas di tenaga kerja yang harus dirasio- Indonesia dengan di Amerika, nalisasi. Saya membantu membuat memang baik karena ada kontak perencanaannya, diangkat Depar- antara lokal dan asing, timbul temen Perdagangan sebagai asisten bermacam pertentangan, inilah Sumitro, tapi tugasnya memper- yang merusak keseimbangan tapi baiki dan menyiapkan tentara- membawa pembaruan. tentara yang dirasionalisasi. Kalau membandingkan ketiga Setelah selesai, Prof. Widjojo Sayuti Hasibuan di Jakarta, 1995. universitas yang dibantu Ford Nitisastro minta saya gabung ke Foundation, hanya FEUI yang Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional Dalam sebuah laporan Ford Foundation punya pengaruh luar biasa. Rata-rata (BAPPENAS). Saya kerja di berbagai bidang dikatakan ada masalah internal di dosennya masuk pemerintahan. yang menyangkut sumber daya manusia. Nommensen sehingga laporan keuangan Universitas Gadjah Mada (UGM) jauh di Sumitro selalu kurang sreg dengan tak jelas. Ini terjadi karena secara Yogyakarta dan Nommensen ada di Widjojo dan kawan-kawan sebab Sumitro mendasar Ford Foundation membuat satu Medan. Tapi pengaruh UGM dan Nom- pendekatannya kerakyatan atau bisa kekeliruan. Mereka menganggap pengem- mensen berbeda dari FEUI. Orang FEUI dikatakan sumber daya manusia. Tapi hal bangan kelembagaan itu sebagaimana di melaksanakan paradigma ekonomi ini tidak pernah diartikulasikan. Sumitro, Barat. Mendidik orang, dapat dana, dan klasik yang dikembangkan Keynes, Adam walaupun kurang sepakat, tetap terkungkung membangun, kenyataannya tidak se- Smith, dan sebagainya. Tapi pelopor oleh pola pikir Barat, John Maynard sederhana itu. Umpamanya, dia menga- untuk keluar dari paradigma ini, untuk Keynes, yang dibangun oleh Adam Smith, takan mau membangun FEUI dengan pembangunan bangsa Indonesia, bukan sejak ratusan tahun lalu di Barat. tenaga-tenaga berkualitas. Itu juga tidak dari UI. Itu termasuk kritik-kritik Sritua Kritik Sumitro ke kelompok Widjojo, ini terjadi kan? FEUI itu tempat pengajaran Arief dari Nommensen. 40 BAB SATU ORANG-ORANG DARI SALEMBA 41 42 BAB SATU

Fakultas Ekonomi mengikuti sejarah ini – dengan pandangan Daoed, perguruan tinggi di Salemba No. 4 itu problem yang agak berbeda. Sebelum Indonesia merdeka, bagaimana pun dilahirkan NICA. Kaum republiken yang sekolah ekonomi tak terdapat secara khusus di Jakarta, memilih di luarnya, lebih suka belajar di akademi yang miskin melainkan di Makassar, Sulawesi Selatan. Itu pun terbatas itu, menyewa ruangan di sebuah jalan dekat rumah sakit St. pada masalah pengelolaan usaha dan juga tak sepenuhnya Carolus, tak jauh dari gedung UI. “Kadang-kadang kuliah berjalan. Di sana tak ada pengajar yang memadai. Di Jakarta, dilakukan malam hari, menggunakan lampu minyak,” ilmu ekonomi hanya dikaji di jurusan sosial-ekonomi Fakultas begitulah Daoed mengenang. Hukum dan Ilmu Masyarakat. Maka jika orang hendak Tapi akhirnya sebuah fakultas ilmu ekonomi dibentuk mendapatkan tempat mempelajari ilmu ekonomi, orang harus di UI pada 18 September 1950. Ia lebih sering disebut dengan bersekolah di tempat lain di luar Salemba No. 4. Di luar singkatan “FEUI.” Para mahasiswa dari berbagai penjuru bangunan itu, tapi tak jauh dari sana, sebuah yayasan swasta, bergabung, baik kaum republiken yang datang dari gerilya Perkumpulan Memajukan Ilmu dan Kebudayaan, mendirikan maupun yang “kurang republiken” yang datang dari sekolah Akademi Nasional dalam waktu yang hampir bersamaan yang didirikan NICA di Makassar. Dengan membayar tiga dengan lahirnya UI. ratus rupiah untuk setahun pelajaran – dan sesudah itu gratis Di sanalah mula-mula belajar beberapa orang yang – ada 300 mahasiswa yang mendaftar dan diterima. kelak menjadi ekonom Indonesia yang terkenal, seperti Daoed Hampir semuanya masih berada di tahun pertama, Joesoef, Suhadi Mangkusuwondo, dan Panglaykim. Menurut tingkatan yang disebut propaedeutis kala itu. Sebutan itu Daoed, seorang pelukis muda sejak di Medan, Sumatera menggambarkan sesuatu dari masa awal itu. Meskipun Utara, yang ikut perang kemerdekaan, belajar di Akademi semangat republiken berapi-api, istilah Latin masih sering Nasional, adalah sebuah pernyataan sikap “republiken.” Tak dipakai. “Kuliah umum” yang diselenggarakan setiap pekan heran bahwa bersama dia juga Suhadi, yang ikut perang gerilya di aula, masih disebut studium generale. Lagu gembira Ius selama di pasukan Tentara Pelajar di Jawa Timur bersama Vivat, juga lagu khidmat Gaudeamus Igitur, masih Widjojo Nitisastro, tokoh yang kemudian perannya lebih dinyanyikan di saat pesta dan upacara kampus – seperti yang menonjol dari kawan-kawannya dalam sejarah. Dalam dilakukan orang nun jauh di Leiden atau Rotterdam.

dan Masa perkenalan mahasiswa baru Universitas Indonesia, Oktober 1950. ORANG-ORANG DARI SALEMBA 43

DAOED JOESOEF

Daoed Joesoef, orang Aceh yang besar di Medan. Ayahnya mempunyai perusahaan susu sapi di pinggiran kota Medan. Joesoef jadi dosen pertama FEUI yang belajar di Sorbonne, Prancis, ketika rekan-rekannya kebanyakan belajar di Amerika Serikat. Dia dikenal karena menjadi Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan pada era Presiden Suharto dan memperkenalkan konsep man of analysis bagi mahasiswa dan bukan man of public meeting pada akhir 1970-an.

Pada awal 1950-an, saya asisten Dekan itu, ada ketentuan cadangan emas harus 20 economic administration. Untuk itu Sumitro Djojohadikusumo dalam persen untuk tiap lembar nilai mata uang. dibutuhkan tenaga pengajar yang terlatih pengembangan ilmu ekonomi di FEUI. Saya Karena keadaan politik tak stabil, maka dan dana. Ford Foundation bersedia ditugasi mengembangkan jurusan ilmu pemerintah membiayai anggaran dengan mendanai pendidikan pengajar. Saya ekonomi di universitas daerah, antara lain cetak uang. Hatta menyarankan ketentuan memutuskan agar Sorbonne jadi tempat Makassar, yang didirikan Belanda dan kelak cadangan emas ditiadakan. Saya membantah tujuan studi karena Prancis terkenal dengan jadi Universitas Hassanuddin. Saya lewat Mimbar Indonesia. Bagi saya, cadangan pendidikan kader administrasi negara sebenarnya pernah mengirim surat ke Wakil emas tetap perlu, hanya besarnya ditentukan tingkat pascasarjana dalam Ecole nationale Presiden Moh. Hatta, sehabis pengakuan berdasarkan nilai kebutuhan impor. d’administration. kedaulatan 1949, minta agar sekolah Ternyata tak ada calon pengajar yang ekonomi Makassar itu dibubarkan. bersedia sekolah di Paris. Bahasa Prancis tak Alasannya, efisiensi dan juga karena sekolah mereka kuasai dan orang memperhitungkan itu tak sejalan dengan semangat Republiken. penggunaannya nanti hampir tak berarti di Sumitro mengatakan yang lalu harus Indonesia. Hanya saya yang mau. Saya dianggap lalu. Indonesia sudah bersatu memang terpukau dengan Paris. Saya suka kembali. Indonesia Bagian Timur juga melukis dan Paris adalah kota seni serta memerlukan pendidikan tinggi yang baik. ibukota keintelektualan dunia. Namun jalan Saya menerima dan jadi dosen terbang. Saya tak segera lancar. Widjojo Nitisastro, wakil juga membantu sekolah tinggi ekonomi di dekan FEUI, menolak menandatangani Palembang dan Lampung. persetujuan saya berangkat ke Paris. Ford Pada 1956 meletus pemberontakan Foundation tak mau mengirim orang studi PRRI-Permesta. Satu hari saya terbang ke lanjut tanpa tandatangan atasan mereka. Makassar untuk mengajar. Ternyata bandar Saya sempat beradu pendapat dengan udara Makassar dibom pasukan Frank Miller dari Ford Foundation. Miller pemberontak. Saya terperangkap di akhirnya setuju tapi syaratnya harus ada Makassar. Ini ironi kedua, sebab di antara persetujuan pemerintah. Saya datang ke pemimpin pemberontak ada Sumitro. Menteri Perguruan Tinggi dan Ilmu Daoed Joesoef di Jakarta, 1978. Tapi jasa Sumitro sangat menentukan Pengetahuan Syarif Thayeb, seorang dokter- dalam pembentukan FEUI. Dia memper- Tak lama kemudian, saya mendapat jenderal dari Aceh, dan dia heran mendengar kenalkan ilmu ekonomi Keynesian ke surat undangan untuk ikut dalam Widjojo menolak tanda tangan surat saya. Indonesia. Dia juga yang mendekati Ford rombongan Wakil Presiden Hatta “Bukankah Sorbonne lebih tua ketimbang Foundation agar membantu peningkatan mengunjungi koperasi di Tegal, Pekalongan Berkeley?” katanya. tenaga dosen FEUI. Dia juga mendatangkan dan sebagainya. Kami naik kereta api Saya delapan tahun studi di Sorbonne. para pengajar dari Amerika Serikat. Waktu istimewa dan saya satu gerbong dengan Ketika kembali jurusan saya sudah dibubarkan. itu, FEUI di bawah para dosen Belanda, Hatta. Hatta mengajak bertukar pikiran. Tak Pandangan kelompok teknokrat dan saya ekonomi Keynesian tak dikenal. Perpus- ada hasil yang konklusif, tapi saya masih berbeda dalam masalah pembangunan ekonomi. takaan terdiri dari banyak buku Belanda. muda dan merasa dapat perhatian istimewa. Soal-soal ekonomi terlalu penting untuk hanya Ford Foundation membantu dan Menjelang akhir 1950-an, saya merasa diserahkan ke tangan para ekonom. dikirimlah Widjojo Nitisastro, Ali Wardhana, ilmu ekonomi yang dipelajari di FEUI tak Pembangunan nasional harus dinyatakan in dan sebagainya ke Amerika. Saya tak pergi mempersiapkan mahasiswa menghadapi terms of social space dan bukan in terms of karena terikat tugas. Ibu saya juga sakit. Saya peran negara atau public economy. Ada buku national income serta diletakkan dalam rangka takut bila sesuatu yang buruk terjadi pada karya Meier and Baldwin, Economic perkembangan peradaban. Ketika masuk ibu sebab ketika ayah meninggal, sebagai Development: Theory, History and Policy, kabinet, sebagai menteri pendidikan, saya anak lelaki pertama, saya tak hadir. yang percaya bahwa persoalan pem- berharap konsep saya bisa dipakai. Tapi Suharto Waktu itu saya juga suka menulis. Salah bangunan terlalu penting untuk hanya mengatakan agar “Doktor Daoed” cukup satu kritik saya pada pendapat Hatta soal tak diserahkan ke tangan para ekonom. Maka mengurusi bidang pendidikan – soal ekonomi perlunya cadangan emas bagi rupiah. Waktu saya membentuk jurusan baru: public sudah ada yang mengurus. 44 BAB SATU

Para dosen dan mahasiswa UI mungkin mem- Di balik semua itu, sebenarnya, sejak semula, Indonesia bayangkan diri sebagai bagian dari tradisi perguruan- tak pernah jauh dari UI. Jarak sangat dekat antara pengalaman perguruan tinggi Eropa yang telah berumur ratusan tahun. para mahasiswa sehari-hari dan Indonesia yang melarat, pada Sampai akhir 1950-an, para mahasiswa di Salemba juga usia yang belum lagi sedasawarsa. mengikuti, dengan cara sendiri, gaya hidup rekan mereka di Setahun setelah FEUI resmi dibuka di aula Fakultas Belanda. Waktu itu yang berlaku adalah “studi bebas”: seorang Kedokteran, sekolah tinggi ini masih tak punya ruangan sendiri. mahasiswa dianggap cukup dewasa untuk menentukan Kadang-kadang kuliah diberikan di salah satu ruang Fakultas pilihan kuliahnya sendiri, bahkan ia boleh tak hadir di kelas, Sastra di seberang CBZ, atau di sebuah ruangan di Jalan asal dapat membuktikan kemampuannya dalam ujian. Ia bisa Tambak, sekitar 200 meter dari Salemba No. 4, dan sejumlah mengulang ujian sampai kapan saja bila ia gagal. Orang bisa ruangan di tempat lain. Pekerjaan sekretariat fakultas dijalankan jadi “mahasiswa abadi” di sana. dari sebuah kamar di gedung Kementerian Pendidikan, Salah seorang mahasiswa Fakultas Hukum, yang Pengajaran dan Kebudayaan di Jalan Kimia. kemudian terkenal, adalah Harry Tjan Silalahi, yang akhirnya Perpustakaan juga harus menumpang; para dosen mendirikan lembaga think tank pertama di Indonesia, Center dan mahasiswa harus pergi ke tempat lain untuk for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). Ia praktis tak meminjam buku, termasuk ke kantor lembaga kerja sama pernah datang ke Salemba No. 6. Datang dari keluarga miskin kebudayaan Belanda, Stichting Culturele Samenwerking di Yogyakarta, Silalahi harus mencari nafkah menjadi guru. (Sticusa). Akhirnya, ketika FEUI mendapatkan tempat Pergi ke kuliah baginya adalah sebuah kemewahan. Pada suatu sendiri, perpustakaannya adalah sebuah ruangan di antara hari ia datang untuk ujian. Masuk ke ruangan, ia bahkan tak sebuah warung dan bangunan kecil yang dipakai untuk tahu mana dosen mata kuliah yang hari itu diujikan. memutar film oleh Liga Film Mahasiswa. Tapi buku masih Bila mahasiswa seperti Silalahi punya waktu senggang terbatas, juga jurnal ilmiah. Seorang bekas mahasiswa dan datang ke Salemba, ia akan lebih sering duduk di warung mengisahkan bahwa waktu itu ada jurnal yang hanya boleh di seberang CBZ, menunggu saat mahasiswi-mahasiswi dipinjam tak lebih dari satu jam di perpustakaan. Fakultas Sastra lewat. Para mahasiswa yang pintar kemudian mendapatkan “Kami hidup dengan buku, pesta, dan cinta,” kata akal untuk mengatasi itu: kuliah para dosen dicatat baik-baik, Djunaedi Hadisumarto, ekonom yang kelak menjadi ketua diketik, distensil dalam jumlah banyak, dan dijual. Menjelang BAPPENAS dalam pemerintahan Presiden Abdurrahman akhir 1950-an, bisnis kecil ini khususnya dikerjakan oleh Wahid. sebuah usaha yang menyebut diri Vivayuba. Salah seorang Suasana kehidupan mahasiswa waktu itu seakan-akan wiraswasta Vivayuba adalah Fikri Jufri, kemudian dikenal tak tersentuh oleh dunia di luarnya. Dengan kuliah yang sebagai koresponden ekonomi majalah Tempo. sesukanya, mereka menghabiskan waktu senggang mereka: Tapi bila mutu pendidikan berada dalam keadaan jajan di Miauw Seng, sebuah toko makanan kecil di seberang darurat, itu bukan hanya karena para mahasiswa tak punya Salemba No. 4, berdansa di rumah-rumah teman, atau buku yang memadai. Di tahun-tahun awal, FEUI punya merayakan “inaugurasi,” hari akhir perploncoan, di gedung masalah yang lebih serius. Didirikan oleh para ahli hukum, Harmonie. Yang gemar musik membentuk band yang dan dengan dekan pertama seorang ahli hukum pula, Soenario kemudian sangat digemari: mahasiswa hukum Marihot dan Kolopaking, fakultas itu praktis hanya punya satu dosen dan Paul Hutabarat memainkan lagu-lagu ala Bill Haley and the tak punya ekonom sama sekali. Kolopaking sendiri merangkap Comets dan The Platters untuk mengiringi teman-teman pelbagai pekerjaan selain sebagai dekan. Ketika pada akhirnya mereka melantai. Minuman: limun atau sarsparilla. ia jatuh sakit dan mengundurkan diri, krisis terjadi. ORANG-ORANG DARI SALEMBA 45

Dalam keadaan ini, ketua Senat Mahasiswa, Suhadi tergerak membantu. Bersama-sama, mereka bahkan men- Mangkusuwondo, seorang pemuda pendiam yang bersungguh- datangi pelbagai pihak: sejumlah murid yang hampir putus sungguh, bertindak cepat. Bersama teman-temannya, sebagian asa mencari guru. dari Tentara Pelajar, ia datang ke Kementerian Pendidikan, Jumlah ekonom di seluruh Indonesia tak lebih dari 10 Pengajaran dan Kebudayaan. Mereka mendesak pemerintah orang dan hampir semuanya tak tertarik mengajar. Salah untuk mengatasi krisis FEUI. Tak jelas apa yang bisa dilakukan satunya, yang punya perhatian kepada pendidikan, Mohammad oleh pemerintah waktu itu, tapi sikap yang serius Suhadi dan Hatta, sudah jadi wakil presiden. Tapi “sejarah kadang-kadang kawan-kawannya menyebabkan seorang dosen mereka, Djoko terjadi karena kebetulan,” kata Widjojo Nitisastro, mengenang Soetono – yang kemudian jadi dekan Fakultas Hukum – masa itu.

Sebuah konser piano di Sticusa, organisasi kebudayaan Belanda (sekarang Erasmus Huis), Jakarta, 1953. 46 BAB SATU

BEGAWAN EKONOMI: SUMITRO DJOJOHADIKUSUMO

Pada suatu hari di akhir 1960-an, seorang Sumitro gigih membangun institusi. Sumitro tak hanya mengubah gedung. tamu Amerika di Departemen Perdagangan “Orang-orang dari Ford Foundation-lah Pada awal 1950-an, aliran pemikiran kagum mendengar Menteri Sumitro yang seringkali berbicara tentang ekonomi yang diwariskan Belanda Djojohadikusumo (1917-2001) berbicara. Ia membangun institusi,” kata John Bresnan. dianggap tak cocok lagi dengan kebutuhan bertanya, “Bahasa Inggris Anda sempurna “Tapi jika Anda memusatkan perhatian negara berkembang seperti Indonesia. sekali. Anda pernah belajar di Amerika?” pada seseorang, mencari orang-orang cerdas “Pendekatannya sangat teoritis dan Dengan kalem Sumitro menjawab, “Saya yang bisa Anda dapatkan di mana saja, filosofis,” ujar Emil Salim. Sementara itu belum pernah belajar di Amerika. Saya merekalah yang kelak membangun institusi.” Sumitro sudah menaruh perhatian pada hanya pernah mengajar di sana.” Sumitro adalah salah satunya. “Ia jadi salah pendekatan baru “Ekonomi Pembangunan” Ia memang sering mengagumkan. seorang pelopor kajian ekonomi modern di dan ia ingin mengembangkan pemikiran ini Sekitar 20 tahun sebelumnya, sebuah Indonesia,” tulis ekonom Thee Kian Wie dari di FEUI. Pada 1955-1956, kurikulum delegasi mahasiswa FEUI menemui Sumitro. Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia. dirombak dengan mengutamakan pem- Misi mereka: meminta orang bahasan masalah ekonomi di negeri Indonesia pertama yang mendapat ini. “Sumitro-lah yang memperkenalkan gelar Ph.D. di bidang ekonomi dari ekonomi makro di Indonesia,” kata Netherlands School of Economics itu, Emil Salim pula. yang telah menjabat menteri Saat itu, hampir semua profesor perdagangan dan industri, untuk jadi dari Belanda yang semula mengajar dekan FEUI. di FEUI sudah kembali ke negara Pascakemerdekaan Indonesia, mereka. Sumitro telah siap meng- pendidikan tinggi, khususnya di hadapi hal ini. Ia membangun kerja bidang ekonomi, sangatlah terbatas. sama antara FEUI dan University of Ford Foundation menaksir, pada California, Berkeley, untuk men- 1949 Indonesia, dengan 70 juta datangkan para profesor dari penduduk, hanya punya 10 orang Amerika Serikat. Sebagai gantinya yang memenuhi syarat sebagai FEUI mengirim mahasiswa ter- ekonom. “Tak ada orang lain yang baiknya untuk belajar di Berkeley, lebih memenuhi syarat daripada MIT, Stanford, New York University, dirinya,” kata Suhadi Mangkusuwondo, dan Cornell. Maka dimulailah pemimpin delegasi mahasiswa itu. pembangunan ilmu ekonomi Tak ada seorang pun yang Indonesia. mengira bahwa lelaki kurus yang “Perbedaan yang langsung terasa tangkas bicara ini, anak seorang adalah budaya debat mahasiswa dan pegawai pemerintahan kolonial dosen,” ujar Saleh Afiff, yang Hindia Belanda, akan membuat kemudian jadi menteri ekonomi. perubahan yang lebih besar ketim- “Sebelumnya, seorang profesor bang sekedar merombak sebuah Sumitro Djojohadikusumo di Jakarta, 1971. selalu jadi orang yang mahatahu.” sekolah. Kerjasama FEUI-Berkeley Sumitro seorang multidimensional: ia Di awal masa jabatannya sebagai bukanlah upaya pertama Sumitro untuk seorang menteri, pelobby, akademikus, dekan, Sumitro yang kemudian juga jadi membuat pembaharuan. Mula-mula ia kosmopolit, juga pemberontak. Ia yakin menteri keuangan, membangun infra- berupaya memperkenalkan metode bahwa tugasnya adalah memimpin struktur fakultas itu sedari awal. Hasilnya: pendidikan “Anglo-Saxon.” Tapi ikhtiar negerinya. Kepercayaannya pada diri staf pengajar yang tangguh, ruang belajar awalnya untuk mendatangkan para pakar sendiri begitu berkibar-kibar: pada 1952, ia yang pantas, perpustakaan dan unit dari Inggris lewat British Council gagal. menjelaskan pandangannya dalam sebuah penelitian yang lengkap, administrasi yang Lewat Rockefeller Foundation, ia juga debat publik dengan Sjafrudin Prawiranegara, efektif. “Sebelum Sumitro memimpin, FEUI mencoba menjalin kerja sama dengan gubernur Bank Indonesia pertama dan tak memiliki ruang belajar yang memadai. Cornell University. Tapi sukesnya bermula advokat pembangunan pertanian. Sumitro Kuliah biasa diberikan di Gedung Kesenian, dengan sebuah lembaga bantuan yang lain. berpendapat hanya pertumbuhan industri Adhoc Staat, Gedung PTIK, dan kadang- Sumitro pertama kali mengajukan yang cepat, yang dapat memperkuat posisi kadang di bawah pepohonan kampus UI permohonan bantuan pendidikan kepada tawar Indonesia di antara negara-negara sekarang,” ujar ekonom Emil Salim pada Ford Foundation pada 1951, lewat ekonom berkembang lainnya. 1993. Everett Hawkins. Sementara itu para ORANG-ORANG DARI SALEMBA 47

Sumitro memberi kuliah di Surabaya, 1955. pemimpin Indonesia lainnya mulai meminta yang berhasil di dalamnya untuk duduk di dibom para pemberontak Pemerintah bantuan Ford Foundation pula; pada tahun Biro Perencanaan Pusat dan Rencana Revolusioner Republik Indonesia. Ternyata yang sama, Ali Sastroamidjojo, duta besar Pembangunan Lima Tahun pada 1952. Ia Sumitro jadi salah satu pemimpin gerakan Indonesia untuk Amerika Serikat, mencari mengenalkan mereka kepada dunia para ini. “Sumitro-lah yang pertama meminta dukungan untuk proyek perbaikan ekonom papan atas. Ketika orang-orang saya untuk mengajar di Makassar; ia juga penguasaan bahasa Inggris di sekolah- muda ini kemudian jadi pengambil yang mengirim para pengebom ke sana,” sekolah Indonesia. Pada 1952 para utusan keputusan ekonomi Indonesia, mereka kata Daoed Joesoef setengah bergurau. Ford Foundation mulai melakukan survei memandang kepadanya dengan berterima Peran Sumitro dalam pemberontakan untuk mendapatkan data rencana bantuan kasih. ini meninggalkan stigma yang sulit hilang. mereka bagi Indonesia. Pada akhirnya, Pada 1955 Sumitro mendirikan Ikatan Dia bekerjasama dengan dinas rahasia kerjasama pun terlaksana. Sarjana Ekonomi Indonesia yang kini telah Amerika Serikat, CIA, dan orang sering Bakat Sumitro lainnya muncul lewat berkembang jadi organisasi profesional. menghubungkan ini dengan pemikiran Lembaga Penelitian Ekonomi dan Jumlah ekonom kian bertambah. Pada awal ekonomi “liberalnya.” Sebenarnya ini adalah Masyarakat (LPEM) yang didirikan pada 1960-an, FEUI mulai mendorong tum- label yang meragukan; Sumitro selalu 1953 dan mempersiapkan “alih ke- buhnya kepemimpinan lokal. Sebagai mempertahankan keyakinannya pada pemimpinan” dan kader. Dibantu oleh para institusi “pelopor,” FEUI didukung oleh pentingnya intervensi negara sebagai mahasiswa dan koleganya sefakultas, LPEM fakultas ekonomi lainnya dari universitas lembaga pengambil kebijakan publik yang jadi usaha pertama Sumitro untuk mencari negeri seluruh Indonesia. Para teknokrat efektif. Analisisnya yang banyak dikutip bentuk kebijakan ekonomi yang tepat. mengingat dengan baik bagaimana “dosen ketika terjadi krisis ekonomi Asia pada Lembaga itu juga jadi penghubung utama terbang” dari FEUI dibawa dengan pesawat 1997-1998 – “Indonesia sedang menderita antara FEUI dan pemerintah. ke Universitas Sawerigading (sekarang sakit kelembagaan” – menunjukkan betapa Seperti sentuhan Sumitro lainnya, LPEM Universitas Sriwijaya) di Palembang, atau ke buruk kebijakan publik Indonesia karena yang dikembangkan oleh para pemikir cabang Universitas Indonesia di Makassar. Presiden Suharto kian mengutamakan muda yang belum terlalu berpengalaman, Dalam kehidupan selanjutnya, Sumitro kepentingan bisnis keluarganya di atas segera jadi lembaga yang disegani. Banyak ternyata bisa punya jangkauan yang kepentingan umum. orang kagum dengan gagasan tersebut terkadang mengagetkan. Daoed Joesoef, Pernyataan itu – yang khas Sumitro – karena reputasi Sumitro. Ia bersahabat yang belakangan jadi Menteri Pendidikan secara tepat menunjukkan sisi terbaiknya dengan mereka dan memberi mereka dan Kebudayaan, bercerita ketika ia jadi sebagai seorang ekonom yang juga pengalaman baru. Ia menyediakan “dosen terbang” di Makassar pada 1957. intelektual publik, yang tak kenal lelah kesempatan besar kepada orang-orang Pada saat itu, pelabuhan udara baru saja mencari visi alternatif. 48 BAB SATU

Kebetulan waktu itu ada seorang pemimpin mahasiswa ekonomi. Gagasan yang ia paparkan dalam karya besarnya, yang punya dedikasi seperti Suhadi. Dan kebetulan waktu itu The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money, yang ada doktor ekonomi yang masih muda, 34 tahun, Sumitro diterbitkan pertama kali di tahun 1936 setelah “zaman malaise” Djojohadikusumo, alumnus Nederlands Economische yang melumpuhkan ekonomi dunia, disambut hangat di mana- Hogeschool di Rotterdam. Kebetulan pula bahwa doktor ilmu mana ketika prasarana hancur oleh Perang Dunia II. Bantuan ekonomi ini baru saja berhenti sebagai menteri keuangan. Dan Marshall Plan dari Amerika Serikat ke Eropa menunjukkan ia tak menolak. Ia memang bimbang sejenak ketika para betapa pentingnya campur tangan pemerintah dan betapa mahasiswa memintanya jadi dekan. terbatasnya ekonomi “liberal” yang mengandalkan sikap laissez- Bagi Sumitro, seorang dekan harus bergelar profesor, faire untuk memperbaiki keadaan. Pandangan ekonomi klasik umumnya berjenggot, sedangkan ia tidak. “Saya masih muda,” terguncang sejak itu. katanya, sebagaimana dikutip dalam biografinya, “dan belum Sumitro, yang belajar di Rotterdam sampai ia menjadi berjenggot sama sekali!” Tapi ia menerima, dan tipikal Sumitro, doktor di tahun 1945, mengetahui perkembangan ilmu ia bekerja keras dan tuntas untuk itu dan kelak ia akan ekonomi ini dari jarak dekat. Seorang yang lulus dalam usia mengatakan bahwa membangun FEUI adalah satu hal yang masih 25 tahun, dengan kritis ia menampik pandangan paling membanggakan dalam hidupnya yang panjang dan ekonomi klasik yang masih mempengaruhi ekonom Belanda. berliku. Di FEUI, ia mencoba mempertautkan pandangan Keynesian Tipikal Sumitro pula, ia bekerja dengan rencana. dan pasca-Keynesian dengan keadaan konkret di Indonesia. Ia Rencana Sumitro ini kelak ternyata berpengaruh dalam sejarah memimpikan membangun “Jakarta School of Economics.” Indonesia. Tapi sebenarnya agenda itu sangat elementer dan Sumitro berniat mengisi staf pengajar FEUI dengan terbatas jangkauannya: mendirikan sesuatu dari titik nol. tenaga yang cocok untuk ekonomi pembangunan yang sedang Pertama, melengkapi korps dosen FEUI selekas-lekasnya. dikembangkannya. Ia, yang pernah mengikuti beberapa kuliah Kedua, melengkapi susunan tata usaha dan peralatannya. di London School of Economics – dengan guru besar seperti Ketiga, menyusun rencana pelajaran. Keempat, membangun Harold Lasky, dengan alumni seperti Jawaharlal Nehru yang susunan fakultas dengan bagian-bagiannya, misalnya kemudian memimpin India, dan Kwame Nkrumah yang perpustakaan dan lembaga riset. Kelima, berusaha agar FEUI memimpin Ghana – ingin mengirim kader-kadernya ke Inggris. punya gedung sendiri. Tapi pemerintah tak punya biaya untuk itu dan British Council Dengan cepat Sumitro bekerja. Untuk melengkapi korps tak bisa membantu. Akhirnya, Ford Foundation yang dipilih. dosen, keadaan menyebabkan ia harus membujuk beberapa Tapi jalan tak lempang ke sana. Permintaan awal Sumitro sarjana Belanda yang ada di Indonesia untuk ikut mengajar, diajukan ke Ford Foundation di tahun 1951, melalui seorang meski sebenarnya tak puas benar. Para guru besar itu ekonom Amerika, Everett Hawkins, yang waktu itu bekerja di kebanyakan bukan ekonom. Meskipun ia lulusan Rotterdam, Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA) di kedutaan AS. Sumitro tak pernah benar-benar menyukai Belanda terutama Dana yang diperlukan $400.000, untuk membiayai sejumlah orang Belanda yang di Indonesia. Dalam pandangannya, pakar ekonomi AS yang didatangkan guna mengajar di “orang-orang Belanda yang ada di Indonesia jauh lebih kolot Indonesia selama tiga tahun. Tenaga ahli itu dimaksudkan untuk dari yang ada di negeri Belanda sendiri.” Akibatnya, kurikulum mengisi kekurangan pengajar dan menggantikan pengajar FEUI pun masih “kolot.” Belanda yang sedang meninggalkan Indonesia. Awal tahun 1950-an adalah zaman berpendarnya ahli Permintaan Sumitro tak segera ditanggapi. Dalam sebuah ekonomi Inggris John Maynard Keynes dalam pemikiran penilaian konfidensial yang ditulis atas permintaan Ford ORANG-ORANG DARI SALEMBA 49

dan Sultan Hamengku Buwono IX dan Letnan-Gubernur Belanda Hubertus van Mook pada upacara penyerahan kedaulatan Indonesia pada 27 Desember 1949. 50 BAB SATU

TEKNOKRAT NOMOR SATU: WIDJOJO NITISASTRO

Widjojo Nitisastro sering dijuluki proyek-proyek besar. Diam-diam dia tak tapi ia juga bukan orang yang bersimpati “teknokrat nomor satu Indonesia,” “arsitek setuju kepada rencana Ibu Negara Tien pada Marxisme. Masa pembentukan dirinya ekonomi Orde Baru,” dan secara kurang Suharto membangun Taman Mini Indonesia sebagai ekonom bersamaan dengan bersahabat, “Bos Mafia Berkeley.” Label Indah (TMII). maraknya sosialisme di Dunia Ketiga. Ia apapun yang diberikan kepadanya, ia Widjojo mencemaskan timbulnya sikap menganjurkan strategi alternatif: ekonomi memang seorang pemimpin intelektual dari takabur akibat derasnya petrodolar dan Keynesian dengan wajah Indonesia. Ia satu generasi ekonom Indonesia. merasa skeptis bila industri dengan berpendapat, contohnya, koperasi tak Lahir pada 1927 dari sebuah keluarga teknologi tingkat tinggi jadi salah satu cocok dengan kebutuhan negara modern. nasionalis, Widjojo besar di Surabaya. mesin pertumbuhan. Semangatnya tampak Ia lebih tertarik pada ekonomi langsung di Tahun 1945, ia duduk di sekolah lanjutan bila ia membahas perbaikan hidup tingkat bawah pemerintah untuk merangsang ketika revolusi pecah dan ia bergabung desa, misalnya soal sekolah dasar dan pertumbuhan, tapi ia juga menyadari dengan Tentara Republik Indonesia birokrasi Indonesia tak selamanya Pelajar. “Ia sungguh seorang bisa dipercaya. Ia percaya pada pemberani,” ujar seorang teman perencanaan yang baik, yang lamanya, Pansa Tampubolon. “Ia disusun dan diawasi oleh para hampir saja terbunuh di suatu ekonom yang terlatih. tempat antara Ngadlik dan Gunung Sumitro Djojohadikusumo, Sari, tapi ia terus melawan dan kala itu dekan FEUI, melihat melemparkan granat.” kecerdasan Widjojo muda, juga Cerita itu menggambarkan bakatnya dalam memimpin, pribadi yang berbeda dari seorang keuletannya, dan hal lainnya: ia lelaki yang kemudian sering gampang menyesuaikan diri dituduh tak patriotik karena dengan kehidupan desa. “menjual” negaranya kepada Ketika Sumitro mengirim International Monetary Fund dan mahasiswa masuk ke desa, Bank Dunia. Dalam kenyataannya, Widjojo memang orang yang sebagian besar hidup Widjojo cocok. Laporannya, yang ditulisnya dicurahkan untuk tanah airnya. bersama Julius E. Ismail, menarik Sebagai mahasiswa FEUI dan perhatian wakil Ford Foundation University of California, Berkeley, Michael Harris. Orang lain juga ia sering memimpin diskusi terkesan. Di awal 1950-an, ketika membahas masalah Indonesia. ahli demografi Harvard University, “Waktu itu dialah yang selalu Nathan Keyfitz, jadi konsultan memimpin dalam diskusi itu,” Badan Perancang Nasional (BPN), kata Ali Wardhana, seorang ia bosan bukan alang kepalang. koleganya. Ketika Widjojo Keyfitz pun pergi ke pedalaman, mengepalai BAPPENAS, ia selalu di sebuah desa di Jawa Timur dan bekerja hingga larut malam. Tak melakukan penelitian. Widjojo seperti beberapa pemimpin Orde yang kala itu masih seorang Baru lainnya, ia tak pernah asisten mahasiswa di BPN, Widjojo Nitisastro, Jakarta, 1971. menodai kerjanya dengan korupsi. menemaninya. Hasilnya dipublikasi- Ketika para mahasiswa berdemonstrasi pelayanan kesehatan rakyat. Petugas kan secara luas dan digunakan sebagai atas praktek korupsi yang dilakukan para keamanan di BAPPENAS mengingatnya buku pegangan berjudul Soal Penduduk dan jenderal Orde Baru, Widjojo mengatakan sebagai pejabat yang peduli terhadap Pembangunan Indonesia. diam-diam bahwa mereka melakukan “hal “orang kecil” seperti diri mereka. Mereka Hampir tak terelakkan bahwa Widjojo- yang benar.” juga membicarakan dengan hangat lah yang mewarisi kepemimpinan FEUI dari Lebih jauh lagi, ia pernah melakukan perilaku Widjojo yang bersahaja, yang Sumitro. Pada 1986, dalam sebuah wawan- manuver menjatuhkan Mayor Jenderal Ibnu senantiasa mengelak dari perangkap cara Sumitro mengatakan, “Pada 1955 saya Sutowo dari kedudukannya sebagai direktur kekuasaan – juga kegemarannya akan bilang ke Widjojo, ‘Inilah hal terjauh yang bisa Pertamina, yang menghamburkan hasil jajanan pinggir jalan. saya lakukan sebagai guru.’ Tak lama pendapatan minyak dan terlibat utang Ia jelas bukan semata-mata “boneka kemudian, setelah memperoleh gelar sarjana, besar-besaran. Widjojo selalu curiga pada Barat,” seperti kritik kaum kiri kepadanya, saya mengangkatnya sebagai direktur LPEM.” ORANG-ORANG DARI SALEMBA 51

Presiden Suharto, Widjojo Nitisastro, dan John Bresnan, 1972.

Tentang cepatnya karier Widjojo, rekannya, para ekonom terbaik Indonesia masa itu, yang A.R. Soehoed bercerita soal para teknokrat Mohammad Sadli, dengan bercanda me- punya pemikiran cemerlang tentang ekonomi, ini, “Mereka pandai menakut-nakuti si Bapak. ngatakan, “Itulah bagusnya. Kalau semua ia diangkat jadi pejabat. Kelompok ini dikenal Mereka mengatakan, jika ia tak mengikuti orang sama-sama cerdas, tak akan ada sebagai “teknokrat,” yang mendominasi saran mereka, masyarakat akan tanpa perbedaan hierarkis yang alami.” pengambilan keputusan ekonomi yang dibuat sandang pangan, ekonomi tak akan tumbuh.” Irma Adelman, seorang anggota komite di awal Orde Baru pimpinan Presiden Suharto Pandangan lain mengatakan bahwa Widjojo penguji Widjojo di Berkeley, mengatakan pada dan mendorong Indonesia keluar dari jurang menarik perhatian Suharto karena ia mampu akademikus Karen Brooks pada 1996, “Kami kemerosotan 1960-an. menggabungkan sopan-santun Jawa dengan selalu merasa sejauh ini Widjojo-lah Para teknokrat pertama kali mem- kepandaian mengemas soal-soal yang mahasiswa Indonesia yang paling cerdas dan perkenalkan visi mereka kepada Suharto pada kompleks jadi jelas dan meyakinkan. energetik. Waktu itu kami pikir, Widjojo Agustus 1966, saat seminar militer di Bandung. Apapun penjelasannya, ketika Suharto sendiri saja sudah cukup untuk jadi imbalan Sang jenderal secara blak-blakan bertanya, “Jika memberikan kepercayaan kepada Widjojo yang setimpal bagi seluruh proyek Ind-nesia- Anda punya kesempatan untuk mengubah dan rekannya dengan kekuasaan, mereka Berkeley – dan kami pada bertaruh kelak ia ekonomi, apa yang akan Anda lakukan?” mengambil kesempatan tersebut, dan sejarah masuk penjara atau jadi perdana menteri!” Di sinilah, kata banyak orang, Widjojo ekonomi Indonesia berubah secara besar- Pada akhirnya, bersama teman-temannya, memperoleh kepercayaan Suharto. Ekonom besaran. 52 BAB SATU

Foundation, State Department (kementerian luar negeri AS) tentang Ford Foundation. Umar Kayam, misalnya, yang kelak – yang tampaknya masih berpengaruh pada lembaga pemberi menjadi guru besar dan penulis terkemuka Indonesia. Waktu dana dari swasta – meminta agar permintaan Sumitro ditunda itu dia mahasiswa jurusan paedagogi UGM. Mendengar bahwa untuk dipertimbangkan, sebab pemerintah AS “gusar” (piqued) lembaga ini menyediakan bantuan untuk usaha pendidikan di karena aplikasinya tak dilakukan melalui “saluran yang Indonesia, dia memberanikan diri datang ke kamar di Hotel sepatutnya.” Des Indes itu. Ia meminta bantuan untuk aktivitas penerbitan Di awal 1952, sebuah tim penjajakan dikirim Ford di kampusnya. “Tidak usah berupa mobil sedan, diberi mobil Foundation dari New York ke Indonesia atas permintaan pick-up saja sudah cukup bagi kami,” kata anak muda itu dengan pemerintah Indonesia. Tim bahasa Inggris terpatah-patah. itu mengukuhkan perlunya Starch, seorang tua yang bantuan untuk latihan kusut dan baik hati, tertawa. bahasa Inggris, yang diminta Dijelaskannya bahwa Ford oleh Duta Besar Indonesia Foundation, meskipun untuk AS, Ali Sastroami- pernah ada hubungannya djojo. Juga disebut perlunya dengan perusahaan mobil bantuan untuk UI dan Ford, tak membagi-bagi UGM. Tapi usul Sumitro kendaraan. tak dibicarakan secara khu- Keadaan Indonesia sus. waktu itu tak meng- Ketika Juni 1953, untungkan. Kabinet Wilopo datang ke Indonesia per- baru jatuh. Konflik di wakilan Ford yang pertama. kalangan politik menajam, Harapan Sumitro juga tak dan “Perisiwa 17 Oktober” di segera terpenuhi. Orang itu tahun sebelumnya, ketika adalah Elmer Starch. Sedikit Angkatan Darat mendukung yang diketahui Starch, pe- demonstrasi anti-Parlemen, tani gandum dari Mon- menunjukkan militer mulai tana ini, tentang Indonesia. gelisah. Di kalangan peme- Geraknya di Jakarta juga rintah dan masyarakat, keti- terbatas. Karena belum punya rumah tinggal, ia hidup selama dakpastian dan in-konsistensi meruyak ke mana-mana. dua tahun di sebuah kamar untuk satu orang di Hotel Des Dalam satu naskah tentang pengalamannya pada 1960- Indes (kini jadi pusat perbelanjaan Duta Merlin, dengan an yang tak pernah diterbitkan, John Bresnan, orang Ford arsitektur yang sudah berubah). Sekretarisnya, seorang Amerika, Foundation yang kemudian mendapat Bintang Jasa Pratama tinggal di kamar yang lain. Kantornya di kamar berikutnya. dari Presiden Megawati Sukarnoputri, melukiskan sulitnya Des Indes satu-satunya hotel prestisius di Jakarta waktu itu – keadaan waktu itu. Dia menulis bahwa Starch “bukanlah orang salah satu perundingan internasional untuk kemerdekaan untuk berurusan dengan pemerintah.” Starch juga tampaknya Indonesia diselenggarakan di sini – tapi tak bisa dikatakan bukan orang yang cukup gesit untuk berurusan dengan Sumitro memadai untuk sebuah tempat kerja. dan FEUI. Selama dia di Indonesia, proposal dari Salemba itu Juga belum banyak yang diketahui orang Indonesia tak bergerak jauh dari kantor Starch.

Ruang tamu yang sesak di kantor Ford Foundation di Hotel des Indes. Papan menunjukkan jadwal pemakaian mobil dan penugasan sopir, 1957. ORANG-ORANG DARI SALEMBA 53

SELO SOEMARDJAN

Selo Soemardjan (1915-2003) dikenal sebagai guru besar sosiologi Universitas Indonesia. Soemardjan memulai kariernya sebagai birokrat Jawa. Dia jadi camat di sebuah desa di Yogyakarta. Pada masa revolusi Indonesia 1945-1950, dia bekerja sebagai sekretaris Sultan Hamengku Buwono IX – sultan Jawa yang membantu proses kemerdekaan Indonesia. Soemardjan melanjutkan studinya di Cornell University, kembali pada 1959, lalu bekerja di berbagai tempat terutama Universitas Indonesia, dan Yayasan Ilmu-ilmu Sosial (YIIS). Dia ikut mendirikan YIIS dan menjadi ketuanya selama tiga dasawarsa.

Pada 1948 seorang mahasiswa Amerika Foundation. Itu pertama kali Sultan ke profesor saya ikut khawatir. Saya diluluskan, bernama George McTurnan Kahin bikin Amerika. Pengaruhnya luar biasa. mungkin karena mereka kasihan. penelitian di Yogyakarta. Kahin bertemu Pandangannya berubah banyak. Pulang ke Indonesia, oleh Mohammad Menteri Pendidikan Ali Sastroamidjojo. Kahin Pada 1958, saya menemani Sultan jalan-jalan Sadli dari FEUI, saya diminta mengajar minta dibantu mencari seseorang untuk selama sebulan lebih. Kami pergi ke tempat- sosiologi. Saya jadi akademikus nonekonom. memudahkannya melakukan penelitian dan tempat penting. Dari Chicago ke Wisconsin, kami Nama mata kuliahnya Non-economic Factors wawancara. diantar tiga pejabat Amerika. Sesudah kami di in Economic Development. Kebetulan saya ada di sana. Ketika Suharto menggantikan “Itu orangnya,” kata Sastroamidjojo. Sukarno, Sadli dan kawan- Saya bekerja sebagai pamong kawannya jadi arsitek ekonomi praja, tepatnya sekretaris Sultan Indonesia. Saya ikut sebagai non- Hamengku Buwono IX. Sultan economic factor. Para ekonom ini punya pengaruh di kalangan hasil beasiswa dari Ford Foundation, gerakan kemerdekaan Indonesia. termasuk saya. Sultan pula yang menawarkan Widjojo Nitisastro yang meng- Yogyakarta sebagai ibukota atur pendekatan di parlemen, Indonesia pada masa revolusi. terutama mengenai rencana pem- Saya bawa Kahin ke mana- bangunan. Kalau bikin rencana saja mana sampai ketemu Presiden akan tak berguna kalau tak di- Sukarno dan Wakil Presiden Moh. dukung parlemen maupun peme- Hatta. Sesudah penelitiannya rintah. Maka teknokrat-teknokrat selesai, Kahin kembali ke Amerika itu jadi menteri. Ali Wardhana jadi Serikat dan menerbitkan tesisnya menteri keuangan. Sadli jadi men- Nationalism and Revolution in teri tenaga kerja. Emil Salim masih Indonesia. Dia lalu jadi profesor di Berkeley. Cornell dan mendirikan Modern Kami bekerja jujur. Pada 1970- Indonesia Project. Suatu saat dia an semua teknokrat dilarang menghubungi saya, “Pak Selo mau Selo Soemardjan di Jakarta, 1971. Nitisastro berhubungan dengan belajar di Amerika?” pengusaha. Ini sampai anak-anak “Mau, mau banget. Tapi nggak punya uang.” dalam kereta api, mereka pulang. Ternyata Suharto dewasa. Suharto mau ikut dapat duit “Duit saya cari,” jawab Kahin. tiketnya salah. Kami segera keluar. Beliau dan ekonom-ekonom itu dilepas pelan- Mau belajar apa, saya tak tahu karena membawa dua koper besar dan saya satu. Lalu pelan. hanya lulusan sekolah menengah zaman saya beli tiket baru dan ternyata digratiskan. Tapi Pada 1974-1984 Ford Foundation membantu Belanda. Bahasa Inggris, saya bisa, tapi logat namanya juga Sultan, akhirnya saya juga yang pengembangan ilmuwan sosial di Indonesia Yogyakarta. Tapi saya selalu terkenang angkat semua kopernya. bersama YIIS. Tiap tahun kami memilih 15 orang pengalaman jadi camat semasa pendudukan Di Cornell saya belajar sosiologi menurut untuk dilatih penelitian. Saya ketua yayasan itu. Jepang. Susah sekali karena beras dan sapi teori-teori Eropa. Beasiswa saya hanya tiga tahun Kalau sekarang direnungkan, saya lihat diminta, laki-laki dipaksa kerja rodi. padahal saya ingin mendapatkan Ph.D. Saya beda bantuan dari Uni Soviet dengan Amerika Lantas revolusi. Ramai lagi. Banyak orang belajar keras. Pada Februari 1959 kembali ke Serikat. Uni Soviet langsung membantu diculik. Perubahan sosial itu menarik perhatian Yogyakarta untuk riset tesis Ph.D. selama enam rakyat, antara lain lewat PKI. Bantuannya saya. Maka saya bilang ingin belajar sosiologi. bulan. Lalu kembali ke Cornell untuk menulis berupa makanan, alat pertanian, dan Kahin minta saya membuat surat untuk studi tesis dan ujian. sebagainya. Amerika Serikat membantu di Cornell dan sponsor dari Ford Foundation. Ketika ujian, ada granat diledakkan di kaum intelektual, lewat beasiswa. Pada Februari 1956, saya pergi ke Perguruan Cikini. Sasarannya Presiden Harapannya, orang-orang ini kalau sudah Cornell. Nama Sultan mulai dikenal dunia. Sukarno. Presiden selamat, tapi empat anak pulang jadi pemimpin dan timbul trickle Dia diundang ke Cornell atas biaya Ford saya sekolah di sana. Saya khawatir. Profesor- down effect pada warga. 54 BAB SATU ORANG-ORANG DARI SALEMBA 55

Di tahun 1955, Starch pergi dari Indonesia, dari disebut Kebayoran. Di bawah kepengurusan Harris, Indonesia kamarnya yang sempit di Des Indes. Seorang yang lebih efektif merupakan sebuah entitas besar di Ford Foundation. Dalam menggantikannya: Michael Harris. Dalam biografinya, Sumitro catatan Bresnan, di tahun 1957 saja, biaya administrasi di menyebut Harris sebagai “kawan lama.” Mereka pertama kali Indonesia memakan separuh dari seluruh biaya kantor Ford di bertemu tahun 1951 di Jakarta. Waktu itu Harris bekerja di luar negeri. satu tim survei yang menjajaki kemungkinan pemberian Harris, yang kemudian tinggal di Indonesia selama enam bantuan seperti Marshall Plan di Indonesia. Harris adalah orang tahun, tak pelak lagi seorang pejabat yang efektif. Dan ia pilihan Presiden Ford Foundation, Paul Hoffman. memang harus demikian menghadapi Sumitro. Orang dari Harris memang sosok yang sulit dilupakan. Ia “seorang Salemba No. 4 itu tak punya banyak waktu lagi untuk menunda yang tinggi besar, penuh dengan energi yang gugup, sudah biasa rencananya bagi FEUI. Ketika Harris datang, Sumitro sudah dengan koridor kekuasaan,” begitulah Bresnan melukiskannya. nyaris melupakan Ford Foundation. Ia telah membuat Orang ini, yang tak pernah duduk di perguruan tinggi, dengan kesepakatan dengan pemberi dana yang lain. Dalam karier awal di kalangan organisasi buruh Congress of Industrial kesepakatan itu, Rockefeller Foundation akan membantu FEUI Organizations, tampaknya cocok dengan Sumitro yang dengan memakai Cornell sebagai lembaga penunjang. memang cenderung mengagumi “men of action.” Pada 1957 Tapi harapan ke arah Cornell dan Rockefeller Foundation Harris memindahkan kantor Ford Foundation keluar dari gagal. Dana yang dijanjikan oleh ECA buat mengimbangi tak kamar Hotel Des Indes. Ia membeli sebuah kantor di Jalan kunjung muncul. Kini tinggal Ford Foundation yang ada. Taman Kebon Sirih dan dua buah rumah di daerah Menteng, Harris pun bekerja keras dan membawa UC Berkeley ikut serta membangun lima rumah gaya Skandinavia di daerah baru yang dalam programnya.

Konstruksi perumahan untuk staf dan konsultan Ford Foundation di Kebayoran Baru, 1957. Ketika Ford Foundation menutup kantornya di Jakarta pada 1965, rumah-rumah ini dihibahkan kepada para mitranya. Miss Cunningham, Andrew Choa, dan Hasanah di ruang administrasi Ford Foundation di Hotel des Indes, 1957. 56 BAB SATU

Sejak Mei 1956, secara resmi UC Berkeley mengambil di kampus. Akhirnya, FEUI tetap sebuah fakultas yang belum peran – dan mulailah sebuah kerja sama yang kemudian ternyata juga kukuh dalam melahirkan akademisi. bersejarah. Ford Foundation menyetujui hampir semua ide Namun “kegagalan” itu berkait dengan keadaan dasar Sumitro, termasuk mengirim sekitar 20 mahasiswa ke Indonesia: di negeri di mana tenaga terdidik masih langka ini, AS, beserta keluarga mereka. Dalam bantuan itu dialokasikan seorang staf akademis yang mampu harus bekerja untuk segala juga anggaran untuk mendatangkan pengajar dari Berkeley ke macam hal. Mereka dituntut oleh kebutuhan hidup, Indonesia. Mereka akan mengisi kekosongan sementara tenaga permintaan masyarakat, dan tugas fakultas. Meskipun di FEUI. Sebuah dana besar, lebih dari $2 juta, disediakan demikian, orang bisa menunjukkan bahwa ada sesuatu yang untuk itu. tumbuh dari “rencana Sumitro” itu. Di tahun 1958, kurikulum FEUI diperbarui, meninggalkan warisan Belanda. Cara belajar Kini orang terus berdebat, apakah semua itu berakhir sebagai bebas diubah, menjadi guided study. Kriteria untuk diterima sebuah cerita sukses. Mohammad Sadli, teknokrat yang berada kuliah diperketat dengan ujian masuk. Sementara itu, dalam tim Widjojo Nitisastro ketika duduk dalam pemerintahan bagaimana pun juga, pengetahuan ilmu ekonomi di Indonesia Presiden Suharto, menilai program Ford Foundation gagal dalam mungkin tak juga berkembang pesat seandainya program membantu program Sumitro. Sebab tujuannya adalah untuk dengan Berkeley itu tak ada. Emil Salim, salah seorang lulusan memperkuat FEUI, sedangkan hasilnya adalah sesuatu yang lain: dari program ini, menjawab dalam sebuah wawancara, “Semua praktis semua ekonom yang disiapkan melalui program itu pengetahuan saya tentang ilmu ekonomi datang dari Berkeley, akhirnya direkrut ke dalam pemerintahan. Widjojo, Ali dari dasar sekali, bahkan sejak kalkulus.” Wardhana, Subroto, Daoed Joesoef, J.B. Sumarlin, Saleh Affif, Emil Salim tahu benar apa bedanya. Sebelum Berkeley, Emil Salim, Suhadi Mangkusuwondo, Julius E. Ismael, Djunaedi di Salemba No. 4, para mahasiswa belajar di bawah guru besar Hadisumarto, Dorodjatun Kuntjoro-Jakti, dan termasuk Sadli Belanda yang lebih fokus hanya pada persoalan mikro-ekonomi. sendiri adalah nama yang lebih dikenal sebagai orang pemerintah “Bagaikan pohon,” tulis Emil mengenang masa 50 tahun FEUI, ketimbang guru besar dengan karya-karya ilmiah yang dipakai “apa dan bagaimana hubungannya dengan hutan ekonomi

Mohammad Sadli menerima ijasah doktornya dari FEUI, 1957. ORANG-ORANG DARI SALEMBA 57 secara agregatif tidak dijelaskan…. Sementara itu di dunia Bersamaan dengan itu, Sumitro beberapa kali dipanggil oleh ilmu pengetahuan sedang berkecamuk ajaran ekonomi Corps Polisi Militer untuk diperiksa dengan tuduhan Keynesian dengan pendekatan makro-ekonomi.” korupsi. Merasa bahwa ini adalah cara untuk memenjarakan, Kritik yang lain, yang lebih galak, ditembakkan ke arah ia lari dari Jakarta. hubungan para ekonom dari Salemba itu dengan kekuatan Ia bergabung dengan para perwira militer yang politik di luar kampus. Sebenarnya hubungan itu bukan hal membentuk PRRI di Padang, dalam usaha membangkang baru. Di tahun 1950-an, hadirnya Sumitro di sana pada Jakarta dan Presiden Sukarno. Keadaan tegang, menyebabkan FEUI dianggap sebagai wilayah Partai Sosialis meskipun para perwira militer pembangkang tak yakin benar Indonesia (PSI). Sumitro memang anggota PSI yang sadar. Jakarta akan mengirim pasukan untuk menindak mereka, Para ekonom seperti Widjojo, Ali Wardhana, Suhadi, dan persiapan militer dilakukan juga. Sumitro bekerja sama Emil Salim tak pernah menyatakan diri sebagai anggota PSI atau dengan CIA untuk menggulingkan Sukarno. anggota partai apapun. Tapi beberapa staf pengajar lain, terutama Para pemimpin PSI, yang tak menyetujui langkah Tan Goan Po, dikenal sebagai PSI, dan orang-orang sosialis Sumitro, menskorsnya. Tapi tak menolong partai itu. tampaknya punya pengikut luas di sini. Gerakan Mahasiswa Presiden Sukarno – yang telah membubarkan Parlemen dan Sosialis cukup mendapatkan dukungan. “Bahkan tukang parkir menyatakan Indonesia dalam keadaan perang – tetap sepeda di kampus juga ikut memakai lencana PSI,” tutur Silalahi membubarkan partai itu di tahun 1960. Pemimpinnya, yang merupakan seorang pemimpin Perhimpunan Mahasiswa Sutan Sjahrir, dipenjarakan. Di masa itulah, kata PSI, berkat Katolik Republik Indonesia (PMKRI). kampanye PKI yang efektif, mulai jadi semacam stigma. Di tahun 1950-an, serangan kepada PSI, atau segala Stigma itulah yang mengenai FEUI. sesuatu yang dikaitkan dengan partai itu, datang dari Partai “Ini adalah minggu-minggu yang paling gelap dalam Nasionalis Indonesia (PNI) dan Partai Komunis Indonesia sejarah singkat Fakultas Ekonomi,” tulis Bruce Glassburner, (PKI). Kian lama serangan itu kian keras, dan PSI, yang salah satu staf pengajar dari Berkeley yang diperbantukan di praktis kalah suara dalam pemilihan umum 1955, terdesak. Salemba No. 4. Sejak itu, FEUI berada dalam posisi defensif.

Perploncoan anggota baru Perhimpunan Mahasiswa Katolik Republik Indonesia di Pasar Baru, Jakarta, 1958. 58 BAB SATU

SEMALAM BERSAMA TEKNOKRAT

Suatu malam, Maret 2003, ketika orang ramai bicara rencana Presiden George W. Bush menyerang Irak, di sebuah hotel Jakarta diadakan sebuah wawancara unik. Lima wartawan mewawancarai sembilan ekonom senior Indonesia. Widjojo Nitisastro datang bersama sebagian rekan-rekannya dari FEUI yang dulu memperoleh pendidikan ekonomi di Amerika Serikat dalam rangka kerja sama antara FEUI dan UC Berkeley, yang dibiayai Ford Foundation. Ada Suhadi Mangkusuwondo, Subroto, Julius E. Ismael, dan Mohammad Sadli. Widjojo diapit Saleh Afiff dan Subroto. Agak jauh ada Ali Wardhana, Djunaedi Hadisumarto, dan Sri Hadi. Mereka dulu menduduki berbagai jabatan kunci: badan perencanaan, departemen keuangan, perindustrian, perdagangan, pertambangan, perhubungan, maupun mewakili Indonesia di International Monetary Fund. Widjojo mula-mula memperkenalkan para koleganya. Rekan-rekannya bergurau. “Dia dipanggilnya Pak Lurah.” seloroh Sadli. Malam itu mereka bicara pengalaman mereka. Semula mereka studi lanjut di Amerika Serikat pada 1950-an dan 1960-an untuk jadi dosen FEUI. Kemudian mereka bekerja dalam pemerintahan Presiden Suharto membantu mengendalikan ekonomi Indonesia.

MAFIA BERKELEY tersebut. Prof. Sumitro tak menyarankan Bagaimana dengan Prof. Andreas Widjojo: Dalam sejarah selalu ada yang nama universitas di Amerika. Hal ini Papandreou yang mengajar di Berkeley namanya keberuntungan. FEUI beruntung diserahkan ke Ford Foundation yang (1955-1963)? Ini menarik karena Prof. mempunyai Pof. Sumitro Djojohadikusumo. kemudian memilih di UC Berkeley. Papandreou seorang sosialis yang Keberuntungan lain, waktu itu permulaan Dua guru besar dari Berkeley dikirim belakangan jadi perdana menteri Yunani 1950-an, ada senat mahasiswa yang ke sini. Prof. Paul Taylor, ketua Department (1981-1989, 1993-1996). Papandreou jadi ketuanya Suhadi Mangkusuwondo. Ketika of Economics, dan Prof. Thomas Blaisdell, ketua Department of Economics sesudah Prof. Sunarjo Kolopaking, dekan pertama guru besar political science. Di sana Prof. Prof. Paul Taylor. Ketika di Berkeley, Prof. FEUI, tak mau lagi jadi dekan, senat Frank Kidner mengurus administrasi, mulai Papandreou mengajar mathematical mahasiswa berinisiatif mencari dekan. memilih guru besar untuk dikirim ke economics. Saya ikut kuliahnya. Pada Pilihannya Pak Sumitro. Kalau tidak ada Indonesia hingga mengurus mahasiswa waktu itu, pada Prof. Papandreou tidak mereka, ya tidak ada apa-apa di FEUI itu. yang datang dari sini. ada inclination ke arah politik. Perkembangannya akan lain sekali. Pengiriman guru besar terdiri dari full Suhadi: Pada waktu itu, Pak Sumitro satu- professor, associate professor, dan tenaga MEMILIH JURUSAN satunya ekonom yang bergelar doktor muda. Mereka datang mulai 1956. Seingat Widjojo: Ketika belajar tertarik pada apa? ekonomi. Yang lain bidangnya sosial dan saya ketuanya Prof. Leonard Doyle yang Misalnya, Ali Wardhana tertarik pada hukum. Ada juga doktor ekonomi, sering bertengkar dengan Sumitro. Jadi tidak finance dan moneter. namanya Dr. Saroso, pernah di Departemen semuanya berjalan baik. Orang kedua Prof. Afiff: Saya di FEUI mulainya di jurusan Perdagangan, tapi sebagai ekonom kurang Leon E. Mears. Ini orang jadi penting karena ekonomi perusahaan dan Mears memberi dikenal. menulis buku Rice Marketing in Indonesia pelajaran marketing. Waktu itu ada Widjojo: Prof. Sumitro memimpin FEUI yang bersama Saleh Afiff. Yang ketiga, masih muda, penelitian rice marketing. Mears cari guru besarnya sebagian besar orang namanya Hans Schmitt. Dia erat dengan Ali asisten dan saya terpilih. Tapi waktu ke Belanda. Lalu ketegangan terjadi dengan Wardhana, karena keduanya mendalami Berkeley, saya masuk ke business Belanda (soal Papua). Mereka mau pergi. bidang fiskal dan moneter. administration. Prof. Sumitro berinisiatif mencari guru Untuk keberangkatan kita ada seleksi Widjojo: Pilihannya bisa macam-macam. besar lain dan yang dipikirkan dari oleh Prof. Sumitro dan sekretaris fakultas, Itu ditentukan sebelum berangkat. Berkeley Amerika Serikat. Dia membandingkan, “Ini Prof. Tan Goan Po. Tiap tahun ada mencarikan universitas yang cocok. sistem continental dan ini sistem Anglo keberangkatan. Misalnya, Suhadi, Julius Artinya, bukan ditentukan tapi ditawarkan. Saxon,” masing-masing ada kekuatan dan Ismael, saya, dan beberapa kawan lain Yang penting, bagi FEUI waktu itu, kelemahannya. Prof. Sumitro lalu pada 1957. Itu the first batch. Pada 1958 bukan tenaga yang dikirim ke luar negeri, menghubungi Ford Foundation untuk Ali Wardhana, Sumarlin, dan lain-lain. tapi juga yang mengurus di Indonesia. Prof. memperoleh bantuan membiayai rencana Tahun 1959 Emil Salim, Saleh Afiff, Batara Sumitro pada 1957 pergi (karena tersebut. Simatupang dan lain-lain. Sesudah itu pemberontakan di Sumatera dan Sulawesi). Ada faktor kebetulan lagi. Perwakilan masih cukup banyak yang pergi ke berbagai Prof. Djoko Soetono, dekan Fakultas Hukum, Ford Foundation, Mr. Michael Harris, universitas. merangkap tugas dekan FEUI. Tapi sehari- ternyata cocok dengan Prof. Sumitro. Ada Ketuanya sesudah Prof. Doyle adalah hari ada dua orang Fakultas Ekonomi yang kesepakatan Ford Foundation akan Pof. Malcolm Davisson. Bidangnya public sudah kembali dari Amerika Serikat. mencari lembaga pendidikan di Amerika finance. Lalu ada orang yang cukup lama Subroto sebagai sekretaris fakultas dan Serikat untuk jadi counterpart FEUI dan di sini dan cukup banyak kenalan, namanya Mohammad Sadli sebagai direktur lembaga akan membiayai program kerja sama Prof. Bruce Glassburner. penelitian. Jadi kita bisa pergi dengan ORANG-ORANG DARI SALEMBA 59

tenang. Andaikata mereka mengatakan, dan Sadli bicara. Pak Harto naik tahun KRISIS INDONESIA 1997-1998 “Sudah nggak usah diurus lagi, semua 1966. Kita ketemu pada seminar kedua Widjojo: Krisis 1997-1998 ini bukan saja pulang.” Ini kan bisa terjadi dan per- Angkatan Darat. Pak Harto minta kita krisis ekonomi tapi juga krisis politik. Sama kembangan FEUI akan menjadi lain sekali. membantunya. dengan krisis 1965 yang juga krisis ekonomi Subroto: Pada waktu itu ada tekanan kuat Waktu itu prioritas pemerintah tidak ke dan krisis politik. terhadap FEUI. Pressures paling banyak pembangunan besar-besaran tapi stabilisasi Ada pertanyaan apakah Pak Harto dari gerakan kiri. Yang menjadi benteng dan rehabilitasi. Stabilisasi artinya pengen- lebih tak mendengarkan kami saat krisis? atau payungnya adalah Prof. Djoko Soetono. dalian inflasi yang sangat tinggi waktu itu. Pertanyaan itu mungkin betul juga. Kalau Pressures itu kebanyakan mau memasuk- Rehabilitasi terutama pada prasarana: Ali Wardhana cerita, Pak Harto dulu kan orang-orang kiri sebagai dosen FEUI. pengairan, jalan yang sangat rusak, mem- bukan hanya mendengarkan, tapi Afiff: Ford Foundation tak hanya me- perbaiki fasilitas pedesaan, dan pertanian. mencatat. Misalnya saja soal rescheduling mikirkan individual scholarship, tapi juga Konsep stabilisasi dan rehabilitasi ekonomi utang luar negeri pada Desember 1967. perpustakaan. Pokoknya institutional itu hasil pertukaran pikiran dengan Pak Harus diceritakan kepada beliau tentang building. Timing juga beruntung. Belanda Harto. rescheduling itu apa, bagaimana caranya, keluar kita dapat Amerika. Amerika sistemnya di dunia yang berlaku pulang, kita sudah kembali. bagaimana. Kalau mau Jadi bisa mengambil alih apa mengurangi beban utang yang dikosongkan mereka. ini kita tidak bisa hanya Ini kebetulan. menentang sistem itu. Kita harus mengetahui seluk KRISIS EKONOMI 1965-1966 beluknya. Pada waktu itu Widjojo: Krisis ekonomi Pak Harto bersedia bela- dewasa ini (mulai 1997) jar. bukan satu-satunya krisis Afiff: Saya pernah dengan yang kita kenal. Tahun Ali Wardhana menghadap 1965 juga ada krisis. Waktu Pak Harto mengenai de- itu ekonomi Indonesia regulasi. Pertama masuk, merosot sekali. Mau contoh belum bicara, sudah diberi kemerosotan ekonomi lagi? kuliah. Tapi Ali terus bicara. Waktu zaman pendudukan Akhirnya Pak Harto setuju Jepang (1942-1945), eko- untuk deregulasi. Memang nomi hancur. dulu Pak Harto menulis, Para “teknokrat” menjawab pertanyaan tentang ekonomi Indonesia Pada 1965 ada peru- pada sebuah pertemuan pers di Departemen Penerangan, 1971: Subroto, sekarang kita yang menulis. bahan besar. Ketika itu ada Radius Prawiro, Sumitro Djojohadikusumo, Widjojo Nitisastro dan Ali Wardhana. Memang betul begitu. Tapi kejadian penting yang kita tetap argue. dipelopori antara lain mahasiswa. Pada 10 KEPEMIMPINAN WIDJOJO Widjojo: Apakah krisis ekonomi 1997-1998 Januari 1966 Kesatuan Aksi Mahasiswa Ali Wardhana: Kita beruntung punya disebabkan paket deregulasi pada 1980- Indonesia (KAMI) FEUI bikin seminar. Sumitro, Subroto, Sadli, Suhadi, tapi juga an? Deregulasi mulai 1985. Deregulasi itu Pembicaranya antara lain Sultan Widjojo. Ketika mahasiswa, saya sebelum meliputi banyak hal. Kita bisa bayangkan Hamengku Buwono IX, Adam Malik, ujian ditentir Widjojo di tempat tinggalnya andaikata tak ada deregulasi, apa yang kemudian dosen-dosen Fakultas Ekonomi. di asrama mahasiswa di Pegangsaan. Di terjadi? Dulu orang mengimpor kedelai Salah satunya Sadli yang mengatakan, “Kita Berkeley, kita diarahkan Widjojo untuk harus melewati sebuah pabrik pengolahan harus akui kurang modal untuk memikirkan keadaan negara itu terus di Tanjung Priok. Negara mana yang memperbaiki ekonomi apalagi mem- sampai kembali ke sini. Maksud Widjojo mengurus ekonominya begitu? Jadi orang bangun. Kita perlu modal dan modal dalam agar kita tidak sekedar menjadi dosen berpikir kembali. Begitu juga dengan negeri kurang. Jadi kita harus cari. Kita yang pasif melihat keadaan sekeliling. perbankan. Dulu kalau orang mau perlu modal dari luar.” Mengatakan bahwa Indonesia mulai bergolak tahun 1965. menyimpan atau mengambil uangnya di Indonesia perlu modal asing dan pinjaman Tahun itu sangat penting karena lahirnya bank pemerintah, tidak sedikit yang dari luar negeri berani sekali. Sesudah itu Orde Baru. Mau dibawa kemana ekonomi mengalami perlakuan tidak wajar. Ketika ada pembagian kerja, ada seminar, ada aksi. ini? Itu kan Widjojo yang mikir. Widjojo diberikan kesempatan kepada bank Fakultas Ekonomi sebelum 1965 mengambil inisiatif mengumpulkan swasta, dan ada kompetisi, maka ada diminta mengajar di Seskoad. Sadli yang pemikiran kita semua untuk mengatasi perbaikan di bank pemerintah. Bahwa pertama. Komandan Seskoad Jenderal keadaan. Kumpulan pemikiran tersebut ada hal-hal yang kurang baik itu jelas. Suwarto kenal Sadli. Kemudian ada disebarluaskan dan menjadi landasan Salah satu kelemahan kita adalah seminar Angkatan Darat dimana Subroto kebijakan ekonomi. pengawasan. 60 BAB SATU

Ketika “ekonomi terpimpin” diterapkan oleh Presiden Sukarno, kata sakti; begitu juga kata “revolusi” dan “sosialisme.” Politik dan pemerintahan “demokrasi terpimpin” berlangsung, pers jadi sebuah aktivitas yang serius. Mahasiswa nasionalis dan dibredel dan beberapa tokoh politik dipenjarakan, FEUI tak komunis berhadapan dengan mahasiswa Islam dan Katolik. bisa dengan terbuka menjadi mimbar yang bebas. Militansi naik – juga ke kalangan staf pengajar. J.B. Dalam arti tertentu FEUI memang bisa mengatasi Sumarlin, yang di tahun 1962 menjadi staf dekan, diserang keadaan. Djoko Soetono, guru besar ilmu hukum itu, oleh aktivis mahasiswa komunis dengan poster-poster. Ia mengambil alih jabatan yang ditinggalkan Sumitro, meskipun dituduh sebagai “anti-Manipol.” Sumarlin kemudian bercerita ia hanya mau disebut sebagai pejabat dekan. Subroto, yang bahwa ia memang menampik mahasiswa-mahasiwa kiri mendapatkan gelar master di McGill University di Montreal, untuk menjadi asisten dosen. Kanada, dan mendapatkan gelar doktornya di UI, bertindak Carmel Budiardjo, sekarang dikenal atas usahanya sebagai pelaksana sehari-hari tugas dekan. Berkat Subroto, membebaskan para tahanan politik Indonesia selama Orde program dengan Berkeley – yang antara lain merencanakan Baru, juga ditolak untuk mengajar. Carmel seorang mengirim sekitar 45 lulusan UI ke luar negeri antara 1956- kelahiran Inggris yang menikah dengan mahasiswa 1962 – diteruskan dengan teratur. Di tahun 1957, Widjojo Indonesia, Budiardjo, di Praha, datang ke Indonesia di tahun dan Suhadi berangkat ke California, beserta J.E. Ismael dan 1954. Ia salah seorang pendiri Himpunan Sarjana Indonesia Barli Halim. Rombongan berikutnya menyusul, seakan-akan (HSI), sebuah organisasi yang dekat dengan PKI. Ia, yang tak ada hal yang terganggu. dapat gelar di FEUI, mengetuai seksi ekonomi organisasi Tapi banyak hal berubah di Salemba No. 4. Lagu Ius itu. Justru karena itu ia tak bisa diterima. “Salah seorang Vivat tak pernah didengungkan lagi. Kata “buku, pesta, dan dosen Amerika yang mengajar sejarah ekonomi… cinta” dihapuskan dari hymne UI yang dinyanyikan tiap Dies membisikkan kepada saya bahwa kedutaan AS dan Ford Natalis dalam paduan suara yang menggugah. Kata Foundation bertindak mencegah pengangkatan saya,” kata “Manipol” – singkatan dari “Manifesto Politik” – menjadi Carmel mengingat masa itu.

Subroto mempertahankan tesis doktoralnya di FEUI, 1957. Suhu politik dalam dunia pendidikan meningkat: sebuah undangan untuk semua mahasiswa Jakarta mendukung pemerintah mengecam Sumitro Djojohadikusumo dan PRRI.

62 BAB SATU

PURI LUKISAN UBUD

Jalan Raya Ubud tergolong kecil, hanya sempat bekerja sebagai musikus di keraton Pada 1936 mereka mendirikan cukup untuk dua jalur mobil, sehingga Yogyakarta. Di sana Spies bertemu seorang perkumpulan Pita Maha. Nama ini diambil ramai apalagi di sana ada pasar, teater, pangeran dari Ubud bernama Tjokorda dari bahasa Kawi kuno yang artinya “nenek warung internet, persewaan sepeda, dan Raka Sukawati – anggota Volksraad yang moyang luhur.” Ketuanya Ida Bagus Putu bermacam kedai. Suasananya enak. Bau pernah belajar di Paris dan beristrikan dan komite artistiknya Tjokorda kemenyan terasa lembut. Dekat pasar perempuan Prancis. Si pangeran mengundang Agung, Bonnet, Spies, dan Lempad. terdapat sebuah museum penting bernama Spies ke Ubud dan memperkenalkan Keanggotaannya tersebar pada semua Puri Lukisan – tempat orang bisa merenung adiknya, Tjokorda Gede Agung Sukawati. sentra kesenian Bali: desa Peliatan, dan mengagumi karya-karya klasik Merasa cocok, Spies memutuskan menetap Padangtegal, Pengosekan, Mas, Nyuhkuning, seniman Bali. di kota kecil ini. Batuan, Sanur, Klungkung, dan Celuk. Ada lukisan dinding karya I Gusti Dalam beberapa tahun saja Spies Anggotanya 120-150 seniman. Nyoman Lempad. Ukurannya raksasa. dianggap sebagai orang non-Bali yang Tiap minggu pengurus bertemu di Beberapa bagiannya rusak. Warnanya rumah Spies. Mereka menyeleng- kalah melawan waktu. Di dalam ada garakan pameran di Batavia, Bandung, karya Anak Agung Gede Meregeg, Medan, Palembang, Surabaya, maupun Bima mencari arwah ibu dan Belanda, Paris, New York, Nagoya. bapaknya (1939). Pendek kata, pembaruan seni Bali ini Inilah Puri Lukisan. Ada mitologi membuat publik kesenian dunia Bali. Ada Bima. Garuda, Leak, dan kagum – setara dengan kekaguman bermacam cerita wayang. Tapi juga terhadap kesenian dari Cina, Jepang, ada gambar gadis-gadis muda maupun India. Kekuatan anatomis bertelanjang dada, mandi di kolam. Lempad jadi termasyhur di seluruh Menurut Jean Couteau, seorang negeri. peneliti-cum-sastrawan Prancis, Perang Dunia II meletus. Spies dalam buku Museum Puri Lukisan, dikeluarkan dari Pita Maha dengan koleksi Puri Lukisan merupakan saksi tuduhan terlibat homoseksualisme. mata pembaruan seni lukis dan seni Bonnet protes dan mundur dari Pita patung Bali. Maha. Masuknya tentara Jepang Pembaruan ini terjadi pada masa membuat kegiatan Pita Maha berhenti. kolonialisme Belanda. Seniman Bali Beberapa seniman menghimpun diri hingga abad ke-19 berkesenian untuk dalam Golongan Pelukis Ubud. melayani keperluan ritual agama atau Pada 1942 Pita Maha dibubarkan. aristokrasi. Ketika kerajaan-kerajaan Musium Puri Lukisan, Ubud, 2003. Spies dan Bonnet ditahan pasukan Bali ditaklukkan Belanda, maka Jepang. Malang nasib Spies, kapal pengaruh orang asing pun pelan-pelan paling tahu soal Bali. Dia jadi kolektor yang membawanya pulang ke Jerman, masuk ke Bali. Kolonialisme membuat serangga, pengarah musik, konsultan tenggelam terkena torpedo Jepang dekat kesenian Bali berubah. Seni ini pun makin pembuatan film, menciptakan koreografi – perairan Srilanka. Bonnet ditahan di marak dengan berkembangnya turisme Bali termasuk tari Kecak – menulis artikel dan Makassar tapi berhasil kembali ke Bali pada 1920-an. buku, serta membantu pengembangan seni sesudah kemerdekaan Indonesia. “Sekarang koleksinya lebih dari 200 rupa Bali. Masa revolusi dimanfaatkan Bonnet lembar lukisan, patungnya mungkin ada 80- Spies membuka pintu rumahnya untuk untuk riset, mendidik pelukis muda, dan an,” kata Tjokorda Bagus Astika, direktur tamu mancanegara yang mulai berdatangan mengumpulkan koleksi Pita Maha. Cita-cita Museum Puri Lukisan. Koleksinya ke Bali. Seorang di antaranya Rudolf Bonnet membangun museum bersama Tjokorda kebanyakan dikumpulkan Rudolf Bonnet. dari keluarga Belanda keturunan Huguenot Agung dihidupkan lagi. Bicara Puri Lukisan memang harus (orang Prancis beragama Protestan). Mereka membeli sebidang tanah dekat bicara tentang Bonnet, Walter Spies, Kehadiran dua seniman Eropa ini puri keluarga Sukawati. Pada 1953 maupun Tjokorda Agung Sukawati – tiga membuat gerakan pembaruan seni Bali terbentuklah Yayasan Ratna Wartha dengan serangkai yang berperan besar dalam mendapat momentum besar. Spies dan tujuan membangun museum. Pada Januari pembaruan seni rupa Bali. Bonnet menyediakan materi dan teknik 1954 Perdana Menteri Ali Sastroamidjojo, Walter Spies kelahiran Moskow 1895 baru. Spies menjadikan rumahnya untuk yang kebetulan teman dekat Tjokorda dari sebuah keluarga Jerman. Pada 1923 melatih 12-15 anak muda Bali melukis. Tiga Agung, datang ke Ubud dan meletakkan Spies pergi melihat Hindia Belanda dan sekawan itu juga membantu pemasarannya. batu pertama pembangunan museum. ORANG-ORANG DARI SALEMBA 63

“Lahirnya Hanoman” (1936) oleh pelukis Bali I Gusti Made Deblog, kini terpajang di Puri Lukisan, Ubud. Lukisan ini disumbangkan kepada museum oleh Michael Harris, wakil Ford Foundation di Indonesia.

Donasi pun mengalir dari pemerintah Kebudayaan Muhammad Yamin. Nama bersama pada 1979. Tapi Puri Lukisan Indonesia, lembaga kebudayaan Belanda “Puri Lukisan” yang artinya karya maupun museum lain di Ubud tetap menarik Sticusa, serta Ford Foundation. lukis, diciptakan Yamin. minat seniman dari daerah lain, termasuk Dua tahun kemudian museum itu Bonnet dan Tjokorda Agung meninggal Affandi, S. Sudjojono, Dullah, maupun negara diresmikan Menteri Pendidikan dan pada 1978. Jenasah mereka di-ngaben-kan lain, untuk menggali ide serta belajar. 64 BAB SATU

Dalam dokumen Ford Foundation tak ada catatan sosialisme Indonesia.” Pelbagai risalah ditulis dengan bahasa tentang itu, tapi ketakutan akan “komunisme” memang waktu politik yang telah jadi keharusan. Sadli menulis tentang “tata itu menjalar, dan tak aneh bila orang-orang Amerika di susunan industri dalam sosialisme Indonesia.” Ali Wardhana dan Indonesia juga menyebarluaskannya, atau setidaknya tak imun Subroto menulis “Kerjasama Ekonomi Antar New Emerging terhadapnya. Juga kampus. Sumarlin dan Daoed Joesoef Forces.” Beberapa staf pengajar dikirim ke Eropa Timur, misalnya mengatakan bahwa waktu itu ada usaha-usaha PKI untuk ke Yugoslavia, atau, seperti Widjojo, berkunjung ke Republik menguasai FEUI dan itu harus dicegah. Rakyat Cina (RRC). Batara Simatupang, yang selesai dari Dengan stigma PSI yang kuat, FEUI merasa harus Stanford University di tahun 1961, berangkat ke Polandia untuk mempertahankan diri dengan segala akal. Ketika Bung Karno belajar dari pakar ekonomi sosialis terkemuka, Oscar Lange, di mengecam para ekonom yang terjerat dalam “textbook Sekolah Pusat Perencanaan dan Statistik di Warsawa. Tenaga dari thinking” dan “dicekoki Keynes,” buku-buku yang bukan Berkeley, Glassburner, memandang semua ini dengan cemas, Marxis pun – dan tentu saja karya Keynes – dipindahkan tapi Salemba No. 4 memang tampaknya tak ditakdirkan jadi dari perpustakaan. Dorodjatun Kuntjoro-Jakti, yang sebuah menara gading. belakangan menjadi duta besar Indonesia untuk AS dan Suratan itu sebenarnya sudah tampak sejak mula. Ketika menteri koordinator bidang ekonomi dan keuangan pada Soenario Kolokaping menyampaikan kuliah perdananya di hari masa Presiden Megawati Sukarnoputri, waktu itu mahasiswa. pertama FEUI dibuka, ia memilih judul, “Hubungan antara Ia dapat semacam tugas dari Prof. Sarbini Sumawinata untuk Ekonomi, Politik Ekonomi, dan Politik Negara Umum.” Tanpa menyimpan buku-buku “ekonomi kapitalis” ke kamar-kamar disengaja, tulis Emil Salim dalam buku 50 Tahun FEUI, pidato kerja dosen. Ada yang memindahkannya jauh di luar kampus: perdana itu memberi ciri khas pada sang almamater. Kemudian, di kantor penjara Cipinang. menurut Salim, fakultas ini selamanya “sangat intensif menjalin Beberapa mata kuliah bahkan diganti namanya, agar satu pengembangan ilmu ekonomi, kebijakan ekonomi, dan aman. Akuntansi, misalnya, berubah menjadi “akuntansi pembangunan negara.”

Anggota-anggota PKI pada acara ulang tahun kedua pendirian PKI cabang Jakarta, 1953. ORANG-ORANG DARI SALEMBA 65

Jalinan yang menentukan terjadi hampir satu dasawarsa Bagi para dosen FEUI, forum di Seskoad setidaknya memberi kemudian, ketika Sadli bertemu dengan seorang teman sesuatu yang tak mereka dapatkan di tempat resmi lain: sekolahnya di Yogya, di tahun 1940-an. Namanya Suwarto. kebebasan untuk mengemukakan kritik mereka terhadap Ia seorang kolonel, ketika itu wakil komandan Sekolah Staf ekonomi terpimpin yang berlaku masa itu, sebuah sistem dan Komando Angkatan Darat (Seskoad). “sosialisme Indonesia” yang berusaha menegakkan kontrol Bagi sebagian orang yang mengaguminya, Suwarto yang pervasif atas produksi dan distribusi dan menimbulkan adalah seorang perwira militer yang jarang ditemukan di kemacetan ekonomi. Mereka juga berharap bisa Indonesia. Ketika Suwarto pada 1967 meninggal karena “mengemukakan konsep dan strategi lain sebagai alternatif.” kanker, cendekiawan Soedjatmoko menulis obituari dan Bagi kalangan Angkatan Darat, buah pikiran para ekonom menamakannya sebagai contoh “satria-pandita,” seorang itu bisa jadi bahan penyusunan agenda politik yang mereka intelektual di dalam tentara. Suwarto-lah yang mengubah siapkan bila mereka punya kesempatan memegang kendali kurikulum Seskoad dengan 50 persen mata kuliah diberikan kekuasaan nanti – tentu saja setelah menyingkirkan PKI. buat ilmu ekonomi, hukum, ilmu politik, sosiologi, dan Memang agenda itulah kemudian yang dijalankan, filsafat. Di tahun 1958, ia memulai kerjasama antara sekolah ketika Mayor Jenderal Suharto menjadi presiden, wajah untuk para perwira Angkatan Darat itu dan FEUI, juga Indonesia berubah. Sejak 1966, dengan konsep para teknokrat dengan UGM, ITB, dan Universitas Padjadjaran. dari Salemba, transformasi sistem ekonomi yang bersejarah Sebelumnya, sekembali Sadli dan Subroto dari AS di tahun berlangsung di Indonesia – dan agaknya merupakan 1957, mereka sudah mengajar di Seskoad. perubahan besar pertama dari sebuah ekonomi terpimpin ke Dalam buku 50 tahun FEUI disebut bahwa kerjasama arah ekonomi pasar, 30 tahun sebelum Cina dan Vietnam yang dibangun Suwarto termasuk dalam “upaya untuk menjalani proses yang sama. “Orde Baru,” di bawah Suharto, memikirkan perkembangan ekonomi-politik masa itu, memang kabar baik bagi mereka yang melihat bahwa cahaya terutama dalam usaha membendung pengaruh komunisme.” lebih terang di dalam “jalan kapitalis.”

Hari pertama kursus Sekolah Staf dan Komando Angkatan Darat di Cililitan, 1951. 66 BAB SATU

Kuliah di UI mulai lagi, 1966. ORANG-ORANG DARI SALEMBA 67

Suharto sebelumnya tak mengenal Widjojo. Ketika ia selama abad ke-20. mengikuti kursus C-II di Seskoad antara 1959-1960, mungkin Tapi tentu saja yang rasional belum tentu sama dengan ia hanya mengenal Sadli dan Subroto. Di awal 1966, ketika PKI yang demokratis. Bahkan demokrasi acapkali dilihat sebagai sudah disingkirkan secara berdarah dari panggung Indonesia, semacam kemewahan untuk merayakan kebebasan dan para mahasiswa FEUI memprakarsai sebuah “pekan ceramah kebebasan hanya dilihat sebagai sesuatu yang merepotkan. dan seminar” di aula Salemba No. 6. Suharto waktu itu masih seorang jenderal Angkatan Darat, tapi kekuasaannya sudah mulai Tapi berangsur-angsur terasa, demokrasi juga sebuah jadi tandingan Bung Karno, setelah ia muncul dari Peristiwa 30 kebutuhan. Kekuasaan efektif yang dipakai para teknokrat dari September 1965. Mahasiswa yang menentang Bung Karno FEUI, seperti banyak hal lain di dunia, cepat atau lambat dengan bersemangat mengundangnya untuk memberi sambutan mengalami korosi. Pemerintahan Orde Baru yang berangkat pembukaan seminar di kampus itu. dengan pembunuhan besar-besaran atas lawan-lawan politiknya Widjojo waktu itu dekan FEUI, ikut mengatur tema di tahun 1965-66 berjalan sebagai sebuah tatanan yang darurat. dan pembicara yang dimajukan. Ketika itu suasana Demokrasi Rasa cemas dan takut menyusup di mana-mana. Juga rasa takut Terpimpin belum hilang. Kampus masih takut untuk bicara itu tampil ketika orang harus memikirkan cara menghindarkan bebas. Akhir seminar masih ditutup dengan pernyataan setia korosi dengan pembaruan kekuasaan. kepada “Pemimpin Besar Revolusi.” Tapi di ujung presentasi Lambat laun, rezim otoriter yang mengandalkan makalah, Widjojo mengeluarkan sebuah kritik yang tak birokrasi, tentara, dan teknokrat itu kian memusat pada satu sepenuhnya terselubung. Tindakan ekonomi dan keuangan pribadi: di Jalan Cendana, Suharto duduk dengan kukuh, juga pemerintah, kata Widjojo, “tidak bijaksana” dan “hanyalah sebagai ayah bagi anak-anaknya yang semakin tumbuh sebagai menambah saja kesulitan-kesulitan ekonomi yang sudah ada.” pemodal-pemodal besar. Agenda yang “rasional” tiap kali Di saat itulah agaknya Suharto menemukan sebuah akhirnya harus menyesuaikan diri dengan para pemodal yang sumber yang berguna untuk ide-ide rehabilitasi Indonesia berkuasa itu. Sistem dan prosedur yang dibangun Widjojo dan setelah ia berkuasa. Dalam sambutannya, Suharto menghargai timnya mulai diabaikan. Kata “keluarga Cendana” jadi kata seminar itu. Sejak itu, bagi Widjojo dan kawan-kawannya, jalan yang sakti untuk membuat sistem dan prosedur itu tak relevan mulai terbuka ke dalam balairung kekuasaan. lagi. Bagi para neo-Keynesian ini, rehabilitasi ekonomi dari Menjelang 1998, Sumitro Djojohadikusumo melihat puing-puing Ekonomi Terpimpin tak berarti meniadakan korosi itu, dan berbicara dengan keras tentang “penyakit “keterpimpinan” sama sekali. Seperti keadaan ekonomi di masa institusional.” Tapi terlambat. Waktu itu Widjojo dan timnya depresi di tahun 1930-an, keterlantaran Indonesia menjelang sudah lama tak lagi berada dalam kabinet. Bagi Suharto, ia 1965 tak punya mekanisme yang bisa memperbaiki diri sendiri. sudah masa silam. Dalam buku otobiografi Suharto, Suharto: Bagi para teknokrat dari FEUI, yang dibutuhkan adalah sebuah Pikiran, Ucapan, dan Tindakan Saya, nama Widjojo hanya rencana yang rasional, dan rencana itu harus terjaga disebut dua kali, dibandingkan dengan 17 kali nama B.J. pelaksanaannya. Sebuah kekuasaan yang koheren dan efektif Habibie – orang yang akhirnya bagi Suharto lebih penting, adalah niscaya. Resep itu terbukti manjur: jalan mereka inilah orang yang dianggap telah memperkenalkan sebuah jalan yang membawa Indonesia ke sebuah pembangunan ekonomi ekonomi baru yang tak dikenal di ruang-ruang kuliah di yang tercepat yang pernah dialami orang Indonesia setidaknya Salemba No. 4. BAB DUA: AMERIKA, AMERIKA...

BAB DUA AMERIKA, AMERIKA...

i tahun 1956, seorang ilmuwan dari Illinois berangkat ke Ternate. Tujuan: menemukan sebuah Dsuku yang konon menggunakan siul – dan bukan kata-kata – buat bercakap-cakap. Ia tak menemukan suku luar biasa itu. Tapi itu bukan nasib paling sial bagi Lucien Zamarski. Di Ternate, tentara Indonesia menangkapnya. Ada sederet tuduhan dilontarkan kepadanya, antara lain membuat kontak radio dengan kapal selam Belanda. Lebih dari dua bulan lamanya ia ditahan. Tak ada tuntutan resmi. Setelah ada campur tangan Duta Besar Amerika Serikat John M. Allison, ia dilepas dan dengan segera terbang kembali ke Moline di Illinois. Di tahun 1958, di Bukittinggi, seorang perempuan Amerika yang bekerja di laboratorium pengajaran guru bahasa Inggris ditahan. Waktu itu pemberontakan PRRI di Sumatera Barat baru selesai. Hanya sisa-sisa pasukan pembangkang yang bergerilya. Bukittinggi telah diambil alih pasukan Jakarta. Beatrice Sutherland, yang didatangkan Ford Foundation ke Indonesia – dan kemudian selama delapan tahun tinggal di sini – hari itu dituduh oleh komandan militer sebagai simpatisan PRRI. Bukti: ia memiliki sebuah rekaman bunyi tembakan. Sutherland menjelaskan bahwa ia suatu hari tertarik akan kontras antara bunyi burung dan dentuman mesiu yang hampir tiap hari terdengar. Ia pun merekamnya, buat kenang-kenangan. Tapi bagi pejabat militer di Bukittinggi, rekaman itu dipergunakan orang Amerika untuk memberi isyarat kepada gerilya musuh. Sutherland akhirnya dilepaskan dan terbang ke Jakarta. Ford Foundation meminta agar Kementerian Pendidikan melakukan investigasi terhadap tuduhan itu. Tak ada bukti sama sekali, demikian hasil penyelidikan.

 Masa pergolakan pada 1960-an sering diwarnai demo massal anti campur tangan asing. Demo ini di Yogyakarta pada 1961 mengecam Belanda yang masih menguasai Papua Barat. 70 BAB DUA AMERIKA, AMERIKA... 71

Menjelang akhir tahun 1950-an sampai dengan pasukan Permesta yang berontak di Sulawesi Utara, dan di tiap menjelang akhir 1960-an, menjadi orang Amerika di Indonesia peti, merek Angkatan Laut AS tertera jelas. Lebih jelas lagi memang bisa merupakan pengalaman tak nyaman, termasuk sebuah kejadian di bulan Mei 1958: seorang pilot Angkatan bila mereka ingin menyelidiki suku aneh atau menyimpan Udara AS, Allen Pope, yang menerbangkan pesawat pembom rekaman bunyi yang tak lazim. Bukannya tanpa sebab. Jarak milik pemberontak, jatuh. Pesawat kena tembak dan ia antara Amerika dan Indonesia mendadak “dekat,” tapi ditangkap. karenanya justru tegang – karena Perang Dingin, karena Pope tak pernah diakui sebagai penerbang Angkatan ketakutan Amerika terhadap “bahaya komunis,” dan dorongan Udara AS, tapi sejak itu campur tangan Amerika tak bisa untuk menjangkaukan tangan disembunyikan lagi. Angin ke pelbagai urusan di pelbagai berubah arah. Orang-orang tempat. Pentagon tak menyetujui Tanggal 11 Februari tindakan CIA mulai dapat 1958, Menteri Luar Negeri AS alasan untuk mendesak De- John Foster Dulles mengatakan partemen Luar Negeri buat – dalam sebuah konferensi pers mengubah wajah dan haluan. nun jauh di Washington DC – Menyadari dukungan CIA bahwa “Demokrasi Terpimpin” kepada para pembangkang adalah di Indonesia mungkin tak sebuah petualangan yang gagal konstitusional dan tak dan merugikan posisi Amerika memuaskan banyak orang.” Di sendiri, bantuan untuk PRRI dan Indonesia reaksi tentu tak bisa Permesta pun praktis dihentikan. ramah. “Demokrasi Terpimpin” Sikap pemerintahan Pre- adalah salah satu sendi “Mani- siden Dwight Eisenhower yang festo Politik” Bung Karno, berubah ini menunjukkan doktrin bagi “revolusi Indo- betapa tak mudahnya hubung- nesia” yang tengah dibang- an internasional di masa Perang kitkannya kembali. Dingin – dan betapa tak gam- Tapi Amerika tak hanya pangnya berangkat dari sikap mengkritik “Demokrasi Ter- “siapa yang tak bersama kita pimpin.” Adik John Foster, Allen Dulles, direktur CIA, adalah musuh kita.” John Foster Dulles mengatakan bahwa melakukan sesuatu yang lebih berbahaya. Ia mengorganisasi bersikap netral di tengah konfrontasi “Dunia Bebas” dan bantuan bagi para perwira militer yang membangkang “Komunisme” adalah “immoral,” tapi Indonesia adalah kasus pemerintah pusat dalam peristiwa PRRI dan Permesta di mana dikotomi terbukti hanya menyederhanakan soal. (Perjuangan Semesta Alam) di Sulawesi di tahun 1958 itu. Indonesia memang selalu punya ambivalensi terhadap Bagi CIA, para perwira itu, bersama tokoh sipil anti- Amerika dan kerumitan masa itu menegaskannya. Bagi para Sukarno, misalnya Sumitro Djojohadikusumo, merupakan diplomat Amerika di Jakarta waktu itu, Bung Karno mulai mitra yang baik untuk mencegah komunisme menang di menjauh dari AS. Mereka merasa ia curiga bahwa Washington Indonesia. Berpeti-peti kayu berisi senjata dikirimkan buat akan menjatuhkannya. “Kaum imperialis itu memang…

Allen Pope menunjukkan kepada hakim rute pesawatnya sebelum ditembak jatuh, Jakarta, 1960. Menteri Luar Negeri Amerika Serikat John Foster Dulles mengunjungi Jakarta pada 1956. 72 BAB DUA imperialis!” serunya. Tapi pada saat yang sama, Bung Karno setelah India – dalam perhatian Paul Hoffman di kantornya di menunjukkan pula Indonesia tak menapik apa yang ditawarkan New York. Amerika. Pragmatisme tak pernah ditinggal jauh, juga di tahun- Presiden Ford Foundation ini mulai tertarik pada tahun ketika retorika nasionalisme bergelora kembali. Indonesia secara kebetulan. Di akhir 1940-an, ketika bekerja Hanya empat bulan setelah Pope ditembak jatuh, di Eropa mengepalai program bantuan AS Marshall Plan ke Indonesia menerima bantuan militer dari AS senilai $7 juta. negara-negara yang rusak oleh Perang Dunia II, Hoffman Perlengkapan militer pertama dikirim dengan pesawat transport menemukan satu hal: ada sebagian bantuan AS hendak dipakai C-124. Bung Karno dengan senang hati ikut sebentar terbang Belanda guna membiayai usaha menghentikan perlawanan di dalamnya. prokemerdekaan di Indonesia. Ia menghentikannya. Maka gayung dengan cepat bersambut ketika di awal Dibantu atau tak dibantu, membantu atau tak membantu – 1952, Ali Sastroamidjojo, seorang tokoh nasionalis yang waktu hari-hari itu, variasi atas tema itu bisa bermacam-macam. Tak itu jadi duta besar di Washington DC, menulis sepucuk surat ada contoh yang lebih menarik untuk menggambarkan ke Institute of International Education (IIE), meminta agar kebingungan – atau lebih tepat ambivalensi – ini ketimbang Ford Foundation membantu sebuah proyek pelatihan guru hubungan pemerintah Indonesia dengan Ford Foundation, bahasa Inggris di Indonesia. Dengan segera Hoffman yang bisa bertahan melintasi tahun 1960-an yang panas, memutuskan mengirim Dyke Brown dan Edwin Arnold, dua mendebarkan, dan akhirnya eksplosif. konsultan Ford Foundation, untuk melakukan sebuah survei Sejak awal, Ford Foundation memang punya posisi penjajakan ke Jakarta. tersendiri dalam usaha Indonesia memperoleh bantuan dari Antusiasme terasa di kantor Ford Foundation. Beberapa luar. Indonesia juga punya tempat yang khusus – setidaknya paragraf memorandum yang dikirim ke meja Hoffman oleh

Sebuah pameran teknologi militer Amerika di Jakarta, sesudah insiden Allen Pope, 1958. AMERIKA, AMERIKA... 73

MAYLING OEY-GARDINER

Mayling Oey-Gardiner baru menjadi penerima dana Ford Foundation ketika kariernya sudah berkembang jauh. Namun keterlibatannya dengan Ford Foundation mulai jauh lebih awal sebagai sekretaris. Ia mendapatkan dua gelar master dan belakangan menjadi profesor perempuan pertama di FEUI sekaligus perempuan pertama yang jadi doktor di bidang demografi. Kini ia terlibat dalam International Fellowships Program (IFP), yang menyediakan pendidikan pasca sarjana kepada orang-orang di seluruh dunia dari komunitas terpinggirkan.

Pengalaman pertama saya dengan Ford Selama tinggal di Amerika saya tetap memutuskan untuk tak memberikan dana lagi Foundation dimulai sebagai seorang sekretaris berhubungan dengan Quinn. Ketika lulus ke birokrasi tapi ke universitas-universitas di kantor Taman Kebon Sirih pada 1963. Saya dengan gelar BA bidang sosilogi pada 1968, saya untuk menjalankan program kependudukan. baru selesai ikut suatu proyek FEUI ketika saya memutuskan tetap tinggal di Amerika karena Jadi, ketika Harvard, yang menerima dana diminta gabung ke Ford Foundation oleh situasi Indonesia masih tegang. Saya diterima besar, datang ke Indonesia untuk mencari William Lightfoot, asisten wakil Ford untuk program master di William and Mary mahasiswa, maka saya pun diterima untuk Foundation. Ketegangan politik membuat College. Sesudah selesai pada 1971, saya program master di bidang ilmu kependudukan. kegiatan Ford Foundation menurun tapi Pada 1976, dengan dua gelar Lightfoot dan Phineas Quinn minta saya master dan pengalaman kerja 15 tahun tetap bekerja. Quinn datang ke Jakarta untuk Ford Foundation, saya jadi orang dari New York tiap dua bulan sekali tapi Indonesia pertama yang menerima karena tak banyak kegiatan, dia minta dana dari Ford-Rockefeller Population saya mengajarinya bahasa Indonesia, Studies Award untuk mengerjakan riset sebaliknya dia mengajari saya bahasa tentang transmigrasi di Lampung, Inggris. Bahasa Inggris Quinn versi Sumatera Selatan. Sesudah selesai, Oxford English sehingga saya harus Peter Weldon, orang Ford Foundation belajar Shakespeare. Ketika sedang yang mendorong saya melamar dana belajar inilah, tiba-tiba dia bertanya, itu, menyakinkan saya untuk men- “Bagaimana kalau Anda sekolah ke dapatkan Ph.D. dari Australian National Amerika?” Saya jawab, “Apa? Saya University pada 1978. Saya jadi orang sekolah di Amerika?” Indonesia pertama yang dapat Ph.D. di Awal 1960-an adalah periode yang bidang demografi. sulit untuk menjadi orang Tionghoa di Sejak saya jadi sekretaris Ford Indonesia. Saya menolak tawaran itu Foundation, saya merasa orang-orang tapi orang tua mendorong saya untuk Ford Foundation inilah yang mem- pergi. Quinn lalu memperkenalkan pengaruhi hidup saya, jauh lebih banyak saya dengan rekan-rekannya di St. ketimbang institusinya sendiri. Apa yang Xavier, Chicago, di mana saya men- sangat saya hargai dari Ford Foundation dapatkan tempat belajar. Pada 1964, adalah mereka mau membantu orang- beberapa saat sebelum Presiden orang dari komunitas yang terping- Sukarno menutup politik luar negeri Mayling Oey-Gardiner di St. Xavier College, Chicago 1965. girkan, kebanyakan kaum minoritas, dan Indonesia, saya mendapatkan beasiswa kini bantuan itu dilakukan lewat IFP. Saya Fullbright dan pergi ke Amerika. Saya memang kembali ke Indonesia. Sekali lagi, mentor saya merasa di banyak organisasi donor, orang-orang tak mendapatkan dana dari Ford Foundation Quinn, mempengaruhi pilihan hidup saya. Dia hanyalah merupakan angka-angka; mereka karena semua dana waktu itu diberikan lewat membantu saya untuk mendalami bidang hanya penerima dana. Ford Foundation berbeda. jalur pemerintah. Quinn juga membantu saya kependudukan. Saat itu, Dr. Widjojo memimpin Orang-orang Ford Foundation inilah yang untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan musim panas BAPPENAS, yang berperan penting dalam senantiasa menantang saya dan mendorong saya di Cornell membantu John Wolff dengan memasukkan isu kependudukan dalam untuk mengubah hidup saya sendiri dan saya bukunya tentang bahasa Indonesia. Saya juga rencana pembangunan. Saat itu pemerintah percaya banyak orang juga mengalami peng- mendapat pekerjaan membantu Dr. Widjojo Amerika Serikat juga memberikan bantuan alaman serupa dengan saya. Buat saya, Ford Nitisastro mengerjakan disertasinya Pop- dana besar-besaran kepada Indonesia untuk Foundation ada untuk menyediakan bantuan ulation Trends in Indonesia. mengatasi ledakan penduduk. Amerika juga pembangunan dengan wajah yang manusiawi. 74 BAB DUA

REVOLUSI HIJAU: SWASEMBADA PANGAN

Dewasa ini, istilah “bioteknologi” punya jauh di luar kapasitas petani miskin. Ford Foundation New York menjabat banyak makna: modifikasi genetik, Suasana politik juga bermasalah. Akibat pemimpin IRRI; ia keberatan untuk perkawinan antargen, benih rekayasa, bibit pembunuhan besar-besaran pada 1965, memperluas kerja mereka di Indonesia akibat transgenik, “frankenfood.” Ia juga meruah ke tentara Indonesia praktis mengontrol politik ketegangan antara Indonesia dan Amerika isu-isu lain, mulai dari perang dagang hingga pedesaan di Jawa. Para penduduk desa, Serikat. Tapi Bresnan tetap bersikukuh kedaulatan bangsa, dari ikhwal kesehatan apapun politik mereka, tak bebas mengatasi menyakinkan sang atasan bahwa Revolusi hingga masalah moral. masalah mereka sendiri. Hijau baik untuk Indonesia, dan Tapi pada 1960-an, “bioteknologi” Kombinasi antara masalah ekonomi dan pandangannya diterima. sinonim dengan “Revolusi Hijau”: satu-satunya tekanan politik ini – belum lagi ledakan Prestasi IRRI memang mengagumkan, harapan bagi negara berkembang di ambang penduduk – membawa perubahan besar bagi paling tidak secara statistik: International bencana kelaparan. Istilah Revolusi Hijau desa-desa Jawa. Para pemilik tanah tak punya Rice Genebank punya koleksi 90.000 contoh sendiri mengacu pada perbaikan produksi kemauan untuk tetap mengikuti sistem bagi padi; Farmers’ Primer on Growing Rice pangan dengan menggunakan varietas hasil. Ketika musim panen tiba, pekerjaan diterjemahkan ke dalam lebih dari 48 bahasa; gandum dan padi unggul. perpustakaan IRRI, dengan Khusus untuk padi, revolusi ini bibliografi padinya sendiri, berisi lebih dimulai pada 1966 ketika dari 170.000 referensi padi dalam International Rice Research sekurangnya 80 bahasa. Tradisi Institute (IRRI) dari University of kegiatan mereka bagi komunitas the Philippines mengeluarkan lokal – beasiswa, pelatihan untuk jenis-jenis padi hibrida baru. petani, program pemberdayaan Didirikan 1960, dengan bantuan perempuan – kukuh. Ford dan Rockefeller, IRRI sebuah Tapi pertanyaan kritis tetap organisasi nirlaba yang bergerak di diperlukan. Beberapa orang bidang penelitian dan pelatihan. mengatakan bahwa varietas baru Kegiatan mereka atas nama para ini lebih mudah diserang hama dan petani dan konsumen diperkirakan penyakit. Mereka menyebut, telah “menyentuh” sekitar separuh sebagai contoh, kerusakan yang penduduk dunia. Terobosan ilmiah dialami para petani Indonesia 1966 ini memang diproyeksikan Panen padi di banjar Abianbase, Bali, 1985. karena serangan hama wereng. untuk mencegah kelaparan massal Ada juga yang mengatakan bahwa yang diperkirakan akan melanda Asia pada menuai padi pun diberikan kepada orang luar, tanah jadi poros jika terlalu sering dibubuhi 1970-an. Ternyata, teknologi ini bahkan kebanyakan laki-laki, yang lebih banyak pupuk kimia. Pendapat lain: polusi mengubah politik ekonomi padi. menggunakan arit atau alat sejenisnya, ditimbulkan oleh pestisida. Lihat saja Pada akhir 1960-an, ekonomi Indonesia daripada ani-ani kecil yang biasa digunakan dampaknya pada ikan. kacau balau. Pertumbuhan penduduk perempuan. IRRI tak bergeming. Jawabnya: mencapai taraf yang mengkhawatirkan, dan Pada awal 1970-an, Indonesia mengalami teknologi padi ini justru mengurangi negeri ini menderita kekurangan beras – produksi padi terbesar selama sejarahnya. penggunaan pestisida oleh petani, yang sebuah faktor yang turut menumbangkan Varietas baru yang dikenal sebagai IR5 telah dampaknya positif bagi lingkungan maupun Sukarno. Impor beras tak hanya mahal, tapi digunakan pada seperempat lahan pertanian kesehatan manusia. untuk sebuah bangsa yang sombong, juga negeri ini. Akibatnya, para pemilik tanah Pada 1984, Indonesia dinyatakan memalukan. Ketika Suharto mengambil alih pertanian pun memotong jumlah tenaga kerja mencapai swasembada pangan, dan dengan kekuasaan, bibit padi unggul dianggap suatu mereka, dan secara perlahan mulai demikian masuk peta dunia. Namun rapornya anugerah: ia tak saja meningkatkan menggunakan mesin. Ini terutama cukup berwarna. Penduduk desa yang produktivitas padi, tapi juga membantu mempengaruhi buruh perempuan miskin. melarat, yang putus asa karena pekerjaan di menstabilkan ekonomi dan mengembalikan Ketika sosiolog Masri Singarimbun dari UGM sawah menurun drastis, terpaksa melarikan harga diri. bertanya pada beberapa perempuan diri ke kota untuk mencari pekerjaan di Tapi teknologi baru selalu menimbulkan bagaimana mereka mengatasi masalah ini, pabrik-pabrik. Sampai sekarang, beberapa masalah baru. “Paket terpadu” yang mereka menjawab, “Kami akan makan lebih dasawarsa sejak Revolusi Hijau, kita masih mencakup penyeragaman infrastruktur sedikit lagi.” lihat dampaknya di mana-mana: pelacur, irigasi, pupuk kimia, dan variasi benih Orang yang bertanggung jawab membawa pedagang kaki lima, pemulung, yang berusaha membutuhkan investasi besar, sesuatu yang masuk IRRI ke Indonesia adalah John bertahan hidup di pelosok kota, di negeri yang tak sulit bagi seorang pemilik lahan besar tapi Bresnan. Saat itu mantan atasan Bresnan di sudah “swasembada” ini. AMERIKA, AMERIKA... 75 76 BAB DUA

Brown dan Arnold menyebutkan bahwa Indonesia tampaknya Perang Dingin antara “Dunia Bebas” dan “Blok Komunis.” “punya kans yang cukup untuk berkembang menurut garis Indonesia selamanya meletakkan dirinya dalam posisi “bebas demokratis.” Konsultan itu juga mencatat, dibantu “oleh dan aktif” – kata lain dari “netral” dalam konflik tapi aktif pengalaman, oleh keterpencilan geografisnya, dan kepercayaan dalam mengusahakan perdamaian. Konferensi Asia-Afrika di Islam yang dianut 90 persen rakyatnya, Indonesia tetap sebuah Bandung di tahun 1955 merupakan perayaannya yang pertama. negeri nonkomunis.” Tapi AS tak selamanya memahami non-alignment. “Komunis” dan “bukan komunis” memang merupakan Ketidakcocokan politik luar negeri ini terjadi bahkan sebelum kategori yang menguasai pemikiran orang Amerika waktu itu masa Dulles. – dan dengan itu pula ditentukan adakah sebuah negeri perlu Di tahun 1952, ketika pemerintahan negara dijalankan dibantu atau dimusuhi. Bagi Indonesia, perlunya bantuan tak oleh Perdana Menteri Sukiman, Indonesia siap menerima bisa diingkari. Dan sebagai negeri “nonkomunis,” ada bantuan AS. Tapi akhirnya batal. Hambatan muncul karena kesempatan baginya untuk mengetuk pintu ke Washington. ketentuan dalam Mutual Security Act tahun 1951 mengharuskan Tapi sumber terbatas. Program PBB tak besar, dan bantuan AS pemerintah Amerika untuk mengaitkan bantuan ekonomi di bidang teknis di tahun 1952 itu baru saja dipotong dari $8 dengan pertahanan “Dunia Bebas.” Negosiasi berlangsung untuk juta menjadi $3 juta. menghindari kesan bahwa Indonesia telah meninggalkan politik Hubungan dengan AS memang tak gampang. Problem luar negeri yang tak hendak memihak. Titik-titik pertemuan dengan pemerintah AS, kata staf Ford Foundation pada waktu sudah mulai kelihatan. Tapi oposisi terlanjur meluas. Kabinet itu, ialah karena “Amerika telah menganggap ringan kekuatan Sukiman pun dihentikan mandatnya oleh Parlemen menjelang nasionalisme Indonesia.” akhir Februari 1952. Insiden itu menunjukkan bahwa bagi Setidaknya AS tak cukup fleksibel dalam menghadapi Indonesia, bantuan luar negeri selamanya mengandung pendirian Indonesia yang menolak untuk memihak dalam komplikasi yang tak mudah diluruskan.

Sesi pertama Konferensi Asia-Afrika di Bandung, 1955. Sawah dekat Sumedang, Jawa Barat. Selama hampir dua dasawarsa para mitra Ford Foundation membantu petani merancang dan mengatur sistem irigasi sawah mereka sendiri. AMERIKA, AMERIKA... 77

SAJOGYO

Prof. Sajogyo dikenal sebagai dosen IPB. Ia lulus dari sana pada 1955 dan langsung jadi dosen di alma maternya. Dia terkenal sebagai pakar dalam bidang kemiskinan, pembangunan desa, pendidikan kesejahteraan keluarga, maupun sosiologi di Indonesia. Prof. Sajogyo memang menekuni masalah sosial pedesaan. Ketika lulus sebagai sarjana pertanian di Ford Foundation, mendukung SAE, be- sae. Ini cikal bakal dari padi bibit unggul yang Fakultas Pertanian UI, sebelum diubah jadi IPB kerjasama dengan Agriculture Development hasil panennya besar dan membantu pada 1963, selama 10 bulan saya jadi asisten Council (ADC) yang khusus dalam pem- penyediaan pangan di Indonesia. Tapi bibit lapangan Prof. Karl Pelzer, geograf dari Yale bangunan pertanian dengan fokus Asia unggul ini juga butuh pupuk buatan pabrik University, di Sumatera Utara dan Selatan. Tenggara. Kerjasama ADC dengan SAE sehingga ada pendirian pabrik pupuk urea, Setelah kembali ke Bogor, saya jadi asisten di bertepatan dengan awal penyebaran bibit produksi pestisida, sistem distribusi, kredit dan jurusan Sosial Ekonomi, Fakultas Pertanian unggul padi yang berasal dari IRRI Filipina. sebagainya, yang melahirkan apa yang disebut UI, Bogor selama 1956-1957, sambil bekerja Padi termasuk isu penting karena kebutuhan sebagai Revolusi Hijau. Di sana juga ada kolusi sebagai asisten guru besar tamu sosiologi Prof. beras di Indonesia besar sekali. Dalam “Padi dan korupsi antara birokrat dan pengusaha. W.F. Wertheim dari Universitas Dosen-dosen IPB tak terlibat dalam Amsterdam, Belanda. Pada Oktober “penemuan” bibit unggul IRRI. Andil 1957 saya lulus sebagai doktor Indonesia adalah bahwa ada satu galur pertanian (Wertheim promotor) padi dari hasil silang di Indonesia yang dengan tesis “Transmigran Spontan di dipakai di IRRI sebagai salah satu W. Sekampung, Lampung, Sumatera “sumber genetik” bagi nomor IRRI Selatan.” yang diciptakan itu. Memang ada jasa “Transmigran spontan,” datang ke dosen IPB, yaitu dalam mem- Lampung, tanpa dibantu pemerintah, perkenalkan bibit baru itu di tiga desa dari Pulau Jawa, dari ujung barat di Karawang, berkat penyuluhan yang sampai timur, mengikuti jejak intensif, tinggal selama enam bulan di perintisan oleh penduduk Jawa dari desa bersama petani, untuk desa-desa lama di Lampung – generasi mendorong petani mencoba bibit baru sebelum Perang Dunia II. Pendatang itu itu. Hasilnya meyakinkan petani! bukan saja membangun tanah usaha Setelah itu Dinas Pertanian mengikuti tani, melainkan juga membangun desa jejak “pelibatan mahasiswa sebagai baru, lengkap dengan kelembagaan penyuluh petani padi,” mahasiswa desa sambil memperjuangkan agar tingkat akhir diberi biaya tinggal enam diakui oleh pemerintah kabupaten bulan di desa dengan tugas penyuluhan sebagai desa baru. dan laporannya jadi bahan ujian akhir! Pada 1950-an kata kunci di Tahun 1965 ada ratusan mahasiswa kalangan akademisi sosial adalah pertanian ditugasi oleh IPB. “community development.” Kita bisa Pada 1973 saya pergi ke Hawaii menelusuri pengembangan ide itu tapi untuk menulis makalah untuk sebuah organisasi yang ikut mendorong ide seminar Food and Agriculture pengembangan masyarakat lapisan Organization. Judulnya Modernization bawah antara lain Bank Dunia, ILO, Sajogyo di luar kantornya, Bogor, 1977. Without Development yang belakangan WHO. diterbitkan oleh Journal of Social Awal proyek Survei Agro Ekonomi (SAE) Sentra,” proyek intensifikasi padi semasa Sciences terbitan Dhaka. di Departemen Pertanian terjadi pada 1964. zaman Presiden Sukarno, yang dipakai adalah Orde Baru kurang memperhatikan Waktu itu Ford Foundation membantu antara bibit unggul nasional. reformasi agraria. Pada 1967 UU Pokok lain membiayai kehadiran konsultan Dr. E. de Sesudah 1965 ADC makin banyak terlibat Kehutanan dikeluarkan di mana sekian Vries, pejabat pertanian di masa Hindia dalam pengembangan pertanian di Indonesia. ratus juta hutan dialihkan status jadi tanah Belanda 1930-an. Pada 1964 saya dipinjam IRRI mengadakan penelitian padi di negara. Ini membuka peluang dibukanya dari IPB untuk jadi ketua Badan Pekerja SAE, Indonesia. Dosen-dosen IPB banyak terlibat hak pengelolaan hutan oleh perusahaan dengan dana dari Departemen Pertanian plus dalam penelitian ini. Padi jenis peta yang tinggi besar. Kini kita tahu setelah 30 tahun, Orde Ford Foundation, yang menanggung de Vries. dan bulirnya berjanggut dikawinkan sehingga Baru mewariskan hutan yang rusak. Ini Proyek itu diteruskan oleh Orde Baru, saya jadi padi yang tanamannya pendek, tanpa contoh akibat pemerintah mendahulukan ketua SAE sampai 1972. janggut, dan ini yang kemudian disebut padi modal besar. 78 BAB DUA AMERIKA, AMERIKA... 79 80 BAB DUA

PARA PEMBELA WARGA: YAYASAN LEMBAGA BANTUAN HUKUM INDONESIA

Ada suatu masa, tahun 50-an, di mana Adnan karya, dan pelatihan paralegal. perhatian banyak lembaga donor di seluruh Buyung Nasution biasa melihat skenario Awalnya, organisasi ini didanai “sendiri,” dunia, kantor pusat Ford Foundation memberi semacam ini, antara seorang hakim dan lewat firma hukum milik Nasution, yang bantuan kepada organisasi global seperti seorang terdakwa. Hakim kepada terdakwa: dibangunnya atas desakan wartawan Mochtar International Commission of Jurists dan “Gimana tuh, kalau pajaknya saya tuntut Lubis dan ekonom Sumitro Djojohadikusumo Human Rights Watch/Asia. sekian?” Terdakwa, kulai di kursi, paras tanpa demi menjamin kemandirian finansial. Dukungan kepada Human Rights ekspresi: “Terserah Pak Hakim, saya pasrah Belakangan, dana datang dari berbagai Watch/Asia termasuk program magang aja.” sumber lokal maupun internasional. dengan YLBHI dan bantuan bagi individu Nasution, ketika itu seorang jaksa muda, Kepeloporan YLBHI mendukung gerakan yang mau belajar di luar negeri atau ikut geram melihat kepincangan sistem hukum di politik berbagai organisasi nonpemerintah konferensi internasional. Berseliweranlah Jakarta. Pengalamannya di pengadilan mem- makin jauh melejitkan namanya. Salah satu yang pengacara-pengacara muda seperti Tatang buka matanya terhadap pemerasan oleh Suganda, Abdul Hakim Garuda Nu- hakim dan polisi, hukuman penjara yang santara dan Todung Mulya Lubis – tak adil, dan ketakberdayaan orang tokoh-tokoh yang terkenal kritis pada miskin pada umumnya. Ia merasa negeri Orde Baru – ke tempat-tempat seperti ini membutuhkan sebuah institusi Manila, Seoul, London, dan Geneva. bantuan hukum yang independen dan Bagian lain strategi Ford Foundation: nirlaba untuk membela kepentingan meningkatkan kepedulian terhadap publik. keadilan sosial melalui manajemen Ide ini tentu saja bertentangan dengan sumber daya alam, hukum lingkungan, karakter “revolusioner” rezim Sukarno. dan gender. Ini termasuk upaya “…men- Satu dasawarsa pun berlalu sebelum ide cari bentuk pelatihan yang dapat men- ini bisa diterapkan. Sementara itu, awal dekatkan LSM besar dan kecil,” seperti 1970-an, satu hal semakin jelas: korupsi, kata mantan direktur Human Rights ketidakadilan, penyalahgunaan kekua- Watch/Asia, Sidney Jones. Memang, tak saan merajalela di bawah rezim Suharto. semua organisasi nonpemerintah di Yayasan Lembaga Bantuan Hukum Indonesia mengerti bagaimana mengatasi Indonesia (YLBHI) didirikan pada 1970 yang tak dapat dielakkan itu: friksi Kantor YLBHI di Jakarta Pusat, oleh sekelompok orang termasuk Marto- tiga abad sesudah pendiriannya, 2003. pribadi, pertikaian internal. Pada akhir kusumo, Mochtar Lubis, P.K. Ojong, 80-an, “tarik ulur” antar LSM di Indo- Suardi Tasrif, Yap Thiam Hien, Hasjim Machdan, diperjuangkannya: membentuk masyarakat nesia belum saja selesai. Minang Warman, Victor Sibarani, Albert hukum. Jurus-jurusnya membangun koalisi Tak dapat dipungkiri, prestasi YLBHI Hasibuan, dan H.J.C. Princen. Sumber inspirasi: dijadikan contoh oleh organisasi nonpe- mengesankan. Di tangannya, pengembangan Amerika, terutama melalui jasa pengacara merintah lain. Keterkaitan ini memang community development di Indonesia maju publik dan Neighborhood Legal Offices-nya. semacam tali pusar bagi YLBHI: dengan kantor- pesat: pemberdayaan kelompok lokal, Setelah dukungan datang dari Ali Sadikin, kantor cabangnya sendiri, kelompok-ke- penggerakan partisipasi rakyat dalam gubernur Jakarta penuh karisma, restu lompok lokal di tingkat provinsi, pos-pos di kota pembuatan keputusan, ide masyarakat sipil Presiden Suharto pun turun. kecil dan desa. sebagai bahan pegimbang kekuasaan negara. Dengan cepat YLBHI memimpin pem- Sejak 1976, kegiatan advokasi per- Ironisnya, organisasi ini dilanda kesulitan belaan orang tertindas, menjadi pusat kegiatan buruhan YLBHI disalurkan lewat serikat-serikat keuangan sesudah Suharto lengser. Per- hak asasi manusia. Sampai sekarang, ia bekerja buruh dan kegiatan usaha kecil. Model selisihan internal dan keputusan Nasution sama dengan sejumlah organisasi bantuan pendampingan ini juga meluas ke peng- menjadi penasehat hukum sejumlah jenderal hukum, badan penelitian, dan kelompok organisasian buruh seperti pembantu rumah Indonesia, yang dituduh melanggar hak asasi advokasi; menerbitkan naskah hukum dan hak tangga dan pelayan toko perempuan. manusia menempatkannya pada posisi yang asasi manusia, mengadakan seminar, loka- Ketika hak-hak asasi manusia menjadi kontroversial. AMERIKA, AMERIKA... 81

Itu pula yang disimpulkan oleh Brown dan Arnold, atau menggadaikan diri melalui kewajiban dan aliansi-aliansi.” setelah mereka mengunjungi beberapa kota di Indonesia selama Sebab itu respons Ford Foundation berhati-hati – dan sebulan sejak Agustus 1952. Kedua orang itu bertemu dengan tampaknya sulit untuk mempunyai atau mengikuti satu desain Perdana Menteri Wilopo, Menteri Pendidikan Bahder Djohan, yang sudah siap. Yang paling mendesak, dan paling mudah dan rektor dua universitas. Juga dengan Presiden Sukarno. disepakati semua pihak, tentunya melepaskan Indonesia dari Pertemuan 45 menit dengan pemimpin Indonesia itu memberi rendahnya pendidikan. Khususnya pendidikan bahasa Inggris. kesan yang positif bagi kedua tamu dari Amerika itu. Mereka “Orang Indonesia,” kata Miller pula, “dengan cepat melihat menyimpulkan bahwa Sukarno “punya pandangan yang hangat bahasa Inggris sebagai salah satu kunci bagi problem terhadap Barat dan Amerika….” Kepala Negara itu bertanya pembangunan.” Itulah agaknya latar belakang permintaan Ali kepada mereka, “Negeri lain mana yang mempunyai lembaga Sastroamidjojo dan Bung Karno. Maka bahkan sebelum Brown filantropi seperti Rockefeller dan Ford Foundation? Apakah dan Arnold kembali ke New York, dari Jakarta mereka ini karena orang Amerika begitu kaya, ataukah karena begitu mengetok kawat. Kedua utusan itu menganjurkan agar manusiawi?” sejumlah guru bahasa Inggris dikirim ke Indonesia langsung Di sela-sela kehangatan itu, Brown dan Arnold dari Amerika untuk tahun ajaran 1953-1954. menemukan setidaknya dua hal tentang Indonesia. Pertama, Dalam sejarah Ford Foundation di Indonesia, agaknya sifat pucuk kepemimpinan negeri ini, karena “ditempa oleh tak ada program yang disetujui dengan begitu cepat seperti perjuangan revolusioner, sungguh-sungguh punya dedikasi program ini. Sehari saja setelah Hoffman menerima kawat dari untuk memajukan Indonesia.” Hal kedua ialah bahwa kedua utusannya, hibah pun di-fiat. Brown dan Arnold “Indonesia sangat lambat… untuk menerima bantuan dari diberitahu untuk mengumumkan hal ini kepada Menteri pemerintah asing.” Sikap ini, menurut Brown dan Arnold, Pendidikan Bahder Johan sebelum mereka meninggalkan karena “Indonesia baru saja menjadi sebuah negeri yang Indonesia. Dokumen persetujuan yang diteken sederhana: dana merdeka,” dengan “kepahitan berjuang untuk muncul dari sebesar $150 ribu untuk mendirikan pusat-pusat latihan bagi status sebagai koloni selama 300 tahun.” Maka harus dilihat murid yang akan masuk universitas dan untuk guru-guru di “hipersensitivitas orang Indonesia berkenaan dengan sekolah menengah. kemandirian politik luar negeri mereka.” Dalam perjalanan waktu, dokumen sederhana itu Sebab itulah Ford Foundation dianggap merupakan berkembang jadi sesuatu yang besar dan kompleks. Lebih dari pilihan yang pas. Lembaga ini bukan lembaga pemerintah AS. satu dekade kemudian, dana yang disiapkan dan dibelanjakan Bahkan Sukarno, menurut kesimpulan kedua penjajak itu, untuk program pendidikan bahasa Inggris sudah mencapai “sangat ingin Ford Foundation melakukan kegiatan di Indonesia.” sekitar $1,5 juta – dan itu ketika Indonesia berada dalam Tapi daftar sangat panjang untuk menyebut kegiatan keadaan ekonomi yang buruk dan suasana politik yang sengit. apa saja yang harus dilakukan. Membangun sebuah republik Program ini bermula dari pelatihan untuk guru-guru seluas itu tanpa dana, tanpa rencana, dengan hanya sepuluh bahasa Inggris secara bersahaja – hanya lima minggu – dan persen penduduk yang melek huruf, dan dengan administrasi tujuan memperbaiki kemampuan lisan para guru. Ada 11 yang terserak-serak, adalah pekerjaan yang tak pernah dihadapi guru dari Amerika didatangkan ke pelbagai kota di pelbagai kekuasaan manapun dalam sejarah Nusantara. Begitu besarnya provinsi. Kemudian diciptakan sesuatu yang lebih melembaga: tugas itu, tulis Frank Miller, salah satu wakil Ford Foundation sebuah pusat pendidikan dua tahun untuk guru-guru bahasa di Jakarta, hingga patutlah bila timbul “perasaan sublim dalam Inggris, yang di tahun 1950-an terkenal sebagai “Standard kerendahhatian, atau sebuah ego dalam ukuran mahabesar.” Training,” singkatan dari Standard Training Courses. Dengan Sementara itu di kalangan orang Indonesia ada satu tekad, kata ini diharapkan akan lahir guru-guru yang akan mengajarkan Miller pula, “untuk tak jatuh kembali ke tangan orang asing, bahasa Inggris dengan baik ke generasi berikutnya.

Konsultan pertama Ford Foundation di Indonesia, Dyke Brown dan Edwin Arnold, bertemu dengan Presiden Sukarno di , Jakarta, 1952. 82 BAB DUA

Sebuah evaluasi internal Ford Foundation memuji program Brosur Ford Foundation 1971-1972 sendiri mengatakan, ini: sebuah perubahan dramatis telah terjadi hanya dalam waktu “kemajuan yang sangat lambat dalam latihan bahasa Inggris” sebagai 10 tahun dalam pendidikan bahasa Inggris di Indonesia. Jika di suatu usahanya yang “kurang menggembirakan.” Seperempat abad tahun 1953 sekitar 80 persen dari semua guru bahasa Inggris di setelah guru-guru Amerika datang ke sekolah-sekolah di Indonesia, Indonesia tak punya cara mengajar yang baku, hampir tanpa bahan rupanya tak mudah melengkapi orang Indonesia dengan bahasa pengajaran bahasa, dan tak punya lembaga untuk melatih mereka, asing itu. maka di tahun 1963 “satu bangunan institusi, bahan, dan guru- Tak mengherankan bila dalam sebuah laporan panjang guru sudah ada.” majalah Tempo 20 Juli 1974 dicatat, “kursus-kursus bahasa Inggris Evaluasi itu juga menunjukkan hasil lain – menurut pikiran pun bermunculan bak kedai dan restoran.” Kurnianingrat Ali yang tipikal di masa Perang Dingin itu. Dengan bahasa Inggris Sastroamidjojo, pensiunan dosen Fakultas Sastra jurusan Inggris yang memadai di kalangan orang terpelajar Indonesia, kata penulis UI, yang mengajar anak-anak di luar kelas sampai usia lanjut, dan evaluasi itu, “Dunia Bebas dan ideologinya akan memperoleh istri Ali Sastroamidjojo (pemimpin Indonesia yang pertama kali keunggulan politis yang penting.” Karena bahasa Inggris meminta Ford Foundation untuk membantu pendidikan bahasa merupakan sarana komunikasi dengan orang asing, pemerintah Inggris) mengutarakan pengamatannya, “Dari tahun ke tahun, Indonesia tak bisa membawa masuk guru-guru dari negeri komunis anak-anak makin mundur – seakan-akan di sekolah mereka tak ke dalam universitas. Ini, menurut evaluasi itu, “akan membantu membaca apa-apa. Hanya yang bisa membayar yang dapat les membatasi pengaruh negeri komunis ke Indonesia.” privat.” Tak sepenuhnya harapan ini dikukuhkan kenyataan. Di Kalau bukan ikut les yang mahal, mereka pergi ke kursus di awal tahun 1960-an, bersama dengan meningkatnya kredit dari mana saja, sampai di kampung-kampung miskin sekalipun. Uni Soviet ke Indonesia yang mencapai $800 juta, ada 300 teknisi Mutunya beragam, dan memang tak ada standar. Sebuah kursus Uni Soviet bekerja di Indonesia dibandingkan dengan 200 dari Inggris di daerah kumuh Jakarta, misalnya, yang diikuti buruh Amerika. Program perbaikan ketrampilan orang Indonesia dalam hotel dan tempat-tempat hiburan, menyediakan teks bacaan yang berbahasa Inggris pada akhirnya tak ada hubungannya dengan dibuat sendiri dengan kalimat seperti ini: “What’s the matter has besar kecilnya pengaruh dari luar. Lagipula tujuan utamanya tak been so happened?” sepenuhnya berhasil, meskipun di samping Ford Foundation, ada Tapi sesuatu toh lahir dari ikhtiar Ford Foundation di lembaga seperti British Council yang aktif dalam program serupa. bidang ini, dan bertahan sampai sekarang: sepasang kamus.

Pada akhir 1950-an, pengaruh Uni Soviet meningkat dengan penjualan kapal, pesawat terbang, dan senjata ke Indonesia. Seorang pengasong menjual kamus bajakan Echols-Shadily di Jakarta Pusat. Pembajakan terjadi sejak kamus ini pertama kali diterbitkan. Diperkirakan dari 120.000 eksemplar kamus yang terjual setiap tahun, 80 persen bajakan. AMERIKA, AMERIKA... 83

HARYONO SUYONO

Haryono Suyono masuk dunia Keluarga Berencana (KB), suatu upaya untuk menekan laju pertumbuhan penduduk, lewat tulisan- tulisannya. Dikira wartawan, ia dipanggil Gubernur Jakarta Ali Sadikin, satu-satunya orang pemerintah pada 1960-an yang berani secara terbuka mendukung program KB. Naskah Haryono pula yang dibaca Ali Sadikin saat membuka Kongres Internasional KB di Indonesia. Berawal sebagai penulis, Haryono mengakhiri karier sebagai kepala Badan Koordinasi Keluarga Berencana Nasional, yang dibentuk pemerintah pada 1970, sebelum masuk ke kabinet sebagai salah satu menteri Presiden Suharto. Saya awalnya menulis untuk harian Kompas, bidang KB. Itu sudah akhir 1967. Pada 1968 mengganti lapisan paling atas dari birokrasi, Berita Buana. Kemudian juga di majalah mulai gerakan-gerakan untuk menjadikan tetapi juga lapisan di bawahnya dan di Jaya. Tulisannya masih mengenai peledakan program KB secara resmi. Mulailah program- bawahnya lagi. Jadi semacam ini rezim penduduk. program seperti lembaga KB dan sebagainya. Abdurrahman Wahid, ini rezim si ini. Itu Ali Sadikin menyuruh saya terus menulis. Teman-teman dari komunitas donor tidak kita antisipasi. Karena dulu sangat Waktu itu Sadikin jadi dewa gerakan KB, bermain luar biasa. Ford Foundation, saya stabil, proses regenerasi boleh dikatakan karena ia satu-satunya orang pemerintah ingat persis, mengirim banyak tenaga untuk direncanakan secara bertahap. Ternyata yang berani berbicara secara terbuka. yang terjadi lain. Kalau tahu begitu, Karenanya Ali Sadikin “dimanfaatkan” dulu persiapan ketenagaannya menjadi Perkumpulan Keluarga Berencana lebih cepat lagi. Itu satu. Indonesia (PKBI) sebagai jembatan. Saat Kedua, program mempersiapkan itu Presiden Sukarno senang pada warga untuk mandiri rupanya kurang jumlah penduduk yang besar – gegap-gempita, sehingga ketergantungan dianggap dengan jumlah penduduk warga kepada pemerintah masih yang besar kita menjadi “bangsa yang tinggi. Dulu kita selalu dicukupi besar.” Pemikiran seperti itu “diserang” kebutuhan-kebutuhan untuk membeli dengan pendekatan yang murni kontrasepsi dan sebagainya. Sehingga kesehatan, sebab yang muncul dokter- biar pun jumlah orang yang mandiri dokter ahli kandungan dan sebagainya. sudah mencapai 50 persen atau lebih, Tapi Ali Sadikin tak saja menyinggung tapi belum terjadi gerakan yang dari sudut kesehatan, tapi juga dari targetnya 100 persen. Karena asumsinya sudut yang lebih umum. Ia bicara warga miskin, pemerintah harus kualitas manusia dan potensi sumber membantu. Sekarang kalang kabut. daya manusia. Baru saya dengar pemerintah Megawati Pada 1967 ada Kongres Internasional Sukarnoputri menyediakan dana Rp KB di Jakarta. Pemerintah mengirim 100 milyar – itu tidak cukup untuk Menteri Koordinator Kesejahteraan melayani mereka yang harus gratis. Rakyat Idham Chalid. Saat itu ulama Ini nanti bisa timbul drop yang besar menentang program pengendalian Haryono Suyono di kantornya, Jakarta,1979. kalau memang tak cukup subsidinya. jumlah penduduk. Mengutus Idham Sementara tak ada kampanye dianggap sebagai pendekatan yang belajar. Saya kebetulan kebagian dari USAID. mandiri. Mestinya keadaan yang begini tepat karena dia berasal dari Nahdlatul Saya sendiri mempunyai empat anak. harus diimbangi dengan kampanye Ulama. Dengan sendirinya Nahdlatul Ulama Istri saya hamil setiap tahun. Kalau terus- mandiri supaya mereka yang tidak menjadi pendukung pertama dari gerakan menerus begini, jumlah keluarga saya akan kebagian 100 milyar itu bisa beli sendiri. KB nasional. Di kongres itulah pemerintah meledak. Saya mulai sadar. Saya ikut KB dua Jadi kalau kita tidak bisa menyediakan memberikan semacam isyarat keseriusannya. tahun sebelum programnya dimulai. Jadi obatnya, kita sediakan informasinya Isyarat dan kongres itu menjadi masih menang, masih bisa untuk kampanye. bahwa toko itu ada, apotek itu ada, di perhatian masyarakat. Bahwa pemerintah Tapi waktu itu susah mendapatkan depot itu ada, dan sebagainya. Ini tidak membuka secara resmi, betul. Namun PKBI kontrasepsi. Hanya bisa didapatkan di klinik- dilakukan. pendorongnya. Selain itu, para donor juga klinik dan dokter tertentu. Lebih-lebih lagi tak dilakukan membawa pesan dunia, deklarasi Pasca pemerintahan Suharto, program persiapan yang matang untuk antisipasi Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa soal keprihatinan KB ternyata tidak mengantisipasi pergantian otonomi daerah. Pemerintah harus tentang kependudukan. Suharto sebagai pemerintahan yang begitu cepat. Persiapan segera bertindak. Kalau tak bisa akan pejabat presiden ikut menandatangani pesan ketenagaan agak terlambat. Karena terjadi peledakan penduduk yang baru. dunia itu. Dari situlah ada semacam pergantian presiden yang sampai tiga kali Bisa lebih dahsyat dari bom Bali atau komitmen resmi dari pemerintah dalam dalam waktu hampir setiap tahun tidak saja bom J.W. Marriot! 84 BAB DUA AMERIKA, AMERIKA... 85 86 BAB DUA

John M. Echols, seorang pengajar linguistik di Cornell suhunya sendiri, yang digerakkan oleh trauma penjajahan, syak University, menyusun sebuah kamus Indonesia-Inggris selama wasangka terhadap datangnya “kolonialisme baru,” Perang kurang lebih sepuluh tahun bersama Hassan Shadily, seorang Dingin, perang saudara, dan segala macam kekerasan dan leksikograf yang kemudian aktif dalam Yayasan Franklin, sebuah permusuhan politik yang berkecamuk di Indonesia. lembaga yang menerbitkan terjemahan buku Amerika di Khususnya keadaan Darurat Perang, dikenal sebagai Staat Indonesia. Di akhir 1963, hasil kerja yang panjang itu terbit Oorlog en Beleg (SOB), yang diberlakukan pada 1957 berhasil dengan bantuan $3.000 dari Ford Foundation. Kamus mengubah suasana politik itu secara drastis. Represi menjadi Indonesia-Inggris bisa terbit dan bisa dijual murah. pola umum dalam menyelesaikan konflik. Sementara itu, Sebagaimana lazimnya kamus, ia tak bisa berhenti. Sejak mobilisasi dan militansi menaik, dimulai dengan tekad 1962, atas prakarsanya sendiri, Echols mulai mengerjakan pemerintah untuk menuntut Belanda membebaskan Irian kamus Inggris-Indonesia. Ford Foundation memberinya dana Barat. Kampanye anti-Belanda berkobar. $170 ribu. Kembali ia bekerja sama dengan Hassan Shadily, Di akhir 1958, buruh di perusahaan perkapalan Belanda, dan jerih payah itu baru selesai di tahun 1970. Kamus itu, Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatschappij (KPM), menduduki kantor sampai hari ini, hampir tak punya saingan. Ia bahkan pusat di Gambir, Jakarta, disusul dengan perusahaan dagang melanjutkan hidupnya sampai sekarang antara lain melalui Geo.Wehry. Kemudian, semua orang Belanda yang tak bekerja tangan-tangan para pembajak buku. diminta oleh Menteri Kehakiman G.A. Maengkom untuk Kamus itu disambut antusias di pasar dan di bangku- meninggalkan Indonesia. Ada 46.000 warga Belanda yang bangku sekolah, tapi sepasang kamus dan kemampuan segera berangkat kembali ke Nederland menjelang Natal. berbahasa Inggris ternyata tak punya dampak yang berarti bagi Seluruh perusahaan Belanda sudah diambil alih. pandangan orang Indonesia ke dunia, ketika suasana politik Pada saat itu kekuatan militer di bawah Jenderal Abdul berubah dengan tajam. Haris Nasution, yang didukung dan mendukung Presiden Menjelang akhir 1950-an, politik punya arah dan Sukarno, kian meningkat dalam kancah politik. Yang merosot

Warga negara Belanda meninggalkan Indonesia dengan kapal Captain Cook, Jakarta, 1957. Nasionalisasi Nederlandsche Handel-Maatschappij, sebuah perusahaan dagang Belanda, di Jakarta, 1957. Kongres Masyumi pada 1951. AMERIKA, AMERIKA... 87 88 BAB DUA AMERIKA, AMERIKA... 89 90 BAB DUA adalah posisi partai-partai, kecuali PKI. Militer mencoba sementara, tidak seperti yang dialami Pedoman, yang dipimpin memotong kekuatan PKI yang kemudian dikenal sebagai partai Rosihan Anwar, yang baru bisa terbit kembali setelah Bung komunis ketiga terbesar di dunia. Tapi tak berhasil. PKI adalah Karno jatuh. Demikian juga Indonesia Raya, yang pemimpin partai yang terbaik organisasinya, ulet, dan berani karena tradisi redaksinya, Mochtar Lubis, dipenjarakan. Kian lama revolusionernya, dan dipimpin oleh orang-orang yang pemberangusan dan penangkapan kian sering. Terkadang berpengalaman dalam menghadapi tekanan, sebagaimana dengan tuduhan yang meragukan. Di awal Desember 1961, sejarah partai itu sendiri. Tak kurang penting: Presiden Sukarno misalnya, ditangkap sejumlah orang yang dituduh tergabung – yang tak punya dukungan rakyat yang terorganisasi – dalam komplotan yang disebut NIGO (Nederlandse Indische membutuhkannya. Guerilla Organisatie) yang hendak “membunuh Presiden dan Di bulan Maret 1960, Parlemen hasil pemilihan umum mengambil alih kekuasaan.” Salah satunya Syahriar Rasyad, 1955, dibubarkan. Sebuah lembaga baru, Front Nasional, guru besar Fakultas Kedokteran UI, seorang ahli radiologi yang dibentuk. Setiap partai harus menyerahkan daftar anggotanya. tak pernah aktif dalam politik. Ternyata memang tak ada bukti Agustus tahun itu, PSI dan Masyumi (Majelis Syuro Muslimin ia bersalah, tapi Syahriar Rasyad tetap dikenakan tahanan kota. Indonesia), dua partai yang dikenal pendukung demokrasi Presiden Sukarno memang sudah empat kali terancam liberal, dilarang. Dampak pelarangan ini tak besar dalam hal percobaan pembunuhan – dua kali dengan dilempar granat, PSI, yang dari pemilihan umum 1955 tampil sebagai partai satu kali ditembak dari udara – dan suasana yang kian keras kecil dan kalah. Dalam hal Masyumi, partai nomor dua dan tidak terbuka tak bisa dielakkan. Di dini hari pertengahan pemenang pemilihan umum setelah PNI, dengan pengikut Januari 1962, atas perintah Penguasa Perang Tertinggi (Peperti), hampir delapan juta yang tersebar ke seluruh Indonesia, para pemimpin PSI dan Masyumi ditangkap. Tak ada pengaruhnya akan meluas dan panjang. pengadilan untuk mereka dan tak ada batas waktu yang pasti Tapi waktu itu, tak mudah mendapatkan gambaran sampai kapan. Dalam kenyataannya, mereka baru keluar dari keadaan yang sebenarnya. Pers dalam keadaan tertekan. Koran tahanan setelah kekuasaan Bung Karno jatuh; Sutan Sjahrir, PKI, Harian Rakjat, diberangus, meskipun pembredelan ini bekas perdana menteri dan tokoh PSI, bahkan meninggal dalam

Presiden Sukarno di Yogyakarta mengecam bertahannya Belanda di Papua Barat, 1961. Peristiwa Cikini: empat orang diadili dengan tuduhan hendak membunuh Presiden Sukarno dengan granat. Agustus, 1958. AMERIKA, AMERIKA... 91

SUKADJI RANUWIHARDJO

Sukadji Ranuwihardjo lulus ekonomi dari UGM pada 1957. Setahun sesudahnya, Ranuwihardjo bekerja sebagai pegawai perusahaan kereta api di Bandung, ketika dia mendapat tawaran beasiswa master di University of California, Berkeley. Dia berangkat ke Amerika Serikat dan sepulangnya jadi dekan Fakultas Ekonomi UGM, lalu rektor UGM, serta direktur jenderal pendidikan tinggi departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. “Saya adalah orang Indonesia satu-satunya yang mempunyai pengalaman manajemen universitas paling lama, 36 tahun terus-menerus,” katanya.

Pada awal 1950-an, ketika kerja sama UGM mengatakan belajar manajemen, statistik, 1949, Yogyakarta menjadi ibukota Indonesia. dengan University of Wisconsin dimulai, atau lainnya yang sifatnya teknis. Ternyata Sesudah penyerahan kedaulatan pada 1949, saya tak memilih hendak studi ke mana. sekretariat kabinet meloloskan mereka. sangat tajam kontroversi antara kaum NON Kira-kira seminggu sebelum berangkat, saya Pada awal kerja sama UGM hanya ada (non kooperator dengan pemerintah bertemu seorang guru besar Amerika yang dua guru besar: Prof. Soenardjo dan Prof. Belanda) dan kaum KO (kooperator). mengatur persiapan kerja sama dengan Kertonegoro. Rapat senat guru besar UGM Yogyakarta didominasi kaum NON, yang anti University of Wisconsin. Dia mengatakan, sangat tradisional. Prof. Kertonegoro pernah Belanda dan orang asing. banyak dosen UGM di Wisconsin, Pengalaman lain, terjadi saat “Apakah berminat untuk pergi ke McGeorge Bundy, presiden Ford Berkeley?” Saya berminat. Foundation, datang ke Yogyakarta Dua tahun di sana banyak kira-kira 1968 atau 1969 untuk pengalaman menarik. Di Berkeley, meninjau kerja sama Wisconsin- semua penerima beasiswa Ford UGM. Masih ingat lelucon yang Foundation dapat membawa tidak lucu. Kita suguhkan makanan keluarganya. Awalnya, bahasa Jawa antara lain klepon. Jadi dia Jawa dipakai para ibu muda yang menggigit klepon, gulanya itu muncrat sibuk di rumah dengan anak-anak mengenai dirinya. Bajunya kotor kena yang masih kecil. Kalau mereka gula Jawa. Wow, it’s a crisis. berkumpul, selalu berbahasa Jawa. Orang sering membandingkan Lama-lama menular kepada FEUI dengan FE UGM dan FE bapak-bapak. Bila di kampus, Universitas Nommensen. Ketiganya umumnya kami berbahasa Indonesia didanai Ford Foundation. FEUI atau bahasa Inggris. Pengertian- lebih berhasil. Tapi ada yang bilang, pengertian Jawa yang menerobos jadi menteri itu bukan keberhasilan. dalam pertemuan keluarga We don’t talk purely economics terpaksa harus dijelaskan kepada tapi politik. Orde Baru dimulai di mereka yang dari Minang, Jakarta. Waktu itu demonstrasi Tapanuli, Sunda dan lainnya. Jadi mahasiswa menumbangkan Orde kita mengajar bahasa Jawa kepada Lama dilakukan dari UI. Suharto Emil Salim, Sayuti Hasibuan, Bistok memilih orang-orang yang dekat Sitorus, Arif Djanin, Panglaykim, dengannya macam Widjojo dan Ang Giok Hun. Nitisastro, Emil Salim, Mohammad Sukadji Ranuwihardjo di Yogyakarta, 1978. Di usia ke 31 tahun, saya Sadli, dan Subroto. diangkat sebagai pembantu rektor UGM menceritakan pada kami ketika beliau Suatu hari saya diberitahu Radius sampai 1964. Saya katakan kepada Rektor berkunjung ke Amerika Serikat. Beliau Prawiro, waktu itu menteri perdagangan. UGM Prof. Herman Johannes, saya ingin diberitahu oleh orang Amerika, “Kalau dosen “Anda terlampau lama tinggal di Yogyakarta. belajar lagi dan berangkat ke Amerika pada Indonesia tidak dapat mengembangkan Sudah waktunya Anda pindah ke Jakarta,” 1964. sendiri maka tutup saja. Proses pengajaran katanya. Saya diminta jadi sekretaris Ketika kerja sama dengan Ford Foundation di UGM sangat lambat. Tidak perlu ada kerja jenderal Departemen Perdagangan dan sedang berlangsung, ada keputusan Sukarno sama dengan Amerika.” Jadi sikap tradisional pindah ke Jakarta. agar dosen-dosen ekonomi tak perlu belajar itu memang sangat kuat. Itu dikarenakan Saya tidak bersedia. Rekan-rekan UI itu ekonomi dari Amerika. Tapi kita Yogyakarta adalah suatu tempat yang relatif jadi menteri atau jadi apapun masih setiap manipulasikan. Mereka masih tetap tertutup. Sejak UGM dibangun pada 1949, minggu memberi kuliah di Salemba. Kalau berangkat ke Amerika dengan surat lebih banyak lulusan Belanda, lulusan Leiden. saya pindah ke Jakarta, saya tidak bisa keputusan dari sekretariat kabinet dengan Jadi kalau ada unsur asing akan sangat memberi kuliah. Ini sebagai contoh bahwa tidak menyebut ekonomi. Mereka dicurigai. Selama perang kemerdekaan 1945- my commitment is to my university. 92 BAB DUA AMERIKA, AMERIKA... 93 94 BAB DUA status sebagai tahanan politik. diserang oleh organisasi pro-PKI. Karya-karya mereka dilarang Tindakan seperti itu menjadi lazim, ketika kampanye dibaca dan yang bekerja di universitas, seperti H.B. Jassin, pembebasan Irian Barat berkembang jadi pertempuran sporadis seorang kritikus sastra terkemuka, disingkirkan. antara militer Indonesia dan militer Belanda. Akhirnya, melalui Suasana militan dan represif itu meningkat, bersama campur tangan PBB, Belanda menyerahkan wilayah di timur kampanye “Ganyang Malaysia.” Mobilisasi massa dikabarkan itu ke Indonesia. Tapi Indonesia telah terbiasa dengan berhasil menghimpun sampai 21 juta sukarelawan untuk kehidupan politik yang, atas nama patriotisme dan keamanan, bertempur, tapi pada saat yang sama politik kian tegang di membenarkan represi dan mengibarkan panji-panji militansi. dalam negeri. Keadaan Darurat Perang diakhiri secara resmi Mei 1963. PKI semakin menyerang lawan-lawan politiknya yang Tapi bangunan kekuasaan yang sudah terbentuk, dan kian lama kian defensif. Kampanye mengganyang “setan kota” perangainya, tak berubah. Hukum yang normal telah dan “setan desa” memojokkan mereka. Bentrokan terjadi digantikan hukum darurat. Tahanan politik yang sudah disekap terutama di daerah pertanian di Jawa Tengah, Jawa Timur, tak dibebaskan. Penangkapan baru masih ada, terutama setelah dan Bali ketika gerakan tani PKI menduduki tanah milik terjadi kerusuhan terhadap warga Indonesia keturunan kalangan yang mereka sebut “setan desa.” Konflik itu meluas Tionghoa di Bandung. Bung Karno menuduh bahwa di balik dan sengit. Sebab di satu pihak jumlah petani yang tak bertanah kerusuhan itu ada kaum “kontrarevolusi,” dan itu adalah “PSI, bertambah dari tahun ke tahun, namun di lain pihak kehidupan Masyumi, PRRI, Permesta, dan subversi asing.” desa tak ditandai oleh dominasi tuan-tuan tanah besar. Hampir Tuduhan “kontrarevolusi” sudah cukup membungkam tak ada yang memusatkan pemilikan sawah ladang di satu- orang. Ketika sejumlah seniman dan intelektual menyusun dan dua tangan, dengan kekuasaan luas dan gaya hidup sebuah memaklumkan Manifesto Kebudayaan, mengutarakan kelas tersendiri. Seperti kemudian dikatakan seorang aktivis perlunya kesenian mandiri dari kekuasaan politik, mereka sayap kiri, aksi sepihak untuk membagi tanah hanya

Perayaan ulang tahun ke-33 PKI, 1953. AMERIKA, AMERIKA... 95

MELY G. TAN

Dr. Mely G. Tan salah satu sosiolog terkemuka Indonesia. Ia terkenal karena karyanya tentang hubungan antar kelompok, misalnya tentang etnis Tionghoa di Indonesia, dan gender, termasuk kesehatan reproduksi perempuan. Ia memperoleh beasiswa dari Ford Foundation melalui LIPI untuk memperoleh gelar Ph.D. di UC Berkeley pada 1963. Sejak saat itu ia selalu memberikan kuliah-kuliah dan makalah-malakah pada konferensi-konferensi di seluruh dunia; dan telah menjadi anggota Komisi Nasional Anti-Kekerasan terhadap Perempuan (Komnas Perempuan), sebuah lembaga mitra Ford Foundation sekarang. Ketika saya menyelesaikan MA di Cornell karena program beasiswa LIPI kemudian ilmu sosial di Indonesia. Yayasan ini dibantu pada 1959, saya bertemu Prof. Selo diatur oleh International Education Founda- oleh Ford Foundation dan sejak saat itu saya Soemardjan, yang juga mengambil Ph.D. tion. Tapi pada 1974 saya diminta untuk mulai terlibat, baik secara langsung maupun bidang sosiologi. Saya kembali ke Indonesia disertakan dalam tim evaluasi para pe- tak langsung, dalam upaya untuk mem- pada 1961. Pada 1963 Pak Selo menang beasiswa Ford Foundation di Asia berikan kesempatan yang lebih luas bagi menceritakan pada saya peran perempuan dalam tentang sebuah program di ilmu-ilmu sosial. mana LIPI sedang mencari Ford Foundation mem- orang untuk dikirim ke AS berikan pengaruh besar bagi guna melanjutkan belajar. Indonesia, terutama lewat Setelah selesai orang-orang program awalnya, yang ma- ini akan kembali ke sih terus berlanjut, yang fokus Indonesia dan bekerja se- pada pendidikan. Mulanya, cara penuh bagi Lembaga ketika Indonesia menjadi Ekonomi dan Kemasyara- sebuah republik, standar katan Nasional (Leknas). yang dipakai sangat tinggi, Saya tertarik dengan pro- dan selalu mengutamakan gram yang didanai Ford pendidikan. Jadi, apa yang Foundation ini, sehingga saya dilakukan oleh Ford Founda- melamar. Saya menduga ada tion dalam memberikan ke- kira-kira 60 lamaran yang sempatan kepada sebanyak masuk untuk 12 posisi, dan mungkin anak muda untuk saya beruntung terpilih menyelesaikan pendidik- untuk memperoleh Ph.D. di annya adalah sesuatu yang Berkeley. Di AS, saya tiba sangat berharga. beberapa bulan sebelum Ford Foundation me- Presiden John F. Kennedy rupakan organisasi terhor- tertembak pada November mat di Indonesia. Saya kira 1963. salah satu kunci kesuk- Disertasi saya adalah sesannya adalah kualitas tentang orang Cina di AS dan para pemimpinnya. Saya saya menyelesaikannya ingat, pemimpin Ford pada 1968. Saya ingat, wak- Foundation pertama yang tu itu saya sangat khawatir Mely G. Tan dan Soedradjad Djiwandono di apartemen Tan di Berkeley, 1966. saya temui adalah Frank dengan peristiwa 1965 Miller, yang kemudian di- ketika Ford Foundation menutup kantor- Tenggara. Saya kemudian ditugaskan untuk ganti oleh John Bresnan, dan kemudian nya. Kami mengira beasiswa kami akan pergi ke Filipina, Korea Selatan, dan ada perempuan seperti Mary Zurbuchen dihentikan. Untung, meskipun Ford Founda- Vietnam Selatan. Saya ingat bagaimana saya dan Suzanne Siskel. Semuanya fasih tion menutup kantornya untuk sementara begitu tertarik bertemu dengan begitu berbahasa Indonesia! Ini penting, karena waktu, mereka tetap memberikan bea- banyak pemenang. Tak bisa disangkal Ford kefasihan dalam berbahasa Indonesia bisa siswa. Foundation membawa pengaruh positif membuat kesan yang sangat baik kepada Ketika kembali ke Indonesia, saya pada negara-negara tersebut. orang-orang Indonesia, dan juga para bekerja di LIPI sebagai bagian dari per- Pada 1980, saya menjadi anggota YIIS perempuan ini sangat sensitif terhadap isu- setujuan awal. Pada saat itu tak banyak yang diketuai oleh Pak Selo. Nama Pak Selo isu yang dihadapi perempuan Indonesia yang saya lakukan dengan Ford Foundation, selalu muncul di setiap diskusi tentang ilmu- masa kini. 96 BAB DUA menghasilkan “bentrokan antara yang miskin dan setengah sama dengan apa yang di luarnya. Demonstrasi dan pernyataan kaya.” Kemudian kita tahu bahwa konflik itu berujung pada anti-Barat, khususnya Inggris dan Amerika makin bertambah pertumpahan darah yang mengerikan. seru. Ketika September 1963, begitu Malaysia terbentuk, Di kota, militansi PKI terbatas di bidang yang tak beberapa ribu orang membakar Kedutaan Besar Inggris di langsung terkait dengan sumber-sumber ekonomi. Konflik seberang Hotel Indonesia. Rombongan lain mendatangi tersengit di sini berkisar pada bidang ide, pers, dan kebudayaan. rumah warga Inggris, menyuruh mereka keluar dan membakar Mereka yang kena serang PKI umumnya berlindung di bawah barang-barang mereka di jalan. Setahun kemudian, proteksi tentara dan atau nama Bung Karno, misalnya sebuah pemerintah Indonesia menutup kantor British Council dan gerakan wartawan dan aktivis yang mendirikan Badan cabang-cabangnya. Pendukung Sukarnoisme (BPS). Nama Bung Karno ternyata Di pekan pertama Mei 1964, 16 organisasi yang tak banyak manfaatnya. Di pertengahan Desember 1964, BPS mewakili buruh, pemuda, wanita, dan orang film, mulai akhirnya dilarang. Sukarno menyetujui tuduhan PKI bahwa melancarkan boikot terhadap film Amerika. Menjelang akhir gerakan ini dibentuk untuk membunuhnya dan mematikan Juni, para pemain band “Koes Bersaudara” ditahan oleh ide-idenya. Para pendukungnya diinterogasi. Beberapa bulan Kejaksaan, karena menyanyikan lagu-lagu The Beatles. Di kemudian, 21 surat kabar yang mendukungnya dibredel. pertengahan Juli 1964, Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Di kampus, mahasiswa dari Central Gerakan Prijono menginstruksikan agar murid sekolah tidak Mahasiswa Indonesia (CGMI), organisasi mahasiswa yang memanggil ayah mereka “pappie” atau “daddy,” ibu mereka berafiliasi dengan PKI, mengerahkan aksi mendesak agar “mammie” atau “mummy.” Pada kuartal pertama 1965, lima Himpunan Mahasiswa Islam (HMI), organisasi mahasiswa perpustakaan United States Information Service (USIS) Islam terbesar, dibubarkan. HMI berhasil bertahan. dirusak, dan pemuda-pemuda Amerika yang ikut dalam Peace Ketegangan di kampus-kampus ini berlangsung kurang lebih Corps – antara lain datang untuk jadi pelatih atletik – diusir.

Ketegangan soal campur tangan asing di Asia Tenggara: demo dan pembakaran kedutaan besar Inggris di Jakarta pada 1963  dan Demo depan kedutaan Amerika Serikat menentang South East Asia Treaty Organization pada 1958. AMERIKA, AMERIKA... 97

SOPHIE SARWONO

Tergerak melihat kerja keras dr. Hoeroestiati Soebandrio (lihat halaman 108), kawan dekatnya, Sophie Sarwono memulai aktivitasnya di dunia KB. Saat itu, di akhir 1950-an, titian menuju program KB masih harus dilalui dengan hati-hati. Sophie Sarwono masih ingat bagaimana Presiden Sukarno menentang gagasan pengendalian angka kelahiran di depan para tamu negara di Istana Bogor. Perempuan berusia 81 tahun yang pernah menjadi ketua PKBI ini punya beragam cerita tentang masa-masa awal program KB. Selama di PKBI, selalu saya tekankan bahwa Dia masih paman saya. Sebelum dia kalau mau mandi dan mencuci. apapun yang secara politis dianggap “tidak meninggal, saya tanya apakah dia pernah Kami katakan, tak perlu gratis – hanya benar” soal Soebandrio, suami Hoeroestiati, cerita soal KB pada Sukarno. Dia katakan, murah saja, tapi jual. Tidak, mereka bilang, sebagai orang pemerintah, tapi kita mesti “Tidak, justru karena aku kenal Sukarno, prinsipnya harus gratis. Sekarang lihat ingat bahwa yang telah membantu KB – yang jangan cerita apa-apa sama dia. Kalau kita hasilnya. Karena tidak ada dana untuk disebut program kependudukan itu – adalah cerita apa-apa dia akan merasa dipaksa – memberi gratis, orang tidak mau beli. Bukan Hoeroestiati Soebandrio. Dalam semua dan satu hal yang tidak bisa dilakukan tidak ada uang, tapi memang tidak mau kepustakaan PKBI, namanya selalu disebut adalah memaksa Sukarno.” Alhamdulillah, beli. Dulu gratis bertahun-tahun, kok dengan penuh apresiasi dan rasa terima dalam KB semua punya kearifan untuk sekarang disuruh beli? Kemarin saya baca kasih. Dalam kedudukannya yang bahwa BKKBN dapat 100 milyar. Itu cukup tinggi ia memasukkan secara tidak cukup! Warga tak dibiasakan gelap kantong diplomatik, yang di untuk membeli walau dengan murah dalamnya terdapat kondom, loops, – apapun alasan BKKBN untuk dan diafragma. Waktu itu ada Klinik memberi gratis, itu adalah sebuah Ibu dan Anak yang didirikan kesalahan. pemerintah untuk perlindungan ibu. Kesadaran orang sudah ada tapi Klinik ini digunakan Hoeroestiati terbatas antara yang sudah terdidik untuk menyalurkan kontrasepsi – saya tidak bilang intelektual, karena aman. karena sudah lebih ke bawah. Hoeroestiati saat itu tidak bisa Dibanding saat kita baru mulai, melakukannya dengan bebas karena antara 1966 dan 1970, sekarang Sukarno tidak setuju. Tiap ada tamu sudah ada kesadaran. Justru dari luar negeri, Sukarno mem- sekarang akan timbul frustasi karena perkenalkan istri residen, istri kepala mereka sudah tahu dan merasa polisi, semualah, pada tamunya. Dan perlunya kontrasepsi, tapi tidak bisa dia berkata, “Lihat Ibu ini, dia punya membeli karena tidak biasa membeli. anak 12, lihat bagaimana rupanya.” Ini yang sudah terdidik. Tapi Para tamu negara bilang, “Wah, bagaimana yang di bawah sekali? cantik sekali. Berapa anak Ibu?” Padahal yang di bawah sekali itulah Hoeroestiati menjawab malu- yang perlu. malu, “Duabelas.” Awalnya BKKBN sebetulnya hanya Sophie Sarwono di Jakarta, 1979. Sukarno meneruskan, “Duabelas! badan koordinasi, dan kita semua unit. Lihat! Kita di Indonesia tidak perlu tidak memaksanya. Kalau tidak dilakukan Di antaranya; PKBI, Muhammadiyah, mengendalikan kelahiran seperti di negara dengan bijaksana, bahkan BKKBN mungkin organisasi Kristen, Departemen Kesehatan, Anda karena perempuan kami makin tidak akan berdiri karena Presiden Suharto Departemen Sosial, dan semua yang cantik dengan makin banyak bayi!” akan mewarisi suasana ini – tapi untungnya berhubungan dengan kependudukan jadi Salah satu sebab mengapa KB di Suharto mewarisi keadaan di mana ada unit pelaksana program. Badan koordinasi Indonesia tidak sampai dianggap subversif birth control, walau tidak dianjurkan tapi hanya mengkoordinasikan, termasuk karena Hoeroestiati bisa main mata, bisa tari ditoleransi. mengkoordinasikan dana kalau ada. Tapi lenso – dan Dr. Soebandrio adalah “the King Dari awal, saat program KB di Indonesia lama-kelamaan BKKBN mau mengelola of Jive.” Hoeroestiati menari dan tertawa masih baru dan orang mudah dibiasakan proyek yang didanai luar negeri. Karena itu bersama Sukarno. Dia bisa mempesona pada hal-hal baru, seharusnya warga mereka mengambil alih pelatihan, mungkin Sukarno, bukan untuk menerima tapi dibiasakan membeli kontrasepsi dengan karena dana pelatihan besar. Padahal kami setidaknya, tak melarang sama sekali. harga murah. Sehingga ketika mereka di PKBI punya tempat dan pengalaman. Selain itu ada dr. Suharto yang membeli kontrasepsi sudah seperti membeli Banyak ide kita diambil, tapi tak pernah membantu melahirkan anak-anak Sukarno. odol kalau mau gosok gigi atau beli sabun diakui. 98 BAB DUA AMERIKA, AMERIKA... 99 100 BAB DUA

RUMPANG YANG SINGKAT

Apa kesamaan John Maynard Keynes, The Ford Foundation, tentu saja, terpukul. Miller terutama setelah Maret 1965, ketika kota Malang, Beatles, dan Koes Bersaudara? Semua masuk pun mendatangi Sukarno, saat Sukarno Jawa Timur, penuh sesak oleh demonstrasi. Yang dalam daftar hal-hal yang tidak disenangi sarapan pagi; ia katakan bahwa tujuan Ford ditentang: kehadiran tenaga pengajar dari State Presiden Sukarno. Suatu saat, Pemimpin Besar Foundation adalah “memungkinkan orang University of New York (SUNY) di IKIP Malang, Revolusi ini mengeluh, “Anak-anak muda ini Indonesia melakukan apa yang Anda sendiri yang dibiayai Ford Foundation. Universitas hanya bisa bicara [Joseph] Schumpeter dan sering katakan penting – berdiri di atas kaki kemudian memutuskan untuk mengeluarkan Keynes. Waktu muda saya baca Marx!” Maka sendiri.” Sukarno, yang menyukai Miller secara mereka atas dasar hubungan program itu The Beatles dan Koes Bersaudara pun pribadi, akhirnya mengizinkan semua pe- “dengan pemerintah Amerika.” Segala milik dimasukkan dalam kategori musik “ngak- nerima beasiswa pergi ke Amerika sebagai SUNY pun diambil alih. Setelah pejabat eksekutif ngik-ngok” yang terlarang itu, yang jadi contoh “perkecualian.” Ford Foundation George Gant diberitahu tentang dekadensi Barat. Akhir 1964, aksi kaum komunis makin keadaan ini, Frank Miller – yang tadinya Awal 1960-an merupakan era jarah, aniaya, merajalela. United States Information Service dijadwalkan pulang ke New York hanya dalam siaga, dan pidato-pidato penuh kecaman. (USIS) ditutup, Peace Corps hengkang. Sukarno beberapa bulan – ketiban tugas baru: menutup Politik hanya berkisar seputar kantor Ford Foundation di Indonesia. Istana Negara, tempat Sukarno Bresnan menggambarkan bergulat mempertahankan koa- Miller sebagai orang yang “pe- lisinya dengan komunis, Islam, dan rasaannya untuk Indonesia dan militer. Sementara itu, hubungan orang Indonesia sangatlah da- Amerika Serikat-Indonesia semakin lam.” Dengan biaya sendiri Miller memburuk, dipicu oleh keterlibatan terbang ke New York untuk men- CIA dalam pemberontakan di coba mengubah keputusan mana- Sumatera serta penolakan Amerika jemen. Gagal total, seperti telah men-dukung kampanye Sukarno diperkirakan, ia lalu kembali terhadap pembentukan negara untuk memastikan dukungan Su- baru, Malaysia. Setelah pembakar- karno dalam menjamin keamanan an kedutaan Inggris pada 1963, karyawan Ford Foundation. Deng- Amerika menahan beberapa bantu- an demikian, mulailah tugas-tugas an mereka sampai perselisihan yang pedih: mendermakan gedung dengan Malaysia reda. Dalam kantor, rumah, kendaraan, dan pidatonya yang terkenal, Sukarno milik mereka lainnya; mem- berkata, “Go to hell with your aid!” berikan uang pesangon pada Pada 1962, Orville Schell, Jr., pegawai-pegawai lokal; mengatur yang belakangan jadi dekan hidup baru. Graduate School of Journalism di Proses ini lebih dari sekadar Berkeley dan penulis buku klasik Frank Miller, 1972. penanggalan kepemilikan. Saat itu, Mandate of Heaven: The Legacy of banyak tentara Indonesia menduduki Tiananmen Square, magang di kantor Ford pun bereaksi berlebih. Ketika Malaysia terpilih rumah-rumah dan bangunan-bangunan yang Foundation Jakarta. Ia terpesona pada Partai menjadi anggota Dewan Keamanan PBB, ia telah ditinggalkan para ekspatriat. Ford Founda- Komunis Indonesia. Tak lama, ia berteman mengumumkan bahwa Indonesia akan keluar tion tak urung membiarkan hal ini: sebanyak dengan seorang yang menyebut diri “Kamerad dari organisasi tersebut. Dan jadilah: Malaysia mungkin dari milik mereka diberikan kepada Nata,” dan melaluinya ia coba selami gerak masuk, Indonesia keluar. Di tengah eksodus institusi-institusi sosial. Salah satu gedung, partai ini di pedesaan. Usaha Schell kandas; pejabat-pejabat internasional dari Jakarta, misalnya, diberikan ke Yayasan Asih Budi, sekolah dalam sebuah rekayasa ia dan teman-temannya Ford Foundation satu-satunya yang bergeming. untuk anak-anak yang terganggu mentalnya. dituduh mata-mata Amerika yang meng- Meski sering mendapat serangan, Ford Akhirnya, Ford Foundation memang dibuka gunakan Ford Foundation sebagai kedok. Foundation toh tak jadi sasaran politik kaum kembali pada 1967, di bawah kepemimpinan Kuatir kantor mereka ditutup, wakil Ford kiri. Status dan percaya dirinya sebagai sebuah Miller. “Frank memang mendapat tugas yang Foundation di Indonesia, Frank Miller, segera lembaga donor swasta seakan melindunginya. tidak mengenakkan ketika harus menutupnya,” memulangkan Schell ke Amerika. Stafnya pun tetap teguh: “Semakin berat tugas kenang David Bell, seorang pejabat eksekutif Pertengahan 1964, hal yang sama terulang kami, semakin kuat tekad kami bertahan,” Ford Foundation, “Oleh karena itulah ia layak lagi, ketika Menteri Luar Negeri Soebandrio kenang John Bresnan. mendapat tugas yang menyenangkan: mem- memberlakukan larangan belajar ke Amerika. Bagaimanapun, New York tak sependirian, bukanya kembali.” AMERIKA, AMERIKA... 101

G30S: pemakaman para jenderal, Oktober 1965

Bulan Agustus 1965, sebanyak 22.000 buku produksi Amerika terjadi di Indonesia. Meskipun demikian, seperti ketika orang-orang dan 250 piringan hitam The Beatles dibakar di halaman kantor Ford Foundation datang ke Indonesia di awal 1950-an, antusiasme polisi Jakarta. itu direm dengan sikap ingin peka terhadap perasaan dan kenyataan Pada masa itu pula, hal-hal yang lebih gegap gempita terjadi. Indonesia. Yang dipilih adalah “profil merendah,” sebagaimana Akhir Maret 1964, Bung Karno menyerukan slogan “Go to hell dikatakan para diplomat senior di bawah Duta Besar AS Marshall with your aid!” Meskipun kalimat itu pada mulanya tersimpan di Green. Itu berarti bantuan akan disalurkan melalui lembaga antara kata-kata bahwa Indonesia bersedia “menerima bantuan dari multilateral, dan program-program AS dijaga “agar tetap sederhana” banyak negara,” namun menolak “bantuan yang disertai ikatan dan tanpa “tenaga yang berkelimpahan.” Terutama karena politik.” Di akhir tahun itu pula, ketika Malaysia diterima sebagai pemerintahan yang baru, setelah Mayor Jenderal Suharto muncul anggota Dewan Keamanan PBB, Indonesia menyatakan keluar dari kegalauan dan kekerasan yang terjadi, masih dirundung dari organisasi dunia itu. ketidakpastian. Dasawarsa yang gaduh, keras, bergelora, tak mengenal Menyebut diri “Orde Baru,” pemerintahan baru itu kompromi ini juga tahun-tahun yang kehilangan kesabaran untuk dibangun dari ketakutan dan pengharapan. Yang dihadapi adalah negosiasi. Ketika pada pagi dini hari 1 Oktober 1965 enam orang kekacauan bangunan politik, dan karena Sukarno abai dalam jenderal dan seorang perwira menengah Angkatan Darat diambil mengelola ekonomi, inflasi yang mencapai seribu persen di tahun dari rumah mereka dan ditembak mati, kekerasan dengan cepat 1965 dan utang internasional yang $2 milyar. Suharto harus lolos berangkat menuju klimaks. Dari peristiwa itulah kemudian PKI dari kegawatan ini. Ia selalu takut bahwa komunisme akan kembali. dituduh terlibat, dan kali ini, partai yang paling dominan di Itu sebabnya ia waspada – juga terhadap kenyataan bahwa Indonesia sepanjang dasawarsa ini mengalami apa yang telah jadi pola politik menghadapi dua soal dasar yang telah ikut menggerogoti negeri ini selama itu: mobilisasi massa, pengganyangan, dan represi. sebelumnya: penduduk yang tumbuh pesat dan pangan yang tak Tapi kali ini, kombinasi antara dendam, ketakutan, konflik- memadai. konflik lokal, dan rencana politik yang brutal, melahirkan Mula-mula was-was, tapi lambat laun makin percaya diri, pembantaian. Diperkirakan antara 300.000 sampai dua juta orang Suharto akhirnya melihat bahwa ia orang yang tepat untuk itu. yang jadi anggota PKI atau pendukungnya dibinasakan – termasuk Lahir dari kemiskinan, ia pelan-pelan naik ke pucuk kekuasaan pembunuhan terburuk di abad ke-20. dan, seperti ditulis dalam biografinya, “Saya menjadi seseorang yang Tapi jelas bahwa AS bergembira dengan perubahan yang berpikir, yang mempunyai perasaan karena pernah menderita.” BAB TIGA: MALARI, MINYAK, DAN MAHBUB UL-HAQ

BAB TIGA MALARI, MINYAK, DAN MAHBUB UL-HAQ

isa-sisa api seakan-akan hendak bersembunyi, tapi asap masih membubung. Di sana-sini tergeletak bangkai 900 Ssekian buah kendaraan, bangkai hampir 150 gedung; semuanya dibakar atau kena gempur. Jalanan sepi. Lewat pukul 19:00 jam malam diberlakukan. Deretan mobil berlapis baja siap. Truk-truk militer menurunkan tentara berpakaian tempur. Revolusi? Protes? Kudeta? Provokasi? Hingga hari ini, tak jelas apa sebenarnya yang terjadi pada tanggal 15 Januari 1974 itu. Yang pasti sekitar 50.000 orang turun ke jalan-jalan raya Jakarta, seakan-akan mengamuk, membakar mobil dan motor, dan kemudian juga membumihanguskan gedung- gedung, di antaranya Gedung Astra dan Proyek Pertokoan Senen yang baru. Belum pernah kota ini mengalami kerusuhan seperti itu. Pers pemerintah kemudian menyebutnya “Malari,” singkatan untuk “Malapetaka Limabelas Januari” – mungkin dengan harapan, melalui akronim, sebuah kampanye bisa dilancarkan, dan sebuah stigma bisa diletakkan kepada musuh- musuh politik yang mengancam. Tapi siapa musuh politik itu? Ribuan mahasiswa tiga universitas di Jakarta turun ke jalan. Mereka tak menyatakan akan menggulingkan pemerintah, tak menuntut Suharto turun. Mereka menentang kedatangan Perdana Menteri Jepang Kakuei Tanaka, sebagai tanda kemarahan mereka terhadap modal asing, terutama dari Jepang. Kemudian ternyata kedatangan Tanaka memang bukan sebuah unsur yang penting dalam cerita ini. Ada hal lain yang berlangsung.

 Para mahasiswa berdemo depan Pasar Senen, Januari 1974.

MALARI, MINYAK, DAN MAHBUB UL-HAQ 105

Para pemimpin mahasiswa sendiri tak menduga bahwa yang menjerumuskan protes anti-Jepang itu jadi kerusuhan hari itu ribuan massa yang tak mereka kenal mendadak ikut dan kekerasan. Sadar akan bahaya ini, menjelang sore, arak-arakan di jalan. Dari kelompok inilah perusakan besar- mahasiswa mengundurkan diri ke dalam kampus UI di Salemba besaran bermula. Siapa dan dari mana mereka datang sampai No. 4. Tapi huru-hara dan pembakaran tak bisa mereka cegah. hari ini masih belum sepenuhnya diungkapkan. Tapi kian lama Tak ada yang tampaknya bisa mencegah. Dan Jenderal Sumitro kian jelas bahwa bersama – atau mungkin malah mendahului dianggap gagal mengendalikan situasi dan dicopot oleh – peristiwa itu, ada sebuah persaingan yang sengit tapi tertutup Presiden. Dia kalah. di tingkat atas bangunan politik Indonesia. Dua hari kemudian, sejumlah orang ditangkap. Dalam Dua orang di dekat Presiden Suharto sedang daftar tahanan ada Hariman Siregar, ketua Dewan Mahasiswa memperebutkan pengaruh dan posisi: Jenderal Sumitro yang UI; Adnan Buyung Nasution, yang perannya sebagai juri yang mengepalai badan keamanan Komando Operasi Pemulihan kritis makin kentara dalam Lembaga Bantuan Hukum; Syahrir, Keamanan dan Ketertiban (Kopkamtib) dan Letnan Jenderal seorang pemimpin grup diskusi mahasiswa di UI; dan juga Ali Moertopo, ketua Operasi Khusus (Opsus) dan seorang Dorodjatun Kuntjoro-Jakti, seorang dosen muda di FEUI. Juga asisten pribadi yang dipercaya Presiden Suharto. Keduanya dipenjarakan Marsillam Simanjuntak, salah satu tokoh ambisius. Mereka ingin saling menyingkirkan dan mahasiswa dalam aksi-aksi tahun 1966 yang menjatuhkan Bung mengambil alih ruang kekuasaan di dekat Suharto – dan Karno, dan Rahman Tolleng, pemimpin redaksi Suara Karya, mungkin sesudahnya. Untuk itu bermacam cara mereka harian dari Golongan Karya (Golkar) yang dicurigai sebagai tempuh. simpatisan PSI. Sementara itu Soedjatmoko, cendekiawan Beberapa kesaksian kemudian menyebutkan bahwa di Indonesia terkemuka dan bekas duta besar untuk Amerika tengah-tengah demonstrasi mahasiswa hari itu, ada provokasi Serikat, diinterogasi.

Jenderal Sumitro bicara dengan mahasiswa, 1974. Satu dari sekian banyak mahasiswa yang ditangkap sesudah huru-hara Malari, 1974. 106 BAB TIGA

Penulis Marzuki Arifin bersama wartawan Fikri Jufri, 1984.

Segera keterangan diberikan – meskipun sebenarnya Dan itulah yang terjadi. Sejarah seakan-akan berulang. malah tidak jelas. Laksamana Sudomo, yang menggantikan Seperti di masa tahun 1960-an – meskipun dengan pandangan Jenderal Sumitro sebagai Panglima Kopkamtib, menuduh kaum politik pemerintah yang sudah berbalik 180 derajat – koran- “sosialis radikal” sebagai penggerak kerusuhan Malari, dan koran ditutup. Termasuk Pedoman, Indonesia Raya, Abadi, otaknya adalah anggota partai terlarang. Nusantara, surat kabar yang dikenal sebagai pers yang dilarang Siapa? Ia tak menyebutnya. Tapi kemudian terbit sebuah pemerintah Sukarno. Juga Harian Kami, koran yang lahir buku saku yang dicetak dengan kertas berkualitas tinggi, bersama gerakan mahasiswa 1966. berjudul Peristiwa 15 Januari 1974. Ditulis oleh Marzuki Arifin, Memang tak mudah untuk menghubungkan PSI, seorang yang dekat dengan kalangan Opsus yang dipimpin Ali Masyumi, dan koran-koran itu dengan kaum “sosialis radikal” Moertopo, buku itu memaparkan bahwa PSI dan Masyumi- yang disebut Laksamana Sudomo. Namun memang sudah lah “dalang” kerusuhan. Editorial Monthly Review yang beberapa lama sebelum 15 Januari 1974, di kancah perdebatan diterbitkan CSIS – lembaga kajian yang juga didirikan Ali Indonesia terdengar kembali suara-suara yang memanggil Moertopo – ikut meneguhkan tuduhan ini. Review menyebut sesuatu yang hidup dalam pemikiran kiri, yakni etos “bekas anggota PSI dan Masyumi” sebagai orang-orang yang pemerataan. Etos itu memang terasa hilang di tahun 1970-an. menghasut mahasiswa dan memanfaatkan mereka. Ini memang sebuah dekade yang bisa menyesatkan. Memang ganjil bahwa kali ini terdengar lagi bahasa yang Perekonomian tak hanya tumbuh; ia mulai melaju. Desa-desa dipergunakan PKI dalam mendesak lawan-lawan politiknya, tambah makmur, terutama di Jawa – meskipun dengan dengan cara menempelkan stigma PSI dan Masyumi ke kenaikan pendapatan per kapita yang lebih pelan ketimbang punggung mereka. Tapi innuendo memang telah jadi bagian kota besar. Tapi seperti dalam banyak cerita tentang dari intimidasi. Setelah itu: represi. pertumbuhan, ada rasa sakit yang tak selamanya dimengerti. MALARI, MINYAK, DAN MAHBUB UL-HAQ 107

SYAHRIR

Syahrir dikenal sebagai ekonom-cum-politikus. Dia mendirikan Partai Perhimpunan Indonesia Baru dan punya cita-cita jadi presiden Indonesia. Pada 1974 Syahrir seorang aktivis dan asisten dosen FEUI. Dia dihukum kejahatan subversi dalam huru-hara 15 Januari 1974 di mana banyak barang-barang Jepang, maupun toko-toko milik warga Indonesia yang menjual produk Jepang, dirusak atau dibakar. Syahrir mendekam di penjara selama empat tahun. Pada awal 1974, saya tak berpikir ada orang tahu saat itu ada dugaan isu “pola Kelompok pertama, disebut, istilah intelnya, peristiwa Malari karena sudah bersiap-siap kepemimpinan baru,” yang dikeluarkan kembang sepatu. Ini orang-orang yang ada berangkat ke Amerika Serikat. Saya Jenderal Sumitro, dan ditanggapi Ali hubungan dengan Sudjono Humardhani. diterima di Harvard sebagai mahasiswa Moertopo. Terjadilah konflik antara Kelompok kedua disebut gladak, antara lain pascasarjana di Kennedy School of Govern- mereka. Suasananya memang mendukung. Mardanus, yang dikenal sebagai tokoh ment. Saya seharusnya berangkat Juli tapi Ada ketidakpuasan. Dengan mahasiswa nasionalis. Pengelompokan ketiga namanya malah ditangkap, diadili, dan dipenjara bergerak, mahasiswa menciptakan killing kelinci. Alasan pengelompokan ini tentu ada selama hampir empat tahun. Tapi bagusnya ground. Adanya killing ground membuat Ali tapi saya menduga-duga terkait dengan Harvard dan Ford pembakaran. Pelaku pem- Foundation, yang mem- bakaran itu terbukti dalam biayai program saya, sidang-sidang pengadilan. tetap memberi kesem- Ada tiga orang yang ter- patan untuk saya. Saya bukti membakar tapi tak keluar dari penjara ada satu bukti pun bahwa akhir 1977, menikah dan pembakaran itu dilakukan pergi ke Cambridge, ku- mahasiswa. Dugaan saya liah di Harvard. Mula- Kembang Sepatu ikut mula saya ambil pro- dalam pembakaran. Tapi gram dua tahun, lalu kelompok Kelinci yang diterima untuk program dikorbankan. Semua Ph.D. dan selesai pada orang yang diadili itu tak 1983. Saya tidak memba- termasuk dalam kelompok yangkan peristiwa Ma- kembang sepatu dan lari itu terjadi. kelompok gladak. Menurut jaksa dan Ketika bebas, Har- hakim tuduhan ter- vard menunggu saya, hadap saya subversi. tapi yang berperan disitu Saya dikatakan bersalah adalah almarhum Soe- karena membangkitkan djatmoko – seorang cen- atau menyulut maha- dekiawan, mantan duta siswa untuk bergerak. besar Indonesia untuk Ceramah-ceramah itu Washington, anggota de- dilakukan pada masa- Syahrir di Jakarta, 1970. wan penyantun Ford masa sebelum peristiwa Foundation, yang juga Malari. Isinya ya kritik terhadap strategi Moertopo bisa menangkap semua orang sempat diinterogasi dalam peristiwa Malari. pembangunan pemerintah. Ceramah itu sekaligus menyalahkan atau bisa membuat Soedjatmoko membantu saya untuk dinilai mempunyai pengaruh dalam meng- orang seperti Sumitro sebagai orang yang mendapatkan beasiswa dari Ford Founda- gerakkan mahasiswa sehingga meletuslah dianggap bertanggungjawab terhadap tion. Dia juga membantu saya untuk peristiwa Malari. munculnya keresahan. Maka hilang pula melamar di beberapa universitas lain. Tapi Saya tidak tahu siapa yang punya ide peranan Sumitro dalam politik Indonesia. saya maunya ke Harvard karena gagah saja. menangkap saya tapi peranan dua jenderal, Itu disebut skenario dan sampai di mana Kedua anak saya lahir di Boston. Istri saya Ali Moertopo dan Sudjono Humardani, saat benar tidaknya skenario itu masih belum sebenarnya diterima di Cornell tapi karena itu sangat besar terhadap penahanan sepenuhnya pasti. keduanya jauh untuk keluarga, maka dia kawan-kawan dan saya. Saat kerusuhan terjadi pembakaran dan kuliah di Boston University, dan men- Mengapa Malari terjadi hingga kini pengrusakan. Dalam penjara baru kami tahu dapatkan Ph.D. yang sebagian juga dibiayai belum seluruhnya terungkap tapi semua kalau ada tiga kelompok orang tahanan. oleh Ford Foundation. 108 BAB TIGA

MASYARAKAT SIPIL DAN NEGARA: KAMPANYE KELUARGA BERENCANA

Jika ada penghargaan untuk pahlawan yang lokakarya, pelatihan untuk para penyuluh membengkak dari 116 ke 2.700. PKBI ke- tak diakui, ini nominasinya: Hoeroestiati program KB, dan penyediaan informasi untuk mudian hanya menjadi unit pelaksana, atau Soebandrio. Ia cerdas, berpandangan maju, para pembentuk opini. satu dari badan-badan yang ada. seorang dokter profesional. Ia istri Soe- Secara mengejutkan, kampanye ini sukses Tentu, ada ketidakpuasan. “Klinik PKBI bandrio, menteri luar negeri Indonesia – orang dengan pesat. Pada 1967, Presiden Suharto sering harus melayani klien KB yang meng- yang begitu berkuasa pada zaman Orde Lama. menandatangani Deklarasi Kependudukan alami kegagalan kontrasepsi karena BKKBN Kunjungan luar negeri, acara makan malam PBB. Proyek percobaan di Jakarta meluas ke tak mau bertanggungjawab menangani diplomatik, menari lenso di Istana Negara: program Keluarga Berencana Nasional kehamilan tak diinginkan,” kata Ninuk kesemuanya bagian kesehari-hariannya. Tapi, setahun kemudian. Pada 1970, gerakan KB Widyantoro, yang turut merintis jaringan di saat-saat bersendiri, Hoeroestiati menye- berpuncak pada dibentuknya BKKBN. Wisma Panca Warga dari PKBI. Ford Founda- lundupkan kondom, spiral, dan diafragma ke Sukses disebabkan beberapa hal. Pertama, tion punya andil besar dalam mengem- Indonesia. Bersama para dokter, ginekolog, gerakan ini mempunyai banyak sahabat yang bangkan wisma ini di 10 kota besar Indonesia. perawat dan sukarelawan perempuan, ia kuat dan berpengaruh. Banyak “kerja kotor” “Tapi, warga mulai datang ke wisma kami menyebarluaskan penggunaan alat kontra- yang melengkapi KB dengan counseling. sepsi kepada perempuan di seluruh Mereka tak keberatan membayar lebih Indonesia. Tahun 1957, lahirlah PKBI. mahal untuk mendapat layanan medis Ford Foundation cepat menyadari nilai yang dilengkapi dengan informasi dan strategis PKBI. Bahkan sebelum pemerintah counseling yang membuat mereka mantap Orde Baru mendukung program KB, Ford dalam mengambil keputusan.” Foundation telah secara “diam-diam” Apapun kritiknya, program nasional membantu PKBI mendatangkan Dr. Brooks KB ini mempunyai bobot dan jangkauan Ryder, seorang ahli KB. yang hanya dapat dihadirkan oleh sebuah PKBI sebuah gerakan masyarakat aparatus negara. Di Bali, misalnya – yang pertama yang menunjukkan pentingnya dalam lima tahun angka kelahiran rata- hubungan KB dengan kesehatan repro- ratanya berkurang dari 5,8 menjadi 3,8 – duksi perempuan. Gerakan ini bukan saja para kepala keluarga di desa bertemu dan tantangan bagi pemerintah, tapi juga bukti berdiskusi setiap bulan, dengan KB sebagai bahwa aksi masyarakat juga bisa efektif. topik tetapnya. Dalam ruang pertemuan, Yang dilakukan: membangun jaringan kerja tergantung peta yang memuat semua rumah politik, memupuk kerja sama dengan para di desa tersebut. Rumah yang menggunakan lembaga donor internasional dan organi- IUD ditandai warna biru, yang menggunakan sasi nonpemerintah, seperti Margaret pil ditandai warna merah, yang meng- Sanger Institute, yang namanya sesuai Klinik Keluarga Berencana di Jakarta Selatan, 1969. gunakan kondom ditandai warna hijau, dan dengan tokoh pemrakarsa penggunaan pil yang tak menggunakan apa-apa dibiarkan KB yang pernah mengunjungi Indonesia. telah dilakukan oleh organisasi macam PKBI kosong. Politiknya cukup cerdas: warna merah, Dukungan Gubernur Jakarta Ali (yang aliansi institusionalnya dengan Federasi misalnya, yang dianggap tidak mengun- Sadikin mendorong perubahan yang cepat Keluarga Berencana Internasional) semakin tungkan dalam Indonesia yang antikomunis, dan intensif. Bang Ali dikenal dengan kobaran memperkuat kredibilitasnya. Dan, tak kalah adalah sebuah desakan halus ke arah IUD yang semangatnya, keberanian politiknya, komit- penting, kampanye didukung oleh sikap lebih murah dan efektif. mennya untuk beraksi: ia segera progresif yang telah berkembang dalam Di Jawa Timur, program KB juga berjalan mengesahkan dua proyek percobaan dan masyarakat – penting, mengingat bahwa lancar. Di tangan sebuah pemerintah daerah melancarkan kampanye KB besar-besaran di hanya beberapa tahun sebelumnya, para yang otoriter, perekrutan anggota baru kerap Jakarta. Sementara, pada September1967, pemimpin negeri ini kencang menentang KB. dilaksanakan secara spektakuler, tak jarang Ford Foundation memperbarui dukungannya Mulanya, BKKBN hanya dimaksudkan dengan bantuan tentara. Di beberapa desa, kepada PKBI: masa bakti Dr. Brooks Ryder sebagai badan koordinasi berbagai unit kepala desa memukul gong kayu sekali sehari dilanjutkan, peran PKBI dalam program KB kesehatan yang dijalankan oleh berbagai untuk mengingatkan para ibu untuk minum nasional masa depan diperjelas. Bantuan ini organisasi swasta seperti PKBI. Namun, pada pil. Hasilnya? Dari 4,6 anak setiap ibu pada termasuk gedung untuk markas PKBI, 1976, di Jawa dan Bali saja jumlah klinik telah 1971 menjadi 3,9 pada 1976. MALARI, MINYAK, DAN MAHBUB UL-HAQ 109

Menjelaskan kegunaan spiral pada seorang ibu muda di sebuah klinik KB di Jakarta Selatan, 1969. Soewardjono (duduk kanan) dan Haryono Suyono (berdiri kiri) di sebuah pertemuan KB di Jakarta, 1975.

112 BAB TIGA

Pada akhir 1960-an, Indonesia terdampar dalam keadaan industri, dan tentu saja di lapangan golf. Investasi mereka di ekonomi yang hampir tak bisa bergerak. Satu-satunya jalan Indonesia memang meningkat dengan cepat; di akhir 1973 keluar ialah membuat perdagangan dan investasi lebih leluasa sembilan kali besarnya dari investasi di Filipina. bergerak. Karena pemodal di dalam negeri tak memadai, modal Kehadiran Jepang itu, meskipun memeriahkan asing diundang, dengan kemudahan yang memikat. perekonomian Indonesia dan membuka lapangan kerja, tak Mereka pun masuk dengan cepat. Di sekitar pertengahan selamanya menyenangkan. Dalam salah satu ulasan tentang 1970-an, 50 persen dari seluruh investasi di luar perminyakan investasi Jepang di Asia Tenggara, pakar ekonomi Panglaykim datang dari luar negeri. Pelbagai barang konsumsi dan alat dari CSIS menyebut bahwa dalam bermitra dengan Jepang, pihak produksi mulai bermunculan, dimeriahkan oleh iklan dan Indonesia “tak punya pilihan lain kecuali menyerahkan semua reklame. Wajah kota-kota Indonesia, terutama Jakarta, dengan kekuasaan manajemen dan organisasi kepada pihak Jepang.” segera berubah – terutama karena barang-barang Jepang. Tapi lebih merasa tersisih adalah orang bisnis Indonesia Dana dari Jepang memang datang dalam jumlah yang yang tidak diajak dalam partnership: mereka yang secara politis impresif: sepertiga dari seluruh jumlah bantuan pelbagai negara disebut sebagai “pribumi.” Meskipun dalam persentase mereka yang tergabung dalam Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia jauh lebih besar jumlahnya, tapi seorang pejabat Kedutaan Besar (IGGI). Bantuan itu dipergunakan oleh Jepang untuk juga Jepang pernah menyebut bahwa hanya sekitar 30 persen dari memperluas pasar bagi produksinya. Dari sini berdatangan mitra bisnis Jepang datang dari kalangan pribumi. merek Toyota, Hitachi, Honda, Mitsui, Marubeni, dan entah Sisanya, sebagian terbesar, adalah pengusaha Tionghoa, apa lagi ke hampir tiap sudut. yang memang lebih berpengalaman. Sementara itu pribumi Bahkan karena meningkatnya upah buruh dan harga tanah yang berpengalaman dalam industri modern – dalam hal ini di Jepang, mulai ada dorongan dari sana untuk memindahkan tekstil – justru nyaris punah. Mereka sudah anjlok nasibnya pabrik ke Asia Tenggara. Tak mengherankan bila orang Jepang sejak keambrukan ekonomi di tahun-tahun terakhir pemerintah tampak muncul di mana-mana – di kantor-kantor dagang, bank, Sukarno, tapi di bawah Orde Baru nasib mereka tak menjadi

Pemandangan yang lazim di seluruh Indonesia sejak 1970-an: penjualan sepeda motor bermerek Jepang, 1974. Gubernur Jakarta Ali Sadikin berpidato depan para pengurus RT dan RW seluruh Jakarta pada pemilihan umum 1971. MALARI, MINYAK, DAN MAHBUB UL-HAQ 113

IBRAHIM ALFIAN

Ibrahim Alfian kini ketua bidang Ilmu-ilmu Humaniora Pascasarjana UGM. Pada 1975-1977 Alfian jadi direktur Pusat Latihan Ilmu-ilmu Sosial di Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh, program pelatihan ilmuwan yang diusulkan Clifford Geertz dari Princeton University dan didanai Ford Foundation. Ibrahim Alfian direktur kedua menggantikan Dr Alfian. Program ini senantiasa dipimpin dua orang doktor. Satu orang Indonesia dan satunya orang asing. Kolega Ibrahim Alfian saat itu adalah Lance Castles, ilmuwan sosial dari Australia. Program itu dimulai adik angkat saya, Alfian, “Tak ada gadis cantik di Aceh. Tapi tiga harga benar-benar murah. Peserta merasa pada 1974. Saya menggantikannya pada bulan di sini, pohon asam pun akan terlihat senang. 1975. Kami kenal lama karena sama-sama cantik.” Benar terjadi. Ada peserta yang Saya bangga bisa ikut mendidik 24 riset untuk doktor di Leiden, Belanda. Orang kejar-kejar perawat, ada yang kejar-kejar peserta itu. Dari semua pusat pelatihan Belanda menyebut kami “de kleine Alfian” mahasiswi Universitas Syiah Kuala, ada juga Indonesia; Aceh, Makassar, Surabaya, dan dan “de grote Alfian” atau Jakarta, yang belakangan “Alfian kecil” dan “Alfian paling banyak jadi doktor besar” – karena ukuran ba- atau profesor adalah dan kami besar dan kecil. mereka yang dilatih di Badan saya lebih besar maka Banda Aceh, di antaranya disebut “de grote Alfian.” Pada Mukhlis PaEni (direktur Lem- 1977 saya digantikan Syam- baga Arsip Nasional), Nani suddin Mahmud, ekonom Tuloli (rektor Institut Ke- Aceh, yang belakangan jadi guruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan gubernur Aceh. Dalam dua Gorontalo), Amir Lutfi (rek- tahun itu total ada 24 peserta tor Institut Agama Islam dalam program kami. Negeri Pekanbaru), P.J. Su- Program itu bagus. warno (rektor Universitas Metode pengajaran, biaya Katolik Sanata Dharma, Yog- penelitian, dan bimbingannya, yakarta), Hamid Abdullah semua dirancang bagus. Se- (profesor Universitas Di- sudah kuliah, peserta me- ponegoro), Syarif Ibrahim lakukan penelitian di Aceh. (profesor Pontianak), Durtje Apa taktik saya agar peserta Durasit (profesor Banjar- penelitian mudah diterima masin), dan sebagainya. Pro- para camat? Mereka jalan ke gram itu berguna sekali. daerah-daerah, bukan? Saya Tiap tahun ada pemi- punya taktik. Gubernur Aceh lihan makalah terbaik. Pada Muzakkir Walad biasanya tahun pertama yang terpilih mengundang peserta untuk karya P.J. Suwarno dari Yog- makan malam. Di sana bia- yakarta. Dia dikirim ke sanya disuguhkan tari-tarian Jakarta bersama peserta Aceh. Ini iklan untuk Aceh terbaik dari Makassar dan karena peserta datang dari sebagainya, untuk ikut se- Semarang, Bandung, Sura- Ibrahim Alfian dalam sebuah seminar di Yogyakarta, 1983. minar dan membicarakan baya, Manado, Banjarmasin, makalahnya. Suwarno orang dan sebagainya. Saya minta masing-masing yang mengaku belum berkeluarga, padahal Katolik Jawa dan menulis soal ulama di peserta untuk foto dengan gubernur. sudah beristri. Aceh Utara. Saya heran. Dia pandai Foto ini dibesarkan jadi ukuran 4R dan Pada akhir program, saya bantu membawa diri. Kalau masuk ruang buka ditaruh dalam buku catatan para peneliti. peserta membeli barang-barang impor dari sepatu. Jadi ulama-ulama Aceh Utara juga Jadi terlihat mencolok. Kalau mereka ke Singapura atau Penang. Kala itu, terbuka terhadapnya. Hasilnya, penelitian lapangan, tanpa diperlihatkan pun, sudah Pelabuhan Sabang bebas. Jadi mereka beli yang bagus sekali. Dia lantas ambil doktor terlihat foto mereka dengan gubernur. Ini mesin ketik, piring-piring cantik murah, di UGM, di bawah bimbingan saya dengan membuat pejabat-pejabat lokal membuka alat elektronik, dan sebagainya untuk disertasi soal Sultan Hamengku Buwono IX, pintu untuk penelitian. dibawa pulang ke kota masing-masing. dan belakangan jadi rektor Universitas Saat awal program saya biasa bilang, Petugas bea cukai juga membantu sehingga Sanata Dharma.

MALARI, MINYAK, DAN MAHBUB UL-HAQ 115 lebih baik. Para perumus kebijakan ekonomi, yang ingin pemerintah – dan juga mantan Wakil Presiden Mohammad Indonesia lebih terbuka kepada modal asing, secara tak sengaja, Hatta, yang biasa disebut sebagai bapak gerakan koperasi. membiarkan mereka tergulung. Manifesto itu berjanji akan mengembalikan kebanggaan nasional Dalam keadaan itulah protes mulai diucapkan. November yang sebagian telah ternoda oleh “segelintir kelompok sosial.” 1973, Ketua IGGI Jan Pieter Pronk berkunjung ke Indonesia. Siapa kelompok sosial yang dimaksudkan itu tak begitu Di pelabuhan udara Kemayoran sekelompok mahasiswa dan jelas. Mungkin para pengusaha Tionghoa. Mungkin para pemuda menyambutnya dengan sebundel kembang – tapi juga teknokrat yang membuka pintu bagi modal asing seluas- dengan poster-poster: “Investasi Modal Asing Membuat luasnya. Mungkin para jenderal yang punya hubungan dekat Kolonialisme Intern,” dan “Indonesia Untuk Indonesia.” dengan bisnis Jepang. Bagaimana pula cara mengembalikan Sebuah pernyataan yang dibacakan sore itu menyebut kebanggaan nasional tak diuraikan. Yang terasa waktu itu adalah bahwa mereka tak merasa bangga melihat modal asing hanya keinginan perubahan besar. Apa yang terjadi di Thailand melahirkan gedung tinggi, hotel, Coca-Cola, dan nightclub, sebulan sebelumnya memberi inspirasi langsung pada para sementara rakyat tak punya pekerjaan, rumah, dan tanah. aktivis di Jakarta. Industri tekstil kami mati, seperti pada pernyataan itu pula. Tanggal 14 Oktober 1973, di Bangkok ribuan mahasiswa Hutan kami gundul. Minyak kami kering. turun ke jalan sampai beberapa hari. Enam hari kemudian Akhir November 1973, sebuah diskusi yang menganalisis Marsekal Thanom Kittikachorn, perdana menteri Thailand kerugian dan keuntungan modal asing diselenggarakan. yang berkuasa dengan dukungan militer selama 12 tahun, jatuh. Penutupnya menghasilkan sebuah manifesto. Para “Kita akan bikin Jakarta seperti Bangkok,” adalah ucapan penandatangannya, antara lain Dorodjatun Kuntjoro-Jakti, yang mulai terdengar di bulan November di kalangan Adnan Buyung Nasution, Yap Thiam Hien, Mochtar Lubis – mahasiswa. Dan itulah yang terjadi pada tanggal 15 Januari mereka yang biasa menyuarakan pendapat kritis kepada 1974.

Dorodjatun Kuntjoro-Jakti, Mochtar Lubis, Maruli Panggabean, dan Suhadi pada diskusi tentang modal asing, November 1973. Mahasiswa berdemo mengecam ketua IGGI Jan Pieter Pronk di bandar udara Kemayoran, Jakarta, 1973. 116 BAB TIGA

Apa sebenarnya yang dikehendaki para pemrotes? Tampaknya Pertamina, perusahaan minyak milik negara. Seorang dokter ketakpuasan waktu itu tak bermula dan tak berakhir dengan dan jenderal dengan tubuh atletis ini, bahkan dalam usianya sebuah agenda yang mantap yang bisa mempertemukan yang lanjut, adalah sebuah energi tersendiri. Sudah sejak 1967 pelbagai kalangan. ia memimpin Pertamina dengan kekuasaan monopolistik atas “Mengembalikan kebanggaan nasional” bisa berarti setiap segi industri perminyakan, dari eksplorasi sampai menampik modal asing. Tapi di awal dasawarsa 1970-an, modal pemasaran bensin. Di awal 1970 karyawannya meluap sampai asing sebagai sumber keuangan pemerintah telah dikalahkan oleh 40.000 orang. Efisiensi tampaknya memang bukan ciri kuat besarnya penghasilan dari minyak. Di pertengahan 1973, harga Pertamina. Sebagai perusahaan minyak, artinya kecil, produksi minyak di pasar dunia naik dari $2 per barel menjadi $3,70 kurang dari 10 persen keseluruhan hasil minyak Indonesia, barel. Setahun kemudian harga itu melonjak menjadi $12. tak seberapa bila dibanding produksi Caltex. Tapi ia memberi Tapi bahkan sebelum itu pengaruh minyak sudah mulai makan banyak orang. tampak dalam menumbuhkan, untuk memakai kata-kata pakar Sutowo tak hanya mengurus Pertamina. Mulai 1971, ekonomi politik Richard Robison, “nasionalisme ekonomi yang oleh Suharto, ia diserahi sejumlah proyek pembangunan. Tak didorong negara.” hanya itu, ia juga diberi hak untuk mencari sendiri Ujung tombaknya adalah Ibnu Sutowo, direktur utama pembiayaannya.

Sesi pertama pertemuan OPEC di Bali, 1976. MALARI, MINYAK, DAN MAHBUB UL-HAQ 117

JUWONO SUDARSONO

Akademikus-cum-politikus Juwono Sudarsono bukan saja dikenal karena karya-karyanya di bidang ilmu politik maupun hubungan internasional, tapi juga sebagai menteri pertahanan dalam kabinet Presiden Abdurrahman Wahid. Pada 1975, Sudarsono menerima beasiswa dari British Council dengan tambahan dari Ford Foundation untuk belajar di London School of Economics. Beasiswa ini memungkinkan istrinya, Priharumastinah, dan anaknya yang baru berumur satu setengah tahun, Vishnu, menemaninya di London.

Pada 1971, saya membantu Prof. Selo Alumni dari Banda Aceh, Jakarta, dan untuk memperkaya kesadaran keindo- Soemardjan dan Prof. Harsja W. Bachtiar Makassar ini terbukti jadi critical mass dari nesiaan mereka. Para peserta memang mengumpulkan bahan untuk sebuah studi dosen fakultas ilmu-ilmu sosial maupun datang dari berbagai pulau Indonesia. tentang bagaimana memajukan ilmu-ilmu peneliti di seluruh Indonesia. Mereka Mereka juga belakangan jadi mitra para sosial di Indonesia. Studi itu dila- ekonom dan teknokrat yang di- kukan oleh Prof. Clifford Geertz dari kirim studi lanjut ke UC Berkeley Princeton University atas perminta- oleh Ford Foundation pada 1950- an Ford Foundation. an dan 1960-an. Ini sesuai dengan Studi ini sebagiannya juga di- pengamatan Soedjatmoko pada dorong oleh Dr. Soedjatmoko, 1954 bahwa keberhasilan pem- mantan duta besar Indonesia di bangunan ekonomi Indonesia harus Amerika, yang waktu juga juga berunsurkan kebudayaan dan ke- anggota Dewan Penyantun Ford masyarakatan. Foundation. Dia percaya bahwa Hari ini, masalah yang dihadapi ilmu sosial Barat perlu “dipribumi- ilmuwan sosial Indonesia masih sama sasikan” dengan kenyataan dan dengan hasil rekaman Geertz 1971. kebudayaan lokal. John Bresnan, Ilmuwan sosial tak melakukan riset, wakil Ford Foundation, mendukung gajinya kecil, dan sering terpaksa upaya ini. kerja sambilan untuk memenuhi Laporan Geertz lalu jadi dasar kebutuhan hidup mereka. Ini terjadi untuk mendirikan pusat-pusat karena ilmuwan kebanyakan juga pelatihan ilmu-ilmu sosial di Banda pegawai negeri Departemen Pen- Aceh, Jakarta, dan Makassar, yang didikan dan Kebudayaan. didanai Ford Foundation, serta Tapi setidaknya, kita mulai didukung LIPI dan Departemen melihat kemitraan antara sektor Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. swasta dan kampus-kampus serta Pada 1970-an hingga awal 1980- lembaga penelitian. Ini per- an ratusan akademisi dari per- kembangan yang penting untuk guruan swasta dan negeri terpilih membantu mengatasi masalah untuk ikut pelatihan itu dari ber- pendanaan. Riset harus dilakukan bagai macam bidang (kependuduk- untuk melayani masyarakat se- an, pendidikan, sastra, sejarah, Juwono Sudarsono bersama anaknya Vishnu di London, 1976. kaligus menghormati kekuatan administrasi publik, ilmu politik, pasar. Sayangnya, hanya peneliti bahasa, arkeologi, anthropologi-sosiologi). bertemu dan bergaul sehingga pandangan, senior saja yang bisa menyediakan jasa Mereka datang ke Banda Aceh, Jakarta, pengalaman, dan pengetahuan mereka sesuai permintaan pasar. Bagaimana atau Makassar, untuk mengembangkan yang datang dari Indonesia Timur dan caranya membuat peneliti muda bisa metode riset dan melakukan pekerjaan Indonesia Barat bisa saling memperkaya. mengembangkan pendekatan yang lebih lapangan seraya menyiapkan tesis mereka, Interaksi mereka dengan para berorientasi pasar? Jawabnya mungkin baik tingkat master atau doktoral, baik di instruktur, dan lebih penting lagi pergaulan menciptakan pengkaderan peneliti muda Indonesia maupun luar negeri. dengan sesama mereka, membantu peserta untuk kelak menggantikan senior mereka. 118 BAB TIGA

Sejak mula, ketika Pertamina belum ada – waktu itu menawarkan utang kepada Sutowo. Meskipun ada undang- yang ada barulah Permina – Sutowo memang telah undang yang mengharuskan meminta izin kepada para menteri menyediakan dana, dalam bentuk devisa, bagi Angkatan Darat. yang membawahkannya untuk meneken utang, Sutowo tak Kini ia kurang lebih melanjutkan pola kerja itu, dalam skala melakukannya. Konflik antara Ibnu Sutowo dan para teknokrat yang lebih besar. Juga dengan keberanian mencari kredit ke di kabinet baru pun tak terelakkan. Sengketa itu baru berhenti luar negeri yang lebih ambisius di tahun 1976 setelah Presiden – didukung oleh naiknya Suharto memberhentikan Ibnu pendapatan dari bagian eskpor Sutowo. minyak sejak awal 1970-an. Tapi ia tak pernah Tak selamanya jelas dihukum – meskipun ia me- berapa besarnya utang waktu itu langgar undang-undang dengan dan benarkah syarat-syaratnya membuat utang Indonesia ke menguntungkan. Tak ada yang luar negeri naik sekitar dua kali mengontrol. Baru di tahun lipat. Dan meskipun Pertamina 1976, majalah Tempo dengan praktis jadi ajang korupsi skala hati-hati menyingkap tabir besar. utang ini. Terbukti bahwa utang Sebenarnya sudah di yang dilakukan Ibnu Sutowo tahun 1966 harian Indonesia Raya mampu mengguncangkan ke- mengungkapkan kebocoran di uangan Republik. Sebagaimana perusahaan itu. Tulisan, dengan dilaporkan Menteri Pertam- data, diterbitkan selama berhari- bangan M. Sadli ke Parlemen, hari. Tapi tak ada efeknya. utang Pertamina seluruhnya Pertamina bahkan prak- $10,5 milyar. Ia juga menga- tis membawa semacam glamor takan, “Sebagian besar dari kegiatan itu tidak ekonomis dan ke dalam kehidupan kelas atas Jakarta. Di tahun 1968, Ibnu kurang berhubungan dengan fungsi dasar Pertamina.” Sutowo merayakan pernikahan salah satu putrinya dengan Sejak 1972 sebenarnya IMF telah memperingatkan kemegahan yang masa itu tak ada tandingannya, hingga harian pemerintah Indonesia agar harus ada batas jumlah utang jangka Pedoman menulis editorial khusus tentang peristiwa itu. Gaya menengah yang bisa dilakukan pemerintah dan aparatnya. Tapi hidup ini berlanjut. Bila perlu, Sutowo dan keluarganya, dengan batas itu praktis bobol. Kreditor asing dengan agresif pesawat khusus pergi ke seorang dokter gigi di Houston, Texas.

 Demonstran menuntut Pertamina diselidiki karena korupsi, 1970. MALARI, MINYAK, DAN MAHBUB UL-HAQ 119

ANUGERAH PEKERTI

Anugerah Pekerti seorang dosen Lembaga Pendidikan dan Pembinaan Manajemen (LPPM) di Jakarta. Dia mengambil Ph.D. manajemen dari University of Southern California (USC) dengan sponsor Ford Foundation pada 1978-1985. Ketika kembali ke Indonesia, Pekerti mengembangkan program MBA (Master of Business Administration) serta mengusahakan beasiswa untuk anak muda golongan masyarakat yang kurang akrab dengan bisnis untuk terjun ke bidang ini. Pada akhir 1960-an dunia usaha Indonesia $4 juta untuk melatih staf, memperbaiki kelompok yang berbeda. Kalau kelompok mulai bergerak. Modal asing masuk. perpustakaan, menerbitkan majalah, dan bisnis dikuasai oleh orang keturunan Perusahaan-perusahaan didirikan. Tapi mendirikan program MBA. Tionghoa. sumber daya manusia kurang. Para Hingga kini LPPM bisa mempertahan- Awal 1950-an, untuk mengoreksi pengusaha sulit mencari manajer. Pastor kan jati dirinya sebagai lembaga tempat ketimpangan sejarah, ada berbagai Jesuit Kadarman punya ide mendirikan orang-orang berbagai latar belakang, kebijakan. Salah satu kebijakannya oleh sekolah manajemen. Waktu itu dunia kepercayaan, suku, keahlian untuk bekerja Menteri Perdagangan Sumitro sedang ada gerakan mendirikan sekolah- sama. Cita-cita, visi dan misinya luhur. Kami Djojohadikusumo dengan kelompok sekolah manajemen baik di Turki, benteng memberi kemudahan usaha Filipina, Eropa, India, Belanda, yang pada orang-orang “pribumi.” Ternyata semuanya dicontoh dari model tak berhasil mengangkat mereka jadi Amerika Serikat. pengusaha tangguh, malah menim- Kadarman ingin menyelenggarakan bulkan ekses yang luar biasa besar- sekolah ini lewat organisasi Kristen nya. Ada yang disebut pedagang Protestan dan Katolik. Gagasan aktentas, yang memperjualbelikan okumenisme yang maju. Gagasan ini izin kemudahan. Itu latar belakang ditawarkan pada almarhum T.B. timbulnya istilah perusahaan- Simatupang – seorang pensiunan perusahaan Ali Baba. Alinya di depan jenderal dan tokoh Kristen Protestan. Babanya di belakang. Simatupang orang yang berpandangan Kami mengambil upaya kecil untuk nasionalis inklusif. Simatupang bilang, mengoreksi itu dengan satu kebijakan “Oh jangan hanya Katolik dan yang positif, bukan yang diskriminatif, Protestan saja, tapi harus melibatkan dengan membuka peluang yang lebih rekan-rekan yang Islam.” Jadi, lembaga besar untuk kelompok-kelompok yang itu didukung oleh berbagai tak berasal dari dunia bisnis masuk ke kepercayaan. Awalnya Islam, Kristen, dunia bisnis. Pada 1986 beasiswa ini lalu Hindu kemudian Buddha. Ini bisa menampung kurang lebih 30 menarik perhatian Ford Foundation. orang karena sepenuhnya dibiayai Simatupang, Kadarman, dan kawan- LPPM. Saya pikir kalau 30 orang kawan pun sepakat pada 1967 Anugerah Pekerti di kantornya, 1990. setahun berarti 100 tahun baru dapat mendirikan LPPM. 3.000 orang. Jadi dampaknya baru 100 Jadi melibatkan orang-orang Islam bekerja dengan nilai-nilai dan etika yang tahun dirasakan. yang punya background kuat seperti jelas, tak pernah menyuap, dan Saya punya gagasan. Dari $4 juta Syafruddin Prawiranegara dan Bahder independen. Selama 32 tahun saya bekerja bantuan USAID itu sebagian diberikan Djohan membuat Ford Foundation tertarik di sana dan selama 10 tahun menjadi kepada pembelajarnya. Saya menemui yang kebetulan juga mengarahkan direktur utama, kami tak pernah menyuap Direktur USAID William Fuller, “Saya usul programnya pada pengembangan untuk dapat pekerjaan. Kami terkenal sebagian dana itu diberikan kepada manajemen di berbagai tempat di dunia. mempraktekkan keyakinan nilai-nilai pembelajarnya.” Fuller setuju dan memberi Saya bergabung dengan LPPM pada kami. $367 ribu sebagai dana awal untuk 1968. Sesudah sepuluh tahun bekerja di Lainnya adalah misi PPM untuk revolving fund. Ketika lulus dan bekerja, sana, saya mendapatkan beasiswa sekolah memberi kesempatan pada orang-orang para penerima beasiswa membayar dana doktoral di USC. Waktu kembali 1986 saya muda, yang tak berasal dari dunia bisnis, pendidikannya ke LPPM, tapi dananya dijadikan direktur program MBA. Waktu itu untuk masuk dunia bisnis melalui dipakai untuk anak muda yang lain. LPPM menyiapkan diri untuk bikin pendidikan manajemen. Di Indonesia, Sampai sekarang program beasiswa ini program MBA. Rancangannya didukung karena warisan kolonialisme Belanda, masih berjalan dan sekarang dikenal oleh USAID dan LPPM diberi dana USAID berbagai bidang dikuasai kelompok- dengan program Wijawiyata Manajemen. 120 BAB TIGA

PROFESOR AMERIKA YANG MENCINTAI INDONESIA

Ketika Presiden Megawati Sukarnoputri Miller bergegas ke Istana Negara. Miller Malang. Mereka dibiayai Ford Foundation. memberikan Bintang Jasa Pratama kepada biasa datang untuk sarapan pagi bersama Informasi itu disampaikan seorang John J. Bresnan pada Januari 2003, orang Sukarno. Momen ini biasanya digunakan mahasiswa Amerika ke konsulat Amerika di bertanya-tanya apa jasa Bresnan? Mengapa Sukarno untuk bicara macam-macam, dari Surabaya. Konsulat menghubungi Departemen Bresnan menerima bintang yang sebelumnya urusan negara hingga seni. Sukarno suka Luar Negeri di Washington. Washington diberikan kepada dua profesor kenamaan Miller. Sukarno bahkan pernah mengatakan menghubungi markas Ford Foundation di New Amerika: George McTurnan Kahin dari akan berdansa dalam pesta pernikahan York. F.F. Hill, wakil presiden Ford Foundation, Cornell serta Clifford Geertz dari Princeton? Miller jika Miller mengizinkannya ragu akan keadaan di Indonesia. Hill mengirim Jawabannya muncul ketika Kompas mencarikan jodoh. surat kepada Miller minta kantor Ford mengutip diplomat senior Ali Alatas yang Pagi itu Miller menjelaskan masalahnya. Foundation di Jakarta ditutup. mengatakan Bresnan sangat instrumental “Well,” kata Sukarno, “dalam tiap aturan Miller dan Bresnan tak setuju tapi dalam menciptakan sejumlah ilmuwan terpaksa menutup. Beberapa bulan penting Indonesia. “Kritik yang ia kemudian, Bresnan mendengar terjadi sampaikan selalu konstruktif. Beliau pembunuhan para jenderal Angkatan tidak pernah tidak memberi jalan Darat. Drama ini disusul pembunuhan penyelesaian,” kata Alatas. Prof. Juwono ratusan ribu pendukung Sukarno. Sudarsono dari UI mengatakan, “Dari Kekuasaan beralih tangan ke Suharto. dulu Bresnan menaruh perhatian sangat Ford Foundation membuka kembali serius untuk pengembangan sumber daya kantornya di Jakarta pada 1967. Bresnan manusia Indonesia, negara yang menggantikan Miller pada Juli 1969. Ia menurutnya sangat kompleks dan plural.” memimpin Ford Foundation untuk Bresnan tiba di Indonesia pada membiayai riset padi unggul, pendidikan November 1961 untuk membantu Frank ilmu sosial, program keluarga berencana, Miller, wakil Ford Foundation di Jakarta. pendidikan manajemen, maupun Dalam memoarnya yang tak diterbitkan, konservasi kebudayaan. Bresnan juga Bresnan menulis ia datang ketika Jakarta melebarkan program ke Sumatera, “banjir” politik nasionalisme. Sulawesi, dan Kalimantan. Presiden Sukarno menuntut Belanda Bresnan berpendapat program yang menyerahkan Papua. Uni Soviet mendukung memuaskannya adalah membawa IRRI ke dan memberi bantuan militer. Presiden John Indonesia. Hasilnya? Bibit unggul. Jutaan F. Kennedy menghimbau Jakarta maupun ton beras dihasilkan. “Saya waktu itu tak Belanda tak menggunakan kekerasan. Tapi tahu apapun tentang Revolusi Hijau tapi sukarelawan Indonesia dimobilisasi masuk John Bresnan menerima Bintang Jasa Pratama saya ingin hal itu terjadi. Keberhasilan ini ke Papua. dari Presiden Megawati Sukarnoputri, Januari 2003. sangat menyenangkan. Mungkin inilah Pada September 1963 perselisihan usaha pribadi saya yang paling ber- Indonesia dengan Malaysia meletus. selalu ada perkecualian. Apa Anda punya pengaruh di Indonesia,” kata Bresnan. Indonesia menuduh Inggris campur tangan perkecualian, Tuan Miller?” Pada 1974 Bresnan ditarik untuk urusan Malaysia. Sekitar 10.000 demonstran “Semua tigabelas itu.” memimpin divisi Asia Pasifik. Posisi ini membakar kedutaan Inggris di Jakarta. “Aduh, Tuan Miller, you are a hard membuatnya tetap berhubungan dengan Banyak rumah warganegara Inggris dijarah. bargainer.” Jakarta. Pada 1982 Bresnan meninggalkan Pada Maret 1964 Menteri Luar Negeri Tapi Sukarno setuju. “Anda bilang saja Ford Foundation dan bekerja di East Asian Amerika Serikat Dean Rusk menyatakan pada Soebandrio bahwa saya bilang oke.” Institute dari Columbia University, New York. negaranya takkan memberikan bantuan Jakarta memang sulit tapi selalu ada Dia mengajar tentang Asia. kepada Indonesia. Sukarno gusar dan momen di mana Miller maupun Bresnan Sekitar akhir 2001 banyak dosen yang menjawab, “Go to hell with your aid.” merasa Indonesia bergerak ke arah positif. dibantu studinya pada zaman Bresnan, Menteri Luar Negeri Soebandrio segera Situasi politik makin tegang ketika berkumpul dan menyarankan Juwono mengeluarkan instruksi bahwa warga Indonesia keluar dari Perserikatan Bangsa- Sudarsono, waktu itu menteri, untuk Indonesia tak boleh studi lanjut di Amerika. Bangsa. Pada Maret 1965, sekelompok mempertimbangkan penghargaan Bintang Ford Foundation kalang kabut. Ada 13 demonstran memprotes kehadiran Jasa Pratama kepada Bresnan. Maka dosen Indonesia yang siap berangkat ke profesor-profesor Amerika, yang bekerja di Presiden Megawati pun mengalungkan Amerika dengan beasiswa Ford Foundation. Institut Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan bintang ini kepada Bresnan. MALARI, MINYAK, DAN MAHBUB UL-HAQ 121

Dengan mudah ia bermain golf di Palm Springs, California. Petrodollar juga menumbuhkan bisnis para kontraktor seperti Di Jakarta, ia mengimpor Rolls Royce untuk dirinya. musim hujan menjangkitkan cendawan. Bertahun-tahun lamanya ia seperti tak terjamah, dan Di sana-sini, terutama di kota dan di sektor modern, wajah selama itu membangun jaringan bisnis untuk keluarganya – Indonesia berubah secara mengesankan. Sutowo membangun jauh lebih dulu ketimbang Suharto. Ketika Hotel Hilton di lapangan golf, memasukkan modal ke bisnis tanah dan bangunan, wilayah Senayan, Jakarta, membiayai berdirinya Bina misalnya, didirikan, Gu- Graha (kantor kepresidenan di bernur Ali Sadikin yang masa Suharto), membangun memberi izin bangunan sebuah rumah sakit modern, menduga bahwa hotel bin- merencanakan pabrik pupuk tang lima itu milik Per- terapung dan pabrik petrokimia, tamina. Ternyata kemudian membiayai pabrik baja Krakatau itu milik keluarga Ibnu Steel, dan sederet kegiatan lain, Sutowo. Tampaknya tak termasuk mendirikan Perguruan jelas lagi mana yang milik Tinggi Ilmu Al-Quran. Ia juga pribadi dan yang bukan: menjadi sumber dana bagi para kurang lebih ada 35 per- perwira tinggi, pribadi ataupun usahaan swasta yang di- institusinya mendapatkan so- milikinya, baik sebagian kongan langsung dari kantong atau seluruhnya, yang dollar Pertamina. Dengan cepat, berhubungan dagang perusahaan negara ini berlaku dengan Pertamina. seakan-akan sudah jadi tugas dan “Mungkin akan lebih wewenangnya untuk membiayai baik seandainya kita tak pelbagai hal yang tak terdapat punya minyak,” keluh dalam Anggaran Pendapatan dan Widjojo Nitisastro kepada Belanja Negara (APBN). seorang kenalan waktu itu. Indonesia memang tam- Tapi minyak telah memung- pak tumbuh semarak. Tapi, kinkan Suharto dan para mau tak mau, kontras mena- jenderalnya menyaksikan kemajuan berderap cepat di depan jam antara mereka yang kecipratan langsung petrodolar dan mereka. Dengan uang dari minyak mereka mendapatkan mereka yang ada di lapisan bawah – apalagi di Jakarta, di mana keyakinan bahwa Indonesia, dengan kekayaan alamnya sendiri, orang-orang kaya baru bermunculan sementara para tukang bisa masuk ke dunia modern. Tak hanya mereka yang berharap. becak dan pedagang kaki lima tergusur.

 Presiden Suharto meresmikan rumah sakit Pertamina di Jakarta, salah satu fasilitas kesehatan modern pertama yang ada di Indonesia, 1972. 122 BAB TIGA

Mungkin dalam sejarah Indonesia modern, baru saat sasaran pokok. Di UI, Lukman Hakim mengalami hal yang sama. itulah tampak perbedaan sosial yang begitu mencolok dan Dan Maret 1978, Suharto dipilih kembali sebagai presiden. meluas. Memang ada usaha agar ketimpangan itu tak sepenuhnya membuat kelas jelata tersisih. YLBHI, misalnya, Tapi keresahan dasawarsa itu tak terbatas pada protes di jalanan menyediakan bantuan tenaga bagi mereka yang miskin dalam dan tentang kepemimpinan. Ketika ketimpangan sosial terasa mempertahankan hak di dalam hukum. Di dasawarsa 1970- tajam, mulai berkembang pertanyaan dasar: tak adakah cara an, bantuan itu terasa semakin urgen. Tapi bangunan politik lain untuk membangun Indonesia? yang ada tak memberi rakyat kesempatan untuk mengubah Sikap mempertanyakan yang gigih ini di dunia institusi-institusi hukum yang merugikan mereka. Tak ayal pemikiran Indonesia waktu itu dicerminkan dalam jurnal mahasiswa pun – yang selalu hidup dengan mitos tentang peran Prisma. Diterbitkan oleh Lembaga Penelitian, Pendidikan dan mereka dalam transformasi – bergerak. Protes pertama terdengar Penerangan Ekonomi dan Sosial (LP3ES), sebuah lembaga di tahun 1969, tak lama setelah Indonesia Raya mengungkapkan swasta yang semula didirikan bersama Friedrich Naumann korupsi di Pertamina. Dalam variasi lain, itu terdengar lagi di Stiftung, yayasan swasta yang berkait dengan kaum liberal di tahun 1974 dalam Malari. Puncaknya di tahun 1978, ketika Jerman, dan kemudian dibantu oleh Ford Foundation, Prisma para mahasiswa, terutama dari UI dan ITB, buat pertama berkembang menjadi wadah ide-ide kritis yang hampir tak kalinya mengatakan – seperti tercantum dalam Buku Putih terdapat dalam media massa umumnya. Dari sini bisa tergambar mereka – “mereka tak percaya dan tak menginginkan Suharto sejarah intelektual Indonesia yang terus mencari jawab. sebagai Presiden Republik Indonesia.” Di masa itu usaha mencari jawab mendapatkan Tentu saja Suharto tidak tinggal diam. Dengan cepat sumbernya dari banyak penjuru. Sumber itu bisa datang dari kampus ITB diduduki tentara, dan lebih dari 100 mahasiswa kritik Kiri Baru, yang sejak akhir 1960-an sedang memikat ditangkap. Heri Akhmadi, ketua umum Dewan Mahasiswa, jadi kampus-kampus Amerika dan Eropa Barat. Dalam pandangan

Para tukang becak di Jakarta tergusur, becak-becaknya dibuang di Teluk Jakarta, 1985. MALARI, MINYAK, DAN MAHBUB UL-HAQ 123

SARTONO KARTODIRDJO

Prof. Sartono Kartodirdjo salah satu ahli sejarah Indonesia paling terkemuka. Dia mendapatkan masternya dari Yale pada 1964 dan selesai menulis disertasi doktoral pada University of Amsterdam 1966. Disertasinya, The Peasant Revolt of Banten in 1888: Its Condition, Course and Sequel: A Case Study of Social Movements in Indonesia, jadi bacaan klasik. Pada 1968 ia jadi guru besar Fakultas Sastra UGM. Pada 1981, selama setahun ia jadi guru tamu di Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in Humanities and Social Sciences di Wassenaar, Den Haag, Belanda.

Pada 1957 ada seminar tentang sejarah kami akan lebih sulit bekerja. Kota Berkeley Pada pertengahan April 1972 tim ini nasional Indonesia di Yogyakarta di mana di California cuacanya lebih hangat. pindah ke Leiden, Belanda, untuk me- disimpulkan bahwa Indonesia memerlukan November 1971 tim inti pergi ke Berkeley lanjutkan studi arsip di Koninklijk Instituut buku sejarah yang mencerminkan iden- tapi jadwalnya kurang cocok. Nugroho hanya voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (KITLV). titasnya. Indonesia waktu itu negara baru. tinggal dua bulan di sana. Sutjipto baru datang Kami baca buku-buku dan karya-karya Buku-buku sejarah kebanyakan masih pada Januari 1972. Tiap hari pekerjaan kami tentang Indonesia. Pertengahan Mei 1972 mencerminkan kebutuhan kolonialisme sama. Pagi hari kami pergi ke perpustakaan. kami kembali ke Indonesia. Masih ada Belanda. Cendekiawan terkemuka macam Sorenya pukul 18:00-20:00 kami seminar di seminar-seminar di Indonesia yang dibiayai Muhammad Yamin dan Soedjatmoko Departemen Pendidikan dan Ke- terlibat dalam seminar ini. Tapi budayaan. Seluruhnya ada enam pembuatan buku ini masih sebatas volume dan masing-masing volume wacana. ditulis lima orang. Jadi ada 30 penulis Pada 1970 diadakan lagi seminar yang menulis buku ini. Pada 1976 nasional kedua tentang sejarah juga buku ini selesai dan diserahkan di Yogyakarta. Kebetulan kali ini saya kepada Presiden Suharto. Hasilnya, jadi ketua pelaksananya. Hasilnya diterbitkan negara. lebih kongkret. Seminar mengusulkan Tapi saya merasa kok cuma begini? dibentuk satu panitia dengan pe- Kebanyakan penulisnya sibuk sehingga ngesahan oleh Menteri Pendidikan tak bisa menulis dengan baik. Saya dan Kebudayaan Mashuri. berpikir seandainya, ada satu volume Soedjatmoko waktu itu duta besar yang hanya dikerjakan satu penulis, Indonesia di Washington. Dia menghu- dengan waktu sama tapi dia dibe- bungkan kami dengan Ford Foun- baskan dari tugas-tugas lain, hasilnya dation. Pada 1971 kami resmi ber- akan lebih baik. hubungan dengan Ford Foundation. Pada 1981 saya mendapat ke- Ada tujuh orang dalam panitia inti: sempatan studi lagi di Wassenaar juga Nugroho Notosusanto, Abdurrachman Sartono Kartodirdjo di UGM, 1979. dengan sponsor Ford Foundation. Surjomihardjo, Sutjipto, Oka Tjandra- Selama setahun di sana saya menulis sasmita, Buchairi, Sujono Panji Suroso, dan salah satu apartemen yang kami sewa. Mulanya buku Pengantar Sejarah Indonesia (periode saya selaku ketua. Ford Foundation bersedia seminar di kantor Joe Fischer, seorang ahli 1500-1900) yang belakangan diterbitkan membantu tim ini untuk melakukan studi Indonesia yang membantu administrasi kami, Gramedia. Selama di sana, saya menulis serial kepustakaan di Amerika Serikat dan Belanda. tapi gerakan anti-Perang Vietnam pada waktu “Surat dari Wassenaar’’ dalam Kompas Saya mula-mula dikirim ke Amerika itu membuat banyak demonstrasi dan polisi Minggu soal sejarah Indonesia yang ber- Serikat untuk mencari tempat di mana tim ada di mana-mana. Kami memilih seminar di kaitan dengan penjajahan Belanda. Saya kira ini bisa bekerja. Saya pergi ke Berkeley, Yale, apartemen yang lebih tenang. Total kami hasilnya lebih baik dari buku sejarah resmi. Wisconsin dan Cornell. Lalu saya kembali ke melakuan 99 seminar di Berkeley. Kita Pulang ke Indonesia, saya menulis dua jilid Indonesia dan kami memutuskan pergi ke putuskan sebagai model penulisan sejarah ini soal zaman pergerakan nasional, walau Berkeley. Alasan utamanya sederhana saja. sebuah buku sejarah Belgia karangan Ari penglihatan saya mulai memburuk. Syukur Oka, Sutjipto, dan Abdurrachman belum Pirenne karena sejarahnya lengkap: politik, bisa selesai. Tapi jilid tiga soal zaman pernah tinggal di negeri dingin. Kalau kerja ekonomi, budaya. Ini cocok untuk Republik pendudukan Jepang tak bisa selesai karena enam bulan dan sebagian musim dingin, Indonesia yang baru lahir. penglihatan saya makin memburuk. 124 BAB TIGA

CENDEKIAWAN: SOEDJATMOKO

Sejarawan, diplomat, intelektual, dan spesialis dalam bidang apa pun. Menurut memperjuangkan pengakuan internasional seorang visioner – Soedjatmoko bisalah sosiolog Ignas Kleden, ia lebih merepresen- atas kemerdekaan Indonesia. Saat itu dianggap sebagai “Manusia Pencerahan” tasikan psikologi ketimbang epistemologi Soedjatmoko baru berumur 25 tahun. Indonesia. pemikiran intelektual. Sejarahwan Taufik Itulah awal karier diplomatiknya. Setelah “Koko,” begitu ia biasa dipanggil teman- Abdullah mengatakan bahwa Soedjatmoko jadi chargé d’affaires Indonesia yang pertama teman dan handai taulannya, lahir di lebih merupakan seorang pemikir yang di London, ia berangkat ke Washington untuk Sawahlunto, Sumatera Barat pada 1922, dari merenungkan sejarah ketimbang seorang memperkuat seksi politik kedutaan Indonesia sebuah keluarga berada. Ia menerima yang bisa disebut sejarawan (karyanya yang yang baru saja dibuka. Belakangan, ia ditunjuk pendidikan Belanda, dan pekerjaan ayahnya dikenal: An Introduction in Indonesian menjadi wakil tetap Indonesia di PBB. Tahun – seorang dokter bedah – memperkenal- Historiography yang disuntingnya bersama 1968 ia diangkat menjadi duta besar Indonesia kannya lebih jauh ke kesempatan bepergian, George McTurnan Kahin dan G.J. Resink). untuk Amerika Serikat. membaca buku, dan kegairahan intelektual. Acapkali, yang lebih memukau adalah Tidak ada cendekiawan Indonesia lain Pada awal 1940-an keluar- yang menerima begitu banyak ganya tinggal di Surakarta. Di penghargaan dan peng- sana ia sangat senang me- hormatan internasional ke- nemukan “semua isi per- timbang Soedjatmoko. Pada pustakaan yang ditutup Je- 1969 ia jadi orang pertama pang ternyata berakhir di dari “Dunia Ketiga” yang jadi pasar loak.” anggota dewan penyantun Dari latar belakang inilah Ford Foundation. Pada 1978 ia mengenal pemikiran Soren ia dianugerahi Penghargaan Kierkegaard, seorang pemikir Ramon Magsaysay dalam Denmark, kemiskinan para bidang kerjasama inter- petani, eksistensialisme nasional. Dua tahun kemu- versus gagasan revolusioner, dian ia diangkat jadi rektor pencarian kebebasan diri Universitas PBB di Tokyo. yang dikombinasikan dengan Selama tujuh tahun masa panggilan tugas. Kontras- jabatannya, Soedjatmoko kontras inilah yang mem- terus-menerus menyampai- bentuk intelektual Soedjat- kan pandangannya tentang moko seterusnya. kebebasan dan pembangun- Mungkin bisa dikatakan an. Dalam waktu yang sama, bahwa ia seorang pemikir ia membantu meletakkan dalam laku. Seumur hidup ia Indonesia dalam peta dunia. selalu membaca dan ber- Pakar antropologi ter- diskusi. Pada akhir 1950-an, Soedjatmoko bersama ketua Dewan Penyantun Ford kenal Clifford Geertz dari sebagai pemimpin redaksi Foundation Alexander Heard di New York, Maret 1973. Princeton University melihat majalah Siasat dan, seorang tokoh di rentang perhatiannya yang luas daripada dilema yang biasa dihadapi orang macam belakang lembaran kebudayaan yang kedalaman pemikirannya. Soedjatmoko: bagaimana mengabdi kepada berpengaruh, Gelanggang, ia mencetuskan Ada yang berpendapat, bahwa tanah air, tanpa membesar-besarkan ke- polemik tentang sastra dan kebudayaan, Soedjatmoko sering merasa canggung lebihannya, seraya membawanya makin dekat yang membangkitkan wacana tentang menghadapi kenyataan di Indonesia, maka kepada dirinya sendiri? Setelah melakukan pembangunan bangsa. Salah satu sum- ia pun mencoba menggali sumber-sumber “perjalanan untuk menemukan sikap politik bangan terbesarnya dalam polemik ini intelektualnya dari seantero dunia. Selama bagi dirinya,” selama sembilan bulan ke Eropa adalah pemikirannya tentang toleransi dan 20 tahun terakhir hidupnya, jelas bahwa Barat dan Timur, Soedjatmoko mengeluh, “Saya keterbukaan. Ia begitu meyakini kebebasan pergaulan internasional adalah gelanggang bukan seorang komunis, bukan pula seorang dan kemerdekaan individu. Ia selalu “terlalu hidupnya. sosialis sayap kiri, dan bukan juga seorang kosmopolitan bagi kebanyakan dari kami,” Masa aktifnya di luar negeri dimulai pendukung sayap kanan; karena tidak satu pun kata penyair Sitor Situmorang, tapi “ia sejak dini. Pada akhir 1940-an ia dikirim pendekatan politik yang ditunjuk oleh label- mengilhami kami untuk berdialog – ia ke Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (PBB) di label itu terlihat relevan dengan masalah- sungguh berarti.” New York bersama Sumitro Djojohadi- masalah yang dihadapi Indonesia ….” Soedjatmoko bukanlah seorang kusumo dan Charles Tambu untuk Bagi para pengkritiknya dari sayap kiri, MALARI, MINYAK, DAN MAHBUB UL-HAQ 125

Pertemuan Dewan Keamanan Perserikatan Bangsa-bangsa membicarakan “Indonesian Question.” Sutan Sjahrir (tengah) dikelilingi para penasehatnya: Soedjatmoko, Sumitro Djojohadikusumo, Charles Tambu, dan Agoes Salim. New York, 14 Agustus 1947. ia adalah seorang PSI, sebutan lokal bagi para unsur hakiki kontrak sosial. “Kita tetap jadi Pada 1974, bagaimanapun, tantangan ini intelektual elite yang lebih banyak bercakap manusia bila kita bisa belajar mengem- kembali dan menghantui Soedjatmoko. dalam bahasa Inggris atau Belanda, yang lebih bangkan semacam kehidupan batin dalam Walau ia belum pernah mengajukan kritik suka memberi petuah ketimbang diri kita. Ini memungkinkan aktualisasi diri terbuka kepada Suharto, ia dituduh “dalang” berhubungan langsung dengan massa. Sebutan yang lebih luas. Agama dan seni harus kerusuhan Januari 1974. Sebagai anggota mencemooh lain bagi kelompok ini adalah dirawat dan ditumbuhkan.” dewan Ford Foundation, ia bisa meng- “kelompok Fabian cabang Jakarta.” Sikap itu membawa Soedjatmoko ke gunakan kedudukan dan pengaruhnya di Hubungannya dengan PSI, juga pertalian suatu visi alternatif tentang pembangunan. dunia internasional. Tapi ia menolak Soedjatmoko dengan “Barat,” menambah Ia berpendapat bahwa “teknologi madya” melakukannya. Situasi yang dihadapinya kecurigaan orang tentang motif politiknya. Di seharusnya jadi pendorong ekonomi Indo- adalah urusan Indonesia, katanya kepada sisi lain, ia dijauhi karena kedekatan nesia. Pandangan ini membantah gagasan Ford Foundation, dan ia ingin menye- pribadinya dengan Sukarno – orang yang umum pada 1970-an ketika Indonesia, lesaikannya dengan cara “Indonesia.” pada 1960 membubarkan partainya. berenang dalam uang minyak, bersiap Ia meninggal pada 1989. Kini, tidak Soedjatmoko sering disebut “cerdas tapi meluncur dengan cepat ke masa depan. banyak yang dapat merangkai gagasan yang naif,” “intelektual kelas ringan,” “penjaja Walaupun visi neo-Gandhian-nya gagal diwariskannya. Mungkin peninggalannya ide-ide yang sedang naik daun,” “pecinta menjelaskan strategi mana yang harus dipilih yang sejati bagi Indonesia, dan mungkin bagi truisme,” dan “intelektual publik” terlalu Indonesia untuk menghadapi kompetisi dan dunia, adalah tidak ada yang permanen kemana-mana. Sekalipun begitu ia selalu kekuasaan global, para mahasiswa dan selain perubahan, dan bahwa ambivalensi menjunjung martabat manusia sebagai intelektual muda menyambutnya. ter-nyata tidak selamanya buruk. 126 BAB TIGA

ARTIKEL RAMPARTS: GOSIP, CERITA, DAN KONSPIRASI

Pada akhir 1960-an dan awal 1970-an, Foundation semenjak hari-hari pertama Indonesia saat proyek pelatihan dosen- “intervensi asing” adalah momok bagi Sukarno berkuasa: pelatihan para guru, dosen FEUI baru saja disetujui. Ia kenal negara-negara berkembang. Para pendidikan bahasa Inggris, manajemen dan dengan orang-orang penting di Fakultas “penasehat,” “konsultan,” atau “pelatih,” di administrasi publik, pengembangan dan Ekonomi di Berkeley, termasuk Thomas mata banyak orang, bagian dari perkakas riset. Pada kenyataannya, lingkup aktivitas Blaidsell, yang pertama kali meyakinkan neo-imperialisme, yang “menjajah” inilah yang menyerap dana Ford Foundation pihak universitas untuk menerima prakarsa masyarakat pascakolonial secara melalui dalam bantuannya untuk Indonesia. Ford Foundation. Sementara, Harris adalah kedok bantuan finansial dan teknologi. Perhatian Ransom terpusat pada dosen- kawan dekat Dekan FEUI Sumitro Masa ini digarisbawahi oleh terpilihnya dosen FEUI yang dilatih di Amerika Serikat, Djojohadikusumo, orang yang menggagas Soedjatmoko, mantan duta besar Indonesia yang disebutnya “Mafia Berkeley.” Sekembali kerjasama dengan universitas-universitas untuk Amerika Serikat, jadi anggota dewan mereka dari studi pascasarjana – di Amerika itu. penyantun Ford Foundation di New York. Berkeley atau universitas-universitas Sebaliknya, kenalan Sumitro yang lain, Kritik segera timbul: dari kaum kanan lainnya – para ekonom ini menduduki Dr. Andreas Papandreou, yang sesama maupun kiri. Pada Oktober 1970, majalah sosialis dan yang sangat ia kagumi, pada Ramparts memuat sebuah esai yang saat itu juga mengajar di Berkeley. kontroversial, yang meng- Bagaimanapun, penekan- gambarkan politik Indonesia an Ransom pada Berkeley selama pergolakan 1965-1966 memang terkesan ganjil, meng- sebagai produk sebuah konspirasi ingat proyek-proyek yang di- Amerika yang terpadu. Pelakunya? dukung Ford Foundation juga Ford Foundation, Rand Corporation, melibatkan sejumlah universitas USAID, Council on Foreign Relations, lain, termasuk MIT, Cornell, dan berbagai universitas di Amerika, dan University of Wisconsin. Tujuan CIA. Menurut penulisnya, David Ransom, proyek-proyek ini, ujar Frank Miller, kepentingan Ford Foundation di Indonesia mantan wakil Ford Foundation, adalah menggulingkan pemerintahan adalah “menyiapkan dosen ekonomi, Indonesia saat itu. Caranya? Dengan melatih bukan pejabat pemerintah.” para ekonom Indonesia menciptakan sebuah Pada 1957, ketika Sumitro lari dari rencana pembangunan nasional berlandaskan Jakarta untuk menghindari penang- aturan main yang sesuai dengan “kekuasaan Sampai hari ini, artikel Ramparts kapan, dan kemudian bergabung dengan tak langsung dari Amerika.” masih dikutip oleh media Indonesia. pemberontakan PRRI di Sumatera Barat, Mulanya, artikel ini hanya mendapat nasib proyek-proyek ini terkatung-katung. sedikit perhatian dari pers, baik di Amerika jabatan ekonomi kunci pada pemerintahan Sumber-sumber yang dekat dengan peris- Serikat maupun di Indonesia. Harian super- Suharto. Yang kemudian dianggap tiwa itu menyatakan, “Keterkaitan dengan nasionalis Merdeka-lah yang memperluas “konspirasi” terletak pada “peran” Sumitro, seberapa kecil pun, adalah suatu dampak tesis Ransom ini. Pada Januari Berkeley dalam “melatih orang-orang liabilitas.” Dalam laporannya untuk Ford 1974, ketika demonstrasi anti-asing di penting Indonesia yang akan merebut Foundation pada 1965, konsultan Richard Jakarta mencapai puncaknya dan intelijen kekuasaan untuk mempraktekkan Dye secara khusus memuji Mohammad militer Indonesia butuh kambing hitam, pelajaran pro-Amerika mereka.” Sadli dan Subroto, dua dosen yang teguh artikel Ransom dijadikan basis untuk Tapi sejarah tak selalu harus berliku- menjaga gawang FEUI selama kepergian menuduh kaum “sosialis radikal” sebagai liku, penuh tipu daya. Bahkan, pertukaran Sumitro. pihak yang bertanggung jawab atas usaha pendidikan ini bisa jadi punya banyak awal. Satu dasawarsa telah berlalu semenjak pendiskreditan pemerintah, dengan Ia bisa, misalnya, bermula dari beberapa para “Mafia Berkeley” pertama kali Soedjatmoko sebagai “pemikir utamanya.” buku. Tahun 1950, enam tahun sebelum bertolak ke luar negeri dan kembali sebagai Seperti kebanyakan artikel pendulang proyek afiliasi FEUI-Berkeley dimulai, para pakar ekonomi Indonesia – sebuah sensasi, tulisan ini sekaligus “pedas,” asyik, organisasi mahasiswa Berkeley waktu yang sangat panjang, menurut dan persuasif. Tapi, ada banyak bolong mengumpulkan buku-buku bekas untuk banyak orang, untuk mempertahankan dalam argumennya. Ransom, misalnya, tak dikirim ke UGM. Karena kekurangan dana, sebuah “konspirasi” guna menentukan begitu peduli untuk membedakan pihak- mereka minta bantuan Ford Foundation nasib sebuah bangsa. Sebagaimana pihak yang dituduhnya. Ia juga tak untuk mengongkosi pengiriman. dikatakan Prof. Bruce Glassburner, “We menyinggung kegiatan pendidikan dan Ia juga bisa bermula dari seorang were neither that diabolical nor that pelatihan yang telah dilakukan Ford Michael Harris, wakil Ford Foundation di clairvoyant.” MALARI, MINYAK, DAN MAHBUB UL-HAQ 127 ini, pembangunan ekonomi seperti yang dijalankan di strategi yang lebih tepat, dan itu adalah dengan menggunakan Indonesia dianggap sebagai bagian konspirasi besar kapitalisme teknologi yang lebih murah, bisa menampung tenaga kerja yang dunia. Majalah Ramparts, sebelum gerakan Kiri Baru kehilangan besar jumlahnya, dan tak merusak lingkungan. daya pikat, menganggap pembangunan di Indonesia hasil kerja Gagasan ini di luar negeri memang sudah mulai menarik “Mafia Berkeley” yang menjalankan agenda ekonomi liberal hati. Buku Small is Beautiful oleh E.F. Schumacher, yang terbit dari Amerika. di tahun 1973, dengan cepat jadi bahan yang memukau, juga Sumber lain bisa datang dari tengah. Soedjatmoko, di Indonesia. cendekiawan paling terkemuka di Indonesia masa itu, datang Schumacher, ekonom Inggris kelahiran Jerman, dengan gagasan pembangunan yang menggunakan teknologi menyimpulkan bahwa negeri-negeri miskin sebaiknya bukan madya. Dalam pemikiran ini, Indonesia sebaiknya menghindari mengambil teknologi yang maju, yang tak akan membuka jalan yang telah ditempuh negeri-negeri industri yang sudah banyak lapangan kerja, melainkan mengadaptasi teknologi lebih lama. Teknologi yang dipergunakan di sana telah madya ke kehidupan mereka. Schumacher mempertanyakan menyebabkan kerusakan lingkungan dan ketimpangan sosial. perlunya pertumbuhan ekonomi yang terus-menerus. Ia Bagi Soedjatmoko, Indonesia belum terlambat untuk memilih menganjurkan perkembangan sebuah masyarakat yang tak

Empat tokoh “Mafia Berkeley” mengucapkan sumpah jabatan bersama anggota kabinet lainnya pada 1971: (mulai dari kedua kiri) Mohammad Sadli (pertambangan), Subroto (tenaga kerja dan transmigrasi), Widjojo Nitisastro (ekonomi, keuangan, dan industri), Emil Salim (perhubungan). Juga dilantik (ujung kiri) Mukti Ali (urusan agama) dan (ujung kanan) M. Panggabean (politik dan keamanan). 128 BAB TIGA memilih investasi yang padat modal dan padat energi. penduduk harus dikurangi sampai nol. Produksi industrial tak Kapitalisme memang meningkatkan taraf hidup, tapi sumber perlu menjulang lagi. Polusi harus dikontrol. Bahan-bahan alam harus dipertahankan dan dirawat. Kota besar dan industri didaur ulang. Produksi diarahkan ke benda-benda yang lebih besar hanya akan merusaknya. Kecil itu indah. bisa awet atau bisa diperbaiki. Hampir bersamaan, sebuah dokumen yang disusun oleh Di Indonesia, bagi mereka yang senang mendapatkan para ilmuwan MIT di tahun 1972 dengan segera jadi gagasan-gagasan baru, segar, dan mengejutkan – terutama pencerahan baru. Dalam laporan yang mereka sebut The Limits mereka yang ingin mengubah keadaan – pandangan to Growth – yang dipesan oleh Club of Rome, sebuah majelis Schumacher dan peringatan dalam laporan The Limits to Growth internasional para pemimpin bisnis – dikemukakan sebuah itu amat menggugah. Ide yang termaktub di sana lebih memikat hipotesis yang memproyeksikan sebuah pandangan ala Thomas ketimbang argumen pembangunan ekonomi yang dipakai Robert Malthus: naiknya jumlah penduduk, perluasan industri selama itu di Indonesia, yang dampaknya tampak merisaukan. dan produksi pangan yang tak memadai, dan terkurasnya Bagi yang punya kecenderungan radikal, angin bertiup sumber alam, akan berlanjut dengan tingkat kecepatan yang dari Amerika Latin. Sejak di pertengahan 1960-an Andre seperti sekarang. Gunder Frank, berdasarkan pengalaman Amerika Latin, Untuk mencegah arus ini, diserukan “sebuah revolusi mengemukakan teorinya tentang pembangunan yang Kopernikus dalam berpikir.” Ide tentang pertumbuhan yang berlawanan dari teori modernisasi yang dipergunakan di Barat terus-menerus perlu ditinjau kembali. Maka pertumbuhan untuk membaca negeri terbelakang. Baginya, apa yang disebut

Selo Soemardjan, ketua Yayasan Ilmu-ilmu Sosial, menyambut kelompok pertama peneliti ilmu sosial di Makassar. Sebelah kirinya adalah Umar Kayam, direktur dari pusat pelatihan di Makassar, dan sebelah kanannya anthropolog Clark Cunningham, 1975. MALARI, MINYAK, DAN MAHBUB UL-HAQ 129

TAUFIK ABDULLAH

Taufik Abdullah, sejarahwan lulusan Cornell University, pernah jadi direktur Leknas dari 1974-1978, dan bekerja untuk LIPI hampir dalam semua karier profesionalnya. Ia jadi orang nomor satu LIPI pada zaman kepresidenan Abdurrahman Wahid. Kini ia ketua YIIS dan sebelumnya ikut menjalankan pusat-pusat pelatihan ilmu-ilmu sosial di Indonesia. Ford Foundation ingin memajukan ilmu-ilmu penelitian itu didirikan di Syiah Kuala 1974. terus. Bukan Aceh pendatang tapi Aceh lokal. sosial di Indonesia dan mengundang Clifford Persiapannya empat tahun termasuk Mula-mula Syamsuddin Mahmud Geertz. Setelah laporan Geertz selesai, Ford diskusi, cari tempat, rekrutmen, dan se- (belakangan jadi gubernur), kemudian Ali Foundation minta komentar beberapa bagainya. Proses rekrutmen dari seluruh Basyah Amin (belakangan jadi rektor Syiah ilmuwan sosial, antara lain Selo Soemardjan, Indonesia. Pertama pengumuman, kemudian Kuala), lalu Dayan Dawood (rektor Syiah Harsja W. Bachtiar, Daniel Lev. Ada juga diskusi orang melamar. Beberapa orang diwawan- Kuala yang dibunuh pada tahun 2001). terbatas yang dihadiri oleh John Bresnan dan carai. Agak lama juga, memerlukan waktu Orang-orangnya ternyata jadi semua ya walau Ted Smith dari Ford Foundation, serta sedih ingat Dayan. Setelah Castles ada Prof. Hafid (rektor Universitas Ha- juga Bill Liddle dari Amerika. sanuddin), Soemarsaid Moertono Pusat latihan kedua didirikan di dan saya. Kami setuju ilmu sosial di Makassar. Direktur pertama Umar Indonesia ketinggalan zaman, tradisi Kayam dengan tenaga ahli antropolog meneliti melempem, dan banyak Clark Cunningham. Setelah Kayam, ilmuwan sosial sibuk dengan makalah sempat juga selama setahun Mochtar tanpa penelitian. Bagaimana memper- Naim, kemudian Mattulada, sesudah- baikinya? Kami setuju bikin research nya Hasan Walinono. Ahli asing pernah station, tempat melatih orang me- juga Anthony Reid (Australia) dan lakukan penelitian selama setahun. Christian Pelras (antropolog Prancis, Geertz usul mahasiswa dari ahli Bugis). Kemudian didirikan juga Amerika bersama peserta Indonesia di Jakarta. Strateginya ialah dua pusat mengikuti program ini. Kami me- untuk wilayah agraris dan peralihan nolak. Lev bicara keras, “Untuk apa serta satu untuk daerah urban. Direktur mereka datang ke sini kalau akan pertama adalah Prof. Koentjaraningrat buang-buang duit? Lebih baik dengan ahli asing Hans-Dieter Evers. buanglah duit ke Indonesia.” Tapi Setelah beberapa tahun, pindah dari usul utama Geertz diterima. Jakarta ke Surabaya. Kebetulan Departemen Pen- Saya ketika itu direktur Lembaga didikan mempunyai panitia khusus Ekonomi dan Kemasyarakatan. Saya yang diketuai oleh Prof. Hafid untuk dapat ide bagaimana kalau tiga peserta mengembangkan ilmu-ilmu sosial. terbaik tampil dalam seminar khusus Ford Foundation juga minta Selo di Leknas. Hal ini dilakukan sejak tahun dan cendekiawan Soedjatmoko pertama. Surabaya tak lama bertahan, untuk merintis program yang di- tapi Makassar dan Aceh sampai ajukan Geertz. Menteri Pendidikan Taufik Abdullah berpose depan grafiti sekarang masih ada, meski mereka anti-sosialisme di Wisconsin, 1973. Sjarief Thayeb akhirnya membentuk mengubah kinerjanya. Kalau ada 12 YIIS dengan menggabungkan kedua usaha beberapa bulan. Murid pertama didapatkan orang tiap tahun, selama 10 tahun bisa 200- itu. Selo dipilih sebagai ketua. 12 orang. Mereka dari beberapa daerah. 300 orang, mungkin 400 lebih. Banyak yang YIIS mulai menjajaki kerjasama dengan Direktur pertama almarhum Alfian dan meneruskan jadi doktor, profesor atau rektor universitas lokal. Ada tiga calon universitas expert asingnya Stuart Schlegel, antropolog walau banyak juga yang tenggelam. lokal: Aceh, Padang, dan Makassar. Aceh yang memperkenalkan grounded method. Pengaruh ilmuwan sosial zaman Orde menjanjikan beberapa hal. Rektor Universitas Bagus juga sebab kalau mulai teori-teori, habis Baru tak sebesar ekonom karena Orde Baru Syiah Kuala Madjid Ibrahim menyediakan dua waktu kita. Ini hanya perlu sebulan, dua bulan, dikuasai oleh pemikiran pembangunan. Orang gedung. Satu asrama dan satu tempat kuliah. dan langsung ke lapangan. Mereka juga belajar di luar ekonomi dianggap gangguan. Orde Universitas lain belum menjanjikan apa-apa. bahasa Aceh. Sesekali mereka mengundang Baru tak sabaran dengan ilmu sosial. Jadi ilmu Apalagi dengan dukungan Gubernur Aceh orang luar ceramah. Saya tiap tahun praktis sosial sejak awal sudah tersingkir dalam Muzakkir Walad. Pada waktu itu Aceh lagi datang ke Aceh untuk ceramah. percaturan politik. Sekarang harganya harus bagus-bagusnya. Syiah Kuala sangat ber- Alfian dua tahun lalu diganti Ibrahim kita bayar. Sudah sedari dulu diberi peringatan pengaruh di Aceh. Gubernur dan beberapa Alfian. Schlegel diganti Lance Castles dari mengenai Aceh, Timor Timur, pemerintahan bupati direkrut dari dosen. Jadi pusat Australia. Setelah Ibrahim Alfian orang Aceh desa, tapi dianggap sebagai gangguan. 130 BAB TIGA keterbelakangan di Dunia Ketiga justru terjadi karena pendukungnya yang radikal, antara lain Jiang Qing, istrinya, pertautannya dengan dunia kapitalis yang digerakkan oleh berpengaruh. Dalam model Cina yang dibayangkan ini, Eropa dan Amerika. kehidupan yang merata bisa diselenggarakan seperti dalam Di tahun 1970, terbit karya Fernando Henrique Cardoso komune. Bentuk kehidupan bersama ini dikatakan berhasil dan Enzo Faletto, Dependency and Development in Latin memecahkan soal kesejahteraan tanpa terkait dengan pasar dunia. America, dengan arah pandangan yang sejajar. Teori dependencia Juga tanpa agenda yang mengutamakan pertumbuhan ekonomi. menganjurkan jalan yang radikal: memutuskan kaitan dari pasar Kekaguman terhadap model Cina ini, yang waktu itu dan investasi global. Di Indonesia, Arief Budiman, pendekar di Indonesia pernah tampak dalam tulisan M. Dawam terkemuka pemikiran kiri di masa Orde Baru, adalah salah Rahardjo, cendekiawan dan ekonom dari kalangan muslim, seorang pendukungnya. pelan-pelan mereda. Setelah Mao meninggal, Deng Xiaoping Salah satu model yang dikagumi adalah Cina – meskipun berkuasa, dan Cina justru mengambil jalan kapitalis. Teori informasi tentang praktek ekonomi sosialis di sana sebenarnya dependencia pun mulai ditinggalkan, bahkan oleh Cardoso tak sepenuhnya akurat. Cina waktu itu dalam keadaan ketika sendiri, yang kemudian jadi presiden Brazilia. Semangat kecil Mao Zedong belum meninggal. Bersama dia, empat sekawan itu indah meredup.

Sebuah perlombaan matematika yang diadakan LIPI bersama TVRI, Jakarta, 1976. MALARI, MINYAK, DAN MAHBUB UL-HAQ 131

THEE KIAN WIE

Thee Kian Wie adalah staf ahli Pusat Penelitian Ekonomi, LIPI (P2E-LIPI). Ia menghasilkan berbagai buku tentang ekonomi Indonesia. Bukunya terakhir, yang ditulis bersama-sama dengan Howard Dick (Melbourne), Vincent Houben (Berlin) dan Thomas Lindblad (Leiden), adalah “The Emergence of a National Economy – an economic history of Indonesia 1800-2000,” dan kini ia memimpin dewan pengurus lembaga penelitian SMERU, sebuah mitra Ford Foundation. Saya belajar ilmu ekonomi di FEUI dan Bachtiar, Mely Tan, T.S.S. Soetanto, dan saya, menghasilkan berbagai laporan tentang University of Wisconsin, Madison, Amerika dikirim ke Amerika pada 1963. Gelombang ekonomi Sumatera Selatan. Pada tahun Serikat. Setelah lulus dari FEUI pada 1959, kedua, termasuk Taufik Abdullah dan 1976-78 diadakan lagi survei ekonomi di saya bekerja sebagai staf administrasi pada Soedradjad Djiwandono, dikirim pada 1964. daerah Sumatera Utara, yang kali ini Majelis Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (MIPI Gelombang ketiga dan terakhir dikirim pada melibatkan Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas – cikal bakal dari LIPI). Pada 1962 ketika 1965. Sumatera Utara. Lembaga Ekonomi dan Kemasyarakatan Selesai studi Ph.D. di University of Dari dulu sampai kini, banyak ekonom Nasional (Leknas) didirikan sebagai lembaga Wisconsin pada 1969, saya kembali ke Indonesia kurang berminat menghasilkan penelitian dari MIPI, saya bergabung pada Leknas. Direktur Leknas yang baru, Widjojo karya ilmiah. Banyak ekonom yang pintar Leknas sebagai peneliti yunior. tampil di seminar dengan me- Karena Prof. Sadarjoen Siswo- nyampaikan presentasi power- martojo, direktur pertama Leknas, point. Tapi sering presentasi tak adalah ahli pendidikan, ia mem- dijabarkan lebih mendalam dalam bentuk “Dewan Pembina” untuk tulisan ilmiah yang bisa diterbitkan memberikan nasehat dalam pe- dalam buku atau majalah ilmiah. ngembangan Leknas. Mereka terdiri Kalau menulis makalah, kita harus dari Widjojo Nitisastro, Mohammad tunduk pada disiplin untuk me- Sadli, Sarbini Sumawinata, Selo rumuskan pikiran kita dalam suatu Soemardjan, Koentjaraningrat, Maka- uraian yang logis dan koheren. Hal minan Makagiansar, Ali Wardhana, ini mungkin disebabkan karena dan Emil Salim. ‘’opportunity costs” dari penelitian Sadarjoen dan Dewan Pembina serius terlampau tinggi (artinya, menganggap penting untuk me- foregone earnings, yaitu penghasilan ngirimkan para peneliti muda yang dikorbankan untuk mela- Leknas ke luar negeri untuk studi kukan penelitian ilmiah, terlampau pascasarjana. Selo, Widjojo Niti- tinggi). Sistem insentif yang dihadapi sastro, dan Sadli mempunyai hu- para ilmuwan di Indonesia kurang bungan baik dengan Ford Founda- kondusif untuk mendorong mereka tion. Maka mereka menjajaki ke- melakukan penelitian yang baik mungkinan untuk mengirimkan staf Thee Kian Wie di kantor Leknas, Jakarta, 1978. secara lumintu. peneliti Leknas ke AS untuk studi Saya beruntung bahwa selama pascasarjana dengan biaya Ford Founda- Nitisastro, yang menggantikan Sadarjoen, tak tiga dasawarsa lebih setelah kembali dari AS, tion. Pada waktu itu sentimen anti-Barat, bisa aktif memimpin Leknas karena sibuk saya diberikan peluang luas di LIPI untuk khususnya terhadap Amerika dan Inggris, sebagai pemimpin tim ahli ekonomi Presiden tetap menekuni kegiatan penelitian. Saya sangat kuat karena pengaruh PKI. Ford Suharto. Harsja Bachtiar diangkat sebagai menyadari bahwa saya bukan orang ce- Foundation menganggap penting untuk pejabat direktur Leknas-LIPI. merlang. Saya suka memberikan dorongan membiayai studi pascasarjana agar hu- Penelitian Leknas-LIPI pertama di mana dan semangat pada rekan-rekan saya di LIPI bungan dengan cendekiawan muda Indo- saya dilibatkan adalah Survei Ekonomi yang lebih muda dengan mengatakan: Anda nesia dapat dipertahankan. Daerah Sumatera Selatan. Harsja merasa tak perlu orang cemerlang (brilliant) untuk Dana Ford Foundation untuk membiayai pengetahuan kita tentang ekonomi berbagai berhasil dalam studi pascasarjana dan karier studi peneliti Leknas disalurkan melalui daerah luar Jawa sangat kurang. Penelitian Anda sebagai peneliti. Yang jauh lebih penting Harvard Development Advisory Service ini diadakan dengan bekerja sama dengan adalah ketekunan dalam membaca karya- (DAS, cikal bakal Harvard Institute of Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto karya ilmiah terakhir dalam bidang Anda, International Development, HIID). Waktu University, yang dipimpin oleh Shinichi displin kerja dan stamina untuk meng- itu, Harvard DAS dipimpin Raymond Vernon Ichimura, dan Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas hasilkan karya ilmiah yang baik, dan dan Gustav Papanek sebagai wakilnya. Sriwijaya, Palembang, yang pada waktu itu kehandalan (reliability) dalam menye- Setelah seleksi ketat, gelombang per- dipimpin oleh Dekan Ahmad Hamid. lesaikan pekerjaan tepat pada waktu yang tama peneliti Leknas, termasuk Harsja Survei ekonomi itu cukup berhasil dan ditetapkan. 132 BAB TIGA

Seorang bidan sedang menimbang bayi di sebuah klinik dekat Bandung, Jawa Barat, 1982. MALARI, MINYAK, DAN MAHBUB UL-HAQ 133

Antropolog Clifford Geertz di Yogyakarta, 1984. Banyak kritik Geertz terhadap keadaan ilmu-ilmu sosial di Indonesia pada 1971 masih relevan hingga hari ini.

Tapi di pertengahan 1970-an, tetap tak bisa diabaikan teknokratis” mulai mengendur, kata Clifford Geertz, antropolog pengaruh pemikiran Mahbub ul-Haq. Pakar ekonomi terkenal terkenal dari Princeton University, dalam laporannya kepada dari Pakistan ini berpendapat, salah bila dianggap bahwa Ford Foundation di tahun 1971. pertumbuhan naiknya GDP (Gross Domestic Product) secara Orang mulai sadar bahwa hitungan ekonomi bisa otomatis akan membereskan soal kemiskinan. Ia pula yang memecahkan satu hal, tapi juga menimbulkan hal-hal lain yang kemudian memperkenalkan konsep Indeks Pembangunan pelik. Makin dirasakan perlunya memahami realitas sosial secara Manusia (Human Development Index). Di sini bukan hanya lebih mendalam. Selama ini, realitas itu, kata Geertz, “digilapkan naiknya pendapatan per kapita yang jadi dasar untuk mengukur oleh mesin ekonomi modern.” kemajuan, tapi juga tingkat pendidikan, panjangnya usia, Tapi tentu saja memahami realitas sosial tidak gampang. kecilnya angka kematian bayi, dan hal-hal yang umumnya tak Problem di Indonesia ialah bahwa orang tak hanya dituntut ditabulasi dalam analisis ekonomi. untuk memahami. Ia didesak untuk tak sekadar menafsirkan Waktunya telah tiba, rupanya, ketika “optimisme dunia, melainkan juga mengubahnya. BAB EMPAT: YANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL

BAB EMPAT YANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL

ada 12 September 1984, sebuah panggung didirikan di Jalan Sindang, Koja, Tanjung Priok, Jakarta Utara. PDaerah pelabuhan itu padat dan miskin, dan mungkin sebab itu setiap kali panggung disiapkan, orang akan berjejal. Juga panggung malam itu. Di atasnya dipasang tenda terpal. Puluhan pengeras suara diikat di tiang listrik di sepanjang jalan. Tak ada yang tampak istimewa Rabu malam itu. Persimpangan jalan yang ditutup untuk lalu lintas itu sudah biasa untuk acara yang sama. Dalam undangan yang diedarkan oleh Remaja Islam setempat, malam itu adalah malam pengajian remaja. Ternyata kemudian malam berakhir dengan darah dan pembunuhan. Mungkin tak ada yang menduga. Juga ketika acara dimulai pukul 20:00, dan seorang laki-laki bercambang dan janggut hitam dengan tinggi 1,78 meter dan berat 104 kilogram berbicara. Dialah Amir Biki. Ia memang punya kehadiran tersendiri di panggung itu. Amir orang berpengaruh di Tanjung Priok. Ia lebih berada dibandingkan para tetangganya dan punya kemampuan memimpin. Orang Gorontalo, Sulawesi Utara, ini sering bisa menyelesaikan konflik-konflik antarpenduduk Tanjung Priok yang terdiri dari pelbagai kelompok dan suku.

 Taman Mini Indonesia Indah – taman yang sangat diimpikan bangsa Indonesia dan mendapatkan kritik pada waktu dibangun sebagai sebuah karya yang sangat mewah dan mahal. 136 BAB EMPAT

Amir Biki berpidato dengan kemarahan. Seorang Melihat ini, penghuni gang yang melihat mulai marah. wartawan majalah Tempo menggambarkan bagaimana ia Desas-desus merebak: “Ada sersan masuk masjid tanpa melepas membawa sebilah badik yang ditunjukkannya kepada para sepatu;” “Ada tentara mengguyur masjid dengan comberan;” hadirin yang memadati tempat itu. Dengan berapi-api ia “Sersan Hermanu orang Kristen.” mengecam pemerintah. Sasaran utama: rancangan undang- Senin, 10 September, konflik terbuka meledak. Ketika undang yang mengharuskan semua organisasi, termasuk ada pembicaraan lagi antara Sersan Hermanu dan pengurus organisasi Islam, menempatkan Pancasila sebagai satu-satunya masjid di samping mushola itu, kerumunan orang datang. Tiba- asas. Niat menjadikan Pancasila sebagai asas tunggal bagi semua tiba saja salah seorang menarik sepeda motor Honda GL 100 organisasi memang telah menjalarkan rasa cemas, juga ke milik Sersan Hermanu, kemudian dibakar. kawasan Tanjung Priok. Pasukan dengan cepat datang. Pada hari itu juga, kedua Lima hari sebelumnya, Sersan Hermanu, seorang bintara pengurus masjid, seorang pemimpin mushola As-Sa’adah dan pembina desa di Kelurahan Koja Selatan, menemukan beberapa seorang yang ikut membakar sepeda motor, ditangkap. poster yang menentang gagasan pemerintah itu di mushola Di malam ketika Amir Biki mengucapkan pidatonya, ia As-Sa’adah yang terletak di Gang IV Jalan Raya Pelabuhan. dengan suara keras menuntut agar keempat orang yang Hermanu meminta agar poster itu dicopot dari dinding ditangkap itu segera dilepaskan. Ia sebelumnya sudah datang mushola. Permintaannya ditolak para pemuda di sana. ke pejabat sipil setempat, agar mereka dilepaskan. Tapi tetap Esok siangnya sang sersan datang kembali ke mushola saja pihak militer menolak. bersama seorang prajurit. Ketika melihat poster-poster itu masih Malam itu mungkin ia pergunakan untuk mendesak tertempel, ia mencoba melepasnya dari tembok. Gagal, lebih jauh. Sebuah pernyataan resmi yang diucapkan Jenderal Hermanu mengambil sehelai koran, mencelupkannya ke L.B. Moerdani, orang nomor satu militer Indonesia, kemudian selokan di depan mushola, dan melaburkan airnya yang hitam mengatakan, Amir Biki mengirim semacam ultimatum kepada ke ketiga poster di dinding tempat sembahyang itu. markas tentara setempat: bila pada pukul 23:00 keempat

Panglima militer Try Sutrisno dan Benny Moerdani berbicara dengan media tentang peristiwa Tanjung Priok, September 1984. Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 137

AUGUSTINUS RUMANSARA

Augustinus Rumansara kini Vice President Integrated Social Strategy untuk BP Indonesia dalam operasi tambang gas di Tangguh, Papua. Dia dulu dikenal sebagai aktivis hak asasi manusia, lingkungan hidup, dan konservasi hutan. Dia pernah bekerja untuk Yayasan Memajukan Masyarakat Desa Irian Jaya (YPMD-Irja) maupun WWF di Papua. Dia juga pernah mengepalai International NGO Forum on Indonesia (INGI).

Saya dulu kuliah di Universitas Kristen Satya peresmian dam Kedung Ombo pada 1989. McMoRan, perusahaan tambang emas di Wacana, Salatiga. Saat kuliah saya ikut upaya INGI protes Bank Dunia karena tak mem- Papua. Tapi setelah menjabat sebagai membantu orang miskin. Lulus 1978, saya perhatikan aspek sosial. Bank Dunia direktur WWF (1997–2001), saya mengubah kembali ke Jayapura dan bekerja di gereja. menerima masukan kami. INGI juga meng- strategi dengan memberi masukan dan George Junus Aditjondro, teman kuliah di usulkan pembentukan komisi hak asasi mendorong Freeport mengadakan perbaikan Salatiga dan aktivis lingkungan hidup, tiba manusia sesudah terjadinya pembunuhan masalah sosial dan lingkungan hidup. Suatu di Jayapura dan mendirikan Irian Jaya penduduk Dili di pemakaman Santa Cruz, saat mereka menawari saya bekerja. Saya Development Information Service Center merasa tak pantas kalau saya rajin dalam Universitas Cenderawasih. Proyek mengkritik tapi bergabung dengan ini didanai Asia Foundation dan bergerak perusahaan ini. di bidang penelitian serta pengembangan Pergeseran populasi antara orang warga Papua. Lama-lama pihak uni- Papua dan “pendatang” juga menimbulkan versitas khawatir, maklum zaman Orde gesekan sosial. Kini jumlah orang Papua dan Baru, terhadap kegiatan kami. Mereka “pendatang” sekitar 50:50. Kalau kita minta kami berdiri sendiri dan kami pun perhatikan parlemen lokal maupun pusat bikin YPMD. perdagangan di seluruh Papua, secara Di YPMD saya kenal dengan Ford disproporsional dikuasai para “pendatang.” Foundation yang membantu kami dalam Artinya, kehidupan politik dan ekonomi tak proyek social forestry. YPMD juga sepenuhnya bisa menyalurkan aspirasi bergerak di bidang industri rumah tangga orang Papua. untuk membantu penduduk Papua. Pada Tapi saya tak setuju para “pendatang” 1986 saya menggantikan Aditjondro dilarang datang. Indonesia negara sebagai direktur YPMD karena dia kesatuan, dan tiap warga Indonesia melanjutkan studi di Cornell. berhak datang ke Papua. Kalau program Saya sendiri belajar di Institute of affirmative action, terutama lewat jalur Social Studies, Den Haag, selama 15 pendidikan, yang sedang diusahakan bulan. Saya belajar politik pembangunan. dalam kerangka otonomi khusus Papua Pada 1991, sepulang dari Den Haag, saya bisa berjalan baik, saya kira problem diminta menjalankan sekretariat INGI di Papua perlahan-lahan bisa diperbaiki. Jakarta. INGI didirikan beberapa tahun Pada 1999 BP mulai mengusahakan sebelumnya. Sekretariatnya ada dua: eksplorasi gas di daerah Tangguh, Papua. Belanda dan Jakarta. Tujuannya men- Saya mengusulkan kebijakan sosial agar dekati organisasi dan negara pemberi Augustinus Rumansara di lapangan golf, August 2003. pengalaman buruk perusahaan lain tak dana pada pemerintah Indonesia agar Dili, November 1991. terulang. Mereka tertarik dan minta saya memperhatikan lingkungan, hak asasi, dan Pengalaman lain yang sangat berharga di bergabung. Saya minta bertemu dengan demokrasi. INGI adalah perjuangan hak-hak perempuan. pembesar mereka di London dan diper- Di Jakarta sekretariat INGI hanya sibuk Perempuanlah yang harus maju. Selama ini, lihatkan dokumen yang menunjukkan bahwa menjelang persiapan sidang tahunan. Saya seakan-akan hak perempuan tergantung dari mereka serius dengan program ini. mengusulkan agar lobby juga dilakukan “belas kasihan” laki-laki. Saya termasuk Saya lihat BP mau mengembangkan lumintu karena persoalannya ada dalam orang yang berusaha agar perempuan diberi tanggung jawab perusahaan di bidang sosial. pemerintahan Indonesia. Para pengurus INGI porsi sepertiga dari jumlah kursi Majelis Saya bilang saya tak mau hanya jadi tenaga setuju sehingga kami dapat dana tambahan. Rakyat Papua. pelaksana tapi ikut menentukan kebijakan. Tak semua pejabat suka dengan kehadiran Salah satu perhatian utama saya memang Maka saya jadi vice president BP khusus INGI. Tapi Menteri Lingkungan Hidup Emil Papua. Di sana pelanggaran hak asasi operasi Tangguh. Ada kritik dari teman- Salim dan Menteri Dalam Negeri Rudini mau manusia maupun perusakan lingkungan teman tapi saya masih bekerja. Saya ingin menerima kami. terjadi dalam dimensi besar. Dulu bersama Tangguh bisa jadi model penerapan tanggung INGI memainkan peranan besar saat YPMD saya sering mengkritik Freeport jawab perusahaan secara sosial. 138 BAB EMPAT

MELESTARIKAN MASA LAMPAU: NASKAH DAN MIKROFILM

Sebelum abad ke-20, sastra Nusantara awal 1980-an dengan dana dari Cornell dan Riset dan penerbitan dibiayai. banyak berupa tradisi lisan. Tetapi ada juga National Endowment for the Humanities Lalu, bayangkan betapa kagetnya Ford beberapa bahasa yang mengenal aksara, dan (sebuah lembaga pemerintah AS) untuk Foundation ketika Roger Tol, konsultan dari dalam bahasa-bahasa tersebut ribuan naskah membuat mikrofilm naskah di kraton-kraton sebuah perpustakaan Belanda dengan ditulis. Naskah-naskah disimpan dalam Surakarta; dan proyek pembuatan mikrofilm koleksi Indonesia yang sangat besar, me- koleksi pribadi dan perpustakaan kraton atau surat kabar dari zaman kolonial di Indonesia laporkan (1998) bahwa mikrofilm-mikrofilm istana. Para pujangga meng-gunakan bahan yang disimpan di Perpustakaan Nasional di yang disimpan di Indonesia akan lebih cepat yang cepat rusak (misalnya kertas, daun Jakarta (mulai 1984). Ford Foundation, rusak daripada naskahnya sendiri! Masalahnya lontar, kulit pohon, atau bambu), tetapi ada kadang-kadang bekerjasama dengan donor- jelas, adalah cara penyimpanan dan pera- kebiasaan menyalin kembali sebuah naskah donor lain, akhirnya membantu pembuatan watan: karena iklim perpustakaan dan arsip apabila yang lama mulai rusak. Dengan mikrofilm dari 14.000 naskah yang dimiliki tidak dikontrol, kebanyakan mikrofilm demikian, perbendaharaan sastra tertulis beberapa kraton, universitas, dan kolektor. terkena jamur. Seluruh koleksi mikrofilm Nusantara dilestarikan dan diwariskan, Duplikat-duplikat dari mikrofilm tersebut naskah di Indonesia, menurut Tol, terancam walaupun bahan fisiknya tidak tahan lama. disimpan di tempat koleksi asal, di rusak total. Sekarang, pelestarian Tetapi, rupanya ada jalan keluar: suatu naskah telah menjadi ma- proses bernama hermetic salah besar. Memelihara sealing (pembungkusan sebuah koleksi menuntut kedap udara), yang sudah pengaturan iklim yang ketat, lama dipakai oleh LIPI di biasanya dengan pendingin Jakarta. Kalau sebuah ruang terus-menerus dan mikrofilm dibungkus ke- mesin penyerap lembab. dap udara, tidak perlu Sehingga banyak perpus- lagi dikontrol iklimnya. takaan yang menyimpan Meskipun Ford merasa naskah tidak lagi mampu pendanaan mikrofilm membiayai perawatannya. sudah selesai, Roger Tol Keadaan naskah membu- menyarankan agar mi- ruk, dan yang rusak tidak krofilm yang sudah di- lagi disalin. Sebenarnya, isi buat diselamatkan, dan naskah juga semakin jauh Ford Foundation setuju. dari masyarakat sekarang. Semua film yang telah Pengaruh bahasa Indo- kena jamur dicuci dan nesia sebagai bahasa na- dibersihkan, dan mas- sional melemahkan ke- ternya dibungkus ke- dudukan bahasa-bahasa dap udara. Sebelum daerah, apalagi kalau Sebuah naskah Jawa dari Museum Sonobudoyo di Yogyakarta. pembungkusan, du- ditulis dengan aksara- plikat-duplikat dibuat aksara lama (huruf Bugis, huruf Batak, Perpustakaan Nasional dan Arsip Nasional, sehingga akhirnya ada empat set mikrofilm hanacaraka) Dokumen-dokumen yang me- dan perpustakaan di luar negeri. lengkap, dua di Indonesia dan dua di luar rekam berabad-abad sastra dan sejarah Menurut Ford Foundation, pelestarian negeri. Nusantara terancam hancur punah. naskah bukan satu-satunya tujuan. Se- Rupanya, masalah melestarikan mikro- Menyadari masalah ini, pada pertengahan baliknya, pelestarian dianggap langkah film sudah terpecahkan, paling tidak untuk 1980-an Ford Foundation mulai membantu pertama saja dalam proses meningkatkan beberapa dasawarsa. Tetapi melestarikan usaha-usaha untuk melestarikan naskah minat masyarakat membaca, membang- naskah sendiri masih merupakan masalah Indonesia, baik melalui perawatan naskahnya gakan, dan mengenal isi naskah. Atas dana yang mendesak. Donor-donor asing boleh sendiri maupun pembuatan mikrofilm. Ford Foundation, katalog, pameran, loka- membantu di sana-sini, tetapi lama-kelamaan Sebagai model Ford Foundation mempelajari karya, brosur, dan video mengenai naskah Indonesia sendiri yang harus memikul beban dua proyek: Surakarta Manuscript Project, dan pelestariannya dilaksanakan dan diterbit- ini – atau merelakan warisannya menjadi abu yang dipimpin oleh Nancy K. Florida pada kan. Naskah seluruh Nusantara didaftarkan. saja. Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 139 tahanan tak dilepaskan, Biki akan “melakukan pembunuhan gas airmata. Tembakan menggelegar. Amir Biki rubuh. Dua dan perusakan-perusakan.” saksi mengatakan ia mencoba bangun, tapi seorang tentara Tak bisa dibuktikan, benarkah ada ultimatum semacam menusuknya dengan bayonet. itu. Bagi beberapa saksi, yang dikatakan Biki di pengajian itu Korban lain berjatuhan. Mereka diangkut ke Rumah kurang lebih hanyalah bahwa mereka akan datang ke arah Sakit Umum Angkatan Darat Gatot Subroto dengan truk-truk Selatan ke markas komando distrik militer di Jalan yang membawa pasukan. Jenderal Moerdani esoknya untuk membebaskan keempat tahanan. mengatakan sembilan orang mati dan 53 luka-luka. Salah Tapi ketegangan memang memuncak. Pada pukul 23:00, seorang yang ikut berkhotbah malam itu mengatakan yang sekitar 1.500 orang bergerak berarak-arak ke dua arah. Salah mati sampai 400 orang. Kesimpulan penelitian Komisi Nasional satunya ke markas tempat tahanan disimpan. Mereka membawa Hak-Hak Asasi Manusia enambelas tahun kemudian bendera Merah-Putih dan bendera hijau bertuliskan kalimat menemukan 24 mati dan 55 luka-luka. syahadat. Tapi bukan hanya itu yang menyebabkan kematian Di tengah perjalanan, mereka dihadang sepasukan malam itu. Sebagian dari demonstran rupanya bergerak ke arah tentara. Rupanya pihak militer telah siap. Truk dan panser sebaliknya, ke utara. Di Jalan Jampea, mereka menyerang dan muncul di sana. Ada yang mengatakan bahwa sepasukan tentara membakar Toko Tanjung Jaya, yang menjual onderdil, bahan yang datang dari belakang para demonstran itu mencegat bakar, dan minyak pelumas. Apotik Tanjung di sebelahnya mereka mundur, mungkin untuk menangkapi mereka. urung dibakar setelah diberitahu bahwa yang empunya seorang Dalam keadaan itu, Amir Biki, menurut kesaksian “Cina Muslim.” Tapi api dari sebelah tak bisa dicegah. Apotik seorang yang berada di dekatnya malam itu, mengambil bendera itu juga dimakan api. Esoknya, di reruntuhan toko onderdil dan berteriak “Maju!” Orang-orang bergerak lagi. Mungkin ditemukan delapan mayat. Keluarga Tan Kio Liem dan seorang mereka tak menduga bahwa mereka tak akan dihadapi dengan pembantunya mati terbakar.

Berduka saat pemakaman Amir Biki, 1984. Memeriksa mikrofilm di Museum Sonobudoyo, Yogyakarta, 2003.

142 BAB EMPAT

Seperti banyak cerita kekerasan lain, kekerasan di – sementara kontras kehidupan tak berkurang. Kelompok bisnis Tanjung Priok ini tak datang tiba-tiba. Ia bisa dimulai dari milik Liem Sioe Liong, yang karena hubungan dekatnya dengan kemiskinan. Daerah Koja, tempat peristiwa itu meletup, dihuni Presiden Suharto menikmati pelbagai monopoli, sejak awal sebagian besar oleh kelas buruh yang bekerja serabutan. Hampir 1980-an kian berkibar secara spektakuler. Konglomerat ini seluruhnya tergantung pada ada atau tidaknya perbaikan kapal. bahkan membeli pelbagai usaha dagang dan perbankan di luar Mereka hidup di jalan-jalan sempit, dalam ratusan gubuk yang negeri. saling berhimpitan, yang terbuat dari bahan-bahan bekas. Seperti sering terjadi, ketimpangan ini menyalakan api Menjelang pertengahan kedua 1984, pelabuhan ini, rasialisme anti-Tionghoa di lapisan menengah miskin dan kelas seperti Indonesia umumnya, ikut terpukul oleh resesi yang paling bawah – dan Liem telah menjadi penanda ke-Tionghoa- berpangkal di negeri industri. Proyek-proyek pembangunan an dan sekaligus indikator ketidakadilan Orde Baru. pabrik dari luar negeri tertunda atau dibatalkan. Sementara Ketidakadilan itu berkait dengan ketidakmerdekaan. itu, harga minyak dunia jatuh. Petrodollar tak menetes selancar Peristiwa Tanjung Priok merupakan insiden di mana kedua dulu. Investasi dalam negeri merosot. Investasi langsung hal itu bertemu di sebuah titik api. Yang meledakkannya adalah pemerintah dan perusahaan negara – di bidang yang umumnya sebuah komunitas kalangan Islam, yang seperti di daerah Koja menampung banyak tenaga kerja – turun sampai 17 persen. itu, secara ekonomis terdesak. Juga tersisih, secara politis. Kesulitan tak berhenti di sini. Sejak tahun sebelumnya, harga pangan dan bensin naik, karena subsidi dikurangi, Maka cerita kekerasan Tanjung Priok juga bisa dilihat sebagai berhubung anggaran belanja negara defisit. bagian dari cerita politik Islam di Indonesia. Presiden Suharto Orang-orang Koja yang serabutan pun kian serabutan selalu memandang Islam dan politik dengan sikap syak.

Seorang pengemis di depan klenteng di Pontianak, 2003. Keberadaan sebuah kelas warga Indonesia keturunan Tionghoa yang miskin seringkali terlupakan. Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 143

ERNA WITOELAR

Erna Witoelar dikenal sebagai aktivis lembaga swadaya masyarakat. Dia memulai kariernya di Yayasan Lembaga Konsumen Indonesia (YLKI) lalu Wahana Lingkungan Hidup Indonesia (WALHI). Kariernya selalu dalam dunia aktivisme politik. Ketika Abdurrahman Wahid jadi presiden pada 1999, Witoelar masuk kabinet dan jadi salah satu orang kepercayaan Wahid – yang dulunya juga bergerak di dunia aktivisme. Ketika Wahid dipaksa turun, Ibu Erna langsung mengundurkan diri. Sekarang dia memimpin beberapa lembaga dan yayasan. Belakangan, Ibu Erna dilantik oleh Sekretaris Jenderal PBB Kofi Annan sebagai duta besar untuk memajukan Millennium Development Goals. Pada 1980-an di Indonesia mulai muncul rumah sakit dan dokter-dokter. Waktu saya kungan dan konsumen. Pestisida juga masih apa yang disebut LSM advokasi. Ini melengkapi ketua YLKI ramai lemak babi dan biskuit gabungan konsumen dan lingkungan. Bianti LSM pengembangan masyarakat. Saya bekerja beracun. Djiwandono dari Ford Foundation menangani di YLKI sejak 1978. Permadi Satrio Wiwoho YLKI jadi ujung tombak masalah itu. WALHI. Bianti erat hubungannya dengan kami. sebagai sekretaris yayasan dan saya menangani Panglima Komando Operasi Pemulihan USAID juga sudah dapat sejak awal. Ford pengujian dan survei. Saya juga sempat Foundation lebih banyak mendukung jadi direktur eksekutif. pengembangan masyarakat dan pe- YLKI semula juga bikin program latihan. Advokasi lebih didukung pengembangan masyarakat. Pada USAID, Canadian International De- 1978 YLKI bikin pendidikan kon- velopment Agency, dan Asia Founda- sumen karena gerakan konsumen di tion. Ford Foundation selalu lebih kota-kota lemah, dan lebih lemah lagi subtle, dukungan institusi selalu lebih konsumen miskin di pedesaan. Kami kuat. bekerja sama dengan pesantren- Ketika saya di WALHI ada kasus pesantren. Di sana diajarkan hak-hak pencemaran Kali Tapak di Semarang, konsumen antara lain soal pestisida, kasus pencemaran di Surabaya, dan perdagangan yang tak bertanggung litigasi pengadilan Inti Indorayon di jawab, dan sebagainya. Dananya dari Sumatera Utara. Lagi-lagi ketika Ford Foundation. Kami bikin di kasus pengadilan itu saya dipanggil Jombang, Tebuireng, dan Guluk-guluk Sudomo, “Lha Ibu ini di YLKI bikin (Madura). Kami pernah kerja sama masalah, di WALHI bikin masalah.” dengan pesantren putri Denanyar, Saya belajar dari organisasi milik ibu Gus Dur, di Jombang. konsumen sedunia Consumers Inter- Saya keluar dari YLKI karena national, untuk bikin jaringan kerja- perbedaan prinsip dengan Permadi. sama, seperti Pesticide Action Net- Ini biasa, tapi pada 1986 Permadi work, dan World Alliance for Breast- menerima saya menggantikannya feeding Action. Jadi biasa bikin sebagai ketua. Pada 1989 saya keluar jaringan. Kami perlu aliansi. Budaya dari YLKI digantikan Zoemrotin. itu saya bawa ke WALHI yang terlalu Saya ikut mendirikan WALHI. luas daya jangkaunya, maka perlu Maka 1980-1986 saya ada di WALHI. dibangun jaringan untuk kepedulian Ford Foundation bukan hanya men- yang sama. Hutan merupakan masalah dukung program tapi juga dukungan sampai kami mendirikan SKEPHI, kelembagaan, membantu sesuai yang pestisida juga masalah dan kami kami inginkan. Tak pernah titip mendirikan PAN, dan pencemaran program. Erna Witoelar mengunjungi sebuah membuat dibentuknya SKREPP. tempat pembuangan sampah, Jakarta, 1992. Pada 1986 saya kembali ke YLKI. Pada 1990-an, advokasi makin Konsumen yang paling rentan adalah Keamanan dan Ketertiban Laksamana Su- lama makin bersinggungan dengan Presiden perempuan dan anak-anak. Paling rentan domo turun tangan. Kami juga meminta Suharto. Banyak NGO menentang peme- ketimbang orang dewasa pria. Padahal Departemen Kesehatan untuk memisahkan rintah. Mirip menjelang Presiden Ferdinand perempuan pengambil keputusan sebagai makanan berbabi dan tak berbabi dalam Marcos jatuh di Filipina pada 1986. Semua konsumen untuk dirinya, keluarganya, dan penjualan. Tapi YLKI menolak ketika diminta NGO, apapun kepeduliannya, ujung-ujungnya tempatnya bekerja. Reproductive rights dia sebagai pelaksana pembuatan label halal, jenuh dengan pemerintahan Suharto. NGO terganggu atau rentan karena polutan, polusi karena di luar kemampuannya. bikin demonstrasi, membantu gerakan di jalanan dan polusi rokok. Rentan terhadap Ford Foundation mendukung WALHI untuk mahasiswa, litigasi pengadilan, apapun untuk promosi berlebihan dari industri susu via kampanye biogas, menggabungkan isu ling- melawan Suharto. 144 BAB EMPAT

Setidaknya sampai tahun 1980-an. Ada anggapan bahwa ini lagi Suharto yang hanya bicara soal pembangunan ekonomi. karena hatinya lebih dekat ke kebatinan. Lahir dan besar di Ia Suharto yang terus-menerus bicara soal Pancasila. pedesaan Jawa Tengah, ia lebih merasa betah dengan sisa-sisa Dalam pidato di bulan Agustus 1982 di Pekan Baru, tradisi lokal yang hendak bertahan menghadapi Islam, sebuah Sumatera, ia mengajukan saran agar semua organisasi sosial agama yang datang “dari luar.” Soedjono Humardhani, salah dan politik, khususnya partai, menerima Pancasila sebagai asas satu jenderal yang sejak sebelum 1966 dekat dengan Suharto, tunggal. Ketika Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (MPR) dikenal sebagai penganut teguh kepercayaan Jawa ini. bersidang di bulan April 1983, ide itu ditegaskannya lagi. Ada pula yang mengatakan bahwa Suharto, seperti banyak Baginya, itulah jalan untuk menghapuskan sisa-sisa konflik, perwira segenerasinya, punya pengalaman buruk menghadapi perpecahan, dan kecurigaan. Itulah jalan untuk persatuan. gerakan bersenjata yang ingin mendirikan Darul Islam (DI) Tak begitu persis jelas apa maksudnya. Hilangnya melalui Tentara Islam Indonesia (TII). Bagi para perwira militer, perbedaan sama sekali? Bingung dan cemas, pelbagai kalangan DI dan TII, yang sejak tahun 1940-an melawan Republik menampik ide itu. Bahkan cukup luar biasa: Majelis Ulama Indonesia di Jawa Barat, adalah pengkhianatan. Dan bagi tentara, Indonesia, Gereja Kristen dan Katolik, kaum Hindu dan Budha setiap kalangan yang hendak menjadikan Islam sebagai dasar mengeluarkan sebuah pernyataan bersama. Mereka menegaskan negara, meskipun dengan cara konstitusional, adalah musuh. bahwa mereka tak menampik Pancasila, tapi toh tak mungkin Apapun alasannya, Suharto di tahun 1980-an bukanlah mengubah dasar agama untuk organisasi sosial mereka.

Presiden Suharto dan Wakil Presiden Adam Malik mengumumkan Kabinet Pembangunan ketiga di Istana Merdeka, 1978. Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 145

CHARLES SURYADI

Pertemuan Prof. Charles Suryadi dan koleganya, para peneliti kesehatan masyarakat, dengan Ford Foundation, berbuah jaringan di mana institusi penelitian kesehatan publik bekerja sama. Jaringan Epidemiologi Nasional (JEN) adalah kumpulan 24 organisasi penelitian yang berusaha mencari solusi atas persoalan kesehatan masyarakat lewat pendekatan epidemiologi, ilmu sosial, dan manajemen kesehatan. Charles Suryadi percaya bahwa orang banyak sebetulnya mampu mengatur dirinya sendiri. Kerelawanan, bukan tidak ada, namun tak jarang ketika tangan pemerintah ikut serta, persoalan muncul. Ford Foundation membantu penguatan kesehatan masyarakat bukan hanya melihat bekerja bersama, berpikir komprehensif dan institusi Jaringan Epidemiologi Nasional, dan pencegahan, tapi juga struktur masyarakat, holistik. Bahkan pada tahun-tahun terakhir ini, mendukung kegiatan ke arah epidemiologi kulturnya, segi antropologinya. Ini penting juga membantu kami bermitra dengan sosial dan epidemiologi komunitas. Epide- untuk negara berkembang. organisasi nonpemerintah dan anggota miologi biasanya klinis – kalau di kedokteran Kami dulu bekerja lewat pertemuan- parlemen lokal. epidemiologi adalah ilmu yang mempelajari pertemuan organisasi masyarakat, seperti Contoh yang terbentuk adalah dana sehat penyebaran penyakit, dan biasanya lebih ke arisan – waktu itu belum ada posyandu. Kami untuk orang-orang yang tidak mampu. Kalau arah klinis rumah sakit. Nah waktu itu bukan hanya melakukan penyuluhan, tapi mereka sakit, sangat susah. Kita mengajarkan diperkenalkan pendekatan epidemiologi mereka untuk iuran, agar punya yang ke arah kesehatan masyarakat dan sosial namanya dana sehat, asuransi kelompok antropologi. bawah. Selain itu terbentuk juga dana Kami difasilitasi membikin JEN yang pengurusan balita. Ada ibu yang sukarela, kegiatannya antara lain adalah pelatihan- kumpulkan sekitar 20 sampai 30 anak, pelatihan dan pengembangan jaringan ke dilatih untuk taman bermain, dengan luar. Setahun sekali kami kongres, dan makanan yang diperhatikan. Semua kongres memungkinkan pertemuan yang dengan dana dari masyarakat itu. Kami dari senior dengan yunior. luar cuma memfasilitasi. Karena kami bersifat jaringan, maka Dalam studi kasus dengan skala yang kami bisa melakukan penelitian yang di bawah kelurahan, saya banyak komprehensif. Misalnya kami melakukan contoh. Istilahnya, “Bonsainya saya penelitian AIDS yang paling kompre- punya tapi kalau bicara hutan saya tidak hensif, yang dilakukan bukan hanya ke punya.” Kita lihat di tingkat RW, masya- arah kedokteran tapi juga sosial, di 33 rakat Indonesia hebat sekali kere- daerah penelitian di seluruh Indonesia lawanannya. Tapi kalau udah harus secara serentak. Ini penelitian AIDS yang untuk satu kota, lain lagi ceritanya. pertama yang komprehensif dan bersifat Mungkin kalau RW unsur pemerin- nasional. tahnya tak terlalu banyak – tapi kalau Jurusan Kesehatan Masyarakat sendiri kelurahan tangan pejabat ada, jadi kini di berbagai fakultas kedokteran tidak sering tidak jalan, dan tidak jalan karena mesti dokter walau pada 1970-an hanya pemerintahannya tidak siap. Karena punya program pasca sarjana saja. Di kegiatan masyarakat mengorganisasi tahun 1980-an, jurusan itu mulai Charles Suryadi di Jakarta, 1995. diri juga menyangkut kultur politik kita: menerima lulusan sekolah me-nengah. Itu apakah mereka mau memfasilitasi bagus, tapi kesehatan masyarakat di fakultas memperkuat masyarakat dan memfasilitasi ke pembentukan forum yang nantinya selalu kedokteran juga mesti berkembang, bila kita arah organisasi, sehingga masyarakat bisa mungkin akan mengawasi kerja mereka? menginginkan dokter yang punya pikiran ke membentuk organisasi. Dengan demikian Atau, apakah mau si birokrat membesarkan arah kesehatan masyarakat. Sekarang ada mereka bisa lihat, bisa identifikasi masalahnya, anak macan jadi macan dan supaya dia tetap kecenderungan untuk menghapus kesehatan dan bisa membuat kegiatan sendiri dengan kuat. Padahal dalam desentralisasi, peme- masyarakat di kedokteran. Kalau itu dihapus tenaga mereka. Kita, dokter dan ilmuwan lain, rintah kota harus kuat, dan karenanya celaka. Di fakultas kedokteran, soal cuma memfasilitasi. Ya, seperti program- forum-forum seperti Forum Kota mestinya kedokteran pencegahan kurang sekali. program pengembangan masyarakat lainnya. dikembangkan. Misal di Jakarta, si gu- Ditambah dengan pengaruh dari industri Ford Foundation membantu kami, peneliti, bernur mau bikin sesuatu harus bertanya farmasi, kedokteran di sini mengarah kuratif, dosen di bidang kedokteran dan kesehatan dulu pada kita sebagai pemilik Jakarta. Lalu tidak ke pencegahan. Ini diakui. Ilmu masyarakat, ilmu sosial, antropologi, untuk kita bisa memberi komentar. 146 BAB EMPAT

Seorang ibu, anaknya, dan sebungkus garam oralit. Ford Foundation membantu suatu pusat penelitian yang terfokus pada penyakit diare di Universitas Sriwijaya, Palembang, Sumatera Selatan, untuk membiayai kantor pemantauan, konsultan, peralatan, dan pelatihan staf. Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 147

NINUK WIDYANTORO

Sepuluh tahun setelah pemerintah Presiden Suharto bergiat menjalankan program Keluarga Berencana, Ninuk Widyantoro bersama beberapa dokter, menghidupkan kembali sebuah klinik di bawah organisasi PKBI. Klinik ini berusaha melakukan apa yang tak dilakukan oleh pemerintah: mendengarkan klien, memberi informasi, dan memberi kesempatan memilih. Ninuk percaya bahwa memilih adalah hak, bukan monopoli yang kaya atau yang berpendidikan – programnya di sebuah desa di Lombok membuktikan hal itu.

Pada tahun 1950-an, karena Presiden Belajar dari pengalaman di klinik ada yang setuju tapi takut. Saya bilang ini Sukarno tidak setuju dengan program KB, pemerintah, saya tahu bahwa kegagalan melanggar hak asasi. Saya juga menulis di angka kematian mencapai 800 per 100 ribu terjadi karena hal sederhana: informasi tidak publikasi internasional. Di koran lokal juga, penduduk. Tapi, dokter-dokter bergerak lengkap dan kadang tidak akurat. Saya tahu Kompas yang paling setia. Mulailah konflik terus. Ada Ibu Soebandrio dan Prof. Hanifah. karena bertanya pada klien. Misalnya, panjang dengan BKKBN. Mereka bergerilya. Saya ingat, tante-tante saya “Kenapa hamil, Bu? Katanya minum pil.” Sebagai konsuler saya menggunakan juga membagikan pil, menerangkan kepada Ternyata dia minum pilnya, tapi kalau suami bahasa hak dan perspektif perempuan. Saya orang di sekitar mereka. ingin punya pelayanan KB yang Saat itu semangatnya ke- berorientasi pada kebutuhan relawanan. Tak ada yang di- klien. Saya psikolog, jadi saya bayar untuk menerangkan ingin klien merasa nyaman. soal KB ke masyarakat. Ketika Yang juga penting, kami Su-harto berkuasa, dia mulai mesti bertanggung jawab soal program KB untuk mengatur kehamilan yang tidak diingin- demografi dan ekonomi. Se- kan. Kalau mereka hamil karena telah itu semua diambil alih – tidak diberi informasi yang dan yang tadinya berdasarkan benar, apa itu salah mereka? kerelawanan menjadi pro- Karenanya kami menangani gram pemerintah. Ada BKKBN kegagalan KB – kita melakukan tahun 1970. Karena badan aborsi. Menterinya tahu, tapi pemerintah, semua uang lalu diam saja. Tak ada ribut-ribut. mengalir ke sana. Klien mengambil kepu- Tapi pemerintah perlu tusan sendiri: metode apa yang target pencapaian akseptor – dia mau. Kita berikan informasi istilahnya saja “akseptor,” dan penguatan, tapi mereka sepertinya perempuan hanya Ninuk Widyantoro di Klinik Panca Warga di Jakarta yang memilih. Lalu ada orang penerima. Saat itu pemerintah memperjuangkan hak perempuan untuk memilih, 1984. berkomentar bahwa program perlu orang untuk mene- ini berhasil karena kliennya rangkan, dan yang dipakai orang-orang dari tidak ada dia tidak minum. Atau minumnya berpendidikan dan bukan orang miskin. Yang PKBI, semacam pekerja sosialnya. Salahnya, sesudah “begituan” saja. Ada juga yang pakai miskin dan tak berpendidikan, katanya, tak bisa dan ini yang kita kritik pada 1980, program intrauterine device tetapi tak pernah memilih. Bagaimana kami tidak marah? Ini ini tidak mendatangkan kebahagiaan bagi diperiksa. penghinaan. Saya bilang, apakah karena perempuan. Malah di tempat-tempat tertentu Ini belum lagi soal mereka yang men- seseorang tak sekolah dan miskin maka terjadi kekerasan karena target merekrut derita. Pusing atau mual, dan tidak tahu seseorang tak bisa berpikir dan merasa? banyak akseptor tadi. Akhirnya semua diberi kenapa. Atau soal susuk yang dipasang untuk Saya bikin proyek, di Lombok, untuk harga, tergantung kamu bisa meyakinkan lima tahun. Terkadang dipaksa, padahal itu membuktikan bahwa orang buta huruf juga orang untuk menggunakan metode KB mana: hormonal dan tak semua orang cocok bisa memilih. Yang penting bagaimana kalau pil sekian, kalau kondom segini, kalau memakainya. Jadi banyak yang perdarahan mengajarinya. Kalau mereka disuruh baca sistem kalender tidak dapat. Makin lama terus-menerus. Di daerah-daerah Islam, di sendiri, ya tidak bisa. Kalau diajak bicara, makin terjadi kekerasan. Bahkan lama-lama Aceh, di Lombok, mereka bilang perdarahan dengan gambar yang besar, akhirnya mereka orang malas menerangkan, yang penting me- sedikit saja tidak “bersih” – lantas mereka mengerti. Kita harus belajar dari keluhan yakinkan orang supaya pakai. Perkara tidak bisa berhubungan seks, tidak bisa salat. mereka. Meski kita tak bisa langsung jawab, mengerti atau tidak, terserah. Akibatnya ban- Malah ada yang tidak tahu bahwa setelah lima yang penting tanya dulu, lalu kita tanyakan yak terjadi kehamilan yang tidak diinginkan. tahun mesti dicopot. Pokoknya amburadul kepada dokter. Jadi kita mesti bikin metode Di masa-masa itulah saya mulai. Saya tulis soal ini. Orang-orang di BKKBN juga pendidikan yang bisa ditangkap oleh mereka. 148 BAB EMPAT

Di awal Juli 1983, Sjafruddin Prawiranegara, tokoh memegang kekuasaan, para pendukung Masyumi yang besar politik Islam terkenal, menulis sepucuk surat untuk Presiden jumlahnya itu dicegah untuk mendirikan kembali partai itu Suharto. Surat itu kemudian tersebar ke beberapa kalangan. dalam pelbagai bentuk. Prawiranegara khawatir bahwa pemerintah akan melarang umat Memang di tahun 1980-an, secara diam-diam, gagasan Islam mendirikan perkumpulan Islam. Baginya, itu berarti mendirikan “Negara Islam” masih diyakini oleh pelbagai aktivis sebuah usaha “membunuh Islam” melalui Pancasila. Padahal politik Muslim. Tapi gagasan itu sudah tak berada di pusat Pancasila, ciptaan manusia, bisa ditafsirkan dan diterapkan percaturan ide-ide politik generasi yang tumbuh setelah 1960- menurut kehendak dan pikiran penguasa, apalagi yang an. Setelah partai-partai Islam diharuskan bergabung di satu mengendalikan angkatan bersenjata. tempat, dan namanya sudah tak memakai Islam lagi, yakni Argumen Prawiranegara mewakili pikiran kalangan Islam Partai Persatuan Pembangunan (PPP), persoalan dasar negara yang sudah bertahun-tahun merasa terpojok sejak Masyumi itu seakan-akan telah di luar arena. dibubarkan pemerintahan Sukarno di tahun 1960. Sejak itu Bahkan di tahun 1982, Nurcholish Madjid dan Amien sebuah stigma dipasangkan ke punggung hampir siapa saja yang Rais, dua cendekiawan Islam generasi muda terkemuka, dengan dianggap sealiran dengan partai Islam itu. Karena dalam usaha jelas menolak Islam sebagai dasar legitimasi kekuasaan. “Tidak merumuskan konstitusi sebagai hasil pemilihan umum 1955 ada perintah dalam Islam untuk menegakkan negara Islam,” Masyumi memperjuangkan dasar Islam bagi Republik tulis Amien Rais dalam majalah Panji Masyarakat yang Indonesia, maka Masyumi berarti “Negara Islam,” dan itu diterbitkan Muhammadiyah. “Bagi Muslimin Indonesia, akan berarti DI dan TII. Partai ini, seperti halnya PSI, jadi musuh sudah berbahagia kalau Pancasila yang indah itu benar-benar PKI dan sekaligus musuh tentara. Itu sebabnya ketika Suharto dipraktekkan secara konsisten.”

Tentara-tentara Indonesia menggiring anggota Darul Islam di Jawa Barat, 1951. Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 149

ZOHRA ANDI BASO

Zohra Andi Baso dari Yayasan Lembaga Konsumen Sulawesi Selatan belakangan makin jarang ke Jakarta. “Saya banyak ke kampung, bicara sama banyak orang,” katanya. Di sana dia melihat betapa efektifnya program pemerintah yang dianggapnya membodohi warga. Kedua, yang lebih penting, mereka cepat belajar dan keluar dari pembodohan itu. Aktivis Makassar ini cukup banyak jam terbangnya, dan jarang ada aktivis yang tak mengenalnya. Buat Andi Baso ini justru kekurangan – sebuah pertanda bahwa orang gerakan sedikit jumlahnya dan belum berhasil menumbuhkan kader baru. Awalnya saya aktif di Yayasan Lembaga kami mengundang Dharma Wanita. Asum- Banyak sekali pelatihan untuk mereka tapi Konsumen (YLK) Sulawesi Selatan. Saya jadi sinya, mereka orang kelas menengah saya khawatir pelatihan-pelatihan gender peserta saat mereka punya kegiatan ke- sehingga kalau mereka diajak bicara maka hanya digunakan untuk naik pangkat. Mereka sehatan perempuan yang didanai Ford mereka bisa menularkan pengetahuan ke perlu mendapat point untuk naik pangkat. Foundation. Setelah itu terpikir untuk lingkungan yang lebih luas. Kami jelaskan Setelah pelatihan orang bisa dapat point, tapi membuat penelitian soal pelayanan dan hak- soal hak menolak keinginan suami ber- tidak ada perubahan sikap. hak konsumen KB. Saya percaya bahwa senggama, atau hak bertanya apakah si suami Perjuangan masih panjang. Napas kita persoalan hak konsumen mesti didasari bukti bersih. Ada peserta Dharma Wanita yang juga mesti panjang. Tapi tidak ada kata jera. agar orang tahu ada masalah – bukan hanya bilang bahwa itu dosa. Itulah kenyataannya. Kadang saya tidak sabar lagi. Rasanya mau kami yang bilang ada masalah. Semua perubahan yang lebih cepat. Kita harus digali dari masyarakat. sudah melakukan dengan lemah Dari penelitian itu kita mengetahui lembut, tapi rasanya situasi tak bisa bahwa pelayanan KB tidak ber- kita perbaiki lagi. Orang seperti tak dasarkan kebutuhan masyarakat. punya hati untuk yang lemah lembut Selain itu, kami menemukan masih itu. Saya sudah terlalu tua, jadi tidak ada “safari KB” Angkatan Bersenjata sabar lagi. Kata orang makin tua Republik Indonesia, yang mestinya makin sabar, tapi saya tidak. sudah dikurangi. Lalu ternyata pro- Mungkin takut mati sebelum lihat vider tidak tahu hak-hak klien KB. ada perubahan ke arah demo- Jadi kalau pun ada pengetahuan di kratisasi. tingkat negara, itu sama sekali tidak Kelompok perempuan masih sampai ke klien dan provider yang belum bisa membuat jaringan yang berhubungan langsung dengan warga. kuat. Secara internal kami terjebak Kita juga mengatakan bahwa se- pada persoalan personal, dan kami benarnya ada pengetahuan lokal yang belum juga bisa memisahkan antara mungkin bisa dikembangkan untuk perjuangan yang lebih besar dan menghindari kehamilan. persoalan personal. Sumber daya Banyak yang tidak paham meng- manusia juga sangat kurang – yang apa saya di YLK mengurusi KB. Orang itu-itu lagi, dan ini artinya kami tidak kira gerakan konsumen tidak ada berhasil mendidik dan membuat hubungannya dengan KB. Padahal kader. Selain itu, kelompok per- dalam gerakan konsumen itu ada isu Zohra Andi Baso, pejuang hak empuan tidak mau masuk ke politik. kepedulian masyarakat dan isu hak. reproduksi di Makassar, 1995. Padahal program politik untuk per- Kita lihat ada persoalan penting yang empuan itu perlu, kalau kita mau harus diperhatikan dalam program ke- Di Sulawesi Selatan, bias gender dalam memperjuangkan keadilan gender. sehatan reproduksi. Bukan hanya di kam- interpretasi agama, sangat kuat. Padahal hak Kalau bicara pemerintahan yang baik dan pung, bahkan di kota, banyak orang meng- bertanya ini penting bagi si perempuan agar keadilan gender, saya percaya bahwa aktivis- anggap bahwa dokter itu selalu benar. Kami terhindar dari bahaya AIDS. aktivis perempuan harus kita dorong dan mengatakan bahwa mereka punya hak untuk Kemarin Gubernur Sulawesi Selatan saat dukung untuk terjun ke politik. Siapa yang bilang tidak kepada dokter kalau dia pakai peluncuran buku kenangan akhir masa mau kita bantu – tapi kenyataanya sekarang, jarum yang sama dua kali. Pengertian- jabatan, didampingi istrinya, dia mengatakan yang mau berpolitik malah diejek-ejek. Ini pengertian hak seperti ini masih jadi bahwa perempuan berasal dari tulang rusuk soalnya. Mereka tidak mengerti. Mereka persoalan. laki-laki. Dua kali dia kemukakan. Padahal tidak mengerti arti gerakan yang sebenarnya Apalagi kalau kita bicara hak reproduksi baru saja pemerintah Kanada memberi dan hanya memikirkan romantisme gerakan lainnya. Dalam salah satu kegiatan HIV/AIDS banyak uang untuk pelatihan soal gender. saja. Ini kelemahan. 150 BAB EMPAT

Namun tahun 1980-an adalah masa ketika pandangan Yang dianggap jadi penggerak adalah Imron. Orang ideologis seperti dibangkitkan kembali. Bersama itu, dunia muda bertubuh gempal berumur 33 tahun ini seorang pemikiran jadi beku. Dulu, sejak 1966, Indonesia sibuk dengan pengkhotbah di Masjid Istiqamah di Bandung. Rupanya ia persoalan pertumbuhan ekonomi. Tapi 15 tahun kemudian mendirikan Dewan Revolusi Islam Indonesia, yang ingin ternyata persoalan Pancasila atau Islam kembali kencang – dan “melaksanakan syariat Islam secara murni.” bersama itu, kekerasan. Yang luar biasa, kelompok ini juga mempersiapkan Kekerasan pertama bukanlah Peristiwa Tanjung Priok. persenjataan. Beberapa hari sebelum pembajakan, mereka Tanggal 28 Maret 1981, sebuah pesawat Garuda Airlines DC- menyerbu sebuah kantor polisi di Bandung. Beberapa pucuk 8, dengan nama Woyla dibajak di tengah perjalanan dari Jakarta bedil direbut, dan tiga orang polisi terbunuh. ke Medan, Sumatera Utara. Para penumpangnya, 42 orang, Ada dugaan bahwa tindakan ini dilakukan karena dalam disandera. Pesawat dipaksa terbang melintasi batas Indonesia, kelompok Imron ada seorang yang bekerja untuk tentara, yang diduga diminta menuju ke Kolombo, Sri Lanka, sebelum ke menjerumuskan anak-anak muda radikal itu untuk berbuat Timur Tengah. Tapi ketika pesawat mendarat di bandara Don nekat dan dengan itu mudah diringkus. Dugaan ini belum Muang, Bangkok, pasukan antiteror dari Indonesia menyerbu pernah dibuktikan. Tapi bagaimana pun, pembajakan Woyla dan membebaskan para penumpang yang disandera. Empat mencerminkan kerasnya konflik yang diam-diam berlangsung pembajak, kapten pilot, dan seorang anggota pasukan tewas. di sekitar Islam dan Pancasila.

Pesawat Woyla yang dibajak berada di bandar udara internasional Don Muang, Bangkok, 1981. Perempuan Bali membawa sesaji untuk sebuah pura subak, 1985. Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 151

NYOMAN SUTAWAN

Nyoman Sutawan lebih dikenal di Bali sebagai orang yang pernah jadi rektor Universitas Udayana. Tapi dia juga dikenal karena minat dan penelitiannya tentang subak – sistem pengairan tradisional petani Bali. Dia sering mengatakan jika sistem subak hilang, maka orang Bali akan kehilangan segalanya. Subak merupakan sistem yang memiliki aspek teknologi, sosial, budaya, dan lingkungan fisik serta terkait erat dengan kehidupan adat dan upacara Bali. Sutawan juga pernah jadi rektor Universitas Marwadewa di Denpasar.

Hingga awal abad ke-20 subak dijalankan an ada banjir karena pembangunan irigasi Subak adalah teritori basah berdasarkan dengan asumsi air adalah kepentingan sering dilakukan di lokasi yang tidak cocok. keperluan hidrologis. Sebuah subak bisa bersama dan diatur bersama secara gotong Para petani mengatakan sistem irigasi ini beranggotakan warga dari beberapa banjar royong tanpa campur tangan kerajaan- tidak cocok untuk mereka sehingga banyak tapi bisa juga dari satu banjar tergantung kerajaan Bali. Para petani bersama-sama yang bangunannya dibongkar. Sekarang para keperluan irigasinya. membuat dam dan menggali saluran dis- petani mulai menghidupkan lagi sistem subak Saya dulu melakukan penelitian subak tribusi air. Subak betul-betul dari bawah. mereka. Di Bali ada ribuan organisasi subak. dengan sponsor Ford Foundation antara 1983 Ketika pada 1920-an pemerintah kolonial Ini perlahan-lahan hidup lagi. Kecil-kecil dan 1999. Ford Foundation juga membiayai Belanda mulai memerintah Bali, penelitian serupa di universitas- mereka mulai melakukan campur universitas di daerah lain di Indo- tangan dalam bentuk perbaikan nesia, termasuk Sumatera Selatan dam. Perbaikannya bersifat fisik dan Sumatera Barat. dan semi permanen. Sebelum 1980-an Bali me- Dampak negatif terbesar ter- miliki sawah sekitar 125.000 jadi sejak 1970-an ketika pe- hektar. Sekarang tinggal 85.000 merintahan Orde Baru, dengan hektar karena banyak sawah bantuan dana dari Bank Dunia dan terutama di sekitar Denpasar yang Asian Development Bank, mem- diubah jadi bangunan. Industri perkenalkan apa yang disebut pariwisata berperan besar dalam sebagai “proyek irigasi Bali.” Ini perubahan ini karena kedatangan terjadi karena berkat rezeki turis-turis ke Bali meningkat pesat. minyak, pemerintah punya banyak Pemerintah Bali berusaha meng- uang, dan dari Jakarta dialirkan hambat alih fungsi sawah tapi tidak banyak sekali proyek-proyek pem- mudah karena berlangsung secara bangunan pertanian ke daerah- sporadis. daerah Indonesia termasuk Bali. Sekarang di mana-mana orang Maka terjadilah perubahan besar- bicara soal privatisasi berbagai besaran sistem pengairan sawah di Nyoman Sutawan bersama seorang petani di Bali, 2003. perusahaan milik negara termasuk Bali. Strukturnya diganti. Subak- perusahaan-perusahaan air mi- subak digabung. Saluran distribusi dibangun karena lahan pertanian di Bali ini juga tidak num. Di Jakarta PAM Jaya sudah dijual sesuai dengan kebutuhan proyek irigasi luas. kepada perusahaan Suez dari Paris dan pemerintah. Sejak awal proyek ini tak Subak itu intinya harmoni. Ada ke- Thames Water dari London. Kalau menurut melibatkan para petani. Maka bangunan- sepakatan-kesepakatan bersama soal jadwal konstitusi Indonesia, bukankah air itu harus bangunan sistem subak diubah. Pemerintah tanam, pembagian air, iuran, hak dan dikuasai negara? Kalau privatisasi apa tepat? bukan saja membangun dam tapi juga kewajiban para anggota subak. Tapi juga ada Privatisasi mengambil asumsi bahwa air saluran tersier. aspek ritual subak. Filosofinya adalah “tri hita adalah economic good. Tapi air sebenarnya, Mereka mungkin berhasil mengga- karana” (tiga unsur kebahagiaan). Pertama, dari pengalaman dengan subak, juga terbukti bungkan subak-subak secara fisik tapi tidak manusia harus berbahagia dengan sesama sebagai social good sehingga perlu per- secara sosial. Dampaknya bagaimana? manusia. Kedua, manusia harus harmonis timbangan masak-masak untuk menswas- Pembagian air jadi tidak merata. Hanya dengan alam. Ketiga, manusia harus ber- takan perusahaan air. daerah hulu yang mendapatkan air. Padahal bahagia dengan Sang Pencipta. Kita seharusnya bisa belajar dari peng- tujuan proyek irigasi di mana-mana adalah Organisasi subak beda dengan organisasi alaman perubahan subak secara besar-besaran pembagian air dari hulu hingga hilir. Secara banjar (desa). Banjar adalah organisasi di Bali maupun dampaknya secara sosial, sosial proyek ini belum berhasil. Pada 1980- administrasi penghunian atau komunitas. budaya, ekonomi, dan lingkungan hidup. 152 BAB EMPAT Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 153 154 BAB EMPAT

Mungkin dengan kejadian seperti ini – meskipun bukan Petisi ini, bisa disebut sebagai Petisi 26, jelas mengecam satu-satunya – Presiden Suharto punya alasan untuk cara Orde Baru mengendalikan Parlemen – lembaga yang telah membangkitkan lagi percaturan ideologis itu. Tapi mungkin lama jadi sasaran lelucon, karena para anggotanya dianggap juga, baginya, ada sebuah ancaman lain. hanya datang, duduk, diam, dan dapat duit. Juga kritik atas Februari 1980, sejumlah perwira pensiunan, tokoh aliansi militer dengan Golkar, sebuah partai yang tak mau politik tua, dan cendekiawan menyampaikan sebuah petisi ke disebut sebagai partai, dan jadi mesin pemerintah untuk Parlemen. Yang dikehendaki ke-26 warga negara yang mendapatkan suara. Aliansi ini menyebabkan pemilihan umum terkemuka ini adalah sebuah perbaikan lembaga-lembaga tidak adil. Juga tidak jujur. Dibantu oleh militer, Golkar, dan politik di Indonesia, khususnya Parlemen. Bagi para kekuatan pendukung pemerintah bisa lebih mengintimidasi penandatangan petisi, Parlemen harus lebih menampung suara para pemilih – dan intimidasi memang meluas. yang representatif dari warga. Untuk itu, sebuah pemilihan Tapi hasil pemilihan umum yang tak jujur selamanya umum yang benar-benar jujur merupakan satu-satunya cara tak bisa menentramkan. Suharto justru kian merasa posisinya untuk membentuk sebuah pemerintahan yang sah, yang goyah. Melintasi pelbagai kecaman dan tuntutan – terutama diterima rakyat. dari para mahasiswa di tahun 1978 – Suharto (ia sudah duduk

Presiden Suharto mengambil sumpah para pejabat pemilihan umum di hadapan anggota kabinet, 1980. Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 155

SANDRA MONIAGA

Sandra Moniaga sering merasa ditantang untuk berkarya bagi sesama. Ford Foundation memberinya kesempatan untuk belajar “seumur hidup.” Dulu Moniaga dikenal sebagai aktivis WALHI, kini ia bekerja untuk HuMa (Perkumpulan untuk Pembaharuan Hukum Berbasis Masyarakat dan Ekologis), yang sebagian juga dibantu Ford Foundation. Namun dia merasa belum berhasil membawa persoalan banyak orang di pelosok negeri ini ke tetangga-tetangga rumahnya di Jakarta. Baginya, ini persoalan serius. Saat bekerja di WALHI pada 1988, saya rumusan hukum yang sudah baik? Ternyata Kami sebenarnya mencoba untuk menye- diajak merintis pengembangan suatu pro- mereka jawab tidak. Kemudian kita coba barluaskan pikiran-pikiran yang lebih gram baru. Saya mengerjakan isu hukum dan pelajari kenapa sampai jadi begini. Mulailah responsif, lebih akomodatif terhadap lingkungan. Program ini kemudian menjadi diskusi soal bagaimana peraturan dibuat. Ini keberagaman masyarakat yang ada di negeri salah satu arena yang mempertemukan gambaran singkat dari pendidikan hukum ini. Salah satu nilai yang kami sebarkan gerakan hak-hak asasi manusia dan gerakan kritis. adalah nilai tentang pluralisme. Kemudian lingkungan. Pertemuan keduanya dapat HuMa berusaha memfasilitasi proses ada persoalan kelestarian ekosistem dan juga dimungkinkan karena program ini didukung yang mendorong perubahan paradigma ada perspektif tentang demokrasi. ketua presidium WALHI A. Hakim Garuda hukum, bukan hanya dengan anggota HuMa, Sejujurnya saya merasakan adanya Nusantara, yang saat itu juga direktur kemajuan-kemajuan kecil yang telah kita eksekutif YLBHI. capai atas usaha selama ini. Kalau ditanya Setelah berjalan beberapa tahun kami apa yang saya anggap “gagal” adalah fakta sadar bahwa ada problem sistemik, bukan tentang ketergantungan komponen ge- sekedar kasuistik. Saya melihat ada rakan sosial terhadap lembaga-lembaga persoalan yang mendasar: banyak per- donor. Menurut saya, kerja-kerja kita, aturan pemerintah yang tak mengakui kerja-kerja organisasi nonpemerintah itu keberadaan masyarakat adat, sementara gagal mengaitkan problem nyata di mereka ada dan memiliki sistem-sistem kelompok masyarakat dengan kelompok hukum sendiri. Dalam isu agraria atau masyarakat lainnya di Indonesia. Kami sumber daya alam, warga di kampung juga “kesepian” sebenarnya – misalnya yakin dengan “klaim” hak-hak mereka kalau aksi atau demo dengan orang itu- atas tanah dan kekayaan alam lainnya – itu saja. Ketika kami berkumpul, berbicara karena klaim tanah adat itu berangkat dari tentang pembaruan negara ini, ya itu-itu realitas bahwa mereka hidup dalam juga. Ketika kami bicara perubahan, sistem-sistem hukum mereka. misalnya reformasi politik, ya itu-itu juga. Kita harus melakukan sesuatu untuk Perubahan masalah lingkungan ya itu-itu mengubah hukum. Harus ada pendidikan juga. Lingkaran yang sama. hukum kritis agar warga memahami Tapi, dengan orang yang dekat dengan bahwa hukum bukan hanya sebatas pada kita, tetangga depan misalnya, kami gagal peraturan perundangan tertulis yang ada. untuk bisa membawa persoalan-persoalan Mereka perlu paham tentang politik dari yang kita geluti sehari-hari. Misalnya, hukum, filsafat dari hukum. Jangan juga Sandra Moniaga memegang sebuah persoalan yang dihadapi orang Dayak di mereka hanya berkutat dengan me- publikasi dari HuMa tentang hukum adat, 2003. Kalimantan adalah hal asing bagi orang-orang mahami hukumnya sendiri, seperti di sekitar kita. Masalah ini menjadi tantangan hukum adat, tapi juga hukum negara. Apa tapi dengan organisasi masyarakat, jaringan dan kelemahan kita. Mestinya kegiatan saya di hukum negara ini? organisasi hukum, akademisi dan pihak- HuMa bisa juga didanai dari orang-orang Pada saat saya mulai masuk ke kampung- pihak lain yang juga peduli. Jadi HuMa Indonesia sendiri. Kenapa saya tidak bisa kampung, sebagian besar warga berpen- mencoba bekerja dengan sebanyak mungkin mendapat dana dari orang-orang Indonesia dapat, “Peraturannya sudah baik, Bu, orang untuk menyebarkan “virus” hukum sendiri? Kami juga seharusnya bisa menggiatkan pelaksanaannya yang salah.” Terus saya yang agak berbeda dengan “mainstream” perdagangan alternatif atau membentuk tanya, “Peraturan yang menurut Bapak baik atau arus utama. Analisis bahwa hukum tidak organisasi beranggota (membership organisa- itu yang mana?” Kemudian kita mengajak berpihak kepada rakyat, tidak mengakui hak- tion) di mana orang mau membayar karena mereka untuk melihat pasal per pasal. hak rakyat dan lingkungan, itu tidak ter- kami mengerjakan sesuatu yang mereka yakini Apakah rumusan bahwa “hutan adat adalah pisahkan dengan paradigma hukum yang benar tapi mereka tidak bisa melakukannya hutan negara yang berada dalam wilayah dianut oleh para pengambil keputusan utama sendiri. Itu belum dilakukan, dan menurut saya masyarakat hukum adat,” merupakan contoh di negara ini. itulah salah satu kelemahan kami selama ini. 156 BAB EMPAT di kursi itu sejak 1968), mulai melihat bahwa ia terancam akan Bagi Suharto – ia selalu merasa kurang aman bila tak dijatuhkan. Di pertengahan 1979, sudah terdengar suara mendapatkan suara bulat – sikap orang-orang NU amat perlunya Indonesia mempersiapkan suksesi. mengganggu. Dan ini bukan pertama kalinya. Di tahun 1978, Menjelang akhir 1979, Suharto menangkis. Sebuah orang-orang NU menolak menyetujui Pedoman Penghayatan amandemen untuk undang-undang pemilihan umum diajukan dan Pengamalan Pancasila (P-4) diajarkan di sekolah. Bagi ke Parlemen. Yang menonjol dari amandemen ini adalah mereka, ini sama artinya dengan mengagamakan Pancasila. Kini besarnya jumlah anggota Parlemen yang diangkat pemerintah. oposisi NU di tahun 1980 dan ancaman terhadap jabatan Bila ditambahkan dengan jumlah anggota militer di Parlemen kepresidenannya mendorong Suharto untuk bersikeras. – sebesar sepertiga dari seluruhnya – praktis mengimbangi Menjelang akhir Maret, Suharto berpidato di depan rapat jumlah anggota yang dipilih rakyat. para panglima militer di Pekan Baru. Selesai membaca teksnya, Di situlah fokus kecaman Petisi 26 di bulan Februari ia melanjutkan sambutannya – dan mengutarakan sesuatu 1980 itu. Tapi suara 26 orang tentu tak punya kekuatan apa- dengan nada ancaman. Ia bukan saja menegaskan kembali apa. Bulan berikutnya, Suharto tetap membawa rancangan perlunya militer mendukung Golkar, tapi juga menyebut masih undang-undang itu. Tapi kali ini tidak mulus. Limapuluh adanya partai politik yang di samping berpegang pada asas anggota PPP, semuanya dari Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) tak mau Pancasila, juga masih ada asas-asas lain. Ia mengingatkan pula mendukungnya, meskipun tak hendak terang-terangan bahwa sudah ada kesepakatan, Pancasila dan Undang-Undang menentangnya. Dasar 1945, yang mendasari kekuasaannya, tak boleh diubah.

Papan reklame Presiden Suharto dan istri, Ibu Tien, mengawali prakarsa hidup sehat. Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 157

LASO’ SOMBOLINGGI’

Laso’ Sombolinggi’ adalah direktur eksekutif Wahana Lestari Persada (WALDA), sebuah organisasi nirlaba di bidang kehutanan, bermarkas di Lembang Madandan, sebuah desa Toraja, dekat dengan kota sejuk Rantepao, yang sering disinggahi turis. Sombolinggi’ berasal dari keluarga petani Madandan. Ia mendirikan WALDA pada 1986 karena kuatir melihat proses perusakan hutan setempat, baik oleh warga maupun pejabat, untuk diambil kayunya atau dialihkan jadi tanah perkebunan coklat atau kopi.

Pada 1986 muncul kegiatan penghijauan dalam agroforestri. Total ada 30 keluarga. dan coklat tertinggi di seluruh Tana Toraja. yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah. Tapi banyak Di Nanggala kami memanfaatkan lahan Tiap hari pasar, seminggu sekali, Madandan dari kegiatan ini yang mubazir karena di luar kawasan hutan sehingga tekanan bisa menghasilkan 60 ton coklat dan kopi. dilakukan tidak dengan cara yang benar. untuk merusak hutan bisa dikurangi. Warga Nanggala jadi desa paling kaya di Tana Program dibuat dari pusat tanpa melibatkan didorong untuk merehabilitasi lahan-lahan Toraja. Hasil panen lalu ada satu rumah partisipasi petani. Warga curiga karena di luar hutan. Istilahnya buffer zone. Di zona yang mendapat penghasilan dari vanili program penghijauan sering di- sebesar Rp 1 milyar. Petani paling susul dengan investor-investor sial di Nanggala dapat Rp 20 juta untuk perkebunan kopi. Pe- dalam kesempatan panen lalu. merintah juga tak mengajak warga Panen vanili sekitar delapan untuk ikut dalam perencanaan bulan sekali. program ini. Pada 1987 ketika Ford Foun- Kami mendirikan WALDA juga dation mulai membantu di Nang- untuk melakukan penghijauan gala, agroforestri ini diimple- sekaligus meningkatkan kese- mentasikan di atas lahan seluas jahteraan warga lewat pendekatan 900 hektar. Kini program ini agroforestri dan transformasi sosi- diimplementasikan pada 5.200 al. Kami tidak gegabah. Kami mulai hektar lahan. dengan penelitian-penelitian, baik Ford Foundation sendiri mu- aspek sosial maupun ekologi, lai membantu kami dari sebuah bekerja sama dengan sebuah seminar di Makassar yang di- lembaga penelitian dari Jakarta. adakan oleh Kantor Wilayah De- Model risetnya participatory partemen Kehutanan. Ada tiga action research. Hasilnya, kami daerah yang dijadikan daerah melakukan implementasi program percobaan: Nanggala, Gowa dan ini lewat dua desa: Madandan dan Maros. Tapi agroforestri di Gowa Nanggala. dan Maros hasilnya kurang se- Dua desa ini ada di Kecamatan baik Nanggala. Mungkin karena Rantepao. Pada 1987 implementasi di dua daerah itu pelaksanaannya agroforestri dimulai dengan ban- kurang lancar. tuan dari Ford Foundation (Nang- Krisis ekonomi 1997-1998 gala) serta HIVOS (Madandan). tak terasa di sini. Jadinya agro- Madandan adalah sebuah desa, forestri bikin hutan terpelihara tanpa hutan, sedang Nanggala dan pertanian maju. Petani se- Laso’ Sombolinggi’, 2003 punya hutan tapi banyak yang nang karena lingkungan terpe- sudah rusak. ini dibuatlah integrated farming di mana lihara sedang penghasilan mereka ber- Di Madandan kami membantu petani petani menanam coklat, kopi, sayur-sayuran, tambah. Cuma dampaknya adalah pen- menanam tanaman jangka pendek (sayur- kacang-kacangan. Pada 1995 kami masuk curian vanili. Sekarang banyak terjadi sayuran), jangka menengah (coklat dan pada tahap kedua di mana diper-kenalkan pencurian vanili. Para petani bikin ronda kopi) maupun jangka panjang (pohon- tanaman vanili. Di sini ada 15 kelompok sama-sama untuk melawan pencurian. Ini pohon pelindung). Ini cocok untuk Ma- petani terlibat dalam agroforestri. Masing- tidak mudah karena wilayah Nanggala luas dandan yang tak memiliki hutan. Ada juga masing kelompok terdiri 15 hingga 20 sekali. Secara sosial kami memperhatikan program pembagian lahan. Mana yang keluarga. kalau ada orang yang tiba-tiba mendapat dihutankan dan mana yang dipakai untuk Hasilnya bagaimana? Sekarang ini Ma- kekayaan secara mendadak maka dia bisa produksi. Di sini seluruh warga desa terlibat dandan adalah desa dengan produksi kopi dicurigai mencuri vanili. 158 BAB EMPAT

Jika perlu, untuk mengurangi jumlah suara mereka yang Keprihatinan” yang kemudian disebut Petisi 50. Tak ada satu menyetujui amandemen, ada anggota MPR yang harus diculik. penerbitan pun yang berani memuatnya. Berita tentang itu Di pertengahan April, tampak bahwa sebenarnya ada hanya muncul di media luar negeri. sesuatu yang lain yang dilihatnya. Dalam sambutan untuk ulang Isinya sebuah kritik yang keras, jelas, dan kena. Presiden tahun ke-28 Komando Pasukan Khusus (Kopassus), Suharto Suharto, kata pernyataan itu, telah menggunakan Pancasila berbicara tentang tuduhan yang sering diarahkan kepadanya untuk mengancam musuh-musuh politik. Ia juga melihat dan istrinya sebagai orang-orang yang menerima komisi dan dirinya sebagai personifikasi Pancasila, sehingga bahkan desas- upeti. Ia menangkis. Mungkin, katanya, tuduhan itu mereka desus tentang dirinya telah dianggap sebagai melawan ideologi tujukan untuk menyingkirkannya. Tapi mereka (dan ia tetap negara itu. Petisi itu disampaikan ke Parlemen. Dua bulan tak menyebut siapa mereka itu) lupa bahwa bila hal itu terjadi kemudian, 19 orang anggota Parlemen, dua dari Partai pada dirinya, militer akan melawan mereka yang akan Demokrasi Indonesia (PDI) dan sisanya dari PPP, melayangkan mengganti Pancasila dengan ideologi lain. sepucuk surat resmi ke Presiden, meminta penjelasan adanya Pancasila dan Suharto – bagi Suharto, kedua hal itu “Pernyataan Keprihatinan” itu. tampaknya telah jadi sebuah dwi tunggal. Pada saat yang sama, Suharto kemudian memberi jawaban pada pidato 17 ia juga melihat Indonesia sebagai sebuah negeri yang terbagi Agustus 1980, tapi tidak secara langsung. Suharto menghindari dalam dua kubu: yang menentangnya dan yang tidak. Terhadap kontroversi baru. Tapi langkah untuk membungkam Petisi 50 pandangan seperti inilah di bulan Mei 1980, 50 orang warga tidak berhenti. negara – tidak lagi hanya 26 – menulis “Pernyataan Pemerintah tahu bahwa kelimapuluh orang itu bukan

Pertemuan penandatangan Petisi 50 bersama Komite Nasional Pemuda Indonesia mengungkapkan ketidakpuasan terhadap Presiden Suharto, Jakarta, 1980. Sesi konseling yang mengharukan di Rifka Anissa, Yogyakarta, 2003. Organisasi ini banyak membantu korban kekerasan rumah tangga selama lebih dari 10 tahun. Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 159

NURSYAHBANI KATJASUNGKANA

Nursyahbani Katjasungkana berteriak lantang ketika seorang perempuan dicerai suaminya karena dituduh tak perawan. Banyak orang bilang urusan ini tak perlu diperjuangkan, karena semata-mata urusan domestik. Nursyahbani tak percaya pada argumentasi itu. Lembaga Bantuan Hukum (LBH) Asosiasi Perempuan Indonesia untuk Keadilan (APIK) pimpinannya menerima ratusan kasus yang dihadapi perempuan. Nyaris semua kasus bermuara pada satu hal: ketidaksetaraan hak antara perempuan dan laki-laki di berbagai arena domestik dan publik. Setelah delapan tahun berjalan, sekarang merintah dalam banyak hal sebetulnya bisa kita mesti bergerak lebih untuk memperkuat APIK sudah punya jaringan dengan sembilan bekerjasama. Salah satu contoh saja, pada legitimasi organisasi nonpemerintah atau LBH APIK di Indonesia, walau tidak ada 2000, pemerintah bekerjasama dengan organisasi masyarakat, karena saat ini apa hubungan struktural satu sama lain. Meski organisasi nonpemerintah menyusun sebuah pun yang kita lakukan dengan meng- menggunakan nama LBH APIK – karena rencana aksi nasional untuk penghapusan atasnamakan rakyat, dipertanyakan legi- mereka adalah anggota APIK – namun kekerasan terhadap perempuan. Tapi timasinya. Koalisi Organisasi Nonpemerintah mereka merupakan badan hukum otonom. implementasinya masih tanda tanya besar. untuk Konstitusi, dulu ditanya anggota Sejak berdiri kami banyak menangani kasus Tak ada usaha untuk memantau pe- parlemen karena mengatasnamakan rakyat kekerasan domestik. Berdasarkan peng- laksanaannya sehingga kegiatan tersebut atau mengatakan bahwa apa yang dilakukan alaman, sistem hukum ternyata ikut men- terkesan sebagai proyek semata yang selesai DPR/MPR tidak sesuai dengan kehendak diskriminasikan dan memarginali- rakyat. Mereka bertanya, “Kalian ini sasikan perempuan. Kelemahan ada mewakili siapa? Kalau kalian meng- pada aturan, penegakan hukum, dan kritik kami, tidak mewakili rakyat, juga sikap warga. Pada tiga tingkat paling tidak satu orang di parlemen itulah intervensi kami lakukan. dipilih 400.000 pemilih.” Artinya, Berdasarkan pengalaman kami, kritik bahwa organisasi nonpe- kami menyusun rancangan undang- merintah tak berakar ke bawah juga undang kekerasan dalam rumah mesti dipikirkan dengan serius. tangga. Kami juga ikut memper- Selain itu, ada juga soal keter- juangkan agar terdapat penanganan gantungan pada dana asing. Soal- yang terpadu pada korban kekerasan soal seperti ini memang sulit bahkan terhadap perempuan, termasuk di beberapa tempat menimbulkan adanya penanganan secara terpadu persaingan yang tidak sehat di antara di rumah sakit, adanya women’s organisasi. Saya pikir soal sumber desk di kantor polisi, tempat korban dana, dari mana pun datangnya tak tak saja bisa mengadukan kekerasan masalah, karena justru hal itu yang dialaminya tapi juga men- menunjukkan solidaritas masyarakat dapatkan pelayanan medis dan dunia kepada persoalan bersama. pemulihan akibat trauma yang Tapi sebetulnya dana ini tak mesti dialaminya. Kami juga mengadakan selalu dari luar negeri karena kita pelatihan paralegal terutama bagi punya potensi filantropis yang begitu para survivor dan tokoh masyarakat, tinggi. Misalnya, dengan mengurus termasuk ibu-ibu anggota pengajian, dengan baik zakat infak. Coba lihat lewat kerja sama dengan majelis- Dompet Dhuafa Republika atau majelis taklim. Nursyahbani Katjasungkana di Jakarta, 2002. Dana Kemanusiaan Kompas. Dalam Saya melihat, sejak jatuhnya waktu sebentar ratusan juta bahkan Suharto, peluang untuk melakukan per- setelah rencana tersusun. Padahal seharusnya milyaran rupiah bisa terkumpul. Potensi ini ubahan lebih terbuka. APIK bekerjasama rencana itu bisa digunakan sebagai dokumen bisa digarap dengan baik, penggunaannya dengan Koalisi Perempuan Indonesia, telah untuk menuntut tanggung jawab pemerintah tak harus hanya untuk kegiatan karitatif atau memberikan arah baru bagi gerakan per- – dan organisasi nonpemerintah juga se- ekonomi saja, tapi bisa juga untuk advokasi empuan di Indonesia terutama untuk ikut mestinya merujuk pada rencana itu dalam hak asasi, misalnya. Apalagi kesadaran meningkatkan partisipasi perempuan dalam program-programnya. Kalau tidak, bermilyar- tentang pentingnya hak asasi mulai tumbuh proses politik yang demokratis. Cara kerja milyar dihabiskan untuk apa? Pertemuan, dan tak perlu takut dengan penguasa untuk pun harus mulai diubah, terutama dengan bayar konsultan, baik konsultan asing maupun menegakkannya. Barangkali Ford Foundation memperbanyak lobby, karena konfrontasi Indonesia, untuk apa semua itu? dapat memberikan stimulan untuk men- kurang effektif meski tetap perlu. Sekarang organisasi nonpemerintah juga dorong ini menjadi gerakan sosial dan Organisasi nonpemerintah dan pe- harus memikirkan isu representasi. Artinya, moral. 160 BAB EMPAT Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 161 162 BAB EMPAT orang biasa. Di antaranya terdapat jenderal pensiunan A.H. tak terbatas pada masalah ideologi negara. Nasution, bekas Gubernur Jakarta Ali Sadikin, dan dua orang Dengan pembangunan ekonomi yang direncanakan dari bekas perdana menteri. Jika mereka ditangkap, lebih banyak atas, hal yang beragam di tingkat lokal sering dianggap heboh akan terjadi. Cara lain diambil: media tak boleh memuat menghambat. Keharusan memperbaiki keadaan pangan apapun tentang setiap orang yang ikut menandatangani Petisi. nasional dengan Revolusi Hijau, misalnya, mendorong Bila mereka punya bisnis, izin usaha mereka tidak diperbarui. pemakaian satu jenis padi di wilayah yang berbeda-beda. Bila ada yang ikut tender dalam proyek pemerintah, namanya Hasilnya mengesankan. Panen beras dua kali lipat meningkat akan dicoret. Kredit bank ditutup. dan rata-rata kalori per kapita naik Tiga tahun kemudian, Su- 50 persen. Tapi efek sampingnya harto melancarkan ofensif baru. serius. Ekosistem jadi rentan akan Itulah yang menyebabkan Peristiwa serangan hama, ketika satu wilayah Tanjung Priok meledak: ia meng- luas mengandalkan diri pada satu haruskan semua organisasi me- jenis tanaman penunjang. makai Pancasila sebagai satu- Ketika proyek Kelompok satunya asas. Seakan-akan Pancasila Penelitian Agro-eko Sistem (KE- adalah sebuah mantera persatuan, PAS) didirikan di tahun 1983 seakan-akan rumus yang manjur dengan bantuan Ford Foundation, untuk menghilangkan konflik agaknya rasa khawatir terhadap adalah meniadakan perbedaan. penyeragaman dari atas itu yang Mungkin dengan itu Su- mendorongnya. KEPAS men- harto ingin menunjukkan bahwa dokumentasikan dan menganalisis yang terancam benar-benar adalah soal-soal yang berkenaan dengan ideologi negara, bukan nasib produktivitas tanah-tanah marjinal politiknya. Tapi mungkin juga, di Jawa Timur, Kalimantan Selatan, tipikal bagi sebuah kekuasaan Nusa Tenggara Timur, Pantai Utara dengan semangat birokratik dan Jawa, dan Papua. Pada gilirannya, militeristik, persatuan, dan ke- seperti kata Tony Djogo, orang satuan adalah agenda awal dan akhir sebuah bangsa. Flores yang di tahun 1980-an bekerja dalam proyek itu, para Tapi Indonesia bukanlah sebuah impian tunggal. peneliti dan aktivis di lapangan itu juga belajar mengenai politik Keragamannya tak terlarai. Perbedaan merupakan bagian lokal. Terutama karena kebijakan pemerintah yang turun-dari- hidupnya, yang sering sulit, sehari-hari. Namun perbedaan atas (top down) sering tak merangsang produksi pertanian. memang merepotkan bagi sebuah kekuasaan yang ingin bekerja “Kekuatan masyarakat tak dibangun, partisipasi tak ada,” kata efisien dan efektif untuk membangun, untuk “maju.” Dan ini Tony Djogo.

Petani di Kota Agung, Jawa Barat, 1985. Petugas lapangan dari Departemen Kehutanan melakukan inspeksi di Taman Nasional Gede-Pangrango, Jawa Barat, 1985. Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 163

Petani membawa hasilnya ke pasar di Sukatani, Jawa Barat, 1985. Peneliti yang didanai Ford Foundation bicara dengan penyuluh pertanian di Jawa Barat, 1984. 164 BAB EMPAT Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 165

TONY DJOGO

Di usia 27 Tony Djogo jadi direktur Politeknik Pertanian Negeri Kupang, Nusa Tenggara Timur (NTT) yang dipimpinnya selama 13,5 tahun sampai 1997. Setelah bekerja dengan Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), sebuah lembaga penelitian kehutanan berbasis di Bogor, kini Djogo bekerja untuk Konphalindo (Konsorsium Nasional untuk Pelestarian Hutan dan Alam Indonesia) di Jakarta. Tugasnya, mengkaji cara dan peluang pelestarian sumber daya alam dan pembangunan berbasis masyarakat. Saya lulus dari Institut Pertanian Bogor kemudian jadi bermasalah karena mereka tak komunitas, sistem produksi pertanian, 1980 dan memutuskan bekerja di daerah tanggap untuk mendekatkan diri dengan kebijakan pemerintah, dan ekonomi politik. saya, NTT . Saya lahir pada 1957 di Boawae, realitas di lapangan. Itu masih terjadi sampai Kita mesti mendapatkan pendekatan untuk Pulau Flores, salah satu pulau di Nusa sekarang. Kampus bahagia dengan dunianya, membangun pertanian. Kita mesti tahu politik Tenggara Timur. Di Kupang, saya jadi merasa bisa melakukan riset dengan me- lokal dan politik pemerintah – karena pengajar di Universitas Nusa Cendana, sejak todologi canggih. Hal ini terjadi di berbagai semuanya sangat kuat pengaruhnya terhadap 1982 sampai 2000. pembentukan faktor-faktor dalam Keterlibatan saya dengan or- produksi pertanian atau pelestarian ganisasi nonpemerintah dimulai sumber daya alam. lewat World Neighbors pada 1983. Saya selalu berusaha berpikir Pada 1984, bekerja sama dengan pragmatis dan menerjemahkan Ford Foundation, mereka membuat temuan riset, hasil diskusi, work- pelatihan peneliti muda. Ini sum- shop, dan dialog saya dengan petani, bangan Ford Foundation yang luar maupun pengamatan saya. Jadi biasa: membangun dasar yang kuat pengalaman lapangan organisasi di antara peneliti-peneliti untuk nonpemerintah, serta masukan dari memberikan terjemahan hasil pene- riset dan observasi, kita gunakan litian mereka kepada warga desa untuk membuat konsep: semuanya lewat pembangunan pertanian pe- dikembalikan lagi ke lapangan, desaan. diimplementasikan untuk masya- Pada 1990, saya jadi salah satu rakat, dan bisa dibuat kebijakan oleh perintis pendirian Konsorsium Pe- pemerintah. Ini isu yang tak pernah ngembangan Masyarakat Dataran berhasil diatasi sampai sekarang. Tinggi Nusa Tenggara – kini berubah Apakah pemerintah membutuh- jadi Konsorsium Pengembangan kan riset? Saya sering berhubungan Masyarakat Nusa Tenggara. Sa- dengan kawan-kawan dari bagian yangnya, pola ini tak dikembangkan penelitian dan pengembangan di lebih lanjut di NTT. Dalam arti: Departemen Kehutanan, yang frus- kawan-kawan universitas dan or- trasi karena hasil-hasil riset mereka ganisasi nonpemerintah menjadi tak dipakai dalam pembuatan ke- sangat spesialis dan teknis. Mereka bijakan. Penelitian yang berorientasi kekurangan kapasitas serta du- nonkomersial berbeda dengan yang kungan untuk melakukan analisis komersial yang dipesan oleh swasta terhadap apa yang mereka lakukan, misalnya. untuk diterjemahkan menjadi ma- Isu ini sering saya angkat dalam sukan buat pemerintah. diskusi CIFOR atau dalam per- Namun yang menjadi tantangan temuan dengan Departemen Ke- juga adalah tidak jelasnya mekanisme Tony Djogo di kebun pembibitan CIFOR, Bogor, 2003. hutanan. Apakah riset itu bisa kelembagaan yang memungkinkan dipasarkan – digunakan nanti dulu integrasi dan komunikasi yang produktif lembaga penelitian, bukan hanya di Kupang, deh, tapi bisakah kita meyakinkan publik antara lembaga penelitian dan pengguna hasil tapi juga Jakarta. Produk penelitian yang bahwa ini temuan penting? Kita tak bisa hanya penelitian (pemerintah dan lembaga bukan berkualitas di lembaga penelitian tak banyak mengirim publikasi, ratusan disebarkan, pemerintah). Akibatnya, banyak hasil pe- dimanfaatkan orang atau tak banyak yang biaya pun tak sedikit. Tapi bagai-mana kita nelitian terbuang percuma. menterjemahkannya menjadi strategi dan ciptakan situasi di mana kalau ada satu Di lain pihak, orang-orang kampus desain pembangunan serta pelestarian produk, semua bilang, “Wah itu ada riset terjebak dalam penelitian konvensional. Pola sumberdaya hutan. baru!” Bagaimana agar hal itu terjadi, itu pikir abstrak, yang terlalu teoritis itu, Semuanya berhubungan: aspek ekosistem, mesti kita pikirkan. 166 BAB EMPAT Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 167 168 BAB EMPAT

Atau dalam kata-kata Helmi dari Universitas Andalas, hutan, jadi berubah. Sumber-sumber itu jadi lebih gampang Padang, itulah pembangunan yang ditentukan oleh penyediaan diatur dari luar, dengan semua kepentingan yang datang dari (supply-driven development), “Pemerintah punya uang, punya luar pula. Di Sumatera Barat, penyeragaman pemerintahan desa staf, lalu dia laksanakan sendiri tanpa berkonsultasi dengan punya akibat pada kerusakan lingkungan. Penduduk setempat masyarakat.” tak lagi merasa perlu ikut menjaga hutan yang dulu merupakan Pendekatan ini tidak efektif, karena perencanaannya tidak bagian hidup mereka. berdasarkan persoalan yang sesungguhnya berbeda-beda di satu Baru di tahun 1984, Departemen Kehutanan melun- tempat ke tempat lain. Apalagi ketika desa-desa juga, akhirnya, curkan program untuk mengelola wilayah hutan yang begitu harus berbentuk satu. November 1979, Menteri Dalam Negeri luas dengan mengaktifkan partisipasi komunitas setempat. Tapi membuat peraturan yang menyeragamkan kedudukan partisipasi masyarakat pada umumnya dipatok di satu wadah. pemerintahan desa, “sesuai dengan sifat Negara Kesatuan Sejak awal, Orde Baru hanya mengizinkan satu organisasi Republik Indonesia.” Wilayah yang semula beraneka buruh, Serikat Pekerja Seluruh Indonesia (SPSI), satu organisasi bentuknya, sesuai dengan sejarah dan adat lokal, sejak itu pegawai negeri, Korps Pegawai Republik Indonesia (Korpri), berubah menjadi kelurahan, seperti di Jawa. yang harus punya satu loyalitas, yakni kepada Golkar, dan satu Dengan itu aturan administrasi kenegaraan memang bisa organisasi wartawan, yakni Persatuan Wartawan Indonesia lebih rapi. Tapi pengelolaan sumber-sumber lokal, terutama (PWI).

Acara Korpri di Stadion Senayan, Jakarta, 1981. Pengalaman warga pedesaan dalam pengelolaan sumber daya alam meningkatkan hasil pertanian mereka. Bukittinggi, Sumatera Barat, 2003. Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 169

HELMI

Bagi Helmi, pengajar di Universitas Andalas di Padang Sumatera Barat, sistem irigasi memperlihatkan bagaimana pemakai air lokal mengatur kehidupan bersama. Dan ia percaya bahwa kebanyakan komunitas mampu melakukannya. Kerepotan terjadi begitu pemerintah mulai melakukan intervensi. Karenanya, katanya, ada perubahan yang harus didorong. Kerja sama dengan Ford Foundation memberinya kesempatan untuk mendorong perubahan itu. Irigasi adalah salah satu pintu masuk demokratisasi dan pemberdayaan ekonomi masyarakat. Banyak penelitian dilakukan perguruan yang sebelumnya dilakukan masyarakat (supply-driven development): pemerintah tinggi secara terpisah. Begitu penelitian secara gotong royong, lantas diambil alih punya uang, punya staf, lalu dia laksanakan selesai, baru dikomunikasikan. Tuduhan pun pemerintah. sendiri tanpa berkonsultasi dengan masya- dialamatkan kepada perguruan tinggi yang Contoh lainnya, bangunan irigasi. Di Bali rakat. Kami berusaha mengubahnya menjadi dianggap hanya bisa mengkritik tapi tidak ada yang namanya tek-tek. Itu pola pem- kombinasi antara supply-driven dan menawarkan solusi. Strategi yang kami anut bagian air yang otomatis. Pakai kayu, lalu demand-driven, ditentukan permintaan. Jadi agak berbeda. Francis Korten dari Ford diberi lobang. Kalau air mengalir, setiap lahan pemerintah perlu paham dulu persoalannya Foundation banyak membagi pengalamannya mendapat air sesuai dengan lebar lobangnya. apa, kebutuhannya apa, dan mereka merespon di Filipina. Ini teknologi yang rendah intensitas pe- itu. Yang penting, sebelum pemerintah Kami merumuskan masalah bersama ngelolaannya. Tidak perlu ada orang yang mengintervensi pembangunan, pahami dulu dengan Departemen Pekerjaan Umum. Kami membuka dan menutup pintu air. Lalu kondisi sosial ekonomi dan fisik teknisnya. tentukan apa masalah sebenarnya, dan apa Kebijakan pemerintah memang me- penelitian yang diperlukan untuk men- nyediakan semua hal untuk warga ma- jawabnya. Terjadilah proses belajar yang syarakat. Tapi sering tidak efektif dalam sebenarnya – bukan hanya sebuah pe- pelaksanaannya, karena perencanaan nelitian untuk penelitian. tidak didasarkan pada realitas persoalan Mereka pun merasa temuan dan yang berbeda-beda dari satu tempat ke interpretasi yang dibuat bukan sesuatu tempat lain. Mereka mau membuat yang terpisah, yang dibuat hanya oleh standar, “one size fits all,” sehingga tidak perguruan tinggi. Memang ada kom- efektif. promi. Tidak sepenuhnya ilmiah. Kami Modernisasi irigasi perlu – tetapi tidak main di tengah, karena objektifnya dengan pola supply-driven melainkan mendorong perubahan. Keberatan- harus sesuai dengan kondisi fisik irigasi keberatan mereka diakomodasi. yang bersangkutan. Itu penting. Jadi kita Penelitian ini tidak hanya dilaporkan bukan antipemerintah atau modernisasi. ketika sudah berakhir. Setiap perkem- Hanya mencari yang pas. bangan dibicarakan dengan Dinas Pe- Kami berjuang untuk mendorong kerjaan Umum: dari tahap merancang, perubahan, tapi dengan kesadaran penelitian dan interpretasi temuan, sampai bahwa perubahan tidak terjadi dalam implikasi kebijakan. Sehingga ada sesuatu sekejap. Ini berbeda dari mereka yang yang bisa kita sepakati. Hasilnya ada. Salah mengatakan pemerintah “zalim,” dan Helmi, 2003. satunya Kebijakan Operasi dan Peme- karenanya harus dilawan. Kalau ru- liharaan Irigasi pada 1987. Banyak hasil dari Pekerjaan Umum datang dengan asumsi musannya begitu, memang harus kon- pembicaraan organisasi nonpemerintah, semua yang dari warga kolot. Dipasanglah frontatif tanpa menawarkan jalan keluar. universitas, dan Pekerjaan Umum masuk ke kotak pembagi air dengan pintu. Karena Akan lain kalau kita lihat bahwa perubahan dalam kebijakan itu. pakai pintu, mesti sering dikontrol, pagi dan harus kita dorong. Dengan sadar kita masuk Model kerjasama seperti ini lalu di- sore. Kalau air besar dan pintu tidak dibuka, ke persoalan, dan memikirkan bagaimana teruskan di mana-mana, baik di Departemen tanaman hancur. Ini teknologi yang tinggi perubahan bisa kita lakukan. Kehutanan, Departemen Pertanian, maupun tingkat intensitas pengelolaannya. Petani Seringkali perubahan tidak bisa drastis. Departemen Kelautan. tidak suka. Mereka bilang teknologi pe- Kalau drastis ada pihak yang merasa kalah. Pemerintah sering berasumsi masya- merintah ketinggalan. Mereka bisa mengurus Kalau ada yang merasa kalah, selalu saja rakat tidak mampu, sehingga pemerintah ini dengan ongkos dan kesibukan yang lebih resistan. Di situ pentingnya seni mendorong harus menyediakan kebutuhan dan pe- sedikit. Yang seperti ini terjadi. perubahan: bagaimana membuat orang layanan umum dalam bidang irigasi. Ka- Dalam teori, hal seperti itu disebut pem- tidak merasakan perubahan yang di- takanlah membersihkan saluran. Kegiatan bangunan yang ditentukan oleh penyediaan lakukan. 170 BAB EMPAT

ENERGI KOMIK: UMAR KAYAM

Pada 1980-an Umar Kayam (1933-2002) stasiun radio swasta, dan mengizinkan York ditulis selama tahun-tahun susahnya suka menjelajahi jalanan Yogya dengan stasiun radio dan televisi pemerintah sebagai mahasiswa Cornell University. Toyota butut, lalu makan sambil ngobrol menayangkan iklan, sehingga mengurangi Cerita-cerita pendek itu seperti kenang- dengan teman-temannya. Kayam tergolong ketergantungan mereka pada biaya negara. kenangan, seperti laporan dari masa lalu, manusia serba bisa: novelis, kolumnis, Ia menarik pajak bagi film-film impor guna yang kita semua pasti memilikinya, ketika pejabat, aktivis, intelektual, aktor, kritikus membiayai suatu lembaga mandiri yang orang-orang berbagi hal-hal kecil dari seni, dan penggemar makanan enak. mendukung film Indonesia. sesuatu yang belum terpenuhi, barangkali Minat Kayam pada makanan adalah satu Sudah dapat diduga, pemerintah Orde bahkan sesuatu yang tak pernah berawal. kunci daya tariknya. Rasa hormat Bahasanya bersih dari kembang- kepadanya timbul bukan saja kembang verbal, tokoh-tokohnya karena deretan karya sastranya dikuliti dari sejarah pribadi dan yang mengesankan, tapi juga suara batin. Tak ada khotbah, tak karena kedermawanan dan ke- ada sikap sok tahu. Detail muncul pemimpinannya yang membumi, hanya dalam ingatan pribadi kita. yang membuatnya jadi magnet Istrinya mengingat Kayam kehidupan sosial. Bahkan ketika “mengetik cerita pendeknya di masih mahasiswa, “Kayam ada di depan lemari es yang terbuka” belakang tiap peristiwa seni di karena mereka tak bisa membeli Universitas Gadjah Mada,” kata mesin pendingin ruang. Kayam Koesnadi Hardjosoemantri, mantan mengatakan ia menulis cerita rektor universitas tersebut. pendek dengan bersumberkan Bagaimana orang ini bisa koran yang dibuang tetangganya. aktif di mana-mana dan tetap Ia lebih tertarik kepada comotan jadi dirinya sendiri? Kayam, yang dan cabikan kecil ketimbang meninggal pada usia 69 tahun, seluruh tubuh cerita. Dengan tak pernah bersikap serius me- hanya mengungkapkan sedikit, ngenai dirinya sendiri. Ia mener- Kayam mendorong pembaca me- tawakan kekurangannya sendiri, nafsirkan sendiri teksnya. Dengan menikmati godaan temannya, dan seakan-akan “tanpa teknik,” membuat lelucon. Seorang dra- ceritanya meluncur secara literer, mawan Yogya ingat bagaimana ia sebab yang tersusun adalah ren- suatu kali “dihukum” Kayam tangan beranekaragam realitas untuk suatu pelanggaran ringan – yang bersinar-sinar. dengan menyuruhnya bermain Ini kunci dasar “nonteknis” drama. sastra yang melekat dan membawa Rendra, tokoh teater Indo- seberkas cahaya dalam begitu nesia, merasa Kayam punya bakat banyak realitas kehidupan. Umar Kayam, direktur pertama Pusat besar sebagai sutradara panggung, Pelatihan Ilmu-ilmu Sosial di Makassar, 1974. Dalam novelet-noveletnya, Sri tapi “itu bukanlah nasibnya.” Sumarah dan Bawuk, Kayam Nasib membawanya ke tempat lain. Baru segera membuangnya. Belakangan, memberi ruang yang lebih besar bagi Ada suatu masa ketika Kayam ingin Dewan Kesenian Jakarta memilihnya konteks. Dengan kata lain, sang tokoh utama membawa perubahan dengan bekerja di sebagai ketua dan mempercayainya untuk pun memasuki sejarah. Tapi di sini muncul dalam sistem kekuasaan. Ia kecewa atas mengatur program-program pusat kesenian masalah, karena Kayam tak hanya bercerita; tendensi totaliter “Orde Lama” Bung Karno. Taman Ismail Marzuki. Di sinilah Kayam ia lebih banyak menjelaskan tentang hal-hal Maka ia aktif di belakang layar me-nyiapkan menciptakan apa yang oleh kritisi diingat yang berhubungan dengan orang Jawa. jalan bagi Orde Baru. Belakangan Presiden sebagai “zaman keemasan seni pertunjukan Nama Sri Sumarah mengisyaratkan Suharto menunjuknya sebagai Direktur Indonesia.” Kayam tak begitu peduli pada karakternya: ulet, tunduk, pasrah kepada Jenderal Radio, Televisi, dan Film. gengsi dan sukses ketimbang nilai kon- nasib. Ia seorang desa yang manganut nilai Meski ia jadi figur penting dalam mesin tribusinya. Barangkali inilah alasan mengapa priyayi, tapi bernasib sial dan miskin. Kayam propaganda Orde Baru, Kayam terlalu ia terbang “dari satu sarang ke sarang lain,” ingin melihat seberapa jauh ia akan men- bebas jiwanya untuk hanya jadi alat. resah mencari tantangan baru. damaikan takdir sosialnya dengan kenyataan Contohnya, ia mengizinkan beroperasinya Cerita-cerita pendeknya tentang New modern. Sri Sumarah telah banyak kehilangan Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 171

Ahli ilmu politik Mochtar Pabottingi, membacakan eulogi mengenang Umar Kayam, Yogyakarta, 2003.

– suami, anak perempuan, menantu – dan ia Novel utama Kayam, Para Priyayi, ditulis komunis di Madiun, dan perebutan ke- telah berjuang melawan semuanya. Ia seorang dengan bantuan dana dari Ford Foundation kuasaan 1965, justru memperkuat, ke- janda kesepian yang harus merawat cucunya, – bantuan pertama yang pernah diterima timbang mengurangi, kepercayaan mereka seorang tukang pijat yang berjuang melawan seorang Indonesia untuk penulisan in- terhadap sistem nilai aristokratis, yang kemiskinan dan rayuan lelaki yang tak ia dividual. Pada akhirnya, yang ditulisnya menganggap menyimpang dari norma berarti inginkan. Tapi ia masih berpegang pada nilai bukanlah sepenuhnya sebuah fiksi, me- malapetaka. priyayi: bangga, setia, dan suci. lainkan lebih berupa sebuah risalah sosio- Kolom Kayam, di harian Kedaulatan Dalam Bawuk, berlatar belakang per- logis yang difiksikan. Sang pengarang yang Rakyat, kemudian dikumpulkan dalam satu golakan di Jawa pada 1965, Kayam jadi limpad tak terasa hadir lagi. Kayam di sini buku Mangan Ora Mangan Kumpul. Di sini sedikit lebih berani, meregangkan tema bukan lagi sebagai pencatat, tapi seorang tampak banyak sisi lain Kayam – suatu yang sama untuk melukiskan pemberontakan ilmuwan sosial dan penulis sejarah aristo- energi komik yang riang gembira. Ini bisa sang tokoh perempuan yang, seperti sudah krasi Jawa. dikatakan bentuk modern dari bagian lucu dapat diduga, berakhir gagal. Tak satu pun Dalam menceritakan tiga generasi pertunjukan wayang Jawa, goro-goro, di yang dilakukan perempuan pemberani ini keluarga Sastrodarsono, Kayam dengan mana Kayam dengan lelucon dan ironi, yang tak akan membuat gusar para dewa. cermat memberikan suara yang sama membuat enteng pertentangan kelas. Meski Bawuk meninggalkan anaknya, melarikan kepada para tokohnya. Meski demikian, ia masih menjunjung nilai-nilai tertinggi diri bersama seorang komunis, dan hidup ada anasir otobiografi yang tertinggal. Kita orang Jawa – keselarasan dan kedamaian sebagai buronan. Ia begitu penuh teka-teki, semua kenal Sastrodarsono, seorang guru – yang otentik ditemukannya dalam hal- hingga dialah prestasi sang novelis: yang mengabdi kepada pemerintah kolonial, hal sepele, dalam “keseharian,” dan ia seorang pahlawan perempuan tak ter- dan keturunannya sebagai priyayi. Bencana mengundang semua orang untuk ber- lupakan. seperti pendudukan Jepang, pemberontakan gembira. 172 BAB EMPAT

Perbedaan tentu saja tak dihilangkan. Tapi Orde Baru diresmikan: suku Kodi di Sumba Barat, misalnya, mencoba adalah sebuah birokratisasi perbedaan. Perbedaan yang ada mempunyai “agama” dengan menekankan apa yang sejajar adalah perbedaan yang telah diresmikan. Partai-partai politik antara kepercayaan itu dan praktek orang Kristen. Suku Wana dipangkas, hingga hanya dua yang lain di samping Golkar. di Sulawesi Tengah, yang dikategorikan sebagai “suku terasing” Dalam PDI, orang-orang dari PNI harus bergabung dengan yang “belum beragama,” menyusun “agama”-nya dari aturan orang Partai Katolik atau Kristen. Dalam PPP, orang-orang makan, pemakaman, dan pengobatan. NU antara lain harus bergabung dengan orang-orang Kategori jadi penting, bahkan menentukan. Adat Muhammadiyah. setempat “dihormati,” tapi dengan itu berarti “dikembangkan.” Perbedaan agama juga dikendalikan. Kong Hu Cu dan Ukuran pengembangan ini tentu saja diputuskan oleh kepercayaan lokal, termasuk kebatinan di Jawa dan aluk to dolo kekuasaan di daerah itu. Seorang antropolog yang berkunjung di Toraja, secara resmi ditolak, atau dijadikan sesuatu yang lain. ke tenggara kota Palu, Sulawesi Tengah, di tahun 1980 melihat Tapi tiap orang harus beragama. Akhirnya yang sama sekali bagaimana camat setempat mengharuskan agar “suku terasing” berbeda pun mencoba menyesuaikan diri dengan yang sudah di desa Da’a mengiringi musik oral mereka, lalundu dan roya,

Musisi dari Rote, Nusa Tenggara Timur, 2003. Instrumennya, yang tersembunyi dalam resonator dari lontar, terbuat dari bambu dan disebut sasando. Para penari dari Kabupaten Belu, Timor barat, 1997. Nyanyian mereka direkam untuk salah satu CD Smithsonian/MSPI. Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 173

EDI SEDYAWATI

Ketika menjabat sebagai Direktur Jendral Kebudayaan dari Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Edi Sedyawati sering dianggap sebagai “orang pemerintah” yang bisa diandalkan bagi mereka yang di luar pemerintahan – dan ini penting, karena di zaman Orde Baru, tak mudah mencari pejabat yang bisa diajak bicara. Program museum adalah salah satu hal yang dikuasainya. Dengan gaya Jawa yang halus, ia menerangkan mengapa lembaga museum masih saja sulit dinikmati oleh banyak orang di negeri ini. Program pendidikan museologi sudah apa ya nanti kerjanya?” Orang tua akan apresiasi inilah yang masih kita usahakan. dimulai sebelum saya menjadi direktur bilang, “Paling di museum.” Kayaknya hina Sudah tentu perlu petugas edukatifnya dan jenderal. Tapi saat saya menjabat, kerja sama sekali kalau kerja di museum. pemahaman guru tentang apa perlunya program itu dengan Ford Foundation masih Namun kita mesti sadar bahwa museum program ini. berlangsung dan masih ada orang-orang memang suatu institusi baru, bukan institusi Ada sejumlah teman di museum yang yang dilatih. Bahkan ada staf museum yang tradisional. Konsep museum harus diper- sudah datang dulu ke sekolah sebelum dikirim untuk program magister. Ini semua kenalkan pada masyarakat. kunjungan murid-murid ke museum. Mereka untuk meningkatkan keahlian dan mem- Kalau di Indonesia, usaha yang sudah menemui guru dan memberi ceramah, dan perluas wawasan calon pemimpin setelah itu baru ke museum. Pen- museum. Diharapkan mereka men- dekatan seperti ini ternyata me- dapatkan pemahaman mengenai nimbulkan hasil yang berbeda. Jadi, standar perlakuan, baik terhadap saya kira, apa yang sudah dilakukan koleksi maupun publik. Mereka itu perlu dihargai – jangan dipikir diharapkan bisa mendapatkan ga- semua museum itu jelek. Bahwa masih gasan untuk mengembangkan mu- sangat kurang dibanding yang kita seum di sini. butuhkan, memang. Selama menjabat, saya berusaha Saya pernah punya program yang menggenjot apresiasi masyarakat pada disebut Sistem Informasi Kebudayaan museum. Tapi yang pertama perlu Terpadu. Kita menghimpun dengan ditumbuhkan adalah motivasi pelaku sistematika tertentu data kebudayaan, museum. Pengelola museum mesti antara lain data koleksi museum. Kita punya kesadaran untuk melakukan ingin punya sistem data terpadu. Jadi sesuatu yang atraktif dan edukatif kalau kita hendak mencatat tentang untuk meningkatkan mutu informasi. suatu benda perlu jelas, apanya yang Di tempat tertentu usaha ini berhasil, mesti dicatat. Jenisnya, bahannya, namun di tempat lain tidak. ukurannya. Ini penting karena se- Di tiap museum ada dua urusan belumnya museum punya cara regis- pokok yang berhubungan dengan trasi sendiri, kantor purbakala punya pameran. Pameran tetap dan pameran cara sendiri, pusat penelitian arkeologi khusus. Yang khusus ini sering di- nasional punya cara sendiri juga. tunjang oleh kegiatan-kegiatan khusus Informasi yang terpadu akan banyak pula. Cukup banyak yang sudah Edi Sedyawati di Jakarta, 1986. manfaatnya. Misalnya bisa dikemas melakukan kegiatan seperti itu – untuk Pojok Informasi di museum, misalnya, Museum Nasional pernah membuat dilaksanakan misalnya program wajib sehingga kalau orang berkunjung ke Museum kegiatan soal mainan anak-anak dengan kunjung museum untuk menanamkan Ronggowarsito, misalnya, lalu tertarik pada demonstrasi, diskusi, dan sebagainya. Cuma pengenalan museum. Kami bekerja sama sebuah mahkota, dia lantas bisa mengakses memang rasanya kita masih butuh mem- dengan Kantor Dinas Pendidikan di seluruh berbagai data soal mahkota tersebut dan juga perluas lingkaran penikmat yang bisa meng- Indonesia. Sebagai program sudah baik, mahkota lain di mana saja. ambil manfaat dari acara dan apa yang ada di tapi kualitas dari kunjungan itu yang mesti Waktu itu dalam satu tahun kami sudah museum. Pengembangan peminat museum itu diperbaiki. bisa menyelesaikan struktur data. Ini mesti dilakukan secara sadar dengan kiat yang Seringkali rombongannya terlalu besar termasuk cepat. Lalu kami sudah mengemas jelas. sehingga perhatian pada narasumber beberapa CD-ROM dengan beberapa topik Konotasi kebanyakan orang terhadap kurang. Sepertinya yang lebih ditekankan khusus. Sekarang penggunaannya belum museum, jelek. Coba saja, seorang anak adalah formalitas: anak sudah ke museum, jelas. Itu membuat saya agak kecewa. mengambil studi yang tidak disukai orang sudah menulis laporan, walau secara asal Padahal ini sebuah modal. Mungkin karena tuanya, misalnya sejarah. Si anak bertanya mencatat label. Jadi bukan apresiasi yang pejabat ganti dan yang baru tidak terlalu pada orang tuanya, “Kalau studi sejarah diinternalisasi. Bagaimana menimbulkan punya motivasi. Itu juga masalah. 174 BAB EMPAT Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 175 176 BAB EMPAT dengan tarian agar sesuai dengan kebudayaan daerah Palu. Seperti kata Endo Suanda, etnomusikolog yang menyusun Di masa itu, “kebudayaan daerah” berarti “puncak sebuah kurikulum untuk memperkenalkan pluralisme budaya, kebudayaan daerah.” Namun mana yang “puncak,” yang dalam waktu itu “kultur-kultur yang marjinal terhapuskan dari peta. tradisi Jawa disebut adiluhung, tidak jelas dari mana ditentukan, Identitas provinsi selalu mengambil yang paling “kuat,” yang dan dengan apa didasarkan. Yang adiluhung, yang dianggap paling dianggap “baik.” Ketika bicara tentang kebudayaan ekspresi kebudayaan luhur yang bertahan dalam sejarah, daerah Sumatera Barat, misalnya, ekspresi kebudayaan dari acapkali hidup hanya sebagai mitos. Di tahun 1985, Nancy Kepulauan Mentawai tak dikemukakan. Florida, ilmuwan dari University of Michigan yang memulai Birokratisasi perbedaan menghapus dan menyi- proyek memikrofilmkan naskah sastra Jawa di perpustakaan sihkannya. Apalagi yang berbeda dan tak termasuk dalam Keraton Mangkunegaran di Surakarta, Jawa Tengah, terkejut kategori. Ia menjadi terasa ganjil dan tidak sah. Terutama jika melihat betapa rusaknya khasanah itu. Robek, dimakan tak ada kekuatan politik yang mendukungnya. Wayang po-te- ngengat, kotor, berdebu, dan ada yang berpuluh-puluh tahun hi, salah satu tradisi orang Tionghoa di Jawa, hanya diizinkan lamanya tak pernah dibuka. untuk dimainkan di kelenteng-kelenteng yang tertutup. Meskipun demikian, ada kecenderungan kuat bahwa Penganut Kong Hu Cu harus menggabungkan diri dengan yang bukan adiluhung harus menyesuaikan diri, atau hilang. Budhisme. Tak mengherankan bila orang Tionghoa merasa

Kebakaran pada huru-hara anti-Tionghoa di Solo, 1982. Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 177

ENDO SUANDA

Endo Suanda tahu betul rasanya dianggap sebagai seniman terbelakang dan kasar. Ketika masih menari, dia sering diejek saat pertunjukan di Bandung, sebagai penari dari desa. Saat ia belajar di AS, tentang nilai universal kesetaraan kebudayaan, dia cepat menangkap esensi pemikiran itu. Sedihnya, sampai kini, Endo masih melihat kuatnya pola pikir bahwa ada kebudayaan yang lebih maju dan lebih baik dari lainnya. Kini etnomusikolog ini melawan. Dia mengerjakan beberapa program untuk menimbulkan kesadaran soal pluralisme budaya. Setelah mengambil beberapa mata kuliah hasil dinamika internal. Kita merancang pelajaran kesenian untuk di Wesleyan University, Connecticut, saya Metodologi kita untuk analisis itu sangat sekolah umum dengan pendekatan apresiasi. diperkenalkan dengan berbagai nilai musik. lemah. Di musik juga begitu – mungkin Pendekatan kami lebih umum sifatnya – Saya lebih sadar lagi soal pertanyaan besar: karena secara teknis sulit dan minat yang lebih banyak memberi pemahaman berbagai “Apakah nilai universal?” Diskusi-diskusi kurang: untuk apa sebuah nyanyian desa kita kultur. Konteksnya, selama ini kultur-kultur membawa kultur yang berbeda satu dari diskusikan, misalnya. yang marjinal terhapuskan dari peta karena lainnya – dan kita tidak bisa memakai nilai- Kita pun lemah dalam metodologi tidak dianggap hebat. Jadi yang bukan tradisi nilai kita untuk mengerti orang lain. kontekstualnya. Etnomusikologi bukan ilmu aduluhung hilang dari peta. Identitas provinsi Sekitar akhir 1970 kita jarang mengenal yang mempelajari bagaimana membuat selalu mengambil yang paling “kuat,” yang isu seperti itu. Di sini isunya sangat develop- musik untuk Anda sendiri sebagai seniman. dianggap paling “baik.” Misalnya, kalau kita mentalis. Orang bicara “pengembangan,” Bicara etnomusikologi, kita bicara soal bicara Sumatera Barat, Mentawai hilang dari bicara “mengangkat” kebudayaan yang peta. Sama juga dengan Jawa, Batang beratus macam. Seolah-olah kita per- hilang. Lihat saja Taman Mini Indonesia caya ada satu nilai yang bisa menjadi Indah. Atau di buku peta. Satu provinsi, acuan untuk semua tradisi, dari mana- satu jenis rumah, dan satu pakaian adat. pun di Indonesia, supaya dianggap Sepuluh tahun terakhir ada gerakan “maju.” Dalam forum-forum festival, mencari yang “asli.” Ini pun ekstrim dan misalnya festival koreografer muda atau sifatnya reaktif: karena merasa sekian komposer muda, yang dibicarakan soal lama diabaikan dan dihilangkan dari “pengembangan” itu. peta nasional, kemudian ingin meng- Yang paling menyedihkan, sejak identifikasikan dirinya. Jadilah misi-misi lama orang desa diajari bahwa yang baik untuk mencari “kemurnian” tradisi adalah yang di kota. Kesenian harus lokal yang berlebihan dan tak realistis. seragam, harus tertib; kesenian harus Misalnya, ada satu kesenian cam- banyak orang, harus ramai. Itu sudah puran, gambang kromong. Gambang merasuk dalam-dalam, sehingga mereka kromong itu kesenian Cina, Melayu, dan tidak peka lagi terhadap nilai-nilai lain-lain. Sekarang mau “dimurnikan” mereka sendiri. Kita tahu ada lomba – dikatakan ini bukan identitas kita, hampir setiap tahun. Lomba menen- pengaruh asing, dan sudah tidak asli tukan arah karena ada yang menang, ada lagi. Padahal tidak ada budaya yang yang tidak. Yang utama, yang menjadi benar-benar “asli.” doktrin, kesenian harus rapi, besar, dan Ini hal kompleks. Kalau dilihat adiluhung. Dulu ada angklung 1.000 Endo Suanda, siap mendokumentasikan dari sisi studi tentang kultur, kita tidak orang, kuda lumping 1.000 orang, sebuah pertunjukan, Jakarta, 1997. bisa menjadi ekstrim – sana buruk, talempong yang diperbanyak; musisinya yang penelitian – penelitian adalah kuncinya. Kita sini buruk. Tapi kita tidak terbiasa atau tadinya tujuh orang dijadikan 40 orang. harus menghargai bentuk kebudayaan lain tidak dididik untuk menghadapi kom- Artinya mereka tidak nyaman lagi me- untuk bisa meneliti. pleksitas secara umum. Kita dibiasakan nunjukkan diri sebagaimana dirinya. Perhatian saya pada pluralisme budaya. mencari suatu definisi yang tetap dan Bukannya saya mencoba supaya mereka Instrumen apa yang kita miliki? Masuknya diakui banyak orang. Yang keabu-abuan kembali pada zamannya, tapi bagaimana lewat apa? Saya pikir kesenian yang paling tidak dianggap ada, padahal semua kultur mereka sadar mengenai mereka sendiri. gampang. Kalau masuknya dari agama, susah. ada wilayah abu-abunya. Bagaimana Batasan antara tradisional dan modern sangat Kesenian berhubungan dengan agama, sistem melihat yang abu-abu itulah yang harus kita tidak jelas. Tradisi tak bisa dianggap sebagai pertanian, dan sistem komunitas. Lewat asah. Tanpa kemampuan itu sulit mengerti sesuatu yang mati. Tradisi yang hidup selalu kesenian bisa masuk ke mana-mana untuk pluralisme. Dan kesenian mungkin yang berubah – tapi perubahan itu terjadi sebagai memahami budaya. paling abu-abu. Pemain teater gambuh, Peliatan, Bali, 1985. Gambuh adalah fokus salah satu proyek awal Ford Foundation dalam revitalisasi seni pertunjukan tradisional. Penari dalam sebuah upacara penyembuhan pada masyarakat Benuaq, Kalimantan Timur, 1995. Y ANG TUNGGAL, YANG TANGGAL 179 diasingkan. Untuk bisa terlindung, mereka harus menjalin jadi umat Islam, orang Kristen jadi umat Kristen – dan tak hubungan dengan pejabat yang berkuasa, dari presiden sampai dipersoalkan bahwa di dalam kelompok masing-masing ada dengan camat – dan umumnya dengan sogokan. keanekaragaman, konflik, dan pergeseran terus-menerus. Keadaan ini tak menolong, ketika lapisan sosial yang Pengertian “Jawa,” misalnya, tak membayangkan adanya tak mampu menyuap merasa tak diperlakukan adil. Di bulan bahasa Tegal yang berbeda dari bahasa Yogyakarta, dan bahasa November 1980, kerusuhan anti-Tionghoa berjangkit selama Banyumas yang tak sama dengan bahasa Solo. “Jawa” seakan- beberapa hari di beberapa kota di Jawa Tengah. Lebih dari akan sebuah kesatuan tanpa ketegangan, tanpa kelas yang – 240 toko, 230 rumah, dan 23 pabrik rusak. Tak meng- seperti digambarkan Umar Kayam dalam novel Para Priyayi – herankan, meskipun amat mengenaskan, bila keluarga Tan bergulat menjaga dirinya di kancah masyarakat yang berubah, Kio Liem habis dibakar orang ramai di Tanjung Priok empat dan terus berubah. tahun kemudian. Walhasil, “Islam,” “Kristen,” “Jawa,” dan lain-lain: Birokratisasi perbedaan pada dasarnya memang masing-masing jadi tunggal. Tapi dari Peristiwa Tanjung Priok mengandung kekerasan. Identitas diresmikan, dipatok, dan kita tahu: setiap kali yang tunggal hendak dikukuhkan, ada dipatri, hingga jadi satuan kolektif yang mengeras. Orang Islam yang pada saat itu tanggal.

Pawai pemakaman di Tana Toraja, Sulawesi Tengah, 1994. BAB LIMA: SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA

BAB LIMA SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA

anya 10 menit, dan tak ada dekorasi istimewa di Istana Negara. Tak ada barisan kehormatan yang Hmemberi salut. Tak ada lagu kebangsaan. Tapi selama 10 menit yang tanpa warna itu, satu babakan sejarah yang penting dihentikan: Suharto, kepala negara yang paling lama berkuasa dalam sejarah Indonesia modern, hari itu mengundurkan diri. Suasananya seperti suasana di sebuah rapat antartetangga bila seorang ketua rukun tetangga menyerahkan jabatannya kepada ketua yang baru. Pada pukul 9:05 pagi tanggal 21 Mei 1998 itu, di depan mikrofon ia mengucapkan pidatonya yang, seperti biasa, datar. Baju safarinya berwarna gelap, berlengan pendek, seperti pakaian dinas seorang pejabat di mana saja di Indonesia. Ia menyatakan ia mengundurkan diri. Lalu ia menyalami penggantinya, B.J. Habibie. Kemudian ia pergi, naik kendaraan pribadi bersama putrinya, , biasa dikenal sebagai “Mbak Tutut.” Sejak itu ia tak pernah ke Istana Negara lagi. Berpuluh-puluh ribu mahasiswa yang sudah lebih dari tiga hari menduduki gedung dan pelataran Parlemen – sebagai tanda pemberontakan terhadap kekuasaan Suharto – jam itu bersorak gembira. Sebagian dari mereka langsung terjun ke

 Mahasiswa merayakan pengunduran Presiden Suharto, Jakarta, Mei 1998. 182 BAB LIMA kolam air mancur di halaman kompleks itu. Sebagian lain Bank Dunia dan IMF. Tapi untuk itu – untuk mengatasi krisis bersujud syukur. Bendera Merah-Putih yang sebelumnya moneter yang seperti itu – ada satu hal esensial yang dibutuhkan: mereka pasang setengah tiang, dikibarkan penuh kembali. kepercayaan. Dan itulah yang saat itu tak ada lagi. Indonesia sejenak bernafas lega. Awal tahun itu memang Suharto dipilih kembali oleh Anak-anak muda yang riuh, bersemangat, sebagian MPR untuk ketujuh kalinya. Tentu saja dengan suara bulat. seperti berpiknik, sebagian seperti siap tempur, itulah yang Tapi di luar lembaga yang selalu patuh itu, oposisi terhadapnya praktis mendorong Suharto turun. Bukan sebuah junta dengan kian meluas dan terbuka. Kini tak hanya terbatas di kampus. satu divisi bersenjata. Tapi ia bergeming. Mungkin yakin bahwa seperti Barangkali itulah paradoks kepresidenannya: ia berkuasa sebelumnya, oposisi akan hanya menggonggong sebentar dan begitu lama dan turun begitu lekas. Pemerintahannya yang ia akan bisa segera membungkamnya. Begitu ia dilantik lebih dari tiga dekade, dengan ekonomi yang maju pesat kembali, ia membentuk kabinet yang mengejutkan. mengesankan, ternyata belum sempat menumbuhkan sebuah Tutut, putri kesayangannya, menjadi Menteri Sosial. struktur kekuasaan dengan institusi yang kukuh. Pribadi sang Menteri Perdagangan bukan lagi seorang teknokrat, melainkan presiden makin lama makin jadi pusat segalanya. Akhirnya ia Mohammad “Bob” Hasan, orang yang menemani Suharto juga yang jadi pusat persoalan ketika Republik Indonesia bermain golf tiga kali seminggu. menghadapi guncangan besar di tahun 1997. Bob Hasan-lah yang menjalankan kehendak Suharto Guncangan itu kemudian lebih luas ketimbang sekadar untuk mengambil alih sejumlah bank dan menjalankan usaha krisis moneter. Mulanya adalah jatuhnya rupiah, yang terseret dari pelbagai yayasan yang didirikannya. Ia – yang dijuluki oleh jatuhnya baht di Thailand. Kemerosotannya begitu “raja hutan” dan memegang hak pengusahaan hutan yang luas mencemaskan hingga pemerintah segera meminta bantuan – mengetuai sejumlah asosiasi usaha yang berurusan dengan

Mengucurkan uang sebanyak-banyaknya untuk bank-bank yang terkena serbuan nasabahnya, Jakarta, 1998. Banyak orang menyerbu bank dan menarik uang mereka karena timbulnya krisis kepercayaan baik terhadap pemerintah maupun lembaga keuangan swasta. Kayu gelondongan illegal diapungkan lewat Sungai Kapuas, di luar kota Pontianak, 2003. Penggundulan hutan yang tak terkendali menjadi tantangan berat dalam bidang pengelolaan sumber daya alam. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 183 184 BAB LIMA

MENDOBRAK TABU: KEBEBASAN BEREKSPRESI

Paruh pertama 1990-an adalah masa antara suka dan tidak suka,” kata Sidney Independen, majalah alternatif yang “kebangkitan kembali” Indonesia. Pe- Jones, direktur Human Rights Watch/Asia populer, ditangkap dengan dalih me- merintahan Orde Baru mulai mungkir dari pada waktu itu. Pengekangan itu juga memicu nerbitkan media tanpa izin. Majalah ini kontrak sosialnya, dan kelompok-kelompok pergeseran hubungan negara dengan ma- dilarang dan mereka dipenjara dua hingga yang tertindas mulai bangkit dan melawan syarakat sipil, seperti terlihat dari me- tiga tahun. Saat itu, tekanan yang dialami penguasa. rebaknya protes berskala nasional. Lebih AJI menarik perhatian media internasional Pembredelan tiga mingguan berita pada jauh lagi, jika tahun 1990-an dilihat sebagai dan berbagai organisasi hak asasi dunia. Ini Juni 1994, Tempo, Editor, dan Detik, kebangkitan perlawanan kelas menengah, meningkatkan pertukaran informasi media memicu aksi perlawanan warga untuk sebelumnya tak pernah ada satu penyebab lokal dengan internasional, dan mem- mendukung kebebasan berekspresi dan tunggal yang bisa menyatukan begitu banyak perkuat legitimasi bagi demokratisasi di berserikat. Kelompok-kelompok tertindas ragam kelompok. Pembredelan itu men- Indonesia. mulai melembagakan penolakannya ter- dorong wartawan untuk turun ke jalan; Namun, AJI terus bertahan, dan se- hadap rezim Orde Baru yang sudah mapan belakangan, ia meluas menjadi gerakan- karang pada milenium baru ini, mesti itu, dengan menciptakan sebuah “ruang gerakan yang melintasi garis-garis ekonomi, memikirkan prioritas baru. Menurut publik” tandingan. Organisasi buruh, Santoso, “Perjuangan kami kini organisasi perempuan, dan aliansi adalah meningkatkan kesejahteraan mahasiswa mulai berontak dari format jurnalis melalui serikat pekerja, dan organisasi tunggal bikinan peme- memperbaiki standar jurnalisme di rintah. Subkultur resistensi tumbuh Indonesia.” dengan pesat dengan menciptakan Ford Foundation punya pan- satire, grafiti, happening art, sindiran dangan sama. Selama bertahun- seksual, dan bentuk-bentuk lain tahun, dalam berbagai bentuk, Ford budaya pop yang tak jarang terkesan Foundation mendukung pelatihan anarkis. Pemerintah menanggapinya wartawan, misalnya, jadi sponsor dengan sensor, pelarangan, pena- wartawan yang mendapatkan Nieman hanan, dan bahkan pembunuhan yang Fellowship dari Harvard, maupun tak terjangkau hukum. Hal ini bisa pusat-pusat pelatihan wartawan dilihat sebagai tindak balas dendam, Lembaga Penelitian, Pendidikan dan walaupun ringkih, dari sebuah rezim Penerbitan Yogyakarta (LP3Y). Wi- yang legitimasinya mulai kendor. layah lain: meningkatkan kete- Upaya mencari kebebasan, demo- Goenawan Mohamad di depan gedung rampilan wartawan dalam telaah Mahkamah Agung, Jakarta, 1996. krasi, dan hak asasi manusia terus kebijakan publik, seperti HIV/AIDS. berlanjut. Semakin banyak tabu yang kultural, bahkan batas negara. Para wartawan Timor Lorosae, misalnya, terdobrak. Pada 1989 keberhasilan de- Sejumlah peristiwa penting menyusul. diberi bantuan dana untuk melakukan monstrasi waduk Kedung Ombo, yang Pada 7 Agustus 1994, lebih dari 100 perjalanan ke luar negeri guna mempelajari menentang pengambilalihan lahan petani wartawan dari berbagai media, menan- pengalaman negara-negara itu melihat oleh pemerintah, memperluas protes datangani deklarasi mendukung kebebasan masalah otonomi atau kemerdekaan. kalangan bawah. Topik-topik kontroversial, berekspresi dan mendirikan Aliansi Jurnalis Tahun 1997, Ford Foundation juga seperti undian berhadiah yang diseleng- Independen (AJI). “Sungguh suatu periode membantu Institut Studi Arus Informasi garakan pemerintah, amandemen UU pe- yang luar biasa,” kata Santoso, salah satu (ISAI) menerbitkan satu seri tentang huru- milihan umum, keadilan bagi tahanan politik, pendiri AJI. “Ada begitu banyak energi dan hara di beberapa kota Indonesia antara lain peranan militer di parlemen, hingga pe- spontanitas. Kami praktis bekerja tanpa Rengasdengklok dan Tasikmalaya. ISAI, langgaran hak asasi di seluruh negeri, henti.” Delapan bulan pertama umur AJI sebuah organisasi nirlaba, berdiri hanya mewarnai wacana ketidakpuasan publik. menjadi periode yang benar-benar produktif beberapa bulan setelah pembredelan 1994. Pembredelan tiga media ini – yang – diskusi-diskusi publik, seminar-seminar, “Kelompok ini mempromosikan perubahan dituduh pemerintah sebagai “mengadu dan sesi-sesi pelatihan media diadakan di dan profesionalisme media,” kata Mary domba” sesama pejabat dan mengganggu mana-mana. Zurbuchen, wakil Ford Foundation waktu stabilitas nasional – adalah keputusan yang Pada saat yang sama, banyak anggota AJI itu. Ford Foundation juga membantu sewenang-wenang. “Kebebasan pers di mendapat tekanan dari pemerintah. Pun- majalah Pantau, yang mempunyai program Indonesia terlihat sebagai masalah pribadi, caknya pada Maret 1995 ketika tiga wartawan pelatihan bagi wartawan media cetak. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 185 pengolahan kayu. Dengan perdagangan yang dikendalikan mana perhitungan ongkos dan harga tak berlaku. pemerintah itu, Hasan orang yang berkuasa di atas pasar. Ia Tak heran ketika 14 Maret 1998 itu kabinet baru berhak menetapkan volume ekspor dan mempengaruhi harga. diumumkan, pasar bertambah cemas. Rupiah jatuh lebih jauh Untuk jabatan wakil presiden, Suharto mengangkat B.J. lagi: di pertengahan Maret satu dollar berkisar di atas Rp 10.000, Habibie. Insinyur Indonesia yang bertahun-tahun hidup di hampir 80 persen lebih rendah ketimbang di awal krisis. Jerman ini bukan orang asing bagi Suharto. Sejak kanak-kanak Orang lebih cemas, dan juga kehilangan kepercayaan, Habibie mengenalnya. Ia memanggil jenderal itu “oom.” Di ketika melihat Suharto mendudukkan salah satu anak tahun 1989, Habibie mendapat kekuasaan yang luas: ia kandungnya sebagai menteri. Nepotisme yang tak malu-malu membawahi 10 perusahaan negara strategis, yang tak hanya kian jelas jadi corak pemerintahan Orde Baru. Sejak itu beredar pabrik senjata, tapi juga pabrik baja, galangan kapal, sebuah singkatan baru KKN, dari kolusi, korupsi, dan telekomunikasi, satuan produksi elektronik, pabrik kapal nepotisme. terbang, dan perusahaan kapal laut. Ia menteri yang paling Sudah lama diketahui ada hak-hak istimewa dalam bisnis dekat ke hati Suharto. Dari sinilah Habibie diangkat sebagai yang didapat oleh anak, keluarga, dan kawan dekat Suharto. wakil presiden. Jangkauan mereka merambah ke pelbagai usaha, dari cengkeh Bob Hasan dan Habibie adalah lambang privilese yang sampai dengan asuransi, dari plastik sampai dengan petrokimia. datang dari Presiden Suharto berkat hubungan pribadi. Sepuluh tahun sebelum krisis, diperkirakan sudah berpuluh- Keduanya mengingatkan banyak orang tentang proyek-proyek puluh milyar dollar aset yang mereka kuasai – praktis hanya berskala besar yang diperoleh dari hubungan khusus itu – di dengan bantuan keputusan pemerintah.

Pesawat N-250 buatan IPTN, salah satu perusahaan yang dikuasai Ir. Habibie, Bandung, 1997. 186 BAB LIMA

Menteri Keuangan Mar’ie Muhammad dan Gubernur Bank Indonesia Soedradjad Djiwandono berkampanye berusaha memulihkan kepercayaan publik terhadap rupiah, 1997.

Paling mencolok tentu saja Badan Penyangga dan mobil sedan dalam bentuk utuh. Pemarasan Cengkeh (BPPC), di bawah Hutomo “Tommy” Tampak, Suharto tak hendak mengorbankan ke- Mandala Putra, putra bungsu Suharto. Ditetapkan di tahun pentingan yang dekat dengan dirinya. Kepercayaan IMF pun 1991, aturan ini tak membolehkan petani menjual cengkeh hampir patah. Bahkan bagi para pejabat tinggi kian jelas: mereka selain ke BPPC. Kekuasaannya begitu rupa hingga ia penghambat terbesar bagi Indonesia untuk mengatasi krisis dapat memperoleh kredit ratusan milyar rupiah dengan bunga adalah Suharto sendiri. relatif rendah dari bank pemerintah. Tapi ia tampaknya tak menyadari itu. Tanggal 4 Mei Tommy (yang pada 2002 dihukum karena me- 1998, di tengah krisis ekonomi yang merisaukan, dan dengan merintahkan pembunuhan seorang hakim) mendapatkan sebuah kabinet baru yang tak meyakinkan, Suharto menaikkan perlakuan spesial lain dalam proyeknya untuk membuat “mobil harga bahan bakar minyak sampai 70 persen. Protes dan nasional,” hasil kerja sama dengan perusahaan mobil KIA di kemarahan meletus. Kerusuhan terjadi. Di Medan dua orang Korea Selatan. tewas. Gentar melihat itu, Parlemen menolak kenaikan harga Ketika krisis terjadi, privilese seperti itu diharapkan akan itu – satu sikap yang tak pernah ada sebelumnya. dihapuskan. Ekonomi terguncang, warga terkena, maka yang Tapi pada tanggal 9 Mei, Suharto tetap berangkat ke diminta adalah sikap bersama-sama menjinjing berat. Tapi Kairo untuk pertemuan puncak negara-negara berkembang. itulah yang tak tampak terjadi. Pada 12 Mei, di saat Presiden Suharto tak ada di dalam negeri Di pekan terakhir Januari 1998, diumumkan bahwa tata itu, sebuah demonstrasi digelar di dalam kampus Universitas niaga cengkeh yang dikuasai BPPC tetap diteruskan. Di awal Trisakti di Jakarta Utara. Tapi tak lama kemudian seluruh Februari, ditetapkan bahwa perusahaan Tommy yang hendak Indonesia terkejut ketika dalam bentrokan dengan polisi, membuat mobil nasional tetap dapat fasilitas khusus: tembakan gencar dilepaskan. Empat mahasiswa tewas kena dibebaskan dari pajak, ketika ia sejatinya hanya mengimpor peluru. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 187

AMNA KUSUMO

Amna Kusumo bukan seorang seniman. Dia sendiri yang mengatakannya. Tapi dia salah satu dari sedikit orang yang paham peta seni Indonesia – tentang potensinya, sekaligus peliknya mengelola potensi itu. Sekitar 25 tahunan ia bekerja mengurus “remeh temeh” produksi kesenian. Berbekal pengalaman tersebut dan dukungan Ford Foundation, pada 1999 Amna beserta sekelompok pecinta seni mendirikan Yayasan Kelola, sebuah lembaga nirlaba berjangkauan nasional, yang bertujuan mendorong pertumbuhan seni di Indonesia lewat kesempatan pembelajaran, pendanaan, dan akses informasi. Saat ini, Kelola juga didukung oleh Asialink (Australia), Asian Cultural Council (Amerika Serikat), dan HIVOS (Belanda). Indonesia punya banyak bakat seni tapi sebagai tanggapan langsung terhadap sementara yang bisa ditampung hanya 16 lembaga pendukungnya terbatas. Kegiatan kebutuhan yang ada di masyarakat seni. orang setahun. kesenian tak hanya perlu penonton tapi juga Kelola mencoba menawarkan berbagai Dari pengalaman melakukan loka- perlu lembaga pendukung. Ada seniman, ada kesempatan kepada pekerja seni Indonesia. karya, terbukti yang paling sulit adalah penonton, dan ada lembaga yang menge- Kesempatan belajar, misalnya, pemberian meyakinkan orang tentang perlunya lolanya. Sebagai contoh, pada 1970-an, beasiswa untuk mengikuti lokakarya perencanaan. Kita tak terbiasa berencana. muncul Taman Ismail Marzuki (TIM) Para seniman senang menggunakan sebagai institusi pengelola seni di istilah nggelinding ketika bekerja. Tapi Jakarta. Alhasil, penonton datang karena rata-rata mereka sudah sadar akan ada agenda tetap, jadwal yang jelas, dan adanya kebutuhan untuk mengatur pertunjukan yang baik. TIM memastikan organisasi mereka. Ini sudah sebuah bahwa semua itu terjadi. Jadi lama-lama langkah maju walau banyak yang penonton terbina. TIM bekerja sama belum siap untuk melakukan dengan Dewan Kesenian Jakarta men- perubahan. Mengubah kebiasaan danai seniman untuk berkarya. Dana itu memang tak mudah. cukup untuk membuat sebuah produksi, Sama halnya, tak mudah untuk tak berlebihan, sehingga seniman tak menyiasati keterbatasan sumber dana perlu kebingungan cari sponsor. Pu- bagi kegiatan seni di Indonesia. Dana blikasi juga dikerjakan TIM, seniman memang sebuah persoalan klasik yang tinggal menyerahkan bahan, dan semua menghambat proses penciptaan seni beres, dengan standar zaman itu. maupun pelaksanaan pertunjukan yang Penonton dan media datang semua. berkualitas. Program Hibah Seni Kelola Seniman bisa fokus pada produksi saja. menawarkan sebuah sistem pendanaan Kalau lembaga macam ini kurang alternatif yang terbuka, kompetitif, dan berfungsi baik, seniman harus jadi bisa diakses oleh seniman dan superman. Mereka harus mendatangkan kelompok seni diseluruh Indonesia. penonton, harus berjualan karcis, harus Amna Kusumo di rumah, Solo, 2003. Secara “teknis,” program hibah ini mencari dana, dan harus memikirkan dirancang untuk membangun produksi. manajemen organisasi seni, manajemen keterampilan manajemen para penerimanya. Ide dibentuknya Yayasan Kelola berawal festival, disain tata cahaya panggung. Kelola Jadi bukan penyediaan dana itu sendiri yang dari sebuah diskusi antara beberapa orang bekerja sama dengan LPPM (Jakarta) untuk pokok, tapi juga sistem dan praktik. Di sinilah yang sering mengelola seni. Ada Jennifer mengadakan pelatihan manajemen seni. Ada kadang ditemui hal-hal pelik yang menantang Lindsay dari Ford Foundation, dan Rhoda juga kesempatan untuk belajar melalui kesabaran. Grauer, seorang arts administrator dari New bekerja di organisasi seni yang ber- Sejauh ini, mitra kerja kami York, yang datang untuk melihat pengalaman, baik di dalam maupun di luar kebanyakan di daerah urban. Kita tahu seni penyelenggaraan Indonesian Dance Festival. negeri. Untuk program magang ini Kelola di desa sifatnya lebih kompleks, karena Kami sepakat bahwa rapuhnya sisi bekerja sama dengan 16 mitra di dalam terkait dengan struktur sosial yang ada. Di pengelolaan seni akan berdampak pada maupun di luar negeri. Karenanya, bila situ seni tak terlepas sendiri. Sebagai salah keberlanjutan kelompok maupun lembaga seseorang kelihatan berpotensi dalam satu usaha untuk memahami kesenian di seni budaya Indonesia. Ini memunculkan lokakarya, kami sarankan agar melamar ke desa, sebuah studi tentang pengelolaan seni gagasan untuk melakukan survei terhadap program magang. Selanjutnya, pekerja seni pertunjukan tradisi sedang dipersiapkan. sejumlah organisasi budaya. Survai ini yang telah magang di dalam negeri, dapat Walau mereka tak melihatnya sebagai kemudian berlanjut ke pilot project dan melamar untuk program magang proses manajemen, seni pertunjukan tradisi kemudian jadi Yayasan Kelola. Bisa dibilang internasional. Peminat program magang itu juga punya pengelolaan. Kearifan lokal bahwa program-program Kelola lahir kami luar biasa. Pendaftarnya sampai 300, inilah yang sedang dipelajari. 188 BAB LIMA

HAK-HAK PEREMPUAN: MENAFSIR-ULANG NASKAH KLASIK

Pesantren Asholihat, di sebuah desa dekat diterima belajar di sana. Pengembangan Pesantren dan Masyarakat – Magelang, Jawa Tengah. Terlihat di sana: Hibatun kembali ke Magelang setelah yang menerima hibah Ford Foundation. rumah-rumah yang permai, sebuah mushola mendapatkan “pencerahan” di universitas. Contoh lain: upaya yang dilakukan Hibatun yang senyap, sebuah pondokan yang begitu Ia segera diserahi tanggung jawab memimpin melalui Yayasan Kesejahteraan Fatayat, yang mungil, yang entah bagaimana caranya santri perempuan di pesantrennya. Ia juga juga didukung Ford Foundation. Katanya, mampu “menjejalkan” 15 santri. melibatkan diri dalam berbagai kelompok “Saya sadari manjurnya pendekatan ini: Hibatun Wafiroh dilahirkan di daerah ini, studi dan organisasi Islam. “Kehidupan di mengaitkan isu-isu ketimpangan sosial, sulung dari empat bersaudara. Ia tumbuh universitas memberi saya kemandirian dan gender, dan kesehatan reproduksi per- dengan menyaksikan orang tuanya mengajar harga diri. Saya ingin lebih banyak per- empuan dengan hukum Islam. Ini sungguh para santri, kebanyakan antara empat sampai empuan merasakan apa yang saya alami. sebuah pendekatan dari bawah, terutama di 18 tahun. Ia cermati bagaimana para kiai dan Sayang, meski Quran banyak mengangkat pedesaan, di mana pesantren praktis satu- nyai dihormati murid-muridnya, bagaimana peran perempuan, reformasi gender masih satunya tempat orang membentuk cara mereka dijadikan tempat berkonsultasi, dari saja ditentang keras.” pandangnya tentang dunia.” masalah obat hingga jodoh. Fokus gerakan ini: pe- Ia simak bagaimana peran nafsiran kembali kitab ku- perempuan dijelaskan da- ning, yang telah lama di- lam buku-buku suci Islam, gunakan sebagai alat untuk khususnya dalam kitab ku- mengukuhkan cara pandang ning – sebutan lokal untuk laki-laki tentang peran per- berbagai teks klasik yang empuan dalam Islam. Con- telah berabad-abad usianya, tohnya, penafsiran ulang atas dan yang paling banyak di- Uqud al-lujjayn, teks yang baca di kalangan pesantren membahas hak-hak dan Jawa. kewajiban suami dan isteri, Ayah Hibatun, K.H. oleh Forum Kajian Kitab Sakdulloh, pendiri Asho- Kuning. Tahun 1991, hasil lihat, anggota parlemen penelitian tiga tahun ini lokal dan aktivis organisasi diterbitkan dengan judul sosial. Ibunya, Nyai Haji Wajah Baru Relasi Suami- Fasohah, salah satu pemim- Istri. Meski lingkup pe- pin pesantren, jauh dari nafsiran masih terbatas pada kesan kolot. “Sebagai se- penilaian atas fiqh, proyek orang guru, otonominya Membaca kitab kuning di pesantren Krapyak, Jawa Tengah, 2003. ini diakui sebagai sebuah tidak pernah diganggu gu- “upaya penting pertama”: ia gat,” kata Hibatun. Hasrat untuk mandiri ini Minat Hibatun meruah ke segala arah. menekankan bahwa dalam setiap peran sosial, jelas ia warisi: dalam soal pendidikan, paling Pada saat yang sama, di Pulau Jawa, diskusi perempuan adalah agen yang aktif, bukan tidak, ia berani menentang orang tua, dan tentang kemajemukan dan gender dalam sekadar obyek belaka. memilih jalannya sendiri. Islam sedang marak-maraknya. Berbagai Ford Foundation sendiri memandang “Orang tua saya ingin saya sekolah di diskusi, seminar, dan penerbitan me- pendekatan teologis ini berjalan secara pesantren di Kediri,” kenangnya. Sementara, nunjukkan peningkatan dalam usaha me- berangsur-angsur. Penerbitan lain mem- universitas merupakan hal yang terlarang nafsir ulang teks Islam ke arah reformasi bicarakan antara lain poligami, HIV/AIDS, baginya. Tapi Hibatun tak patah semangat. hukum dan mengurangi praktik diskriminasi Keluarga Berencana, aborsi, dan hak-hak Sehabis “menangis sepanjang malam”, pada terhadap perempuan. Dan lumayan berhasil: seksual perempuan. Semuanya bertujuan malam sebelum ia dikirim ke Kediri, ia Di sejumlah pesantren di Jawa dan Madura, mematahkan pemikiran tradisional yang berpura-pura sakit, untuk “membeli waktu” kesadaran akan hak perempuan terkesan memapankan subordinasi terhadap per- di rumah. Kesempatan itu ia gunakan untuk meningkat. empuan dalam masyarakat Islam. Buku-buku mengumpulkan informasi tentang Institut Ini tak lepas dari upaya-upaya ke- tersebut rata-rata ringkas dan mudah dibaca, Agama Islam Negeri (IAIN) di Semarang. peloporan yang dilakukan oleh berbagai dan ditulis oleh orang-orang seperti Hibatun Setelah melalui perjuangan yang panjang, ia organisasi Islam macam Perhimpunan Wafiroh. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 189

Esoknya, kerusuhan meledak di Jakarta. Toko-toko Di tahun 1998 itu, Orde Baru memang semakin menciut. diserbu dan dijarah. Hampir 2.000 ruko, 500 buah anjungan Banyak dukungan yang telah hilang. Selama tiga dasawarsa, tunai mandiri (ATM) dan bank, 40 mall, dan 12 hotel Suharto memperoleh legitimasinya melalui perekonomian dirusak atau dibakar. Sekitar 2.500 orang tewas hangus. Tak Indonesia yang tumbuh dengan pesat. Di awal 1990-an, Bank kurang buruk, sejumlah orang yang ganas bukan saja Dunia mulai menyebutnya sebagai suatu “keajaiban ekonomi membakar dan menyerbu rumah-rumah, tapi juga Asia Tenggara.” Sebuah penelitian menunjukkan, angka memperkosa perempuan-perempuan Tionghoa, dengan kemiskinan turun dari 60 persen di tahun 1965 menjadi di korban yang mengenaskan. bawah 10 persen di tahun 1997. Tapi prestasi itu ternyata tak Tanggal 15 Mei, Suharto kembali ke Jakarta. Tak ada memperkuat tubuh Republik Indonesia: ketika krisis tanda-tanda bahwa ia akan mundur. Ketika gerakan protes menghantam, manajemen Suharto gagal mengatasinya. meluas dan membesar di seluruh Indonesia – dan kompleks Pada akhirnya kelihatan bahwa manajemen itu, disebut Parlemen di Senayan diduduki ratusan ribu mahasiswa – para Orde Baru, bukanlah sesuatu yang sama dan ajek. Pemerintahan pembantu dekat Presiden akhirnya memutuskan: Sang Bapak Suharto berubah-ubah bersama waktu – dan merosot bersama tak bisa didukung lebih lama. Pada tanggal 18 Mei, sesuatu waktu pula. Rezim yang semula berambisi menjalankan yang tak disangka-sangka terjadi: Harmoko, ketua DPR/MPR, perencanaan ekonomi yang rasional, berangsur-angsur pejabat yang terkenal pandai mengambil hati Suharto, mengalami apa yang disebut Sumitro Djojohadikusumo sebagai memintanya mengundurkan diri. “penyakit institusional.”

Bom molotov dilemparkan ke arah polisi saat demo besar-besaran minta Presiden Suharto mundur, Jakarta, Mei 1998. 190 BAB LIMA

Benih penyakit itu semula tak tampak, bahkan seakan- dalam keadaan darurat perang. Orang harus selalu “waspada” akan mati. Mula-mula Suharto justru memulihkan institusi- akan “bahaya” terhadap “stabilitas” – dari PKI, PSI, Masyumi, institusi yang lumpuh. Ia menyelenggarakan kembali pemilihan ekstrim kiri, atau ekstrim kanan. umum yang teratur, yang sudah tak pernah ada di bawah Tiap suara yang berlawanan dianggap ancaman. Tiap Demokrasi Terpimpin Sukarno. Untuk memperbaiki dan kekuatan politik yang lain dianggap mengandung potensi menumbuhkan kekuatan ekonomi nasional, setiap lima tahun tandingan, dan sebab itu dibuat untuk tak independen. pula disusun Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun (Repelita). Pemerintahan Suharto tak henti-hentinya campur tangan ke Tiap-tiap tahun, rencana itu dijabarkan dalam anggaran belanja dalam hasil seleksi pengurus partai-partai politik. Presiden dan pendapatan yang disusun rapi, untuk disahkan oleh menentukan siapa yang akan berada di pucuk kepemimpinan Parlemen. militer dan bahkan Mahkamah Agung. Aparat keamanannya Dari sini pelembagaan memang terjadi. Suharto tak ingin mengawasi organisasi masyarakat terus-menerus, dan sejak aksi mengambil langkah yang acak-acakan dan berdasarkan mahasiswa di tahun 1978, mengekang aktivitas mahasiswa di pertimbangan sesaat. Namun manajemennya, yang di satu sisi kampus-kampus. melahirkan sistem pemerintahan yang stabil dan konsisten, Di situlah pelembagaan tak berjalan wajar. Partai dan punya sisi lain yang mendukungnya. Ia mengandung semacam Parlemen tak sepenuhnya jadi penyalur perasaan dan keinginan paranoia yang membuatnya rapuh. di masyarakat. Keduanya lebih berperan sebagai penyangga Muncul dari kekerasan tahun 1965, pemerintahan legitimasi. Hubungan partai-partai dengan masyarakat di desa- Suharto meletakkan Indonesia seakan-akan terus-menerus desa dipotong. Di lapisan itu, hanya Golkar yang boleh

Menyediakan jarum suntik bersih di sebuah klinik HIV mitra Ford Foundation di Kampung Bali, Jakarta, 2003. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 191

MARIA HARTININGSIH

Maria M Hartiningsih adalah wartawan harian Kompas di Jakarta yang sejak awal tertarik pada isu kemiskinan dan kelompok masyarakat marjinal. Pada tahun 1987 ia mendapat penghargaan utama dari PBB berkaitan dengan tema tahun PBB, International Year of Shelter for the Homeless, atas laporannya tentang kaum tunawisma di Jakarta. Ia menerima plakat dari UN Habitat. Pada tahun 1997-1998 ia menjadi visiting scholar di Jackson School of International Studies, University of Washington, Seattle. Saya mulai kerja sebagai jurnalis dengan banyak yang menyangkutkannya dengan menyusuri perkembangan AIDS di Amerika meliput persoalan kemiskinan di perkotaan. masalah moral. awal 1980-an. Masalah mereka rumit karena terkait dengan Pada Agustus 1997, dengan biaya Kom- Sejak di AS itu saya mulai mendalami isu strategi pembangunan. Kerusakan ling- pas dan hibah dari Ford Foundation, saya feminisme agar bisa lebih mampu meng- kungan hidup juga terkait dengan ini semua. melakukan peliputan mendalam mengenai gunakan perspektif feminis sebagai per- Setelah meliput KTT Bumi di Rio de Janeiro dampak AIDS pada perempuan dan anak- spektif kaum tertindas. Ini saya lakukan 1992, saya semakin mempertanyakan anak di desa-desa di Thailand dan Kamboja. karena pisau dari teori-teori besar tak cukup “pembangunan berkelanjutan” itu apa arti- Setelah KTT Bumi di Rio de Janeiro 1992, tajam untuk membedah masalah yang nya dan untuk siapa? Sesudah berkaitan dengan persoalan pertemuan itu, saya terpilih perkosaan, baik pada masa sebagai anggota Cohort-1 pro- damai, mau pun pada situasi gram Leadership of Environ- kerusuhan dan konflik ber- ment and Development (LEAD) senjata. dari Indonesia. Program itu Sudah sejak lama saya me- dibuat oleh Rockefeller Foun- lihat seksualitas perempuan dation yang bermitra dengan sering dijadikan alat bagi yayasan atau universitas yang negara untuk meminjam uang. mengkaji masalah pembangun- Lihat saja program KB. an berkelanjutan. Program itu Seksualitas perempuan juga berlangsung dari September menjadi alat untuk menun- 1992 sampai kwartal pertama dukkan pihak yang dianggap 1994. Para peserta dari tujuh sebagai musuh. Misalnya pada negara berkumpul untuk Mei 1998 di Jakarta dengan mengikuti sesi internasional di pemerkosaan perempuan- Chiang Mai, Thailand, dan perempuan Tionghoa. Sek- Zimbabwe. sualitas perempuan juga bagian Pada 1995, saya mulai dari strategi untuk mengalah- mendalami masalah HIV/AIDS kan lawan. Lihat saja di Timor dan mulai berempati lewat Timur dan Aceh. jurnalisme. Isu HIV/AIDS bu- Sekarang saya banyak kan sekadar isu kesehatan, tapi mengkaitkan berbagai per- juga menyangkut isu sosial dan soalan dengan neo-liberalisme. ekonomi. Persoalan HIV/AIDS Bagi negara berkembang de- dekat sekali dengan masalah Maria Hartiningsih di kantor Kompas, Jakarta, 2003. ngan utang besar, sistem eko- kemiskinan dalam arti luas dan nomi neoliberalis ini men- korban terbesarnya adalah kelompok usia saya juga sering dikirim Kompas meliput cekik. Kita menjadi tawanan di negeri sendiri. produktif. berbagai konferensi PBB lain, misalnya di Sistem ekonomi neoliberal menjadikan HIV/AIDS termasuk ancaman terbesar di Kairo 1994, Kopenhagen 1995, Beijing 1995, semuanya komoditi, termasuk perasaan Indonesia, apalagi tiga tahun terakhir ini dan Konferensi PBB untuk Habitat di Istanbul manusia dan kemudaan tubuhnya. Media jadi jumlah infeksi baru meningkat karena 1996. Pada Agustus 1996 saya meliput alat untuk mempengaruhi dan membentuk penggunaan jarum suntik di kalangan Kongres Dunia untuk Menghapuskan Eks- gaya hidup orang. Kehancuran lingkungan, pencandu narkotika. World Health Organiza- ploitasi Seksual terhadap Anak di Stockholm. kemiskinan, HIV/AIDS, penindasan manusia, tion memperkirakan pada 2002-2003, Ketika di Seattle, saya mendapat bantuan termasuk perdagangan perempuan dan anak, terdapat 80.000-120.000 orang Indonesia dari Ford Foundation, $1.000 per bulan. dan segala persoalan yang bermuara pada dengan infeksi HIV. Jumlah sebenarnya bisa Lewat bantuan itu, saya mempunyai ke- peng-hambaan materi dan hal-hal yang sampai 10 kali lipat. Saya percaya fenomena sempatan untuk melakukan perjalanan ke sifatnya duniawi, berhulu pada neo- gunung es pada isu ini, apalagi karena masih New York, Atlanta, Miami, dan San Francisco, liberalisme. 192 BAB LIMA beroperasi. Pers boleh terbit bila ada izin, dan izin itu bisa Universitas Indonesia para aktivis mahasiswa menganjurkan dicabut bila pemerintah menghendaki. Peradilan hanya sekadar mogok kuliah. Aksi ini berhasil selama dua bulan. Tapi setelah formalitas yang dijalani, menunggu keputusan diambil sesuai itu, untuk dua-tiga tahun berikutnya, desain Daoed Joesoef dengan titah dari atas. berhasil membuat mahasiswa sibuk. Dan jinak. Mahasiswa juga akhirnya dibatasi geraknya. Di awal Kebetulan, keadaan memungkinkan itu. Sebagian besar 1978, penguasa militer membekukan kegiatan Dewan mahasiswa memang lebih suka mempersiapkan diri buat karier Mahasiswa, menyusul aksi Dewan Mahasiswa di empat mereka setelah lulus. Di awal 1980-an itu Indonesia perguruan tinggi di Jawa yang meminta agar Suharto tidak menyaksikan ramainya investasi pemerintah dan swasta; usaha maju untuk jadi calon presiden sekali lagi. baru dibuka dan usaha lama diperluas lebih tiga kali lipat Di tahun itu pula Daoed Joesoef diangkat jadi Menteri dibandingkan dasawarsa sebelumnya. Indikasi cukup bahwa Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. Ia mencoba mengubah selepas perguruan tinggi, banyak lowongan kerja yang menarik. kehidupan mahasiswa di perguruan tinggi: mereka harus tidak Karier yang gemilang memanggil-manggil. Kampus tak lagi ikut serta dalam kegiatan politik. Sebuah agenda “normalisasi riuh rendah oleh protes dan demonstrasi. kehidupan kampus” pun diperkenalkan. Mahasiswa, kata Tapi toh agenda membersihkan politik dari kampus itu Joesoef, harus “membaca, menulis, melakukan riset, dan tak tak bisa berhasil sepenuhnya dan seterusnya. Di tahun 1982, menghabiskan waktu di jalanan.” empat tahun semenjak para mahasiswa tertekan oleh Bersama itu diberlakukan pula sebuah sistem yang “normalisasi kehidupan kampus,” pelbagai kelompok studi pun mengharuskan tiap mahasiwa belajar penuh antara 48 atau 52 muncul – grup kecil yang anggotanya tak tetap, yang membahas jam tiap bulan. Kerja sama antarmahasiswa diawasi pembantu pelbagai persoalan sosial politik dengan serius. Lima tahun rektor. Kegiatan dibatasi hanya pada olah raga, kesenian, dan kemudian kelompok ini berkembang pesat di kota-kota besar. “diskusi ilmiah.” Di Yogyakarta saja ada sekitar 20 buah kelompok studi yang Pada awalnya, kekangan itu memicu perlawanan. Di aktif.

Udik, sebuah koran politik dan kebudayaan, terbitan PIAR di Kupang, Nusa Tenggara Timur, 2003. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 193

SARAH LERY MBOEIK

Sarah Lery Mboeik adalah koordinator Perkumpulan Pengembangan Inisiatif dan Advokasi Rakyat (PIAR), sebuah organisasi advokasi di Kupang, Nusa Tenggara Timur. Mboeik mendapat hadiah bergengsi, Yap Thiam Hien Award, untuk perjuangan hak asasi manusia pada 1999. Namanya terkenal di seantero Nusa Tenggara Timur karena perjuangannya mendampingi orang-orang yang dirugikan negara, mulai dari para pengungsi Timor Leste hingga pemeluk agama tradisional. Ketika hamil tua, Mboeik pernah ditahan tentara Indonesia. PIAR termasuk salah satu organisasi yang dibantu Ford Foundation sejak jatuhnya Presiden Suharto pada Mei 1998. Persoalan kontemporer pulau-pulau Nusa di sana disebut manenito artinya raja setan. bisa diidentifikasi dengan baik. Tenggara Timur, dari Timor, Flores, Rote, dan Padahal dia yang mampu melakukan doa-doa Orang luar sering mengatakan bahwa orang sebagainya sesudah Mei 1998 umumnya adat untuk merumuskan semua peraturan Nusa Tenggara Timur selalu identik dengan adalah pelanggaran hak sosial ekonomi adat. Tapi itu sekarang disebut sebagai kemiskinan. Itu kadang-kadang politis untuk budaya masyarakat lokal. Landasan ke- halaik, menyembah berhala. Itu penting menggaruk keuntungan sebesar-besarnya. Ada bijakannya dimulai pada 1974 dalam suatu untuk diperhatikan karena satu-satunya orang miskin supaya bisa utang banyak. Tapi simposium yang menghasilkan kesepakatan media untuk sebuah organisasi masyarakat itu juga terjadi karena pola pembangunan kita perlunya menyatakan tak akan ada tanah adat adat menjadi kuat adalah melalui rumah- yang tak tepat. Model pengembangan di sini lagi di Nusa Tenggara Timur. Muncul rumah adat. Setiap saat mereka mengambil sangat sentralistis dan sistem ekonominya peraturan daerah dan semua tanah adat keputusan lewat media rumah adat. Kalau kapitalis dengan konsep pasar, bank, dan diklaim tanah negara. Itulah yang sebagainya. Sistem itu tidak tepat. memunculkan awal konflik di Nusa Tenggara Timur itu harus tingkat rakyat melawan negara. dikembangkan sistem ekosistem Padahal 80-90 persen ma- pulau. Tidak bisa sektoral, di mana syarakat Nusa Tenggara Timur kabupaten A bikin ini, kabupaten B adalah masyarakat adat. Definisi dan C bikin itu. Tidak bisa karena masyarakat adat adalah per- ekosistemnya adalah pulau-pulau. kumpulan orang yang ada di Misalnya, kamu bikin sesuatu di wilayah tertentu, punya nilai, tata Pulau Timor, misalnya di Soe, itu cara, yang dinamis dan tidak akan berdampak pada Belu dan feodal. Itu persoalan paling men- Kupang karena struktur tanahnya dasar. Persoalan lainnya, warga patah. Kalian bikin dengan alat-alat juga tak punya hak politik untuk begitu kuat, dengan tanah rentan, itu masuk ke ruang-ruang politik erosi dan bencananya terjadi di sebab negara sering memberikan tempat lain. Itu tak menolong orang stigma bahwa itulah organisasi Timor. Bisa nggak rakyat diberi komunis. Mereka tak bisa men- peluang yang besar untuk mengelola jalankan hak sipil lainnya, misal- sendiri sumber daya alam dengan nya, menjalankan ritual agama diberi batas, mana batas ruang tradisional mereka karena diang- negara mana ruang rakyat? gap ateis. Saya bukan ekonom. Saya Pelanggar paling besar adalah Sarah Lery Mboeik di kantornya di Kupang, 2003. orang kampung yang belajar dari negara dan kedua adalah agama masyarakat kampung. Banyak hal modern. Di Pulau Rote agama tradisional medianya dihancurkan, bagaimana legitimasi yang dideskripsikan atau direkomendasikan diberi cap sebagai halaik yang artinya ateis. pengambilan keputusan masyarakat adat? para ahli sebenarnya sangat tidak tepat Masuknya agama modern pertama kali di Di Nusa Tenggara Timur banyak suku. dengan komunitas dan sistem ekonomi lokal Nusa Tenggara Timur terjadi di Rote. Orang di sana mengklaim klan. Jadi misalnya yang sangat berbeda antara wilayah satu dan Stigmatisasi paling besar terjadi di sana. Saya ada klan Rote dengan 18 komunitas. Di bawah wilayah lainnya. Ekonom memasukkan rakyat sendiri Kristen Protestan dan kakak saya klan ada manggi, dan di bawah manggi ada ke dalam sebuah sistem kapitalisme. Misal- pendeta. Tapi itu dampaknya luas hingga fam. Saya fam Mboeik. Jadi sangat struktural nya hutan, orang kehutanan melihat itu rumah adat pun dibakar. Bapak saya kepala sekali. Nusa Tenggara Timur sendiri orang adalah gelondongan kayu, tapi orang suku. Rumah adat kami dibakar oleh mengenal suku Timor, Flores, Alor, Sumba. kampung melihat itu sebuah ekosistem di keluarga besar karena dianggap ateis. Kalau Tapi Timor sendiri ada banyak sekali yang tak mana dia berada dalam bagian hutan itu. 194 BAB LIMA

SERI MUSIK INDONESIA: CD-CD SMITHSONIAN/MSPI

Menurut Philip Yampolsky, petualangan “Flores Tengah adalah salah satunya. Kami jadi saja – keragaman jenis dan gaya musik ini dimulai pada 1989 ketika ada persiapan tak punya informasi tentang tempat itu. Dan Indonesia.” Prinsip editorialnya bukan “apa festival Kebudayaan Indonesia di Amerika di sana juga ada salah paham.” saja yang ada di suatu tempat, masing-masing Serikat (KIAS), yang sebagian dananya “Suatu kali,” kenangnya, “kami duduk di jenis dua menit,” melainkan memilih dua didukung oleh Ford Foundation. bawah pohon lontar, melakukan rekaman. atau tiga jenis yang memiliki kekuatannya Ketika itu, Smithsonian Institution, Kami sedang merekam suatu nyanyian yang sendiri dan membabarkannya dengan lembaga yang mengelola banyak museum di sangat indah tetapi sulit direkam dengan baik. rekaman yang lebih panjang dan uraian yang Washington DC, baru saja mengambil alih Sudah gagal dua tiga kali. Beberapa pe- lebih mendalam. Folkways Records, suatu perusahaan re- ngunjung mendekat, kaki mereka menginjak Dan keragaman pun muncul. Album 8 kaman yang memfokuskan pada musik daun-daun lontar kering yang berserakan di dan 9, misalnya, memperkenalkan beberapa rakyat dan etnik. Diusulkan oleh Alan Fein- tempat itu, sehingga timbul gangguan suara. jenis nyanyian yang sangat kontras satu sama stein, program officer di Ford Foundation, Yampolsky mengangkat tangannya untuk lain, semuanya dari satu pulau yang relatif agar Smithsonian memproduksi “dua album minta mereka berhenti. Isyarat tangan ini kecil, Pulau Flores. Indonesia terkenal akan baru tentang musik Indonesia,” berhubungan membuat penyanyi bingung sehingga mereka gamelannya, tetapi jarang ada orang yang dengan KIAS. Feinstein juga menyarankan berhenti mendadak. Take-nya rusak lagi. kenal juga jenis-jenis musik alat dawai yang supaya melibatkan Yampolsky, seorang terdapat di Kalimantan (album 13) atau etnomusikolog yang telah meriset berbagai Sulawesi Selatan (album 15). Dan gamelan genre musik Indonesia dan pernah ikut dan wayang pun beragam: album 14 berisi membangun program etnomusikologi di wayang Sasak dari Lombok, gamelan Universitas Sumatera Utara di Medan (atas Banjar dari Kalimantan Selatan, dan dhalang dana Ford Foundation). jemblung dari Banyumas (sebuah komentar Tanggapan Yampolsky agak mengejutkan: dari pinggiran terhadap tradisi adiluhung, dia menolak. Sampai sekarang ia masih dengan hanya menggunakan empat aktor- bangga karena berani mengambil sikap penyanyi, tanpa instrumen atau wayang). hanya mau membantu proyek itu jika ia boleh “Rekaman-rekaman kami,” kata Yam- merancang 12 CD, bukan dua. Untungnya, polsky, “ditujukan bagi pendengar yang Ford Foundation menerima. Kemudian, 12 berpikiran terbuka, bukan spesialis, orang- menjadi 15, dan akhirnya Seri Musik orang yang kalau melihat sebuah album Indonesia mencakup 20 album. musik dari Timor atau Mentawai akan Proses rekaman dimulai pada 1990 dan penasaran dan berpikir, ‘Wah, saya ingin tahu lama-kelamaan dilaksanakan di 23 provinsi. bagaimana musik ini!’” Disinilah etno- Proyek itu merupakan kolaborasi dengan musikologi jadi berguna, baik sebagai Masyarakat Seni Pertunjukan Indonesia disiplin akademis maupun sebagai sebuah (MSPI) dan melibatkan banyak mitra model pendekatan pada kebudayaan Indo- Indonesia: dosen dan mahasiswa etno- nesia. Etnomusikologi mulai sebagai sebuah musikologi, antropolog, dan pengamat “gerakan” dalam musikologi yang ingin kebudayaan lokal. Bersama beberapa tim menjauhi dominasi musik Barat dengan jalan kecil perekam dan peneliti, Yampolsky menggabungkan analisis musikal dengan melakukan rekaman selama kira-kira enam pengetahuan etnografis. “Ini membawa kita bulan setiap tahunnya hingga 1997, me- Poster menggambarkan ke-20 kepada penafsiran baru tentang bagaimana album dalam Seri Musik Indonesia. lompat dari pulau ke pulau. Pekerjaan bunyi musikal bermakna bagi kebudayaan editing, penyusunan materi, dan penulisan “Kami harus membujuk mereka mulai satu tertentu,” kata Endo Suanda, etnomusikolog komentar dilakukan di Amerika. kali lagi, dan akhirnya berhasil,” kata Indonesia yang tinggal di Bandung. Jabatin Bangun, seorang dekan Institut Yampolsky. Seri Musik Indonesia, bisa dikatakan, Kesenian Jakarta, yang waktu itu sering ikut “Sebenarnya,” menurut Yampolsky, menunjukkan kepada kita sesuatu yang tim rekaman, mengatakan salah satu tan- “tujuannya bukanlah untuk mencapai sesuatu selalu misterius: pengalaman orang lain. tangan utama adalah menemukan materi di yang lengkap, karena tak mungkin mewakili Sebuah cara yang berbeda untuk me- lokasi-lokasi yang belum pernah diselidiki. setiap pulau dengan semua kelompok madukan suara akhirnya mencerminkan Ia kadang-kadang dikirim untuk memeriksa etniknya. Tujuannya, membuat rekaman yang sebuah cara berbeda untuk memahami daerah baru dan melakukan kontak awal. menggambarkan – secara serius, bukan asal kehidupan. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 195

Merekam Seri Musik Indonesia. Searah jarum jam dari kiri atas: seorang perempuan Kayan Mendalam dengan alat semacam genggong, Kalimantan Barat, 1995; penari dan penyanyi dari Biak, Papua, 1994; pemain gondang Batak, Sumatera Utara, 1990; musisi Toraja, Sulawesi Selatan, 1996; penyanyi dari Kabupaten Belu, Timor barat, 1997; pemain kulintang Mongondow, Sulawesi Utara, 1997. 196 BAB LIMA

Di situlah para mahasiswa berdiskusi, dan dengan itu Legitimasinya praktis habis. Bahkan kalangan militer, yang mereka membangun kemampuan untuk menganalisis keadaan sudah mulai dipimpin generasi yang jauh lebih muda, mulai sekitarnya. Kajian kritis tentang Orde Baru dengan bebas menerimanya sebagai seorang yang tak mereka kenal dengan dilakukan di sudut-sudut yang agak tersembunyi ini. dekat. Bersama itu, di tengah kemakmuran yang tumbuh waktu Tapi apa yang harus dilakukan? Indonesia tak punya itu, terbit keinginan untuk mendekatkan diri kepada lapisan lembaga yang siap dan pengalaman politik yang cukup untuk masyarakat yang tertinggal. Ada yang mengajar baca tulis anak- mengganti kepala negaranya. Cara lama pun berulang: para anak kelas bawah di Salatiga. Ada yang melakukan advokasi mahasiswa turun ke jalan, menjebol batas kampus, dan menuntut dan menyusun program pendidikan – seperti di tahun 1978 – Suharto bagi para tukang becak. mundur. Tapi berbeda dari tahun “Kita semua mulainya dari 1978, mahasiswa kali ini tak sendirian. kiri,” kata Rizal Mallarangeng, Juga aksi protes tak hanya di Jakarta mengenang masa itu. Ia kini direktur dan kota-kota besar Jawa: di Denpasar, Freedom Institute yang membawa- Mataram, Makassar, Palu, Manado, kan gagasan liberalisme, tapi di tahun Samarinda, Bali, di Sulawesi Selatan, 1980-an ia aktivis kelompok studi di Tengah dan Utara, puluhan ribu celah-celah kampus UGM di Yog- mahasiswa turun ke jalan. Tentara dan yakarta yang tak lepas dari semangat polisi tak bisa menghalangi mereka. kiri – tradisi yang memang kuat di Beberapa bentrokan terjadi, meskipun dalam sejarah pemikiran politik tak sampai ada yang tertembak seperti Indonesia. Mallarangeng sendiri dalam kekerasan di Universitas kemudian meninggalkan paham kiri, Trisakti. setelah ia mengikuti perubahan yang Dalam keadaan tak ada partai terjadi di Uni Soviet ketika Mikhail politik oposisi yang menghimpun Gorbachev memimpin negeri itu: di perlawanan, sebuah gado-gado pun sanalah, sosialisme yang meletakkan muncul sebagai pendukung. Se- kekuasaan negara di atas mekanisme pasar hanya menghasilkan bagian besar adalah organisasi nonpemerintah yang bergerak kemacetan. di bidang-bidang khusus. Ada juga kelompok yang datang dari Tapi tak berarti mereka yang liberal tak ikut dalam oposisi kelas menengah yang mulai meluas, kaum profesional. Tak terhadap Suharto. Terutama ketika menjelang tahun 1990-an, kurang dari itu, buruh-buruh pabrik. Selebihnya orang ramai. kekuasan Presiden menjadi semakin otokratik dan, seperti Di saat-saat yang menentukan itu, kekuatan politik gado- dalam kasus BPPC dan proyek “mobil nasional,” intervensi gado ini – yang unsur-unsurnya terkadang bersaing dan negara identik dengan intervensi keluarga Cendana. Di situlah bertengkar – berusaha membuat jaringan dan aliansi. Dengan program liberalisasi perdagangan dan penghapusan monopoli koordinasi yang sering kacau, mereka itulah yang akhirnya – yang disyaratkan IMF dan didukung para teknokrat seperti menggantikan peran sebuah civil society yang di Indonesia Widjojo Nitisastro – merupakan upaya menampik Orde Baru praktis tak ada. yang telah berubah. Dengan itu sebuah pergerakan politik oposisi yang cukup Basis dukungan Suharto memang kian mengecil. acak-acakan muncul. Tapi dengan itu pula Suharto jatuh.

Mahasiswa berdemo di depan Bank Indonesia, menentang kebijakan moneter pemerintah. Jakarta, 1999. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 197

RIZAL MALLARANGENG

Ketika kuliah di UGM, Rizal Mallarangeng akrab dengan dunia diskusi. Seperti rekan-rekannya, ia sepakat dengan paham sosialisme – tapi tak lama setelah Uni Soviet bubar, dia pun beralih pada paham yang sering disebut “kanan.” Paham ini direguknya saat belajar di AS, negara yang dikaguminya. Dia menyelesaikan disertasi Ph.D. dengan bantuan Fulbright Scholarship, Ford Foundation, dan harian Kompas. Kini ia memimpin Freedom Institute dan sesekali menulis pidato Presiden Megawati Sukarnoputri. Pertengahan 1980-an saya mahasiswa di – tapi umumnya kiri sosial demokrat. Mereka Nitisastro, dan Nitisastro itu kapitalis. Yogyakarta. Saat itu isunya belum soal curiga pada perdagangan, selalu melihat Di kalangan aktivis mahasiswa praktis pemerintahan yang baik atau pemberdayaan. perdagangan bebas membuat orang kecil yang kanan dalam pengertian percaya pada Bahkan saya tak ingat apakah istilah ma- tersisih. Kalau ekonomi kanan justru melihat perdagangan bebas hanya saya. Teman- syarakat warga (civil society) sudah sebaliknya. Mereka percaya perdagangan teman, apalagi senior kita seperti Arief digunakan. Organisasi nonpemerintah belum bebas juga membantu orang miskin. Budiman dan Y.B. Mangunwijaya, dalam populer. Kalau ada orang organisasi non- Kita semua mulainya dari kiri. Kalau mau kerangka ideologi kiri dengan variasinya. pemerintah ikut diskusi dianggap, “Ah, orang jadi aktivis, baca karya Sukarno, Mohammad Saya ingat begitu Amien Rais baru pulang LSM tahu apa?” Organisasi pemerintah juga Hatta, Tan Malaka, atau Sjahrir. Mereka dari Amerika. Waktu itu buku Arief baru ada jeleknya. Misalnya, tiba-tiba satu-dua sosialis. Jadi yang memotivasi idealisme terbit, Jalan Damai ke Sosialisme. Saya pengurusnya beli mobil atau rumahnya pemuda, sejarah Indonesia, memang so- ketua panitia diskusi buku itu. Arief Budiman bagus. Saat itu zaman diskusi mahasiswa sialisme. Tradisi intelektual Indonesia juga kita undang dari Salatiga. Pembahasnya didominasi pribadi-pribadi yang Amien Rais. Waktu saya beri tahu, populer: Goenawan Mohamad, Amien bilang, “Iya, saya suka ini, Umar Kayam, Y.B. Mangunwijaya, sosialisme.” Arief Budiman. Hanya, tahun 1986, ada Mikhail Akhir 1980-an organisasi non- Gorbachev di Uni Soviet. Saya salah pemerintah mulai populer sebagai satu di antara teman-teman aktivis sebuah nama yang identik dengan yang belajar politik secara sistem- perjuangan melawan rezim Pre- atis. Fakultas saya politik, yang lain siden Suharto dan membantu kan ada yang filsafat, hukum. Jadi rakyat sadar terhadap hak-haknya. saya belajar bagaimana Gorbachev Majalah Prisma banyak berperan naik dan Uni Soviet kesulitan. dengan tulisan-tulisan dari Dawam Dalam pengamatan pribadi saya, Rahardjo dan Abdurrahman Wahid. pasti ada yang salah dengan so- Gus Dur masuk pertama ke sialisme. Kawan-kawan bilang kalangan aktivis bukan sebagai bahwa yang salah prakteknya. Saya ketua Nahdlatul Ulama tapi sebagai tak percaya. Saya beralih ke liberal pemimpin NGO. Gus Dur dipilih sejak itu. Umumnya kawan-kawan sebagai ketua NU tahun 1980 dan tetap saja kiri. salah satu programnya adalah Sekarang isunya sudah beda Rizal Mallarangeng, Jakarta, 1992. membuat NGO kecil-kecil di ba- lagi. Sekarang fungsi organisasi nyak daerah NU. nonpemerintah diambil alih oleh Pada awal 1990-an aktivis mahasiswa dan begitu: semua kiri dalam spektrum yang partai politik. Tantangan terbesar sekarang organisasi nonpemerintah menyatu. Inilah berbeda. Indonesia tak punya tradisi menginstitusionalisasikan demokrasi. Kita elemen pergerakan yang sebenarnya. Mo- intelektual kanan dari awal. mesti meningkatkan kualitas partisipasi sosial mentumnya waduk Kedung Ombo. Kata civil Apalagi teori-teori populer yang dibawa dan politik. Partai politik adalah pemain society mulai muncul. Banyak aktivis oleh orang-orang yang baru pulang belajar kunci. Kalau mau pemerintahan yang baik, mahasiswa Bandung, Yogyakarta, dan dari luar negeri adalah paham-paham kiri harus ada konsolidasi partai politik. Partai Jakarta, yang selesai kuliah, masuk organisasi yang sudah dimodifikasi. Di pertengahan politik harus memperkuat dan membangun nonpemerintah, atau bahkan mendirikannya. 1980 ada Arief Budiman, Amien Rais, dan dirinya. Pertanyaannya bukan kita percaya Aktivis Kedung Ombo banyak yang kemudian Nurcholish Madjid. Mereka pulang dan pada mereka atau tidak, tapi selain itu membentuk Partai Rakyat Demokratik. membawa suasana intelektual yang segar. pilihannya apa? Tanpa partai politik tak bisa Umumnya organisasi-organisasi aktivis Jangan lupa, sosialisme bukan hanya karena ada demokrasi – itu kenyataan. Jalan ini kiri dalam beberapa variasinya. Ada kiri ada tradisi, tapi juga untuk melawan Suharto, keluarnya, partai politik mesti diperbaiki. keras – komunis dalam identifikasi ideologis karena cap Suharto adalah cap Widjojo Caranya bagaimana, itu pertanyaannya. 198 BAB LIMA

Begitu bersendirinyakah dia pada akhirnya? Di malam sebelum Tak diketahui bagaimana hadirin yang lain bereaksi. ia meletakkan jabatan, Presiden Suharto bertemu dengan Hanya Gus Dur yang membantah Madjid. Ia menganggap, sembilan orang laki-laki di sebuah ruangan di Istana Negara. demikianlah diutarakannya di pertemuan itu, dengan ide itu Semuanya tokoh-tokoh Islam – agaknya petunjuk tentang Madjid akan menghancurkan Suharto. Baginya, rencana makin besarnya pengaruh kalangan Muslim dalam politik Suharto patut diterima. Sehabis pertemuan, melalui televisi, Indonesia ketika itu. Di antaranya tampak dua cendekiawan Gus Dur yang duduk di kursi roda, kurus, dan setengah buta, terkemuka Nurcholish Madjid dan Abdurrahman Wahid alias sisa-sisa akibat stroke yang dideritanya beberapa bulan yang Gus Dur. Beberapa ulama Nahdlatul Ulama juga ada di sana. lalu, menyatakan agar mahasiswa menghentikan aksi-aksi Yang tak tampak secara mencolok adalah Amien Rais, ketua mereka. umum Muhammadiyah – orang yang waktu itu telah terang- Tapi akhirnya saran Madjid-lah yang dituruti Suharto. terangan menentang Suharto. Malam itu ia sadar, ia sendirian. Bahkan Harmoko telah Di ruang itu, Presiden menjelaskan tujuannya bertemu: mengingkarinya. Ia merencanakan menyusun kembali kabinet, seperti dituntut para mahasiswa, ia akan mengadakan reformasi. tapi 14 menterinya menolak untuk ikut. Ketika ia meminta Ia bersedia mengundurkan diri. Langkah itu nanti akan Nurcholish Madjid agar memimpin “Komite Reformasi” yang diambilnya setelah sebuah pemilihan umum yang akan dirancangnya, permintaan itu ditolak. diselenggarakannya sesegera mungkin. “Saya telah kapok Di pucuk kekuasaannya, Suharto rupanya tak tahu lagi menjadi presiden,” katanya, seperti diceritakan Nurcholish sejauh mana ia didukung rakyat. Parlemen yang dibentuknya Madjid. adalah perwakilan yang palsu. Para mahasiswa yang menyemut Ia memberi kesan bahwa ia bersedia mengalah. Tak di Senayan itu jelas melawannya. Juga sejumlah individu dan disangka-sangka Nurcholish Madjid memberikan pendapat organisasi masyarakat yang mengimbaunya untuk berhenti. yang sama sekali lain. “Reformasi,” kata Madjid dengan sopan Dalam keadaan seperti itu, seperti kata pepatah, “karena tapi jelas, berarti, “Pak Harto harus turun saat ini juga.” tak ada elang, belalang pun bisa tampil sebagai elang.” Hari-

Presiden Suharto berunding dengan tokoh-tokoh Islam di Istana Merdeka pada 20 Mei 1998, sehari sebelum ia mengundurkan diri. Di antara hadirin terdapat Abdurrahman Wahid (di kursi roda) yang kemudian jadi presiden. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 199

STEPANUS DJUWENG

Pada 1990 ada beberapa pemuda Dayak merasa prihatin dengan terpinggirnya kebudayaan orang Dayak di Kalimantan Barat. Mereka membuat kelompok studi di bawah naungan Yayasan Pancur Kasih, sebuah organisasi sosial di Pontianak, dan mulai mengadakan penelitian dan publikasi. Kelompok studi ini adalah cikal bakal Institut Dayakologi – sebuah lembaga nirlaba yang bergerak di bidang revitalisasi dan advokasi kebudayaan Dayak. Mereka memperjuangkan identitas Dayak dalam Indonesia yang multikultural ini. Salah satu pemuda itu bernama Stepanus Djuweng. Pada awal 1990-an itu kami melihat orang dan Sarawak, diterbitkan harian Kompas. Rakyat Sarawak). Orang-orang Dayak dipakai Dayak di Kalimantan Barat itu single Dari situ kita berbicara di bawah payung untuk mengusir warga Tionghoa dengan majority, 40-43 persen dari jumlah populasi, Pancur Kasih untuk riset dan pengembangan. pembunuhan sehingga orang Tionghoa tak lagi tapi minority in roles, tak ada warna Pada 1992 Institut Dayakologi Research tinggal di pedesaan. Ternyata dari seluruh agresi kebudayaan Dayak yang patut ditonjolkan. Development berdiri sendiri. Pada 2002 ia itu tak hanya semata-mata karena pertikaian Dari segi penelitian antropologi, budaya, berubah bentuk dari yayasan menjadi berdimensi etnik. Dari statistik, konflik Dayak- sosial sama sekali tak pernah Madura pertama terjadi 1950. disentuh. Mereka dianggap Lalu terjadi lagi konflik Dayak- primitif, perambah hutan, Tionghoa 1967. Jadi ada selang ladang berpindah, suku ter- 17 tahun. Sejak tahun 1967, asing. Beda dengan peng- konflik Dayak-Madura ada 14 hormatan terhadap keber- kali dan terjadi selama 32 tahun. adaan Dayak di Sarawak, Jadi intervalnya 2,6 tahun per Malaysia. konflik. Kalau dibandingkan Kami tak menyalahkan dengan periode sebelumnya siapa-siapa. Bila orang Dayak yang hanya 17 tahun, berarti mau dikenal nilai-nilai bu- suatu peningkatan yang maha- dayanya dan mau dihormati dahsyat. tradisinya, maka mesti ada Konflik itu terjadi dengan lembaga yang spesial dalam mahadahsyat karena memang penelitian dan publikasi ke- terjadi suatu konspirasi dalam budayaan Dayak. Ini akan manajemen bernegara, yaitu memungkinkan pengambilan membuat konflik di mana-mana keputusan yang sesuai dengan supaya pihak militer bisa meng- Stepanus Djuweng di Pontianak, 2003. aspirasi dan keinginan orang ambil kekuasaan dan men- Dayak. Warga Dayak selama jadikan dirinya the balance of ini tanahnya dirampas. Penindasan selama perkumpulan dengan nama baru Institut power. Buktinya banyak. berabad-abad. Perampasan terhadap sumber Dayakologi. Institut Dayakologi melakukan rekonsiliasi daya alam tercermin dari proses diskriminasi Kita berdiri 1990 dan pada 1994 sudah dan peace building untuk mengatasi konflik legal terhadap warga Dayak. Pada masa Orde ada konflik Dayak-Madura di Pontianak. ini. Itu terutama dilakukan tak hanya dengan Baru ada empat undang-undang, dengan Tahun 1996-1997 ada konflik Dayak-Madura cara-cara yang konvensional, seminar, loka- kira-kira 200 peraturan turunannya yang yang sangat besar di Kalimantan Barat. Tahun karya, dan segala macam, tapi juga dengan diskriminatif terhadap orang Dayak, antara 2000 terjadi lagi di Kalimantan Tenggara. Itu tindakan-tindakan nyata lewat pemberdayaan lain UU Pokok Agraria, UU Pokok Kehutanan, meremuk-redamkan perasaan dan hati kita. ekonomi rakyat yang sifatnya menyeluruh. UU Pertambangan, dan UU Pokok Pe- Itu pelanggaran hak asasi manusia. Pem- Menurut dugaan kita konflik akan segera merintahan Desa. bunuhan sama sekali tak bisa dibenarkan. berakhir. Selain mahasiswa, saya juga sekretaris Kalau kita baca sejarah Kalimantan Barat, Kami kerja dengan banyak lembaga tapi eksekutif Yayasan Pancur Kasih. Saya konflik memang sejarah provinsi ini dan Ford Foundation yang paling berkesan. Kami berkumpul dengan anak-anak muda dan sebagian memang direkayasa para politisi, tak hanya dapat bantuan program tapi juga mendirikan lembaga advokasi dan publikasi militer maupun sipil. Misalnya konflik endowment fund. Mula-mula diberi $100.000 kebudayaan Dayak. Dimulai dari studi kecil Tionghoa dan Dayak tahun 1967. Itu rekayasa pada 1997. Kami dinilai mampu mengem- Yayasan Pancur Kasih lalu dilakukan diskusi militer dalam rangka menumpas suplai bangkannya. Pada 2001 kami diberi lagi dan diterbitkan di suratkabar. Salah satunya, logistik gerakan Paraku/PGRS (Pasukan $500.000. Sekarang total sudah jadi Rp 7 milyar analisis saya tentang situasi politik di Sabah Rakyat Kalimantan Utara/Pasukan Gerilya karena kami bungakan. 200 BAB LIMA hari itu, para mahasiswa dan sejumlah aktivis organisasi memberi informasi kepada warga. Pada suatu saat ketika nonpemerintah muncul sebagai sebuah kekuatan oposisi yang lembaga ini berusaha melahirkan sebuah undang-undang galak, yang tampak bersatu padu. Aliansi dan jaringan itu perlindungan konsumen, ia harus berhadapan dengan sebuah sebetulnya rapuh. Satu dasawarsa sebelumnya, para mahasiswa Parlemen yang lemah dan acuh tak acuh. Sebuah bangunan umumnya menjauhi perkumpulan-perkumpulan ini, yang di kekuasaan menghendaki demikian. Bangunan itulah yang harus antaranya didirikan pemerintah untuk membantu mengatasi digedor. problem-problem pembangunan. Ketika di tahun 1983 sebutan Wahana Lingkungan Hidup (WALHI) adalah contoh non-governmental organization (NGO) berubah menjadi lain. Didirikan untuk ikut menjaga kelestarian dan perbaikan “lembaga swadaya masyarakat” (LSM), orang-orang yang aktif mutu lingkungan melalui kampanye, studi, dan pelatihan, Walhi di dalamnya memang menunjukkan sikap terlampau berhati- pada akhirnya harus menantang pemerintah. Di pertengahan hati: kata NGO atau organisasi nonpemerintah seakan-akan 1994, para aktivisnya ikut menuntut pemerintah ke pengadilan. mengambil posisi menolak. Sebaliknya, kata LSM tak Dituduhkan bahwa pemerintah Suharto telah mengambil dana memberikan kesan konfrontatif. Tapi lebih dari satu dasawarsa penghijauan hutan Rp 400 milyar untuk membantu IPTN yang kemudian hal itu berubah. Justru konfrontasilah yang jadi didirikan oleh Menteri Riset dan Teknologi B.J. Habibie. coraknya. Konfrontasi yang lebih sering terjadi di YLBHI. Organisasi nonpemerintah ini, diniatkan atau tidak, pada Organisasi yang semula berdiri untuk memberi bantuan orang gilirannya terdorong untuk ikut mempengaruhi kebijakan miskin dalam perkara hukum, dengan segera menyadari bahwa publik. Berangsur-angsur, politik jadi bagian penting dalam proses hukum di Indonesia sangat tergantung pada kekuasaan. hidup mereka. YLKI akhirnya tak selesai hanya dengan Sebaliknya, para pejabat juga mulai berang. Di beberapa daerah,

Pemilik toko VCD di Surakarta, Jawa Tengah, 2003. Ia dibantu oleh Yayasan Talenta, lembaga yang bekerja membangun rasa percaya diri dan keterampilan para difable. Petani, ketua adat, dan staf Eltayasa mengobrol. NGO ini memperjuangkan partisipasi warga dalam pemerintahan setempatnya. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 201 202 BAB LIMA

ZOEMROTIN K. SUSILO

Pasca rezim Suharto, Zoemrotin K. Susilo memasuki dunia yang dianggap kotor oleh kebanyakan aktivis perempuan: dunia politik. Ia bahkan ikut mendirikan Partai Amanat Nasional bersama Amien Rais. Zoemrotin percaya pentingnya peran partai politik dalam sebuah sistem demokrasi dan tak boleh ada orang yang menganggap dirinya terlalu suci untuk masuk ke partai politik. Dia kini pening memikirkan bagaimana kuota perempuan 30 persen akan terisi dengan orang yang berkualitas. Zoemrotin juga sibuk sebagai anggota Komisi Nasional Hak-hak Asasi Manusia. Sebelumnya dia lebih dikenal sebagai pemimpin YLKI. YLKI awalnya sebuah organisasi yang begitu masuk di dunia politik, bila ketemu berbenturan dengan karakter partai politik mengandalkan semangat volunterisme para kawan, ditertawai, “Wah ini orangnya yang tujuannya lebih untuk memperoleh aktivisnya yang tinggi. Mayoritas kami adalah Amien Rais.” Kelihatannya sederhana, tapi kekuasaan dan kemenangan. Tapi kita juga ibu-ibu yang sedikit mapan, yang ingin berdampak menekan. konyol kalau tak mau bekerja sama dengan mengisi waktu untuk melakukan sesuatu yang Padahal saat mau jadi calon legislatif, saya orang partai atau pemerintah karena masih bermanfaat bagi kaum lemah. Manfaat harus kirim surat ke organisasi tempat saya ada orang partai dan pemerintah, yang lembaga ini kemudian dirasakan banyak bekerja untuk mengundurkan diri: YLKI, berpikiran benar dan bersih. Sebaliknya, saat warga. Ford Foundation lembaga donor International NGO Forum on Indonesian ini organisasi nonpemerintah ada juga yang pertama yang membantu untuk program. Development, agar organisasi-organisasi nakal dan korup. Friedrich Naumann Stiftung memberi dana tersebut terjaga independensinya dan tak Sekarang ada sesuatu yang menyedihkan untuk pengembangan institusi. partisan. Berat rasanya menulis surat itu. di kalangan perempuan. Perempuan meng- Ketika Suharto mau kampanyekan kuota 30 jatuh, organisasi macam persen di Parlemen untuk YLKI, makin getol me- mendapatkan posisi stra- lakukan advokasi karena tegis, termasuk di partai ingin segera terjadi peru- politik, dan berhasil. Tapi bahan politik. Banyak realitasnya, untuk mem- aktivis seperti Nursyahbani peroleh perempuan yang Katjasungkana dan Karlina punya potensi, kualitas dan Leksono, di akhir kekua- bersedia duduk di Par- saan Suharto, bekerja sa- lemen atau partai tidak ma, bahu-membahu men- mudah. Para perempuan dukung gerakan maha- yang berpotensi, banyak siswa untuk mendorong yang ragu, tak bersedia. jatuhnya rezim Suharto. Bisa jadi ini karena Bahkan seperti barteran: suasana dunia partai masih aku bantu Mbak Nur di belum menunjukkan de- tempatnya, dia pasti bantu mokrasi atau belum ter- di tempatku. Salah satu Zoemrotin K. Susilo dengar pendapat di Parlemen, 2002. bentuk sikap yang men- persoalan kita memang junjung kebenaran. Tokoh- masalah kekurangan orang yang benar- Ikatan batin saya dengan YLKI selama 25 tokoh partai bisa memutarbalikkan banyak benar mau melakukan sesuatu untuk tahun begitu kuat. Waktu mau kampanye hal untuk memenangkan kelompoknya. menguatkan masyarakat sipil. di Cilacap, saya naik kereta sendiri. Saya Saya tahu demokrasi memang mesti diper- Waktu itu ada alternatif pemikiran, berpikir, “Apa yang saya cari? Organisasi juangkan, tapi harus ada etika dalam apakah kita akan tetap berteriak di luar atau nonpemerintah yang membesarkan saya memperjuangkannya. Etika ini tak terlihat masuk ke dalam? Ada diskusi dengan Koalisi harus ditinggalkan, sementara di dunia dalam partai politik. Perempuan, mengatur strategi untuk berbagi politik tidak jelas siapa teman dan siapa Jadi, saya malah khawatir orang-orang peran. Saya memutuskan masuk ke dunia lawan.” Saya merenung dalam perjalanan. yang mengampanyekan kuota sebetulnya tak politik. Ternyata akhirnya tak ada dukungan. Awalnya ada semangat untuk membangun siap. Ini harus menjadi satu renungan bagi Terkucilkan. Yang sudah masuk ke dunia partai yang idealismenya tinggi. Apa tak bisa para perempuan. Kita bicara 30 persen tapi politik dianggap aneh oleh teman-teman pengalaman di organisasi nonpemerintah siapa yang masuk di dalamnya? Akhirnya sendiri. Itu membuat saya merasa sendiri dan dipakai untuk membangun partai baru yang karena perempuan yang berpotensi dan kesepian. Bekerja itu menyenangkan kalau berlandaskan keadilan dan kebenaran? berkualitas tidak bersedia, 30 persen dalam ada kebersamaan. Saya masuk partai dengan Ternyata tidak mudah, karakter NGO yang jumlah tercapai, tapi yang masuk jangan- pikiran mau membuat sinergi antara teman mempunyai konsistensi tinggi dalam mem- jangan yang tidak berkualitas. Ini meng- yang di dalam dan yang di luar. Ternyata perjuangkan suatu kebenaran, harus khawatirkan. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 203

FARHA CICIEK

Kecewa pada organisasi kemahasiswaan zaman ia sekolah, Farha Ciciek memutuskan untuk tak pernah bergabung dengan organisasi kemahasiswaan di IAIN Yogyakarta, tempat ia belajar filsafat, yang dinilainya tak Islami. Ini tak berarti Ciciek tak aktif memperjuangkan apa yang diyakininya penting: kesetaraan perempuan. Kini Ciciek, memimpin organisasi perempuan Rahima, bekerja sama dengan Ford Foundation, menggunakan pendekatan agama dalam menjawab persoalan perempuan. Kenapa kami pakai pendekatan agama, itu tapi tidak ada jembatan antara kelompok Soal kampanye syariat Islam, dalam ceritanya jauh ke belakang. Berangkat dari perempuan dengan latar belakang tradi- situasi bangsa Indonesia seperti ini, plural- realitas Yogyakarta, saya dan kawan- sional dan yang “modernis.” Kami lalu isme adalah suatu situasi yang niscaya. Di kawan sebagai mahasiswa bikin diskusi- berpikir bagaimana kalau kami menge- Suara Rahima, kami terbitkan isu-isu yang diskusi. Ini biasa karena Yogyakarta dan depankan hak-hak perempuan secara strategis. Salah satunya syariah Islam. Kami dunia mahasiswa adalah tempat diskusi. umum serta merangkul lebih banyak cari dananya dari Ford Foundation. Tapi tak Kami pun mengadakan diskusi dengan isu- kelompok perempuan yang Islam. Jadi cukup karena hanya untuk konstituen isu perempuan. Waktu kami adakan bukan hanya kelompok dengan basis terbatas. Padahal kelompok-kelompok diskusi, ramai sekali yang datang. Di Nahdlatul Ulama, tapi juga yang lainnya agama yang lain, juga butuh informasi: perpustakaan sampai berdiri-diri, walau syariat Islam itu seperti apa sih? Kok ruangnya itu sumuk dan panas. Mungkin menakutkan. Kan banyak orang lain tidak karena ada kebutuhan. tahu? Lalu kami cari dana. Kemudian kami Pada 1987, kami mencoba memasuk- cetak dengan jumlah 3.500 eksemplar. kan persepsi perempuan dalam melihat Hasilnya, dibagikan kepada jaringan realitas ekonomi dan politik. Isu-isu teman-teman yang ada dalam kelompok perempuan diangkat secara khusus. agama lain. Misalnya untuk Biro Wanita Sudah tentu kami diserang, dengan dalih Persekutuan Gereja-gereja Indonesia, agama. Sementara, teman-teman tak Konferensi Waligereja Indonesia, dan ada yang punya basis itu. Saya sendiri, segala jaringan mitra perempuan. walaupun sekolah di IAIN, pada saat itu Syariat Islam muncul sebagai isu panas. digelari “kiri luar” karena saya lebih Ada kelompok-kelompok yang berjuang banyak bicara pada isu-isu kerakyatan keras untuk mengaplikasikan syariat Islam dan ekonomi. Skripsi saya berjudul dalam versi mereka, ke negara Indonesia. “Kemiskinan Berdasarkan Perspektif al- Kira-kira model yang ingin diterapkan dalam Quran.” istilah, adalah bentuk “syariat Islam yang Tapi, teman-teman pada saat itu true beku” – mohon maaf bagi teman-teman yang believers, orang yang betul-betul per- sealiran dengan itu. Ya, model syariat Islam caya. Kami percaya bahwa Tuhan tak yang berasal dari produk abad ke tujuh atau mungkin tidak adil. Kami juga tahu saat delapan atau ke berapa gitu ya? itu bahwa penafsiran berkembang sesuai Kami pada dasarnya tak menentang apa dengan pola pikir si penafsir. Dari yang dinamakan syariat Islam. Tapi apa situlah dimulai penggalian dan tafsir- isinya? Kami tak setuju klaim teman-teman tafsir yang properempuan. Strategi kami bahwa syariat Islam itu merupakan satu Farha Ciciek bicara di seminar Madura, 2002. kemudian adalah mencoba untuk mem- paket yang tak bisa diutak-atik. Syariat bedah konteks ini. Mengkaji kenapa ada seperti Himpunan Mahasiswa Islam, Per- Islam tergantung zaman, tempat, dan waktu. dua banding satu dalam soal pembagian satuan Islam. Ia bersifat luwes. Bukan sesuatu yang mati. warisan; kenapa poligami diperbolehkan. Rahima punya mitra di beberapa Nah dalam hal inilah kita sedang “bertarung.” Dengan segala keterbatasan, kami me- tempat. Kami ingin membantu mitra kami Saya sendiri tak setuju jika agama nerjemahkan buku tentang hak-hak per- dan menunjang kemampuannya untuk dijadikan sama dengan negara atau negara empuan dan Islam. Hal itu memunculkan menyebarkan apa yang sudah dia da- sama dengan agama. Secara normatif hal diskusi yang berimbang. patkan. Ini program penguatan jaringan. ini akan memangkas nilai-nilai tinggi Ketika di Rahima, saya lihat ada Jadi orang-orang yang sudah ada diharap- agama. Dan kemudian agama akan menjadi berbagai perkembangan. Baik perkem- kan bisa menyebarluaskan perspektifnya di alat politik. Dia kehilangan kesucian dan bangan kawan-kawan sendiri, lalu ada juga kalangan lokal, di lingkungan mereka. kesakralannya. Saya lebih memilih agama perkembangan sosial-politik-ekonomi yang Dengan menggunakan kekuatan mereka sebagai pribadi. Urusan dunia? Coba kita lebih kompleks, ada radikalisme agama, masing-masing. kelola dengan akal yang baik. 204 BAB LIMA SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 205 206 BAB LIMA SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 207 mereka kian sering menjumpai orang-orang miskin yang jadi Menghadapi penolakan itu, penguasa setempat memakai berani menggugatnya, karena LBH mendampingi mereka. cara yang bagi mereka efektif: memaksa. Samadi, warga Dukuh Akhirnya, pelbagai LSM pun berkembang menjadi Nglanji yang berumur 60 tahun, adalah salah satu contohnya. gerakan perlawanan. Seperti dikatakan Zoemrotin Susilo dari Ia mula-mula tak hendak menyentuh uang ganti rugi. Ia pun YLKI, ketika setiap advokasi yang dilancarkan LSM dianggap digiring ke kantor petugas militer setempat. Di hadapan camat, perlawanan, maka tak ada pilihan lain. Dalam kata-kata Widji muka orang tua itu digampar. Ia menyerah. Ia membubuhkan Tukul, penyair pembawa suara kaum miskin itu, “Hanya ada cap jempol persetujuan, dan melepas pekarangannya yang seluas satu kata: Lawan!” 2.700 meter persegi untuk ditukar dengan uang Rp 1,5 juta. Oposisi itu mula-mula menemukan teladannya di Ia memang masih menyimpan sepetak sawah dan sebuah sebuah dusun miskin di Jawa Tengah, di tahun 1986. Sebuah gubuk. Majalah Tempo, dalam sebuah reportase panjang tentang waduk besar akan dibangun di wilayah Kedung Ombo, untuk Kedung Ombo menceritakan bagaimana di depan gubuk itu membendung Sungai Serang, 90 kilometer di tenggara Samadi memasang bendera Merah-Putih di tiang setinggi 10 Semarang. Petani yang bertahun-tahun hidup di wilayah seluas meter. Dengan memandang bendera itu, katanya, “Saya masih 37 desa itu harus dipindah. Wilayah baru disediakan, juga janji bisa ngrumaosi nggadhahi nagari (merasa punya tanah air).” untuk bertransmigrasi. Tapi tak semua penduduk mau. Tanah Tapi di tanah airnya, Samadi dan para tetangganya pengganti dianggap tak cukup luas, uang ganti rugi tak terpojok. Beberapa penduduk ditangkap dengan tuduhan memadai atau dikorupsi para petugas. mencuri kayu hutan milik negara. Belasan orang mendapatkan

Para petani setempat mengklaim tanah mereka yang dulu direbut jadi lapangan golf di Jawa Barat, 1998. Perahu nelayan terdampar di dasar sungai karena air dialirkan ke waduk Kedung Ombo, 1992. Belajar di pesantren Krapyak di Jawa Tengah, 2003. 208 BAB LIMA kartu penduduk yang diberi kode “ET,” tanda yang ditakuti, inilah yang membiayai sebagian besar dana pembangunan sebab itu berarti mereka termasuk “Eks Tahanan (Politik)” atau waduk. Bank Dunia kali ini terpaksa mendengarkan. PKI. Kepada mereka dikatakan bahwa bila mereka bersedia Seperti dikatakan aktivis dan cendekiawan Arief ikut transmigrasi, tanda itu akan dihapus. Budiman, “Kasus Kedung Ombo merupakan kasus pertama Akhir Agustus 1986, sejumlah penduduk mengadu ke di Indonesia di mana kerja sama antara NGO Indonesia dan LBH Yogyakarta. Ketika pemberian ganti rugi makin seret, di NGO luar negeri bisa menghasilkan sesuatu yang nyata.” pertengahan Februari 1987 mereka datang ke Parlemen lokal Dalam arti tertentu, teladan Kedung Ombo sebenarnya Jawa Tengah di Semarang. Ketika tak ada hasil, enam bulan belum sebuah perlawanan politik yang kemudian merebak satu kemudian mereka mengadu dasawarsa kemudian. Betapa ke YLBHI Jakarta. pun kerasnya kritik mereka, Sejak itulah sejumlah umumnya LSM masih ingin LSM terlibat, meskipun tak mengubah keadaan secara ber- selamanya mantap. Pendorong tahap, tanpa mengubah yang militan adalah para maha- bangunan kekuasaan yang siswa. Bersama mereka ada Y.B. dihadapi. Meskipun demikian, Mangunwijaya, pastor dan dari pengalaman Kedung Om- sastrawan terkenal, yang dengan bo makin tumbuh keyakinan segera jadi sosok utama gerakan diri LSM dalam menghadapi ini. Dengan segera aksi membela pemerintah. Mereka men- petani yang menolak digusur itu dapatkan dukungan politik, mendapatkan publisitas luas. dan juga dana, dari negeri- Pemerintah mencoba negeri donor yang memberi menahan publisitas itu. Pers utang kepada pemerintah Indo- dikekang, sengketa di Ke- nesia atau dari badan swasta di dung Ombo tak boleh negeri-negeri itu. Orang-orang disiarkan. Tapi keadaan Suharto memang menuduh berubah. Para aktivis memperoleh sekutu baru yang tak bisa mereka tidak patriotik, tapi kali ini tak mudah bagi pemerintah diremehkan pemerintah: sejumlah LSM luar negeri. untuk menindak LSM yang tak mereka sukai. Di masa ketika International NGO Forum on Indonesia (INGI), pimpinan pemerintah tak lagi bisa mengandalkan petrodollar, tekanan Abdul Hakim Garuda Nusantara, merupakan penggerak pendapat internasional jadi makin diperhitungkan. dukungan untuk petani Kedung Ombo di forum internasional. Pengalaman Kedung Ombo juga memberikan sesuatu Dukungan itu terutama untuk mengingatkan Bank Dunia. yang lain: dari sini orientasi yang lebih radikal makin tampak. Lembaga internasional pemberi pinjaman berbunga lunak Sebagian mahasiswa yang terjun membela para petani di desa-

Y.B. Mangunwijaya, tokoh gerakan protes waduk Kedung Ombo, di rumahnya di Yogyakarta, 1986. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 209

LIES MARCOES-NATSIR

Lulus dari IAIN pada 1986, Lies Marcoes-Natsir memasuki dunia penelitian dengan bekerja bersama beberapa peneliti Belanda. Minatnya pada antropologi agama makin terpupuk. Ia mulai melihat isu kesetaraan gender lebih seksama. Dia percaya, untuk menghadapi resistensi kelompok agama terhadap isu gender, pembongkaran sekaligus pembenaran harus dicari dari sumber yang sama: agama. Awal pendekatan ini dari Lembaga Pene- mungkin karena wadah saya saat itu 2000 Wahid mengeluarkan Instruksi Presiden litian, Pendidikan dan Penerangan Ekonomi Kalyanamitra, di bawah bendera feminis agar gender menjadi arus utama dalam dan Sosial (LP3ES) zaman Dawam Rahardjo. sekular. Jadi susah meskipun saya lulusan seluruh rancangan pembangunan dari Mereka punya program pengembangan IAIN dan moyang saya dari pesantren. Tak perencanaan sampai pelaksanaan. Jadi masyarakat untuk kelompok Islam terutama ada legitimasi dari institusi. Sejak itulah saya minimal ada pedoman dan alokasi bujet. pesantren. Mereka percaya bahwa kalau bergabung dengan P3M. Meskipun mereka Teman-teman para feminis dari negara- bicara soal akar rumput, pesantren tak bisa juga tak tahu-menahu soal keadilan gender. negara Islam merasa iri. Kita memang paling ditinggalkan. Di P3M kami mulai dengan kesehatan progresif di antara seluruh negara Islam Singkatnya, LP3ES percaya pada komu- reproduksi menggunakan perspektif dalam percakapan soal gender. Lihat nitas pesantren sebagai basis. Ini beda dari gender dan Islam. Pilihan tema itu jelas Malaysia, apalagi Timur Tengah. Di sana kata program yang dilakukan organisasi non- berkaitan dengan trend internasional pasca “gender” saja tak boleh disebut. Dibanding pemerintah besar, seperti Bina mereka, kita luar biasa, mana ada Swadaya. Mereka juga ke pe- kyai dan nyai bicara keadilan santren tapi hanya “kula nuwun” gender di negara lain. Ini jelas untuk masuk ke desa. Pada 1987 membantu banyak pihak, mi- lahir Perhimpunan Pengembang- salnya Komisi Nasional Perem- an Pesantren dan Masyarakat puan, dan teman-teman aktivis (P3M) yang didirikan orang- pemberdayaan dalam bidang orang LP3ES. Beda dengan in- kesehatan reproduksi. duknya, P3M masuk ke wacana Menurut saya, keberhasilan teologis pesantren. Bicaranya gerakan kesadaran gender di langsung pada seluruh tataan Indonesia berpangkal pada cara pikir pesantren lewat kitab, kesediaan kelompok Muslim kultur pesantren, dan meng- untuk rendah hati mengakui gunakan kharisma kyai. adanya tafsir keagamaan yang Tapi setelah beberapa tahun, bias gender yang merugikan perubahan di pesantren tak ter- perempuan. Kemudian mencari lalu terlihat. Ini karena kawan- solusinya dari Islam sendiri. Jadi kawan mengalami semacam perdebatan dalam Islam soal ini romantika, seakan-akan pe- menjadi sangat kaya. santren mewakili masyarakat Dalam sebuah pertemuan bawah yang “asli,” terbuka, dan soal gender dan Islam pada 2000, lugu. Ternyata dunia pesantren Lies Marcoes-Natsir bicara pada sebuah aksi perempuan, Jakarta, 1998. kita berusaha mengenali masalah bisa hierarkis, otoriter, dan resisten terhadap Konferensi Kependudukan di Kairo tahun yang dihadapi gerakan perempuan di perubahan. Problemnya tak sederhana. 1995. Sejalan dengan itu, saya pun dikirim Indonesia. Kesimpulannya, ada ketak- Mengiringi maraknya isu gender di era ke Universitas Amsterdam untuk mendalami berdayaan dalam mengontrol pemerintah 1980-an, kita menghadapi kuatnya resistensi. antropologi kesehatan (1999-2000). karena kita tak masuk ke sistem politik. Kita Pendeknya, bahkan orang yang getol teriak Menurut saya, dibanding seluruh pro- tak mau karena kita merasa jijik. Kita demokrasi pun ikut menolak gender, gram yang pernah masuk ke pesantren, tak merasa suci. minimal curiga. Pangkalnya, mereka percaya ada yang berhasil macam program pe- Sekarang ada sedikit perubahan. relasi lelaki-perempuan adalah adil, kekal, nyadaran keadilan gender ini. Efeknya Misalnya, tuntutan kuota 30 persen per- dan sudah digariskan Tuhan. Jadi, meski membantu penyelesaian problem yang empuan. Terlepas dari mutu, orang minimal gender sebenarnya menggugat relasi lelaki- dihadapi kelompok feminis nonagama mau berdebat soal gender. Memasukkan perempuan yang ditimbang akal sehat dalam mensosialisasikan isu gender. Saat itu perspektif keadilan gender bagi Indonesia sebagai kurang adil, tanggapannya langsung penolakan terhadap kelompok feminis besar ke depan sebenarnya sangat mengun- ke isu agama. Saya dan teman-teman mulai sekali, dan kelompok feminis tak berdaya tungkan. Minimal pemerintah bisa sensitif berpikir menggunakan pendekatan agama, menghadapi argumen agama. Program ini kepada kelompok marginal lain. Misalnya tapi ketika itu tak bisa. Pertama, kajian soal juga menolong pemerintahan Abdurrahman kelompok suku, ras, agama, kaum cacat gender dan agama masih langka. Kedua, Wahid untuk mengutamakan gender. Pada fisik yang aksesnya rendah. 210 BAB LIMA desa itu kemudian bergabung dengan Partai Rakyat bersembunyi di sebuah rumah di Bekasi. Seorang rohaniwan Demokratik (PRD) – partai politik pertama yang dibentuk Katolik muda menyembunyikan pemuda-pemuda itu di sana. dan menantang langsung Orde Baru. Tapi tempat itu ketahuan, dan mereka ditangkap. Beberapa tahun kemudian, 22 Juli 1996 malam, di Sudah 10 hari badan intelijen militer memburu mereka. ruangan kantor YLBHI Jakarta yang dikenai cahaya neon yang Menteri Koordinator Politik dan Keamanan Soesilo Soedarman terbatas, Budiman Sudjatmiko, aktivis berumur 26 tahun, mengumumkan bahwa PRD bertanggung jawab atas memimpin upacara deklarasi partai baru itu. Dengan kerusuhan yang melanda Jakarta pada tanggal 27 Juli. Presiden mengenakan saputangan merah di leher, anak muda bertubuh Suharto sudah tahu hal ini, katanya. Presiden bahkan kurus itu terang-terangan melanggar undang-undang Orde menjelaskan perkara PRD di sebuah sidang kabinet. Suharto Baru yang melarang dibentuknya partai politik lagi. Posisi PRD berpendapat partai ini seperti PKI. memang tak diikuti oleh kelompok-kelompok lain. Tapi partai Tapi seperti kemudian tersingkap, tak ada hubungan ini – meskipun terkadang dipandang dengan jengkel oleh PRD dengan kerusuhan di tanggal 27 Juli itu. Hari itu, lewat pelbagai kalangan – telah menularkan keberanian ke sekitarnya. pukul 6 pagi, tujuh truk berhenti di depan kantor PDI. Dari PRD juga menyodorkan sebuah argumen bahwa untuk dalamnya puluhan orang – dengan bantuan militer dan polisi menumbangkan Orde Baru dan menegakkan demokrasi, yang – turun membawa pentungan dan batu. Mereka melempari dibutuhkan adalah program politik yang jelas dan organisasi kantor di Jalan Diponegoro, Jakarta itu, dan kemudian yang rapi. Dengan kata lain, bukan lagi LSM. Harus hadir menyerbu masuk. Puluhan orang yang bersiaga di dalam partai-partai politik. Dari partai-partai itulah kelak sebuah melawan. Mereka kalah. Kekerasan pun ke luar. Beberapa kehidupan politik yang hidup bisa dibangun – tanpa institusi- gedung di wilayah itu, termasuk kantor pemerintah, dibakar institusi yang sakit, yang akhirnya, seperti pada hari terakhir para pemuda yang marah. Suharto itu, tak bisa dipergunakan. Kemarahan hari itu seperti ledakan protes yang lama Tapi pada suatu hari di bulan Agustus 1996, Budiman ditahan. Berhari-hari sebelumnya kantor itu jadi lambang Sudjatmiko ditangkap. Bersama beberapa temannya, ia perebutan antara dua faksi dalam partai itu – antara faksi

Ketua Partai Rakyat Demokratik Budiman Sudjatmiko dalam mobil polisi setelah disidang, Jakarta, 12 Desember 1996. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 211

IRID AGOES

Dr. Irid Agoes adalah direktur Indonesia International Education Foundation (IIEF), yang mengelola beberapa program beasiswa yang dibiayai Ford Foundation termasuk International Fellowships Program (IFP). IFP merupakan program beasiswa terbesar dalam sejarah Ford Foundation. Dia kini memimpin seleksi tahunan 45 mahasiswa dari 6.000 pendaftar yang akan mendapatkan beasiswa untuk memperoleh master atau Ph.D. di luar Indonesia. Melalui program ini dia berharap dapat mewujudkan impiannya tentang dunia yang lebih damai. Hubungan kerja pertama saya dengan Ford terpinggirkan. Di Indonesia masyarakat Indonesia, terutama yang berasal dari latar Foundation terjadi ketika saya menjadi seperti ini kebanyakan berada di luar Jawa. belakang yang terpinggirkan adalah sulitnya direktur IIEF pada 1999. Ford Foundation Program ini dimulai pada 2001 dan dalam menemukan orang berkemampuan ber- adalah donatur terbesar kami dalam satu tahun terdapat 6.000 pelamar untuk 45 bahasa Inggris seperti yang disyaratkan memberikan kesempatan beasiswa bagi kesempatan. program studi pascasarjana di luar negeri banyak orang. Program yang saya kerjakan Program ini berbeda dengan program- – atau bahkan di Indonesia sendiri, seperti pertama berkaitan dengan “budaya dan program beasiswa lainnya karena di UI yang telah menetapkan standar nilai masyarakat.” Program ini ditawarkan Indonesia saat ini jumlah lulusan Sekolah TOEFL 550. Kami berusaha menyelesaikan kepada orang Indonesia, yang telah di- Menengah Atas (SMA) hanya 1,4 persen dari masalah itu dengan memberikan pelatihan terima belajar di tingkat pascasarjana, populasi. Perempuannya hanya 0,5 persen. bahasa Inggris bagi mahasiswa sebelum memiliki nilai yang baik dan punya komit- keberangkatan mereka. Masalah lainnya men besar pada pendidikannya, tapi adalah kesulitan mereka menulis makalah mereka memerlukan bantuan finansial. akademis. Ford Foundation dan IIEF Pada tahun 2000, kami melihat ke- berusaha membantu universitas-universitas sempatan lain untuk membantu para di luar Jawa untuk menyelenggarakan mahasiswa dari Timor Timur, yang setelah pelatihan, tapi menurut saya masih banyak referendum, tidak bisa menyelesaikan pekerjaan berat yang tersisa. Kita harus studinya. Waktu itu banyak orang Timor menemukan masalah-masalah nyata sistem Timur belajar di Indonesia dan mereka pendidikan Indonesia. terpisah dengan orang tuanya. Jadi kami Keterlibatan saya dengan beasiswa Ford melihat hal ini sebagai kesempatan, bukan Foundation lebih dari sebuah impian yang hanya untuk membantu individu-individu menjadi kenyataan. Saya dididik sebagai itu, melainkan juga membantu membangun seorang interkulturalis, gelar kesarjanaan negara baru Timor Loro’sae. Maka kami saya adalah sebagai seorang interkul- memulai Program Beasiswa Timor Timur turalis, dan harapan saya sebagai seorang bagi orang Timor Timur yang masih belajar interkulturalis adalah mewujudkan dunia di universitas-universitas Indonesia dan yang damai. Orang-orang yang terping- ingin menyelesaikan studinya. Setelah Ford girkan di seluruh dunia mempunyai Foundation dan IIEF memulai program itu, kesempatan untuk mencapai tingkat banyak donor lain mulai turut membantu. pendidikan tertinggi. Ketika Timor Timur sepenuhnya merdeka, Mereka akan kembali ke daerah Irid Agoes mewawancarai seorang 200 dari mahasiswa yang kami bantu telah pelamar beasiswa, 2003. asalnya, ke lingkungan asalnya, ke desa- lulus. desanya, dan membantu sesamanya. Jika Program terbesar kami pada saat itu Kami mencari mahasiswa yang mempunyai beberapa program lain memfokuskan diri adalah mengatur porsi orang Indonesia pada pengalaman kepemimpinan dalam ko- pada penciptaan dunia yang lebih baik program IFP Ford Foundation. Ini adalah munitasnya. Mereka bisa yang aktif di melalui para elit, Ford Foundation berusa- program pertama di mana Ford Foundation kegiatan-kegiatan akademis maupun di ha mengambil cara lain untuk membuka mencantumkan namanya. Program ini lembaga swadaya masyarakat. Tidak ada jalan yang lebih besar kepada keadilan memberikan kesempatan kepada individu- batasan usia. Hal ini penting terutama bagi melalui mereka yang terpinggirkan. individu yang terpilih [dari Indonesia dan perempuan karena biasanya mereka mulai Banyak dari kami yang terlibat menangani negara-negara lain di Asia, Afrika dan bekerja, mulai berkeluarga, dan kemudian program ini tahu bahwa bukan hanya Amerika Latin, dan Rusia] untuk me- mulai pendidikannya lagi. mereka yang terpinggirkan yang belajar lanjutkan studi pascasarjananya. Yang saya Dari pengalaman kami menangani dari kita tapi kita pun belajar pada maksud terpilih bukan hanya yang terbaik program ini kami tahu bahwa banyak mereka. Ini adalah sesuatu yang seha- dan terpandai, tapi khususnya juga yang donor selain Ford Foundation mesti di- rusnya dikembangkan oleh siapa saja paling terpinggirkan. Semua kandidat libatkan karena kebutuhannya sangat jelas sehingga di masa depan dunia bisa menjadi program ini haruslah berasal dari masyarakat dan besar. Salah satu anggapan orang tempat yang lebih damai. 212 BAB LIMA

MENGGERAKKAN BUKU: PROGRAM PUSTAKA

Pada 1998, setahun setelah krisis ekonomi bulan harga kertas meningkat hingga 250 sampul buku telah membentuk minat Asia menghancurkan ekonomi Indonesia, persen. Banyak penerbit di Indonesia komersial baru terhadap buku-buku sastra dan beberapa saat setelah kejatuhan gulung tikar. dan humaniora. Tiba-tiba, buku menjelma Suharto, Ira Suharno, seorang periset Gagasan di balik Program Pustaka sesuatu yang atraktif - dan terjangkau. ilmiah, seorang yang penuh harapan pada adalah untuk mensubsidi penerbit agar bisa Sistem pengawasan yang longgar, anak-anak, terkesan pada sebuah buku terus berproduksi. Sasarannya bukan buku bagaimanapun, menyisakan banyak kele- Prancis tentang pendidikan lingkungan populer, tapi lebih karya bermutu tinggi mahan. Banyak kiat penerbit “nakal” untuk anak-anak usia lima hingga 12 tahun. dalam ilmu-ilmu sosial dan humaniora. mengambil keuntungan: mereka mem- Ia menenteng buku itu ke mana-mana Aturan-aturan main yang relatif longgar besarkan ukuran huruf dan melebarkan selama berminggu-minggu, hingga akhirnya juga dimaksudkan untuk mendongkrak batas tepi halaman, menggelembungkan ia memutuskan duduk dan menerjemah- penerbit kecil dan membangkitkan gairah harga jual, dan mengabaikan distribusi. Di kannya, “untuk iseng-iseng.” Empat bulan penulis lokal. Akhir 2002, Yayasan Adikarya Indonesia, distribusi adalah nemesis bagi kemudian, karya itu rampung. menerima sekitar 1.800 naskah dari 100- penerbit; dalam kasus yang terburuk, Awalnya, ia tak begitu peduli pada an penerbit. distributor bisa mengeruk 50 sampai 70 penerbitan hasil terjemahannya. “Saya Ford Foundation sendiri hanya menen- persen dari harga jual. Praktek ini diper- sudah cukup bahagia kalau bisa mema- tukan struktur hibahnya. Ia tak mengambil buruk oleh mitos bahwa buku-buku yang kainya sebagai bahan mengajar,” katanya. peran dalam pemilihan buku. Tugas ini di disubsidi sama dengan buku-buku yang Tapi, tak urung, ia menunjukkan terje- tangan sebuah tim lokal yang dipilih oleh tidak laku. Tak heran, penerbit tak merasa mahannya kepada beberapa penerbit. Adikarya yang, meski terlalu sedikit jumlah butuh distribusi, dan membiarkan saja stok Kebanyakan berpendapat sama: buku itu anggotanya (hingga tak jarang lambat mereka menumpuk di gudang ketimbang bakal susah dijual. kerjanya dan terbatas wawasannya), menurut melihatnya dipajang di toko buku. Kecuali satu. Penerbit Djambatan, salah banyak kalangan bekerja secara jujur. Untungnya, Ford Foundation menyadari satu penerbit tertua di Indonesia, tertarik. Sejak awal Program Pustaka I hingga kelemahan ini. Pada akhir 2002, mekanisme Setelah mengalami proses panjang, pada akhir Program Pustaka III pada 2002, pengawasan dan peninjauan diperketat, Oktober 2001, Ira Suharno melihat nama- sebanyak 445 judul buku telah disubsidi. prosedur aplikasi lebih dicermati. Kini nya tertera di sampul depan. Buku itu diberi Proyek ini juga memberi perhatian kepada diberlakukan panduan baru mengenai judul Belajar Mencintai Alam. Pelun- terjemahan dan penerbitan ulang, dan rajin penentuan harga jual dan biaya cetak, curannya dihadiri beragam kalangan. mempromosikan bakat-bakat baru. Con- dengan syarat baru bahwa persetujuan Sebentar lagi, buku itu akan ‘diselipkan’ ke toh: pertumbuhan pesat industri buku di penulis harus selalu disertakan. dalam kurikulum sekolah dasar nasional. kota Yogyakarta, di mana penerbit-penerbit Kini Program Pustaka lebih diarahkan Belajar Mencintai Alam hanyalah satu kecil bergairah memburu naskah baru dan ke daerah, dengan contoh-contoh keber- contoh penerbitan yang didukung Program menggali yang lama, misalnya tesis maha- hasilan yang layak dicatat di Makassar dan Pustaka. Mulanya, program yang didirikan siswa yang acap kali tenggelam dalam Pontianak. Bantuan tambahan termasuk pada 1998 di bawah ampuan Yayasan tumpukan arsip di perpustakaan kampus. kerja sama dengan pusat-pusat kebudayaan Adikarya, afiliasi dari Ikatan Penerbit Hasil lainnya adalah budaya baru lokal, pembacaan puisi dan galeri buku. Indonesia, dan dibiayai oleh Ford Founda- perwajahan buku. Pelopornya Bentang Sekarang, 20 persen dari buku yang tion ini bertujuan menyelamatkan industri Budaya, yang berbasis di Yogyakarta. diterbitkan harus disumbangkan ke perpus- buku di saat krisis. Kala itu, keadaan Penggunaan karya seni yang bermutu – takaan, klub buku, dan galeri buku di sungguh suram. Hanya dalam beberapa tradisional maupun kontemporer – sebagai seluruh Indonesia. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 213

LILIS N. HUSNA

Dulu petinggi NU umumnya orang politik. Keluarga Lilis N. Husna juga dari NU sekaligus Partai Persatuan Pembangunan. Lilis aktif di partai dan jadi anggota parlemen Bekasi pada 1987-1992. Pada 1992-1997, dia jadi anggota Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat. Lalu dia ikut mendirikan Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa dan sempat jadi wakil ketua Lembaga Pemenangan Pemilu PKB pada pemilihan umum 1999 dan wakil sekretaris jenderal DPP PKB hingga Januari 2002. Kini dia staf Lembaga Kajian dan Pengembangan Sumberdaya Manusia (Lakpesdam) NU. Lakpesdam bekerja sama dengan Ford Foundation melaksanakan program Forum Warga untuk menciptakan ruang politik bagi warga. Salah satu fungsi organisasi dalam masya- Jepara, Wonosobo, dan Cilacap. Kami mulai ibarat menyimpan “bom waktu” karena rakat adalah menggerakkan demokratisasi, dengan lokakarya desa sebagai entry point. bagaimana pun pelacuran tak bisa diterima tapi di Indonesia, mereka lemah di tingkat Ini penting karena dengan otonomi, desa secara sosial, agama, dan moral. metode untuk membangun gerakan. Misal- berhak bikin anggaran sendiri dan punya Namun hal menarik terjadi satu tahun nya, di NU ada Majelis Taklim atau institusi “DPR” sendiri yang tak mungkin bisa berikutnya. Desa membuat Anggaran lain di pedesaan. Apa isi Majelis Taklim? demokratis dengan sendirinya. Yang ikut Pendapatan dan Belanja Desa. Warga Kebanyakan hanya pengajian. Padahal lokakarya wakil-wakil warga dan hasilnya mempelajari dari mana sumber dananya. sebagai institusi, ia juga bisa melakukan adalah usulan Program Desa “versi” warga. Sumbernya macam-macam dan ada “sum- fungsi negosiasi dan bisa menciptakan ber dan lain-lain” yang diambil dari ruang publik agar masyarakat punya posisi lokalisasi tadi. Ada dua sumber: mucikari, tawar. Ini semua terganggu saat Orde Baru. yang dibagi mucikari kelas satu, dua, dan Organisasi keagamaan seolah berhenti tiga, serta pelacurnya yang dibagi tiga kelas hanya jadi organisasi ritual, bukan untuk juga. Warga geger. mengubah masyarakat. Isunya diambil alih pemerintah desa. Proses ini yang sedang kami hidupkan. Badan Perwakilan Desa (BPD) mau melihat Contohnya soal isu tanah di mana Lak- apakah anggaran itu digunakan seba- pesdam mendampingi proses advokasi gaimana mestinya: apakah untuk dibuat Forum Warga. Lawannya, ya pemerintah, pagar? Warga masih tak bisa menerima. Ada perusahaan, dan militer. Gaya NU yang lebih tiga argumentasi. Pertama, dari segi agama, konservatif biasanya ingin menjaga har- pelacuran tak dibenarkan. Kedua, ada monisasi antara NU, pemerintah, dan peraturan daerah yang mengatur pe- elemen lain. Padahal dalam isu ini ada risiko nutupan lokalisasi. Ketiga, yang paling berhadapan. Isu tanah juga sering dianggap mendasar, argumen kemanusiaan. Mereka isu kiri. Kawan-kawan muda menagih yang bilang pelacur adalah orang yang secara tua-tua, minta dibuatkan “fatwa” lewat sosial disudutkan, tapi mengapa dimintai lembaga yang sudah menjadi tradisi NU, uangnya lewat pemerasan terselubung? Ini yaitu “Bahsul Masail.” Mereka bertanya apa luar biasa ketika warga memperoleh ruang legitimasi agama bila hak-hak dasar publik untuk menyampaikan pikiran kritis masyarakat dirugikan? Jadi institusi agama seperti itu. Padahal BPD itu juga ada ustaz. Lilis N. Husna di kantornya di Jakarta, 2003. didorong agar lebih rasional dan kritis serta Kasus ini belum selesai. tak menjadi alat untuk melanggengkan Mereka juga sepakat membentuk Forum Ada banyak inisiatif lain dengan isu dan kekuasaan. Bahwa para kiai masih di- Warga dengan tingkat agregasi vertikal. Ada pengalaman yang beragam di lokasi lain, bukakan pintu dan dicium tangannya oleh Forum Warga Desa, Forum Warga Keca- seperti Forum Warga Troso yang meng- santri, itu mungkin tak berubah. matan dan Forum Warga Kabupaten. advokasi kebijakan order Kain Tenun Troso Forum Warga adalah strategi gerakan Ada contoh menarik di Cilacap. Saat Jepara melawan monopoli (agar berpihak demokrasi lokal. Inspirasinya banyak dari lokakarya, warga membicarakan nasib bagi pengrajin kecil). Usulan pemisahan luar, terutama India. Forum Warga se- lokalisasi di desa mereka: Apa yang akan dusun Jehan dari desa Kunir Jepara karena macam regrouping di mana kelompok dilakukan? Ada yang usul dibakar karena seumur-umur mereka merasa didiskri- masyarakat kami fasilitasi menjadi ko- dianggap meresahkan. Tapi akhirnya orang minasi. Solidaritas untuk memperkuat munitas baru yang bisa mempengaruhi dari lokalisasi diajak bicara. Tercapai ekonomi dan fundraising warga di Wono- pengambilan keputusan di tingkat lokal. kompromi. Mucikari bersedia mendirikan sobo serta solidaritas nelayan desa Pang- Programnya kebanyakan soal peme- pagar antara lokalisasi dan lingkungan gung, Jepara. Sebuah wacana baru sudah rintahan yang baik dan desentralisasi – dua perumahan. Ini sebuah liberasi – mereka berkembang. Warga sudah tahu bahwa isu penting setelah jatuhnya Suharto. yang selama ini dikucilkan diajak bicara. mereka punya ruang politik dan posisi Lakpesdam membantu tiga daerah; Walau banyak pihak sadar kompromi ini tawar. 214 BAB LIMA

Soerjadi yang didukung pemerintah dan faksi Megawati Presiden pun memerintahkan tentara untuk merebut kantor Sukarnoputri yang hendak disisihkan. Merasa diri lebih sah, PDI. Dan kerusuhan 27 Juli meledak. dan memang lebih banyak didukung, faksi Megawati Kali ini, Suharto tampak kehilangan kemampuannya menduduki kantor partai. untuk memainkan kartunya dengan sabar. Ia menggebrak Tindakan itu tentu saja menantang pemerintah. Yang untuk alasan yang sebenarnya tak perlu. PRD adalah sebuah tak disangka-sangka, ribuan penduduk Jakarta dan kota-kota gerakan yang militan tapi kecil. Megawati saat itu belum lain menunjukkan simpati mereka: sumbangan dan kunjungan merupakan ancaman bagi dirinya. tak putus-putusnya mendatangi pendukung Megawati yang Tapi memang ada tanda-tanda sesuatu yang lebih bertahan di dalam dan di halaman gedung itu. berbahaya bergerak. Kelompok-kelompok prodemokrasi yang Kantor itu pun segera jadi pusat perlawanan. Spanduk biasanya centang perenang mulai saling bekerja sama. Ada yang dan poster berjejer. Sebuah panggung didirikan. Di sana orang sudah bergerak beberapa tahun. Ada yang baru, seperti AJI yang berpidato keras mengecam Orde Baru. didirikan setelah mingguan Tempo, DeTik, dan Editor dibredel. Dengan pusat itu, pelbagai kalangan yang selama itu Di tahun 1996, pelbagai anasir ini membentuk Komite aktif dalam gerakan prodemokrasi memobilisasi dukungan Independen Pemantau Pemilu (KIPP). Tujuannya menghadapi untuk Megawati. Presiden Suharto, yang ingin menyingkirkan pemilihan umum di tahun berikutnya. Niat mereka adalah putri Bung Karno itu dari PDI, kini malah melihat bahwa menjaga agar pemerintah tidak lagi leluasa memanipulasi simpati membanjir buat orang yang hendak dijatuhkannya. pemungutan suara.

Polisi, tentara, dan milisi menyerbu markas Partai Demokrasi Indonesia di Jalan Diponegoro, Jakarta Pusat, 27 Juli 1996. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 215

DEDE OETOMO

Dede Oetomo punya banyak kebisaan. Salah satunya menjadi disc jockey. Salah seorang yang pernah memintanya memainkan lagu saat pesta adalah Benedict Anderson, pakar politik yang terkenal, antara lain karena bukunya Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Dede cerita bahwa kelompok kegemaran Anderson tak lain adalah Jackson Five.Tampaknya kota kecil dan dingin Ithaca, tempat Anderson mengajar dan Dede belajar di Cornell, sangat hangat memperlakukan Dede. Di sana ia sering dibekali brownies istimewa oleh Sidney Jones, yang belakangan dikenal sebagai aktivis hak asasi manusia. Beralaskan kasur sederhana di ruang tamunya, seorang Gus Dur pernah bermalam di rumahnya. Semua itu adalah “bonus” yang ia dapatkan saat belajar di AS. Selain doktor linguistik, Dede dikenal sebagai pioner dunia gay yang mendorong keterbukaan di masyarakat.

Wacana publik tentang HIV/AIDS di Indo- membingungkan publik. dengan buku Student’s Book: English for the nesia kurang membahas secara rinci Dugaan saya, orang risih bicara sek- SLTP yang merupakan hasil proyek yang penyakit ini, penyebab, dan pengobatannya. sualitas secara eksplisit dan terbuka. didanai Ford Foundation. Sebagian dosen Yang terjadi adalah kebingungan, misin- Asumsinya, “Ini bukan adat ketimuran.” Tapi saya dididik di IKIP Malang, yang jurusan formasi, atau kelengahan yang mengkha- ini sebenarnya nilai-nilai elit yang memang pendidikan bahasa Inggrisnya didirikan watirkan. Padahal kajian epidemiologi dengan dana Ford Foundation. Travel telah menemukan peningkatan pesat grant saya untuk berangkat ke Cornell infeksi HIV di kalangan tertentu, saya dapat dari Ford Foundation (1978, misalnya pengguna narkotik suntik 1984). Cornell Modern Indonesia dan waria atau wilayah tertentu, Project, di mana saya belajar mengenai seperti Riau dan Papua. Indonesia dan sekaligus mengajar Pembicaraan kita mengenai pe- bahasa Indonesia, dirintis oleh almar- nyebab AIDS, yang berkaitan dengan hum Prof. George McT. Kahin dan Prof. hubungan seks misalnya, tak merinci John M. Echols pada awal 1950-an bahwa jalur yang rentan infeksi adalah dengan dana Ford Foundation. Bea- hubungan seks vaginal dan anal, siswa penelitian disertasi saya dari bahwa yang melakukan hubungan seks Social Science Research Council (1983- suka-sama-suka malah lebih rentan. 1984) berasal dari Ford Foundation di Ini karena pengetahuan kebanyakan New York. Sesudah saya lulus saya orang tentang penularan HIV dangkal. banyak terlibat dalam program- Akibatnya, pengambilan keputusan program di bidang kajian Indonesia untuk melindungi diri menjadi asal- maupun kemudian gender, seksualitas, asalan. dan HIV/AIDS yang didanai Ford Foun- Tidak membantu juga cara-cara dation hingga kini. pencegahan yang diwacanakan tidak Yang pernah jadi murid bahasa realistis misalnya, menganjurkan tak Indonesia saya: Robert Hefner, Joseph berhubungan seks di kalangan pekerja Errington, Joel Kuipers, Daniel Fiet- seks dan gay/waria atau menganjurkan kiewicz, Yoshiko Yamamoto, Margaret setia kepada pasangan, padahal tak Wiener, Abby Ruddick, Suzanne Siskel, ada kaitan langsung antara kesetiaan Dede Oetomo di konferensi di Surabaya, 1987. John McDougall, Jeffrey Winters, Jeff dengan penularan HIV atau kalau pun Hadler, Audrey Kahin, Greg Acciaioli, lumayan realistis, hanya terfokus pada cenderung munafik. Di kalangan kelas Matthew Cohen, Jan Mrázek, Brenda Yanni, kondom tanpa membeberkan berbagai pekerja, pembicaraan mengenai seksualitas Anne Schiller, Suzanne Brenner, Karl Heider, strategi seks yang lebih aman dan belum lebih terbuka dan lepas. Leslie Morris, Frances Gouda, Tim Jessup, tentu memerlukan kondom. Ketika mem- Ford Foundation telah dan sedang Barry Drummond, Terry George, Peter bicarakan kondom pun, khususnya di mengembangkan program-program yang Slomanson. kalangan gay dan waria, lupa menyebutkan meningkatkan pendidikan dan pembicara- Saya masih tetap kontak dengan mereka, pelicin berbahan dasar air, dan hingga an mengenai seksualitas yang terbuka, baik untuk hal-hal yang profesional maupun belakangan ini. Program-program pe- mengakui keanekaragaman, dan member- pribadi. Bahkan kemudian, mereka me- nanggulangan HIV/AIDS tak menyediakan dayakan usaha pembongkaran kemuna- ngirim mahasiswa mereka kepada saya pelicinnya. Debat berkepanjangan yang fikan yang mematikan itu. apabila penelitiannya berkaitan dengan melelahkan, yang tak perlu, dan yang tak Soal bahasa yang jadi bidang saya, mula- Jawa Timur, golongan etnis Tionghoa, atau cerdas, dan kompleks pada 1990-an, ikut mula saya belajar bahasa Inggris di SMP gender, seksualitas, dan HIV/AIDS. 216 BAB LIMA

Jika ini berhasil, diperhitungkan kemenangan Golkar yang kemudian disapunya. tak akan sebesar dulu lagi. PDI yang menampilkan Megawati Di akhir Oktober, Menteri Soesilo Soedarman akan punya lebih banyak kesempatan. Setidaknya untuk mengumumkan bahwa dari enam ribu LSM di Indonesia, ada menunjukkan bahwa Suharto tak akan dipilih oleh sebuah 32 di antaranya yang “bermasalah.” Dan ia mengancam. Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat yang selalu setia dan patuh. “Jangan kaget,” katanya, “kalau suatu ketika pemerintah tiba- Tapi tak kalah penting adalah kehendak untuk membuktikan tiba menindak 32 LSM itu.” Ia tak menawarkan daftar. Tapi bahwa pemilihan umum bukanlah sebuah ritual yang jumlah itu kira-kira sama dengan jumlah mereka yang dipaksakan. bergabung dengan MARI. Dari kalangan inilah lebih dari 30 KIPP, tentu saja, punya agenda lain. Komite ini juga orang ditangkap. disiapkan sebagai kerja latihan untuk membangun sebuah front Sejak itu, para aktivis pun merunduk dan tiarap. persatuan menentang Suharto secara makin terbuka. Setelah Dalam keaadaan itu, Suharto berhasil menyelenggarakan KIPP terbentuk, di kantor YLBHI Jakarta – yang semakin sering pemilihan umum 1997 untuk memilih dia ketujuh kalinya. Ia jadi tempat pusat pergerakan prodemokrasi – 30 LSM dan bisa menunjukkan bahwa KIPP, MARI, dan lain-lain tak punya organisasi pendukung Megawati mendirikan Majelis Rakyat dampak; hanya sederet suara singkat pembangkangan. Namun Indonesia (MARI). ia sudah terlambat sebenarnya. Makin meluas represi, makin Majelis ini belum setahun berdiri ketika Peristiwa 27 luas pula kesepakatan, bahwa Indonesia memerlukan Juli meletup. Tapi sejak mula pemerintah tampak sudah bersiap perubahan rezim. menghajarnya. Dua hari sebelum kerusuhan itu, Suharto Krisis moneter yang bermula bagaikan sebuah gempa memperingatkan akan bahaya “setan-setan gundul” yang ikut yang jauh ternyata membuka kesempatan itu. Tanpa disangka- dalam ketegangan politik saat itu. Dan “setan gundul” itulah sangka. Dan Suharto pun jatuh, tanpa pendukung.

Bukan majalah dan surat kabar saja yang dibredel, teater – di sini Opera Kecoa dari Teater Koma – ikut dilarang. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 217

RATNA RIANTIARNO

Anak Sekolah Menengah Umum (SMU) sekarang biasa menggenggam handphone dan mengenakan sepatu bermerek. Tapi saat Ratna Riantiarno menggiring mereka ke Gedung Kesenian Jakarta atau TIM untuk nonton pertunjukan, biasa terdengar ucapan, “Gile, gue baru sekali ini ke sini.” Sebagai seniman teater yang umur kariernya nyaris dua kali lipat umur anak-anak itu, Ratna merasa terharu. Bersama Dewan Kesenian Jakarta, dia membuat program untuk anak SMU agar bisa mengapresiasi kesenian. Ini bermula dari keprihatinan kami ter- Kenapa orang mesti punya apresiasi merasa senang. Ketika latihan menari di hadap menurunnya minat dan apresiasi seni seni? Saya melihatnya begini. Menonton TIM, saya melihat orang latihan per- di kalangan masyarakat, seni masih kesenian adalah salah satu proses dalam tunjukan teater. Saya pikir, karena sudah dianggap sebagai sekedar hiburan yang “mengalami seni.” Betapapun pasifnya biasa menari di panggung, tentu teater lebih boleh ada dan boleh tak ada. Seni belum posisi penonton dalam proses “mengalami mudah. Ternyata setelah ikut latihan Arifin dilihat sebagai bagian integral dari ke- seni” tersebut, tak bisa tidak, mesti C. Noer (almarhum) banyak hal yang harus butuhan normal hidup manusia. Untuk ”menyediakan hatinya” sehingga apresiasi saya pelajari. Jadi keseluruhan proses “menghidupkan” minat dan apresiasi seni dan penghargaan terhadap seni pun terjadi. “menonton” dan “memainkan” berlangsung pertunjukan tersebut, saya dan terus pada diri kita, bisa memper- beberapa teman di Dewan Keseni- luas cakrawala “mengalami seni.” an Jakarta, sejak 1998 melak- Proses yang menyeluruh itulah sanakan “Program Apresiasi Seni yang kini kami laksanakan. Pe- Pertunjukan untuk Siswa-siswi ngenalan dan apresiasi pada seni SMU.” pertunjukan memang dapat di- Kegiatan ini terbagi dua. Perta- lakukan dengan menonton lebih ma, secara khusus kami mem- sering. Satu hal lain yang juga boyong seniman dan karya seninya penting untuk meningkatkan ke sekolah untuk dinikmati para apresiasi dan pengetahuan seni siswa dan guru secara langsung. adalah melibatkan atau mengajak Kedua, agar mereka memiliki siswa secara aktif berlatih dan gambaran yang lebih utuh tentang mengadakan pertunjukan sendiri. seni pertunjukan, siswa dan guru Ini berawal dari tanggapan- juga diboyong untuk melihat tanggapan yang hangat dan positif pertunjukan kesenian langsung di dari siswa-siswi dan tuntutan sebuah gedung pertunjukan yang untuk dapat dilatih memainkan berstandar internasional. Untuk alat musik, menari, berakting. memperlihatkan kepada mereka Tegasnya: memainkan sebuah seni keadaan belakang panggung, set, pertunjukan itu. Karena itu pro- properti, kostum, lighting, dan gram apresiasi seni pertunjukan ini sebagainya. pun dilengkapi dengan Program Selesai menonton pertun- Pelatihan Seni Pertunjukan ke jukan, baik di sekolah maupun beberapa SMU sebagai kegiatan gedung pertunjukan, ada sesi ekstrakurikuler. tanya jawab dari siswa kepada Siswa SMU yang tak pernah seniman atau pelaku seninya. menonton kesenian mengatakan Kegiatan ini telah membawa Ratna Riantiarno (kiri) dalam Tenung, saduran karya mereka tak pernah mendapat berbagai pertunjukan dari kelom- Arthur Miller The Crucible, produksi Teater Koma, Jakarta, 1992. informasi mengenai tempat-tem- pok seni ternama maupun kese- pat pertunjukan: tak pernah nian tradisi dari berbagai wilayah Indonesia. Proses lebih jauh lagi adalah bagaimana diajak orang tuanya atau sekolah. Jadi Antara lain dari Papua, Nias, Bugis, Minang, menjadi “pemain” dalam sebuah pagelaran bukan karena tak punya dana. Program- Jambi, Badui, Cirebon, Betawi, Batak. seni, sehingga terjadi “peralihan fungsi” dari program dari pusat-pusat kesenian pun tak Sejumlah seniman, misalnya WS Rendra, posisi pasif sebagai penonton menjadi aktif sampai ke mereka. Kurikulum kesenian bisa Gusmiati Suid (almarhumah), Putu Wijaya, sebagai pemain. Untuk ini dibutuhkan dianggap tak ada di sekolah. Harapan kami Boi Sakti, Teater Koma, Teater Payung “kekuatan hati dan waktu” menjalani melalui program ini, siswa memiliki Hitam, Teater Kubur, Dalang Suket, Teater proses penciptaan sebuah karya seni. gambaran dan pemahaman yang lebih utuh S’Mas, monolog Agus PM Toh, Sena Didi Waktu kecil, saya melihat orang menari terhadap kesenian yang dilihat, dipelajari Mime, juga terlibat dalam kegiatan ini. Bali indah sekali. Saya langsung belajar dan atau dilakoninya. 218 BAB LIMA

Lukisan dinding di jalanan Yogyakarta, 2003, diciptakan dalam suatu program pertukaran seniman. Beberapa seniman dari Apotik Komik di Yogyakarta mengunjungi San Francisco dengan bantuan Ford Foundation, dan Clarion Alley Mural Project dari San Francisco datang ke Yogyakarta. Masing-masing kelompok menciptakan lukisan jalanan dan instalasi di kota tuan rumah. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 219

FRED WIBOWO

Fred Wibowo dari Studio Audio Visual Pusat Kataketik di Yogyakarta masygul melihat kecenderungan televisi memperlakukan seni tradisi. Televisi komersial memandangnya sebelah mata. Televisi pemerintah menggunakannya untuk propaganda. Dia dan kawan- kawannya berusaha menciptakan ruang agar seni tradisi bisa hadir di media massa. Maraknya seni tradisi di televisi komersial sekarang adalah tanda bahwa yang “kuno” pun bisa mendongkrak peringkat. Saya mulai terlibat proyek siaran seni tradisi interaksi yang berupa eksperimen- menamakan proses itu sebagai “media- pada 1996. Sebelumnya saya sering diskusi eksperimen kemudian ditayangkan. Apa- morfosis,” mengacu pada terminologi dengan Jennifer Lindsay, program officer bila memperoleh peringkat tinggi, niscaya biologi dari binatang yang berubah bentuk Ford Foundation, tentang kegelisahan saya mereka mau senang hati menyiarkannya. dalam kehidupan yang disebut meta- terhadap dua macam televisi di Indonesia. Mungkinkah radio dan televisi yang morfosis. Hasil perubahan ini menjadi Pertama, TVRI yang merupakan corong lahir dari entitas ekonomi dapat terlibat semacam format baru yang sah terjadi pemerintah. Kedua, televisi swasta yang dalam proses perubahan budaya yang dalam proses kebudayaan dan menjadi adil orientasi serta sikapnya sangat komersial. dilandasi semangat keberagaman yang karena berinteraksi secara seimbang antara Keduanya kurang menghargai kesenian berasal dari komunitas atau suku berbeda? seni dan teknologi. tradisi dan nilai-nilai lokal. Mungkinkah media menjadi jembatan Kekurangannya, untuk televisi, yang Banyak seniman merasa selera warga dalam rangka silang budaya yang pada berproses masih seni pertunjukan dari Indonesia hendak diseragamkan Jawa. Dari luar Jawa, kecuali atau diselaraskan untuk kepen- Drama Gong Bali, belum ada tingan propaganda rezim dan yang menggarap secara intensif. gaya hidup global yang ko- Sementara musik tradisi di mersial. Saya dan kebanyakan radio lebih cepat melibatkan seniman merasakan suatu ke- musik-musik etnik dari berbagai tertindasan budaya dan kha- daerah. watir nilai-nilai lokal, nilai-nilai Selain itu, seni tradisi bia- tradisi yang tercermin dalam sanya berkaitan erat dengan adat, tata cara, dan kesenian, komunitasnya. Seni pertunjukan hilang. Kalau ini terjadi, berarti yang hanya sepotong tidak kepunahan suku-suku, kelom- cukup untuk menyajikan secara pok etnik, dan eksistensi ma- utuh dan holistik seluruh aspek nusia dalam konteks pribadi dan seni tradisi, termasuk nilai- komunitas. Bagi saya ini pembu- nilainya. Inilah tantangan yang nuhan terhadap suatu ling- masih kami olah. Dalam format kungan atau komunitas ke- dokumenter sangat besar ke- hidupan. Fred Wibowo (berdiri) di studionya di Yogyakarta, 2003. mungkinan untuk menyajikan Saya mengatakan kepada hal tersebut. Tapi ini belum Lindsay, kuncinya adalah media. Radio dan akhirnya memberikan penghargaan ke- populer. Meskipun berkat interaksi intensif, televisi tidak memberi peluang seni tradisi pada eksistensi setiap kehidupan manusia sekarang SCTV punya program dokumenter untuk ikut memberikan referensi kepada dan lingkungannya? Masalah ini niscaya seni tradisi dengan nama rubrik Potret. kehidupan global dan gaya hidup manusia. akan muncul ke permukaan ketika media Indosiar dan Antv mulai coba-coba. Karena itu perlu upaya menyajikan seni terlibat secara intensif. Saya percaya industri adalah pasar. Tapi tradisi di media. Sekarang prosesnya telah sampai pada pasar dapat dikembangkan dengan meng- Masalahnya, pemilik radio dan televisi keyakinan bahwa seni tradisi mampu ikuti selera dan menciptakan pasar. Pilihan swasta tidak yakin bisa mendapatkan memperoleh peringkat memadai. Itulah banyak orang tentu menjadi suatu per- keuntungan komersial, sementara TVRI sebabnya lahir wayang kulit gaya Indosiar, timbangan. Tapi bagaimana menciptakan hanya memerlukannya sebagai propaganda Kethoprak Humor gaya RCTI, Ludruk sebuah program agar menjadi kegemaran pembangunan. Untuk mengubah pandangan Glamour gaya SCTV, Lenong Rumpi, dan dan minat banyak orang itulah perma- itu dibutuhkan sedikitnya lima tahun dalam sebagainya. Seni tradisi di televisi atau di salahan yang terus kami cari di dalam proses yang intensif. Pendekatan dengan radio akan memperoleh bentuk lain. Ini interaksi. Kami tidak sedang menangisi seni membuat seminar sehari dan bincang- terjadi karena interaksi media. Menurut tradisi yang tidak berkembang dan mati. bincang di radio atau televisi satu-dua kali Roger Fidler, penulis buku Mediamorfosis: Kami berusaha memberdayakan nilai-nilai tidak ada gunanya. Memahami Media Baru, media selalu dalam seni tradisi untuk menjadi referensi Kita mesti melibatkan mereka dan membuat perubahan-perubahan sementara di dalam membangun kebudayaan sejagad seniman dalam suatu lokakarya. Hasil media sendiri juga selalu berubah. Ia secara utuh dan beragam. 220 BAB LIMA

Dasawarsa 1990-an pun dengan terguncang-guncang berakhir mengakhiri kepresidenannya. tanpa Suharto. Sejak itu, sebuah eksperimen demokrasi PDI di bawah Megawati, yang kemudian menyebut diri berlangsung. Mencemaskan, tapi juga mengagumkan. PDI-Perjuangan, langsung bangkit dari pinggiran. Pamor Semuanya dimulai setelah upacara 10 menit yang tanpa Megawati malah naik setelah Peristiwa 27 Juli. Orang melihatnya warna 21 Mei 1998 itu. Habibie menjadi presiden ketiga dalam sebagai seorang anak Bung Karno yang pernah dianiaya. Dan sejarah Republik Indonesia, di tengah-tengah keraguan banyak dalam pemilihan umum 1999 itu, partainya menang. orang. Yang tak disangka-sangka ialah bahwa kemenangan itu Bahkan Suharto sendiri tak begitu yakin; ia memilih tak serta-merta membawa Megawati ke kursi presiden yang Habibie sebagai wakil presiden, tapi sebagaimana wakil presiden dulu diduduki ayahnya. Mungkin terpukau oleh kemenangan sebelumnya, posisi itu hanya sebuah ornamen. Habibie adalah sebagai No. 1 di kotak suara, partai itu tak mencoba membentuk ornamennya yang mutakhir. koalisi di Parlemen. Ketika Gus Dur maju mencalonkan diri, Seperti banyak yang lain di dalam Orde Baru, pejabat Megawati kalah pendukung. Dan Gus Dur pun – yang duduk ini tak punya pengalaman menjadi pemimpin politik. Ia punya di Parlemen sebagai wakil golongan yang tak dipilih dan ada di keterbatasan lain. Di masa mudanya ia lama sekali hidup di sana dalam keadaan separuh buta – menjadi presiden baru. Jerman, hingga ia sering tak begitu bisa membaca gerak politik Habibie turun. Tapi di upacara pelantikan presiden yang di Indonesia yang acapkali rumit. menggantikannya, ia datang. Dunia pun menyaksikan sebuah Bisakah dia bertahan? Tapi ia bertahan. Setidaknya pergantian kepala negara yang belum pernah terjadi dalam sampai ia menyelenggarakan pemilihan umum setahun sejarah Indonesia. Yang baru tidak mengucapkan janji yang kemudian: sebuah pemilihan umum yang paling bebas sejak muluk. Yang lama tak bersungut-sungut. Dalam pidato 1955, tapi juga sebuah pemilihan umum dengan hasil yang terakhirnya sebagai presiden, Habibie hanya meminta dikenang

Presiden Suharto diambil sumpah jabatannya untuk masa jabatan ketujuh dan terakhir, 11 Maret 1998. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 221

RIBUT SUSANTO

Riau adalah salah satu provinsi yang kaya minyak. Hasil penjualannya kebanyakan dialirkan ke Jakarta pada zaman Presiden Suharto. Kebijakan ini membuat banyak warga Riau, terutama orang Melayu yang turun-temurun tinggal di sana, merasa diperlakukan tak adil. Mereka protes tapi tak didengarkan. Jatuhnya Suharto pada Mei 1998 membuka peluang melebarnya penguasaan orang Riau terhadap hasil minyak. Ribut Susanto dari Yayasan Riau Mandiri adalah salah satu tokoh Riau yang menuntut keadilan dari Jakarta. Turunnya Presiden Suharto membawa cepat. Pada Juni 1998 ada lima organisasi wacana saat kita merasa sangat dizalimi keberuntungan pada Riau karena lahirnya nonpemerintah dan sekarang ada 400-an, pemerintah. Ini juga untuk menaikkan nilai UU Otonomi Daerah. Daerah bisa mengatur yang membuat mereka terpuruk karena tawar Riau. Teman-teman melihat bahwa keuangan lebih baik. Uang dari bagi hasil euforia. begitu kayanya Riau tapi menjadi provinsi sumber daya alam dan hutan membuat Riau Riau Mandiri didirikan oleh kawan- termiskin kedua di Sumatera setelah cukup banyak pemasukan. Dulu Riau kawan yang dulunya berbasis pecinta alam Lampung. Ini sangat ironis. Sumbangan Riau mendapat anggaran Rp 400 milyar per dari Mahasiswa Pecinta Alam Universitas lewat pendapatan minyak ke Jakarta pada tahun. Sekarang mendapat hampir Rp 8 Riau. Tapi mereka merasa tak bisa ke 1970-an dan 1980-an sekitar 60 persen dari trilyun. Ini membuat pemerintahan devisa Indonesia. kabupaten dan kota membangun lebih Kenaikan hingga Rp 8 trilyun per baik. Pembangunan jembatan, rumah tahun itu masih dianggap tak adil. sakit, jalan, dan sekolah, lebih cepat. Hitungannya, misalnya perusahaan Tapi perubahan undang-undang itu minyak Caltex menyerahkan ke Perta- tak memasukkan peran warga dalam mina Rp 17 trilyun setahun. Pertamina proses penyusunan perencanaan menyumbangkan ke Departemen Ke- pembangunan. Ini yang coba di- uangan hanya Rp 6,2 trilyun. Riau hanya mainkan Yayasan Riau Mandiri yakni mendapat Rp 1,2 triliun dari Rp 6,2 bagaimana warga bisa berpartisipasi. triliun itu. Jadi dari Rp 17 trilyun hanya Intinya, bagaimana otonomi bisa lebih Rp 1,2 triliun yang kembali ke Riau dan dekat ke warga. Dalam bentuk pe- ini yang dilihat masyarakat tidak adil. rencanaan desa, misalnya. Desa A mau Riau juga punya persoalan iden- membangun sendiri. Mereka tak tahu titas – sesuatu yang juga terjadi di apa yang mesti mereka perbuat. Sejauh Papua atau Aceh dalam menuntut mana peran mereka? Tak ada aturan kemerdekaan. Misalnya, putra daerah main. Di lapangan yang ada selebaran harus menjadi orang pertama di tiap pemerintah atau Badan Perencanaan kabupaten kota dan provinsi. Sekarang Pembangunan Daerah sampai ke lurah semua kepala daerah putra daerah, untuk mengisi daftar usulan. Tanpa tapi dari pihak luar itu cukup banyak keterlibatan masyarakat. Dua atau tiga dan beragam, dari berbagai etnik dan tahun belakangan ini masyarakat suku. Kalau tidak salah sekitar 45 mulai ikut menggagas. Pada 1999 Riau persen populasi Riau itu dari pen- Mandiri dengan 13 organisasi lain datang. Saya sendiri campuran, Jawa melakukan gugatan terhadap pe- dan Melayu. merintah karena Anggaran Pene- Ribut Susanto di kantor Riau Mandiri, 2003. Selama ini “pendatang” jadi tuan rimaan dan Belanja Daerah (APBD) tak rumah di Riau. Maka saya berpikir berpihak kepada masyarakat. mana-mana kalau memakai baju uni- radikal. Saya memahami bagaimana orang- Program Riau Mandiri cukup banyak. versitas. Maka mereka mendirikan Riau orang daerah merasa disaingi. Misalnya ada Tentang hutan, Riau Mandiri membuat Mandiri tahun 1989. Pada 1999 baru mulai satu perusahaan sawit, pendatang men- Jaringan Hutan Riau untuk mengantisipasi melakukan hubungan dengan Ford Founda- dapat dua hektar, sementara warga yang kerusakan hutan dan sumber daya hutan tion dalam mengembangkan masyarakat melepaskan lahan malah tak mendapatkan Riau. Lainnya, soal pencemaran lingkungan, untuk bisa berpartisipasi dalam proses sama sekali. Ketidakadilan ini dilakukan kasus-kasus warga yang tertindas, serta perencanaan dan penyusunan APBD. oleh pemerintah Suharto. Sekarang warga pernyerobotan tanah, yang daerah-da- Sekarang program ini berkembang dari satu cenderung merebut kembali aset-aset yang erahnya sulit dijangkau. Kita memberikan kota jadi tiga kabupaten. Pertama dengan selama ini tanpa ada kejelasan. Maka pendidikan dan mengembangkan kapasitas Ford Foundation itu hanya di kota Dumai. terjadi gejolak hampir di semua daerah soal lembaga-lembaga di Riau. Perkembangan Belakangan ada pernyataan bahwa perebutan lahan dan ini sering terjadi organisasi nonpemerintah di Riau sangat Riau sebaiknya merdeka dari Indonesia. Ini antara pendatang dan warga setempat. 222 BAB LIMA sebagai seorang yang memulihkan demokrasi di Indonesia. Ia harus menyesuaikan diri. Tapi tentu saja demokrasi tak pernah dipulihkan hanya Dan dalam masa kepresidenannya yang pendek itulah, oleh satu orang, apalagi seorang yang pernah bertahun-tahun Indonesia berhenti ketakutan. Militer, yang selama bertahun- begitu dekat dengan Suharto, seorang yang tak pernah tercatat tahun menggertak setiap suara yang berbeda, tak memperoleh sebagai pendukung kebebasan. Tapi sejarah akan mencatat posisinya yang dulu. Ketika kalangan prodemokrasi melawan bahwa di bawah Habibie pers menjadi merdeka, partai politik dengan sengit rencana undang-undang Keadaan Darurat, dengan leluasa dibentuk, daerah-daerah mendapatkan otonomi. Habibie tak meneruskannya. Republik Indonesia tak lagi Di samping itu, meskipun dengan tergesa-gesa dan berbaris dengan satu derap. Dengan riuh-rendah, acapkali menimbulkan korban, Timor Timur merdeka, setelah 20 tahun kacau, acapkali menakutkan, Indonesia mencari pluralismenya oleh Suharto dijadikan wilayah Indonesia. kembali. Sangat mungkin bahwa Habibie tak punya desain Keadaan ini tentu saja berlanjut di bawah kepresidenan reformasi seperti itu. Tapi ia harus. Ia tetap dianggap sebagai Abdurrahman Wahid. Ia mungkin bukan seorang eksekutif “orang Suharto.” Diserang terus-menerus oleh mahasiswa dan yang cakap. Tapi ia, sebagai pemimpin Nahdlatul Ulama, bukan gerakan prodemokrasi – pemenang sebenarnya dalam kejatuhan orang asing untuk memeriahkan perbedaan. Suharto – posisi Habibie seperti militer: sebuah faktor yang Pancasila pun berhenti menjadi satu-satunya asas bagi tak diikutkan, bahkan dicurigai, dalam gelombang perubahan. organisasi sosial. Pemerintahan desa tak lagi satu corak.

Abdurrahman Wahid mendapat ucapan selamat dari B.J. Habibie. Inilah pertama kali Indonesia menyaksikan pergantian kekuasaan presiden dengan damai. Jakarta 1999. Pancur Kasih adalah satu dari banyak organisasi nirlaba di Indonesia yang membantu penduduk desa membuat peta guna melindungi tanah adat dari penjarahan. Pontianak, 2003. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 223

YAYAH KHISBIYAH

Muhammadiyah, organisasi Islam terbesar kedua di Indonesia, dengan sekitar 30 juta pendukung, sering disebut sebagai tempat yang tak nyaman untuk budaya lokal. Ini dirasakan Yayah Khisbiyah, psikolog sosial lulusan University of Massachusetts, yang jadi dosen Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta sejak 1997 dan sejak 1999 menjadi direktur Pusat Studi Budaya dan Perubahan Sosial (PSB-PS). Khisbiyah percaya soal intoleransi harus diatasi bersama oleh segenap elemen masyarakat. Melalui Muhammadiyah, ia merancang program untuk menjembatani organisasi Islam tersebut dengan budaya lokal untuk mempromosikan pluralisme dan multikulturalisme. Saya memandang mismanajemen pluralitas pada Musyawarah Nasional Majelis Tarjih dapat menghargai pluralisme budaya lokal, budaya dengan rasa kuatir. Berbagai di Banda Aceh 1995. Ini pergeseran termasuk ekspresinya dalam kesenian. kelompok masyarakat, termasuk ke- pemikiran yang penting, tapi belum cukup. Lewat program ini, saya dan rekan- lompok-kelompok keagamaan, masih Diperlukan kajian berperspektif multi- rekan di PSB-PS memfasilitasi halaqah- memiliki intoleransi kuat terhadap ke- disipliner dan dialog intersubjektif untuk halaqah (diskusi intensif) berskala nasional, majemukan budaya. Ini memberi andil pada menjadikan perubahan paradigma ini sebagai arena pertukaran pemikiran bagi timbulnya friksi, segregasi sosial, bahkan memiliki pijakan yang lebih kontekstual para pemikir Islam di Majelis Tarjih dan kekerasan yang meruyak akhir-akhir ini. dan valid. Selain itu, juga diperlukan pelaku dakwah di Majelis Tabligh, ber- Nampaknya, seperti organisasi keagamaan strategi transformatif pada tataran praksis sanding dengan ahli-ahli ilmu sosial serta lainnya, yang lebih mengedepankan truth sosialnya, agar ada kesinambungan antara pelaku budaya dan seniman sendiri. Upaya claim daripada dialog inter- ini dilakukan agar cara pandang subjektif, Muhammadiyah juga terhadap seni dan budaya lokal kurang memiliki apresiasi oten- menjadi lebih arif dan kon- tik terhadap multikulturalisme. tekstual. Saya ingin fatwa tentang Jati diri warga Muhammadiyah seni tak dihasilkan dari ruang misalnya, lebih merujuk ke bu- vakum agama. Dari halaqah- daya ke-Arab-araban, yang di- halaqah yang telah diseleng- anggap budaya Islam, ketimbang garakan sepanjang 2001-2002 ke budaya tempat sendiri yang muncul pendapat bahwa pelabel- dianggap warisan animisme dan an mubah sebetulnya kurang paganisme yang menodai “ke- tepat diterapkan pada masalah- murnian Islam.” masalah seni-budaya yang ber- Pandangan arus utama Mu- sifat empirik-sosiologis. Halaqah hammadiyah cenderung meng- juga antara lain menyimpulkan hakimi format dan ekspresi bahwa seni adalah keniscayaan budaya lokal sebagai takhyul, alamiah atau kehendak Allah sesat (bid’ah), menyimpang (khu- (sunnatullah) dan bersifat baik rafat), dan bahkan haram, sehing- (ma’ruf). ga ditolak atau disingkirkan. Yayah Khisbiyah di Surakarta, 2001. Hasil halaqah ini telah kami Dalam fatwa Muhammadiyah terbitkan dalam dua buku yang mengenai hukum (fiqh) seni, disebutkan wacana dengan implementasinya dalam banyak dirujuk pengurus Muhammadiyah bahwa seni bersifat dibolehkan (mubah), kehidupan nyata. Namun sayang, pem- dalam peristiwa-peristiwa penting tingkat sepanjang tak mengarah pada kerusakan baruan itu berjalan lambat dan frag- nasional, seperti Sidang Tanwir (sidang (fasad), bahaya (dharar), maksiat (ihsyan), mentaris, padahal persoalan-persoalan tertinggi di bawah Muktamar) di Bali pada dan menjauhi Tuhan (ba’id ‘anillah). akibat intoleransi agama terhadap plu- Januari 2002, Sidang Tanwir di Makassar Berbekal fatwa ini, sebagian kalangan ralitas budaya Indonesia terus mengganggu pada Juni 2003, dan Musyawarah Nasional merasa memiliki keabsahan memberangus kehidupan masyarakat Indonesia, sejak Tarjih di Padang Oktober 2003. Wacana ini kesenian lokal atau tradisional yang tumbangnya Orde Baru pada 1998. juga memancing diskusi hangat di berbagai dianggap tak sesuai dengan nilai-nilai Islam, Kegelisahan saya ini saya salurkan kalangan Muhammadiyah. Ini positif padahal definisi yang dipakai adalah melalui PSB-PS dengan mendesain program karena program ini paling tidak telah definisi Islam yang literal, tercerabut dari “Dialektika Agama dan Budaya Lokal” dan menggugah kita untuk berpikir ulang konteks sosial-budaya yang terus berubah. kini berlanjut dengan “Islam Multikultural” mengenai hakikat, dinamika, dan Muhammadiyah sebenarnya telah bekerjasama dengan PP Muhammadiyah tantangan pluralisme dan multikultur- meninjau ulang paradigma lama tersebut. dan Ford Foundation. Program ini bertujuan alisme dalam rangka menuju masyarakat Paradigma baru yang lebih bersahabat agar persyarikatan dan warga Muham- yang lebih berkeadilan, sejahtera, dan terhadap multikulturalisme, dilontarkan madiyah khususnya dan Muslim umumnya, damai. 224 BAB LIMA SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 225 226 BAB LIMA

Masyarakat adat tak lagi terancam untuk dicerabut dari akarnya. legislator itu duduk karena ditunjuk partai, bukan karena dipilih Buruh, seperti halnya wartawan, bisa membentuk organisasinya dari bawah. Tanpa kewajiban mempertanggungjawabkan posisi sendiri yang beragam. Islam tidak lagi hanya berarti satu umat mereka di depan pemilih, para legislator praktis bisa berbuat dengan suara dan interpretasi tunggal. Orang Indonesia apa saja – termasuk berjual beli suara. keturunan Tionghoa tak lagi takut mementaskan wayang po- Akhirnya Indonesia menemui kenyataan bahwa te-hi di kelenteng-kelenteng Kong Hu Cu. Perempuan tak lagi demokrasi, sebuah jalan untuk mengelola perbedaan, bukan diletakkan sebagai pendukung birokrasi. Mereka bahkan aktif sebuah lorong yang necis. Banyak sekali lobang yang dalam, membuka ide-ide progresif – dari soal hak-hak reproduksi paku yang tajam, juga najis, dan orang-orang jahat sepanjang sampai dengan soal tafsir Kitab Suci. itu. Tak semua orang bisa tahan di sana. Tak semuanya tanpa kesakitan. Di Papua dan Aceh, Dan agaknya itulah persoalan yang dihadapi mereka keinginan untuk memisahkan diri dari Republik Indonesia tak yang, sebelum Suharto jatuh, memperjuangkan demokrasi yang surut. Di Kalimantan Barat, bentrokan yang mengerikan antara kini mereka dapat. Mereka tak ingin masuk ke dalam lorong orang Dayak dan Madura kembali kambuh. Di awal 1999, politik yang tak necis itu. Masuk ke politik bahkan sebuah konflik baru meledak di Ambon antara penduduk Muslim dan langkah yang sering dicemooh. Ada sikap yang dianggap oleh Kristen – sebuah sengketa yang menjalar, bengis, dan sulit Zohra Andi Baso, aktivis dari Makassar, sebagai “romantisme diredakan. saja.” Dengan kata lain, sebuah posisi yang sebenarnya lemah, Ketika lembaga hukum masih tetap korup, ketika aparat tapi menarik dan tampak bersih dari partai dan Parlemen. keamanan dengan gampang menawarkan tubuh dan senjata Tapi keragaman yang marak setelah Orde Baru juga untuk dibayar siapa saja, penyelesaian konflik cenderung menyediakan keragaman cara. Di luar partai dan Parlemen, dilakukan di luar pengadilan. Bahkan dengan kekerasan. Di Lilis N. Husna, seorang aktivis dari kalangan Nahdlatul Ulama, banyak tempat, terutama di kota-kota besar, bermunculan misalnya, membentuk “forum warga.” Agendanya adalah secara barisan berseragam yang menodong masyarakat dengan konsisten membangun pengaruh ke dalam lembaga-lembaga ancaman. Tak ada lagi sarana yang diterima oleh masyarakat politik. Dengan cara ini – yang bukan satu-satunya cara – untuk membuat orang berunding dan kompromi. barangkali ada harapan bahwa carut-marut demokrasi yang Dalam puing-puing institusi itu, partai-partai politik jadi ciri dasawarsa pasca-Suharto akan menemukan bentuknya. yang menang dalam pemilihan umum ternyata tak mampu Dalam arti itu, demokrasi adalah sebuah eksperimen besar. jadi penggerak perbaikan. Melalui sebuah pemilihan umum Di ujungnya tak ada janji tentang sebuah masyarakat yang yang disiapkan cuma dalam waktu setahun, Parlemen diisi oleh sempurna. Yang ada hanya sebuah perjalanan terus-menerus orang-orang yang baru dalam karier politik. Mereka tak punya untuk memperbaiki, mengubah, membentuk secara teratur, teladan yang bermutu dari sejarah tiga dasawarsa Orde Baru. tanpa kekerasan. Yang ada hanya sebuah proses yang menuntut Sistem yang memilih mereka juga sistem yang lama: para kerendahhatian. Dalam kisah ini, proses itu bernama Indonesia. SEBUAH PERJALANAN, SEBUAH BANGSA 227 APPENDIX 228 MENYAMBUT INDONESIA

DAFTAR SINGKATAN

ADC Agricultural Development Council IGGI Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia AJI Aliansi Jurnalis Independen (Alliance of IIE Institute of International Education Independent Journalists) ILO International Labor Organization APIK Asosiasi Perempuan Indonesia untuk IMF International Monetary Fund Keadilan (Indonesian Women’s Association for Justice) INGI International NGO Group on Indonesia BAPPENAS Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional IPB Institut Pertanian Bogor (Bogor Institute of (National Planning Board) Agriculture) BKKBN Badan Koordinasi Keluarga Berencana IPTN Industri Pesawat Terbang Nusantara Nasional (National Family Planning (Indonesian National Aircraft Industry) Coordinating Board) IRRI International Rice Research Institute BPN Badan Perancang Nasional (Central ISAI Institut Studi Arus Informasi (Institute for Planning Bureau) the Studies on Free Flow of Information) BPPC Badan Penyangga dan Pemarasan Cengkeh ISEI Ikatan Sarjana Ekonomi Indonesia (Clove Support and Trading Board) (Association of Indonesian Economists) BPS Badan Pendukung Soekarnoisme ITB Institut Teknologi Bandung (Bandung (Sukarnoism Support Group) Institute of Technology) BPTRI Balai Perguruan Tinggi Republik Indonesia JEN Jaringan Epidemiologi Nasional (National (National Center of Higher Education) Epidemiological Network) CGMI Consentrasi Gerakan Mahasiswa Indonesia KEPAS Kelompok Penelitian Agro-eko Sistem (Indonesian Students Movement Center) (Agro-Ecosystem Research Group) CIFOR The Center for International Forestry Research KIPP Komite Independen Pemantau Pemilu CIO Congress of Industrial Organizations (General Election Monitoring Committee) CSIS Center for Strategic and International Studies Komnas HAM Komisi Nasional Hak Asasi Manusia (National Human Rights Commission) DPR Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (House of Representatives) Kopassus Komando Pasukan Khusus (Army Special Forces Command) ECA Economic Cooperation Administration Kopkamtib Komando Pemulihan Keamanan dan FEUI Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Indonesia Ketertiban (Command for the Restoration (Faculty of Economics, University of of Security and Order) Indonesia) Leknas Lembaga Ekonomi dan Kemasyarakatan Golkar Golongan Karya (Functional Group) Nasional (National Institute for Economics HSI Himpunan Sarjana Indonesia (Union of and Social Research) Indonesian Scholars) LIPI Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia HKBP Huria Kristen Batak Protestan (Indonesian (Indonesian Institute of Sciences) Batak Protestant Church) LKEN Lembaga Kajian Ekonomi Nasional HMI Himpunan Mahasiswa Islam (Islamic (National Institute for Economic Research) Students Federation) LP3ES Lembaga Penelitian, Pendidikan, dan IAIN Institut Agama Islam Negeri (State Institute Penerangan Ekonomi Sosial (Institute for for Islamic Studies) Social and Economic Research, Education, IFP International Fellowships Program and Information) APPENDIX 229

LP3Y Lembaga Penelitian, Pendidikan, dan PNI Partai Nasional Indonesia (Indonesian Penerbitan Yogyakarta (Yogyakarta Institute Nationalist Party) for Research, Education, and Publications) PPP Partai Persatuan Pembangunan (United LPEM Lembaga Penyelidikan Ekonomi dan Development Party) Masyarakat (Institute of Economic and PRD Partai Rakyat Demokratik (Democratic Social Research) Peoples Party) LPPM Lembaga Pengembangan dan Penelitian PRRI Pemerintah Revolusioner Republik Manajemen (Institute for Development and Indonesia (Revolutionary Government of Management Research) the Indonesian Republic) LSM Lembaga Swadaya Masyarakat (Community PSI Partai Sosialis Indonesia (Indonesian Self-help Organization) Socialist Party) Malari Malapetaka Limabelas Januari (The January th Repelita Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun (Five- 15 Incident) Year Development Plan) MARI Majelis Rakyat Indonesia (Indonesian Seskoad Sekolah Staf Komando Angkatan Darat Peoples Council) (Army Staff College) Masyumi Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia Sticusa Stichting Culturele Samenwerking (Consultative Council of Muslim Indonesians) TII Tentara Islam Indonesia (Indonesian Islamic Army) MIPI Majelis Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (Indonesian Council for Science and TIM Taman Ismail Marzuki Learning) TMII Taman Mini Indonesia Indah (Beautiful NICA Netherlands Indies Civil Administration Indonesia in Miniature) NIGO Nederlandse Indische Guerilla Organisattie TRIP Tentara Republik Indonesia Pelajar (Dutch Indies Guerrilla Organization) (Republican Youth Army) NU Nahdlatul Ulama UGM Universitas Gadjah Mada (Gadjah Mada University) P3M Perhimpunan Pengembangan Pesantren dan Masyarakat (Indonesian Society for Pesantren UI Universitas Indonesia (University of and Community Development) Indonesia) PDI Partai Demokrasi Indonesia (Indonesian USAID United States Agency for International Democratic Party) Development PDI-P Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan USIS United States Information Service (Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle) WALHI Wahana Lingkungan Hidup (Indonesian Permesta Perjuangan Semesta (Universal Struggle) Environmental Forum) PIAR Pengembangan Inisiatif dan Advokasi WALDA Wahana Lestari Persada (Movement for Rakyat (Association for the Development of Preservation of Homeland) Initiative and Community Advocacy) YIIS Yayasan Ilmu-ilmu Sosial (Social Sciences PKBI Perkumpulan Keluarga Berencana Indonesia Foundation) (Indonesian Planned Parenthood Association) YLBHI Yayasan Lembaga Bantuan Hukum Indonesia PKI Partai Komunis Indonesia (Indonesian (Indonesian Legal Aid Foundation) Communist Party) YLKI Yayasan Lembaga Konsumen Indonesia PMKRI Perhimpunan Mahasiswa Katolik Republik (Indonesian Consumers Association) Indonesia (Indonesian Catholic Students YPMD Yayasan Pengembangan Masyarakat Desa Association) (Village Community Advancement Foundation) 230 MENYAMBUT INDONESIA

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Akhmadi, Heri. Breaking the Chains of Oppression of the Indonesian People. Katoppo, Aristides et al. (eds), Jejak Perjuangan Begawan Pejuang: Biografi Translation Series, Modern Indonesia Project, no. 59. Ithaca, NY: Sumitro Djojohadikusumo. Jakarta: Pustaka Sinar Harapan, 2000. Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University Press, 1981. Miller, Frank. Development Experience During Periods of Social and Political Anderson, Benedict and Audrey Kahin, ed. Interpreting Indonesian Politics: Change in Indonesia, 1960-1970. New York: Ford Foundation, 1970. Thirteen Contributions to the Debate. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Nazaruddin, Sjamsuddin, ed. Jejak Langkah Pak Harto: 29 Maret 1978- Press, 1982. 11 Maret 1983. Jakarta: PT Citra Lamtoro Gung Persada, 1992. Anwar, Rosihan. Sebelum Prahara: Pergolakan Politik Indonesia 1961-1965. Nursam, M. Pergumulan Seorang Intelektual: Biografi Soedjatmoko. Jakarta: Jakarta: Sinar Harapan, 1981. Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 2002. Bresnan, John. Managing Indonesia: The Modern Political Economy. New Prasetyohadi. Media Keserempet Timor: Analisis Sikap Media Terhadap Proyek York: Columbia University Press, 1993. Mobil Nasional. Jakarta: ISAI, 1998. Bruinessen, Martin van. Kitab Kuning Pesantren dan Tarekat: Tradisi-tradisi Ransom, David. “Ford Country: Building an Elite for Indonesia” in Steve Islam di Indonesia. Bandung: Penerbit Mizan, 1995. Weissman (ed.), with members of the Pacific Studies Center and the Budiman, Arief (ed). State and Civil Society in Indonesia. Monash, Victoria: North American Congress on Latin America, “The Trojan Horse: A Monash University, 1990. Radical Look at Foreign Aid”. Palo Alto, CA: Ramparts Press, 1975.

Cahyono, Heru. Pangkopkamtib Jendral Soemitro dan Peristiwa 15 Januari Redaksi Ekonomi Harian Kompas, ed. Mencari Bentuk Ekonomi Indonesia: 1974. Jakarta: Pustaka Sinar Harapan, 1998. Perkembangan Pemikiran 1965-1981. Jakarta: Gramedia, 1982.

—. Peranan Ulama dalam Golkar 1971-1980: Dari Pemilu sampai Malari, Reeve, David. Golkar of Indonesia: An Alternative to the Party System. Jakarta: Sinar Harapan, 1992. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1985.

Cribb, Robert. Historical Atlas of Indonesia. Honolulu: University of Robison, Richard, Kevin Hewison and Richard Higgott, ed. Southeast Asia Hawai’i Press, 2000. in the 1980s: The Politics of Economic Crisis, Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1987. Dye, Richard. “The Jakarta Faculty of Economics”. New York: The Ford Foundation, 1964. Saroso, Kresno. Dari Salemba Ke Pulau Buru. Jakarta: Pustaka Utan Kayu, 2002. Esmara, Hendra. Sumitro Djojohadikusumo: Jejak Perlawanan Begawan Pejuang. Jakarta: Pustaka Sinar Harapan, 2000. Scott, James. Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990. Feith, Herbert. The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978. Simanungkalit, Salomo, ed. Indonesia dalam Krisis 1997-2002. Jakarta: Kompas, 2002. Forum Kajian Kitab Kuning. Wajah Baru Relasi Suami Istri: Telaah Uqud al-Lujjayn. Yogyakarta: LKiS bekerja sama dengan Forum Kajian Stanley. Seputar Kedung Ombo, Jakarta: ELSAM, 1994 Kitab Kuning, 2001. Suharto. Suharto: Pikiran, Ucapan dan Tindakan Saya : otobiografi Gardner, Paul F. Sharp Hopes Separate Fears: Fifty Years of US-Indonesian (Seperti dipaparkan kepada G. Dwipayana dan Ramadhan K. Relations. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1997. H.) Jakarta: PT Citra Lamtoro Gung Persada, 1988.

Geertz, Clifford. Report to Ford Foundation Concerning a Program for the Thee Kian Wie. Industrialisasi di Indonesia: Beberapa Kajian. Jakarta: Stimulation of the Social Sciences in Indonesia. Ford Foundation, 1971. LP3ES, 1994.

Harvey, Barbara Sillars. Permesta: Pemberontakan Setengah Hati. Jakarta: —. Explorations in Indonesian Economic History. Jakarta: Lembaga Penerbit Pustaka Utama Grafiti, 1984. FEUI, 1994

Kayam, Umar. Mangan Ora Mangan Kumpul. Jakarta: Pustaka Utama Tim ISAI. Peristiwa 27 Juli. Jakarta: ISAI, 1996. Grafiti, 1995. Tim Sejarah FEUI. Lima Puluh Tahun FEUI: dalam Kancah Perjuangan —. Para Priyayi. Jakarta: Pustaka Utama Grafiti, 1992. Bangsa – 1950-2000. Jakarta: FEUI, 2000. APPENDIX 231

INDEKS

Abadi 106 BPPC 186 Djuweng, Stepanus 199 Abdullah, Hamid 113 BPS 96 Doyle, Leonard 58 Abdullah, Taufik 15, 124, 129, 131 BPTRI 38 DPR 86, 202 Acciaioli, Greg 215 Brenner, Suzanne 215 Drummond, Barry 215 ADC 77 Bresnan, John dan Sukarno 14, dan Sumitro Dullah 62 Adelman, Irma 50 46, dan Widjojo 51, dan Starch 52, dan Dulles, Allen 71 Aditjondro, George 137 IRRI 74, sebagai Wakil 95, dan Geertz Dulles, John Foster 71 Affandi 62 117; karir 120 Durasit, Durtje 113 Afiff, Saleh 46, 56, 58, 59 British Council 46, 48, 82, 96, 117 Dye, Richard 126 Agoes, Irid 211 British Petroleum 137 AJI 184, 216 Brooks, Karen 51 ECA 48, 55 Akhmadi, Heri 122 Brown, Dyke 72, 76, 81 Echols, John M. 82, 215 Alatas, Ali 120 Buchairi 123 Editor 184 Alfian 15, 113, 129 Budiarjo, Carmel 60 Ekonomi Keynesian 50, 56, 67 Alfian, Ibrahim 113, 129 Budiman, Arief 197, 208 Eltayasa 200 Algamar 15 Bundy, McGeorge 91 Equinox Publishing 31 Ali, Mukti 127 Bush, George W. 58 Erasmus Huis 45 Allison, John 69 Errington, Joseph 215 Amin, Ali Basyah 129 Cardoso, Fernando Henrique 130 Evers, Hans-Dieter 129 Anderson, Benedict 215 Castles, Lance 113, 129 Ang Giok Hun 91 CGMI 60, 96 Faletto, Enzo 130 Annan, Kofi 143 Chalid, Idham 83 FAO 77 Anwar, Rosihan 90 Choa, Andrew 27, 29, 55 Fasohah 188 Arifin, Marzuki 106 CIA 47, 57, 71, 100, 126 Fatayat 188 Arnold, Edwin 72, 76, 81 Ciciek, Farha 203 Feinstein, Alan 194 ASEAN 17 CIDA 159 Festival Indonesia 194 Ashabranner, Brent 26 CIFOR 165 FEUI 35, 43, 44, 48, 50, 52, 55, 57, 60, 64, Asholihat pesantren 188 CIO 55 65, 67 Asialink 187 Citra Usadha 21 Fietkiewicz, Daniel 215 Asian Cultural Council 187 Club of Rome 128 Florida, Nancy 138, 176 Asian Development Bank 151 Cohen, Matthew 215 FNS 122 Australian National University 73 Columbia University 120 Folkways Records 194 Cornell University 15, 53, 55, 73, 82, 95, 107, Ford Motor Company 10 Bachtiar, Harsja 15, 117, 129, 131 137, 138, 170, 215 Ford, Henry dan Edsel 10 Bahasuan 28 Couteau, Jean 62 Freedom Institute 196 Bangun, Jabatin 194 CSIS 44, 106 Freeport McMoRan 137 Bank Dunia dan Widjojo 50; dan Cunningham, Clark 128, 129 Friedrich Naumann Stiftung 202 pembangunan 77, 151; dan Kedung Cunningham, Miss 14, 28, 55 Fuller, William 119 Ombo 137, 208; dan krisis moneter 182; tentang ekonomi Indonesia 189 Davis, Roscoe 32 Gardner, Paul 101 Bank Indonesia 196 Davisson, Malcolm 58 Garuda Indonesia 150 BAPPENAS 39, 44, 50, 59, 73 Dawood, Dayan 129 Geertz, Clifford 15, 113, 117, 120, 124, 129, Baso, Zohra Andi 149, 226 Deblog, I Gusti Made 63 133 Beasiswa Fulbright 73, 197 DeTik 184 Gelanggang 124 Beatles, The 96, 100 Dharma Wanita 149 George, Terry 215 Bell, David 100 Djanin, Arif 91 Glassburner, Bruce 57, 58, 64, 126 Berita Buana 83 Djiwandono, Bianti 143 Golkar 106, 154, 156, 168, 172, 192, 216 Berkeley, UC 15, 39, 43, 46, 48, 50-51, 55- Djiwandono, Soedradjad 15, 131, 186 Gorbachev, Mikhail 196 60, 64, 91, 95, 117, 123, 126, 127 Djogo, Tony 162, 165 Gouda, Frances 215 Berresford, Susan V. 30 Djohan, Bahder 81, 119 Grauer, Rhoda 187 Biki, Amir 135, 136, 139 Djojohadikusumo, Sumitro dan teknokrat 39, Green, Marshall 101 BKKBN 83, 97, 108, 147 50, 58-59, 126; dan FEUI 43, 48, 56, 60; Gunder Frank, Andre 130 Blaisdell, Thomas 58 sebagai menteri 45, 119; karir 46-47; dan Bonnet, Rudolf 62 Ford Foundation 52, 55; dan PRRI 57; Habibie, B.J. 14, 67, 181, 185, 200, 220, 222, Boston University 107 dan Suharto 67,189; dan CIA 71; dan 226 BPN 47, 50 YLBHI 80; dan PBB 124-125 Hadisumarto, Djunaedi 44, 56, 58 232 MENYAMBUT INDONESIA

Hadler, Jeffrey 215 ISEI 47 Lempad, I Gusti Nyoman 62 Hakim, Lukman 122 Ismael, Julius E. 50, 56, 58, 60 Lev, Daniel 129 Haley, Bill (and the Comets) 44 ITB 65, 122 Liddle, Bill 129 Halim, Barli 60 Liem Sioe Liong 142 Hamengku Buwono IX 49, 53, 59, 113 J.W. Marriott Hotel 83 Lightfoot, William 73 Hamid, Ahmad 131 Jackson Five 215 Lindsay, Jennifer 187 Hamid, Sandra 31 Jassin, H.B. 94 LIPI 15, 95, 129, 130, 138 Hanifah 147 Jaya 83 Livingstone, Miss 29 Hanusz, Mark 31 JEN 145 LKEN 131 Hardjosoemantri, Koesnadi 170 Jessup, Tim 215 London School of Economics 117 Harian Kami 106 Joesoef, Daoed 42, 43, 47, 56, 64, 192 LP3ES 122, 209 Harian Rakjat 90 Johannes, Herman 91 LP3Y 184 Harmoko 189 Jones, Sidney 26, 80, 184 LPPM 47, 119 Harris, Michael 14, 27, 52, 55, 58, 63, 126 Jufri, Fikri 44, 106 LSM 200 Harsono, Andreas 31 Lubis, Mochtar 80, 90, 115 Hartiningsih, Maria 191 Kadarman 119 Lubis, Todung Mulya 80 Harvard University 15, 73, 107, 119 Kahin, Audrey 215 Lutfi, Amir 113 Hasan 27 Kahin, George McT. 53, 120, 215 Hasan, Bob 182, 185 Kamaruszaman 27, 28 Machdan, Hasjim 80 Hasanah 29, 55 Kampung Bali 27 Madjid, Nurcholish 150, 197, 198 Hasibuan, Albert 80 Kartodirdjo, Sartono 123 Mafia Berkeley 15, 50, 126, 127 Hasibuan, Sayuti 39, 91 Katjasungkana, Nursyahbani 159, 202 Mahmud, Syamsuddin 113, 129 Hatta, Mohammad 43, 45, 53, 115 Kayam, Umar 52, 128, 129, 170, 179, 197 Makagiansar, Makaminan 131 Hawkins, Everett 46, 48 Kebon Sirih, kantor 26, 27, 30 Malari Incident 103, 105, 106, 107, 122, 125 Hefner, Robert 215 Kedung Ombo 137, 184, 207, 208 Malik, Adam 59, 144 Heider, Karl 215 Kelola Foundation 187 Mallarangeng, Rizal 196, 197 Helmi 168, 169 Kennedy, John F. 95, 120 Mangkusuwondo, Suhadi sebagai mahasiswa Hermanu 136 KEPAS 162 42, 44-45; dengan Sumitro 46; sebagai Higgins, Benjamin 46 Kertonegoro 91 teknokrat 56,58-59; dan PSI 57; di Hill, F.F. “Frosty” 27, 120 Keyfitz, Nathan 50 Berkeley 60; tentang investasi asing 115 Hilton Hotel 121 Keynes, John Maynard 39, 48, 64, 100 Mangunwijaya, Y.B. 197, 208 HIS 60 Khisbiyah, Yayah 223 Mao Zedong 130, 133 HIVOS 157, 187 KIA Corporation 186 Marcoes, Ferdinand 143 HKBP 30 Kidner, Frank 58 Marcoes-Natsir, Lies 209 HMI 39 KIPP 220 Mardanus 107 Hoffman, Paul 10, 52, 72, 76, 81 KITLV 123 Margaret Sanger Institute 108 Hotel Des Indes 14, 52, 55 Kittikachorn, Thanom 116 MARI 216, 220 HuMa 155 Kleden, Ignas 124 Marshall Plan 10, 48, 52, 55, 72 Human Rights Watch/Asia 80, 184 Koentjaraningrat 131 Martokusumo 80 Humardhani, Sudjono 107, 144 Koes Bersaudara 96 Marx, Karl 100 Husna, Lilis N. 213, 226 Kolopaking, Soenario 44, 58, 64 Mashuri 123 Hutabarat, Marihot 44 Komnas HAM 139, 202 Masyumi 86, 90, 94, 106, 112, 148, 190 Hutabarat, Paul 44 Komnas Perempuan 95 Mattulada 129 Kompas 83, 197, 199, 120, 123, 159, 191 Mboeik, Sarah Lery 193 IAIN 203 Konferensi Asia-Afrika 76 McDougall, John 215 Ibrahim, Madjid 129 Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatschappij 86 McGill University 60 Ibrahim, Syarif 113 Konphalindo 165 Mears, Leon E. 58 IEF 95 Kopassus 158 Merdeka 126 IFP 73 Kopkamtib 105, 106 Miller, Frank 43, 81, 95, 100, 120, 126 IGGI 112, 115 Kopri 168 MIPI 131 IIE 72 Korten, Frances 169 MIT 15, 46, 126, 128 ILO 77 Krakatau Steel 121 Modern Indonesia Project 53 IMF 50, 118, 182, 186, 196 Kuipers, Joel 215 Moerdani, L.B. 136, 139 Independen 184 Kuntjoro-Jakti, Dorodjatun 56, 64, 106, 115 Moertopo, Ali 105, 106, 107 Indonesia Raya 90, 106, 121, 122 Kuntjoro-Jakti, June 27 Mohamad, Goenawan 31, 197 INGI 137, 208 Kusumo, Amna 187 Moniaga, Sandra 155 Institut Dayakologi 199 Kusumo, Sardono 223 Mook, Hubertus van 49 Institut Kesenian Jakarta 194 Morris, Leslie 215 International Rice Genebank 74 Lange, Oscar 64 MPR 202 IPB 77 Laporan Gaither 10 Mrázek, Jan 215 IPTN 185, 200 Lasky, Harold 48 MSPI 194 IRRI 74, 77 LBH APIK 159 Muhammad, Mar’ie 186 ISAI 184 Leknas 95, 129 Muhammadiyah 97, 150, 172, 198, 223 APPENDIX 233

Museum Sonobudoyo 138 PKI pada 1965 39; dan Uni Soviet 53; Seskoad 65, 67; dan Suharto 91; tentang Music of Indonesia 194 kampanye propaganda 57, 94, 106; dan korupsi 118 organisasi mahasiswa 60; dan FEUI 64; Sajogyo 77 Nahdlatul Ulama 83, 156, 172, 198, 213, 226 dan Seskoad 65; kejatuhannya 67, 101; Sakdulloh, K.H. 188 Naim, Mochtar 129 dan Sukarno 86, 96; dan Masyumi 148; Salim, Agoes 125 Nasution, Abdul Haris 86, 162 dan Suharto 190; stigma 208, 210 Salim, Emil tentang Sumitro 46; dan Ford Nasution, Adnan Buyung 80, 105, 115 Platters, The 44 Foundation 56; dan PSI 57; sebagai Nederlands Economische Hogeschool 46 PMKRI 57 teknokrat 58, 127, 131; dan FEUI 64; di Nehru, Jawaharlal 48 PNI 57, 90, 172 Berkeley 91; sebagai menteri 137 New York, State University of 100 Pope, Allen 71, 72 Samadi 207 NICA 38, 42 PPP 150, 156, 158, 172 Santoso 184 Nieman Fellowship 31, 184 Prawiranegara, Sjafruddin 46, 119, 148 Saroso 58 NIGO 90 Prawiro, Radius 91 Sarwono, Sophie 97 Nitisastro, Widjojo dan Ford Foundation 24, Prawirohardjo, Sarwono 131 Sastroamidjojo, Ali 46, 52, 53, 62, 72, 81 43, 53; dan BAPPENAS 39, 73; FEUI 42, PRD 210, 214, 216 Sastroamidjojo, Kurnianingrat Ali 82 45, 56, 67; karir 50-51; dan PSI 57; Prijono 96 Schell, Orville 100 sebagai teknokrat 58-59, 126-127, 131; di Princen, H.J.C. 80 Schiller, Anne 215 Berkeley 60; di Cina 64; dan Suharto 91, Prisma 122, 126 Schlegel, Stuart 129 197; tentang korupsi 121 Program Pusat Pelatihan Ilmu-ilmu Sosial 15, Schmitt, Hans 58 Nkrumah, Kwame 48 128, 129 Schumacher, E.F. 128, 130 Noer, Arifin 217 Pronk, Jan Pieter 115 Schumpeter, Joseph 100 Notosusanto, Nugroho 123 PRRI dan Sumitro 43, 47, 57, 126; dan SEATO 96 Nusantara 106 CGMI 60; perang melawan 69; dan CIA Sedyawati, Edi 173 Nusantara, Abdul Hakim Garuda 80, 155, 71, 100; dan Sukarno 94 Senen Mall 103 208 PSI dan Sumitro 56; dan teknokrat 57; stigma Seskoad 65, 67 64, 106, 112,148; dan Sukarno 86, 94; Shadily, Hassan 86 Oetomo, Dede 215 kejatuhannya 90; dan Soedjatmoko 124; Shakespeare 73 Oey-Gardiner, Mayling 73 dan Suharto 190 Siasat 124 Ojong, P.K. 80 Puri Lukisan 62-63 Sibarani, Victor 80 Opera Kecoa 216 Putra, Hutomo Mandala () Silalahi, Harry Tjan 44 Orde Baru 14, 50, 67, 80, 112, 162, 170, 185, 186 Simanjuntak, Marsillam 105 196 PWI 168 Simatupang, Batara 58 Orde Lama 170 Simatupang, T.B. 119 Quinn, Phineas 73 Singarimbun, Masri 74 P3M 188 Siregar, Hariman 105 Pabottingi, Mochtar 171 Rahardjo, Dawam 133 Siskel, Suzanne E. 31, 95, 215 Padi Centra 77 Rahima 203 Siswomartojo, Sadarjoen 131 PaEni, Mukhlis 113 Rais, Amien 150, 197, 198, 202 Sitorus, Bistok 91 Pamuntjak, Laksmi 31 Ramparts 126, 127 Situmorang, Sitor 124 Panca Warga 108, 147 Rand Corporation 126 Sjahrir, Sutan 57, 90, 125, 197 Pancasila 136, 158, 162 Ransom, David 126 Slomanson, Peter 215 Pancur Kasih 199 Ranuwihardjo, Sukadji 91 SMERU 131 Panggabean, Maruli 115, 127 Rasyad, Sjahriar 90 Smith, Adam 39 Panglaykim 42, 91, 115 Reid, Anthony 129 Smithsonian Institution 194 Panji, Sujono Suroso 123 Rendra, W.S. 170 Smithsonian/MSPI CD-CD 172, 194 Papandreou, Andreas 58, 126 Republika 159 Soebandrio 97, 100, 108, 120 Parker, Harrison 27, 29 Riantiarno, Nano 216 Soebandrio, Hoeroestiati 97, 108, 147 PDI 158, 172, 210, 214, 216 Riantiarno, Ratna 216, 217 Soedarman, Soesilo 210, 216 PDI-P 222 Rifka Anissa 21, 158 Soedjatmoko tentang Suwarto 65; dan Malari Pedoman 90, 121 Robison, Richard 116 106; dan Ford Foundation 107, 117, 123, Pekerti, Anugerah 119 Rockefeller Foundation 46, 55, 73, 74, 81, 126, 129; karir 124-125; ide 127, 128 Pelras, Christian 129 191 Soehoed, A.R. 50 Pelzer, Karl 77 Ruddick, Abby 215 Soemardjan, Selo karir 53; di Cornell 95; dan Penghargaan Ramon Magsaysay 124 Rudini 137 Geertz 117; dan Program Pusat Pelatihan Perang Dunia II 10, 48, 72, 77 Rukmana, Siti Hardiyanti (Tutut Suharto) 181 Ilmu-ilmu Sosial 128; dan Ford Peristiwa Cikini 90 Rumansara, Augustinus 137 Foundation 129; dan Leknas 131 Pertamina 50, 118, 121, 122, 221 Rusk, Dean 120 Soemarlin, J.B. 56, 60, 64 Pesantren Krapyak 207 Ryder, Brooks 108 Soenardjo 91 Petisi 26 154, 156 Soerjadi 214 Petisi 50 158 Sadikin, Ali 80, 83, 108, 112, 121, 162 Soetanto, T.S.S. 131 PIAR 193 Sadli, Mohammad pada Widjojo 50; di FEUI Soetono, Djoko 45, 58, 60 Pirenne, Ari 123 53, 64, 126; dan Ford Foundation 56; Soewardjono 109 PKBI 97, 108 sebagai teknokrat 58-59, 127, 131; dan Sombolinggi’, Laso’ 157 234 MENYAMBUT INDONESIA

Sorbonne 43 Tamamoto, Yoshiko 215 Wahid, Abdurrahman sebagai presiden 14, 44, Spencer, Edson 24 Taman Ismail Marzuki 170, 187, 217 117; dan pemilihan menteri 129, 143; dan Spies, Walter 62 Taman Kebon Sirih 27, 30, 55 Suharto 198; kebijakan 209, di Ithaca 215; Spoelberch, Guillaume de 125 Taman Mini Indonesia Indah 50, 135, 177 pelantikan 222 SPSI 168 Tambu, Charles 124, 125 Walad, Muzakkir 113, 129 Sri Hadi 58 Tampubulon, Pansa 50 WALDA 157 Sritua, Arief 39 Tan Goan Po 57, 58 WALHI 143, 155, 200 St. Xavier University 73 Tan Malaka 197 Walinono, Hasan 129 Stanford University 46 Tan, Mely G. 15, 95, 131 Wardhana, Ali dan Ford Foundation 43; Starch, Elmer 52 Tanaka, Kakuei 103 tentang Widjojo 50; sebagai teknokrat 56, Sticusa 44, 62 Tanjung Priok Incident 135, 136, 139, 142, 58-59, 131; dan PSI 57; di FEUI 64, 131 Suanda, Endo 176, 177, 194 144, 162, 179 Warman, Minang 80 Suara Karya 106 Tasrif, Suardi 80 WARSI 24 Subroto dan FEUI 56, 60, 64, 126; sebagai Taylor, Paul 58 Washington, University of 191 teknokrat 58-59; dan Seskoad 65, 67; dan Tempo 44, 82, 118, 136, 184, 207 Weldon, Peter 73 Suharto 91 Thayeb, Syarif 43 Wertheim, W.F. 77 Sudarsono, Juwono 117, 120 Thee Kian Wie 46, 131 Wesleyan University 177 Sudarsono, Priharumastinah 117 Thomas, Franklin 24, 30 WHO 77, 191 Sudarsono, Vishnu 117 Thukul, Wiji 203 Wibowo, Fred 219 Sudjatmiko, Budiman 210 Timor Timur 129, 172, 184, 211, 222 Widyantoro, Ninuk 108, 147 Sudjojono 62 Tjandrasasmita, Oka 123 Wiener, Margaret 215 Sudomo 106, 112 Tjokorda Agung Sukawati 62 Wijaya, Putu 217 Suganda, Tatang 80 Tjokorda Bagus Astika, 62 William and Mary College 73 Suhadi 115 Tjokorda Gede Agung Sukawati 62 Wilopo 52, 81 Suharto dan Orde Baru 14; dan Ford Tjokorda Raka Sukawati 62 Winters, Jeffrey 215 Foundation 24; dan pemilihan menteri 43, Toh, Agus PM 217 Wirjosandjojo, Sukiman 76 83, 170; dan korupsi 47, 50, 118, 121, Tol, Roger 138 Wisconsin, University of 15, 53, 91, 123, 126 142, 185, 186, 200, 221; dan teknokrat Tolleng, Rahman 106 Witoelar, Erna 143 51, 53, 59, 91, 126; kebangkitan 65,74, Toyota 112, 170 Wiwoho, Permadi Satrio 143 101, 120; karir 67,190; dan YLBHI 80; Toyota Astra 103 Wolff, John 73 dan Keluarga Berencana 97, 108; dan Tuloli, Nani 113 World Neighbors 165 Malari 105; dan oposisi 107,143, 154, TVRI 130 Woyla Incident 150 156, 192, 196-97, 210, 214, 216, 220, WWF 137 222, 226; sebagai presiden 123, dan Islam Udik 192 144; dan Pancasila 148,162; pengunduran UGM 39, 52, 65, 91, 113, 123, 126, 170, Yale University 77, 123 diri 181, 189, 193, 198, 202 196 Yamin, Muhammad 62, 123 Suharto, Tien 156 ul-Haq, Mahbub 133 Yampolsky, Philip 194 Suid, Gusmiati 217 Uni Soviet 82, 196, 197 Yanni, Brenda 215 Sukardjo 27, 30 Universitas Al-Azhar Indonesia 39 Yap Thiam Hien 80, 115 Sukarno kebijakan 14, 64, 71-73, 86, 91, 101, Universitas Amsterdam 123 Yayasan Asih Budi 100 120, 131; upaya pembunuhan 53; dan Universitas Andalas 168 Yayasan Riau Mandiri 221 oposisi 57, 60, 67, 94, 96, 100, 122, 148; Universitas Brawijaya 17 Yayasan Talenta 200 kejatuhan 74,90, 106, 190; dan Ford Universitas Diponegoro 113 YIIS 53, 95, 129 Foundation 78-79, 81; dan keluarga Universitas Hasanuddin 38, 43, 129 YLBHI 80, 122, 200, 208, 210 berencana 83, 97; dan Soedjatmoko 124; Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana 137 YLKI 143, 200, 202, 207 tulisan tentang 197 Universitas Marwadewa 151 YPMD 137 Sukarnoputri, Megawati 14, 64, 120, 214, Universitas Nommensen 39, 91 216, 222 Universitas Nusa Cendana 165 Zamarski, Lucien 69 Sumawinata, Sarbini 64, 131 Universitas Padjadjaran 65 Zurbuchen, Mary S. 31, 95, 184 Sumitro, General 105, 106, 107 Universitas Sanata Dharma 113 Surjomihardjo, Abdurrachman 123 Universitas Sriwijaya 47, 146 Suryadi, Charles 145 Universitas Sumatera Utara 194 Susanto, Ribut 221 Universitas Syiah Kuala 113, 129 Susilo, Zoemrotin 143, 202, 207 Universitas Trisakti 186, 196 Sutawan, Nyoman 151 Universitas Udayana 151 Sutherland, Beatrice 69, 71 USAID 27, 83, 119, 126, 143 Sutjipto 123 USC 119 Sutowo, Ibnu 50, 118, 121 USIS 96, 100 Sutrisno 136 Suwarno, P.J. 113 Vivayuba 44 Suwarto 59, 65 Vries, E. de 77 Suyono, Haryono 83, 109, 147 Syahrir 106, 107 Wafiroh, Hibatun 188 APPENDIX 235

KREDIT FOTO

Segala upaya kami lakukan untuk mendapatkan izin dari semua pemegang hak cipta foto dan gambar dalam buku ini. Kami berterima kasih terutama kepada para staf Yayasan Lontar, majalah Tempo, dan Indonesian Press Photo Service (IPPHOS) atas bantuannya dalam menyediakan foto-foto dalam buku ini. Tak lupa untuk Sinartus Sosrodjojo dan JiwaFoto Agency yang melakukan pengambilan foto di seluruh Indonesia.

Hal. 4-5 PCA; 8-9 JiwaFoto/Edy Purnomo; 11 Rob Pearce; 12- Tempo/Edy Herwanto; 131 Tempo/Ali Said; 132 Owen Franken; 13 koleksi Ford Foundation; 14 koleksi Ford Foundation; 15 133 Tempo/E.H. Kartanegara; 134-135 PCA; 136 Tempo/Ilham koleksi Mely G. Tan; 16 Paul Berry/Garrett Solyom; 17 Ray Soenharjo; 137 JiwaFoto/Roy Rubianto; 138 JiwaFoto/Deny Witlin; 18-19 Ray Witlin; 20 koleksi Ford Foundation; 21 Salman; 139 Gatra; 140-141 JiwaFoto/Deny Salman; 142 JiwaFoto/Deny Salman; 22-23 JiwaFoto/Roy Rubianto; 24 JiwaFoto/Edy Purnomo; 143 Tempo/Rully Kesuma; 144 Djoni koleksi Sekretariat Negara; 25 Rob Pearce; 26 atas koleksi Ford Litahalim; 145 JiwaFoto/Deny Salman; 146 Owen Franken; 147 Foundation, bawah John Dixon; 27 koleksi Ford Foundation; Tempo/Maman Samanhudi; 148 IPPHOS; 149 koleksi Zohra 28-29 koleksi Ford Foundation; 30 koleksi Ford Foundation; Andi Baso; 150 Tempo/Ed Zoelverdi; 151 JiwaFoto/Roy 31 koleksi Ford Foundation; 32 JiwaFoto/Roy Rubianto; 34- Rubianto; 152-153 Ray Witlin; 154 IPPHOS; 155 JiwaFoto/ 35 IPPHOS; 36-37 IPPHOS; 38 IPPHOS; 39 The Jakarta Rama Surya; 156 PCA; 157 JiwaFoto/Rama Surya; 158 Tempo/ Post/Arief Suhardiman; 40-41 IPPHOS; 42 IPPHOS; 45 A. Margana; 159 Tempo/Amatul Rayyani; 160-161 JiwaFoto/ IPPHOS; 46 Tempo/Bur Rasuanto; 47 IPPHOS; 48 Tempo/ Deny Salman; 162 koleksi Ford Foundation; 163 atas Ray Witlin, Bur Rasuanto; 49 IPPHOS; 50 Tempo/Bur Rasuanto; 51 koleksi bawah koleksi Ford Foundation; 164 Ray Witlin; 165 koleksi John Bresnan; 52 koleksi Ford Foundation; 53 Tempo/Ed Tony Djogo; 166-167 Rob Pearce; 168 Tempo/Saur Hutabarat; Zoelverdi; 54 koleksi Ford Foundation; 55 koleksi Ford 169 koleksi Helmi; 170 Clark Cunningham; 171 JiwaFoto/Deny Foundation; 56 IPPHOS; 57 IPPHOS; 59 Djoni Litahalim; Salman; 172 JiwaFoto/Roy Rubianto; 173 Tempo/Herdianto 60 IPPHOS; 61 IPPHOS; 62 Rio Helmi; 63 koleksi Museum Santoso; 174-175 koleksi Philip Yampolsky; 176 Tempo/Kastoyo Puri Lukisan; 64 IPPHOS; 65 IPPHOS; 66 IPPHOS; 68-69 Ramelan; 177 Kompas/Agus Susanto; 178 atas Ray Witlin, bawah IPPHOS; 70 IPPHOS; 71 IPPHOS; 72 IPPHOS; 73 koleksi koleksi Philip Yampolsky; 179 Tempo/Rully Kesuma; 180-181 Mayling Oey-Gardiner; 74 Ray Witlin; 75 PCA; 76 IPPHOS; Saptono; 182 Dimas Ardian; 183 JiwaFoto/Edy Purnomo; 184 77 Tempo/G.J. Aditjondro; 78-79 IPPHOS; 80 JiwaFoto/Deny Dimas Ardian; 185 SWA Sembada; 186 Arif Ariadi; 187 JiwaFoto/ Salman; 82 IPPHOS; 83 Tempo/Martin Aleida; 84-85 JiwaFoto/ Deny Salman; 188 JiwaFoto/Deny Salman; 189 JiwaFoto/Roy Deny Salman; 86 IPPHOS; 87 IPPHOS; 88-89 IPPHOS; 90 Rubianto; 190 JiwaFoto/Deny Salman; 191 JiwaFoto/Roy IPPHOS; 91 Tempo/Putu Setia; 92-93 IPPHOS; 94 IPPHOS; Rubianto; 192 JiwaFoto/Roy Rubianto; 193 JiwaFoto/Roy 95 koleksi Mely G. Tan; 96 IPPHOS; 97 Tempo/Martin Aleida; Rubianto; 194 koleksi Ford Foundation; 195 koleksi Philip 98-099 IPPHOS; 100 koleksi Ford Foundation; 101 IPPHOS; Yampolsky; 196 Kemal Jufri; 197 Tempo/Sony Soemarsono; 198 102-103 Tempo/Syahrir Wahab; 104 Tempo/Ali Said; 105 koleksi Sekretariat Negara; 199 JiwaFoto/Edy Purnomo; 200 Tempo/Syahrir Wahab; 106 Tempo/Ed Zoelverdi; 107 Tempo/ JiwaFoto/Deny Salman; 201 Rob Pearce; 202 Tempo/Bagus Ed Zoelverdi; 108 Dick Swanson; 109 atas Dick Swanson, bawah Indahono; 203 koleksi Farha Ciciek; 204-205 JiwaFoto/Deny koleksi Ford Foundation; 110-111 IPPHOS; 112 Tempo/Yunus Salman; 206 Tempo/Rully Kesuma; 207 Gatra; 208 Tempo/ Kasim; 113 Tempo/Fachrul Rasyid; 114 IPPHOS; 115 Tempo/ Yuyuk Sugarman; 209 koleksi Lies Marcoes; 210 Tempo/Bodi Bur Rasuanto; 116 Tempo/Syahrir Wahab; 117 koleksi Juwono CH; 211 JiwaFoto/Sinartus Sosrodjojo; 212 Untung H. Bimo; Sudarsono; 118 Djoni Litahalim; 119 Tempo/Teguh 213 JiwaFoto/Sinartus Sosrodjojo; 214 Gatra; 215 Tempo/ Puradisastra; 120 JiwaFoto/Dimas Ardian; 121 Djoni Litahalim; Budiono Darsono; 216 koleksi Ratna N. Riantiarno, desain 122 Tempo/Harianto Iman Rahayu; 123 Tempo/M. Cholid; Untung H. Bimo; 217 Tempo/Hidayat SG; 218 JiwaFoto/Deny 124 koleksi Ford Foundation; 125 koleksi Ratmini Soedjatmoko; Salman; 219 JiwaFoto/Deny Salman; 220 Hadiyanto; 221 koleksi 126 John Hanusz; 127 Tempo/Djoni Litahalim; 128 koleksi Ribut Susanto; 222 Kemal Jufri; 223 Kompas/Ardus Safega; 224- Clark Cunningham; 129 Tempo/Goenawan Mohamad; 130 225 JiwaFoto/Edy Purnomo; 226 Eddy Hasby. 236 MENYAMBUT INDONESIA

STAF DAN KONSULTAN DI INDONESIA

Banyak sekali orang yang bekerja untuk Ford Foundation Jakarta dalam 50 tahun terakhir. Nama jabatan dan syarat kerja juga berubah sesuai perjalanan waktu. Daftar nama ini dikumpulkan dari arsip Ford Foundation. Bantuan dari para karyawan, dulu maupun sekarang, dalam mengingat nama dan jabatan juga membantu kami dalam penyusunan daftar ini. Kami harap daftar ini sudah akurat dan lengkap namun kami mohon maaf apabila ada kekurangan dan kekeliruan dalam penulisannya.

STAF ADMINISTRASI DAN PENDUKUNG

Daftar ini mencakup berbagai karyawan Ford Foundation termasuk sopir, bagian umum, akuntan, resepsionis, sekretaris, asisten eksekutif, maupun administrasi hibah. Nama karyawan yang masih bekerja dicetak tebal.

Aatje Winarto Janice Tirta Suhadi Pratiwi Setianto Abas Jannes Pospos Pudji Agustine Abdul Halim Johanna Tobing Rameni Adnan I. Madewa Joyce Kansil S.P.L. Tobing Amin Soewondo Jozefa Sudarmo Sadiah Arudji Durachim Kirchner Sadli Aty Rosmiati Kontangan Salmiah Achmad Awab Kristiani Wirawan Saman Ayu Cahyo Adi Lessy Ryan Samuel P.D. Anantadjaya Babsye Lucy Kusnadi Sundjaja Sarip bin Idris Bahaswan Lucy Loppies Sarwani Basir M. Syarief Sayuti Binsar Simatupang Mansuri Solam Manullang Boentje Maruly Sinaga Sophia Pandelaki Cecep Kosasih Max Sariwating Sophie Saerang Chairuddin Syahar Mayling Oey Sudjono Chalid Umar Meity Suwarno Sukardjo Desirree Hosea Tasik Mudasir Sukarno Dewi Azhari Nani Supolo Suparman Dino Rachmanto Napih Djanah Suparman Tugiman Djuki Nazabuddin Suratman Effendi Ngurah Antara Susanna Tinondighang Enim Nico Sariwating Sutrisno Erya Kamal Nina Gussman Tapsir Maulana Evelyn Nurdjaya Nina Purwandari Titiek Nursatiyah Faiq Hinduan Nina Soetarinah Tjuk Sukadi Frida Kuhuwael Ning Anhar Tusin Totong Hassan Niniek Malangjudo Ukat bin Yahya Hedy Tato Ninuk Smith Urip Suhodo Himawan Djaja Endra Noegrahvidha P. Denis Utje Lekatompessy Icih Nonny Lerrick Uweng Suhanda Iing Holil Nova Kasaulya Venia Maharani Ilyas Nur Dharmantini Handoyoputro Winata Imam Djamhuri Paschetta Sarmidi Yetty Machribi Ina Jusuf Peter Latuheru Zainal Abidin Irman Hidayat Peter Yap Zulhana Iwan Setiawan APPENDIX 237

STAF PROGRAM

Berikut ini adalah daftar nama Representative (Wakil) atau kepala kantor Ford Foundation Jakarta (namanya dicetak tebal), Program Officer (mereka yang mengembangkan dan menangani hibah bersama tim administrasi dan staf pendukung), dan mereka yang bukan karyawan langsung namun banyak membantu Ford Foundation sebagai konsultan atau staf program.

Elmer Starch R 53–55 Roger Montgomery PS 76–79 Michael S. Harris R 55–61 William Cummings PS 77–81 William I. Lightfoot AA 55–58, AR 58–65 Michael Smith PS 77–80 John D. Blumgart AR 58–60 Sidney R. Jones atR 77–79, PO 79–80 Charles P. McVicker AR 58–60, PA 60–63 Peter Burbridge PS 78–81 Frank J. Miller PA 59–60, AR 60–61, R 61– Michael Morfit PS 78–80, PO 80–81 65 & 67–69 John A. Dixon APO 78–79, PS 80–81 John J. Bresnan AR 61–65, R 69–73 Tom G. Kessinger RD 79, R 79–87 Daniel S. Lev RA 61–62 E. Walter Coward PO 80–81 Donald C. Holmes atR 62–65 Terrance W. Bigalke atR 80–82, APO 82–83, Stephan A. Douglas TA 63–65 PO 83–83 Gary Hansen TA 63-65 S. Ann Sutoro PO & PS 81–82, PO 82–84 Lester M. Stone atR 64–66 Wiley Henry Mosley PO 82–84 Ingvar Forsberg atR 67–69 Mark Poffenberger PO 82–87 Brooks Ryder PS 67–72 Frances F. Korten PO 83–88 John M. Newmann TA 67–68, PA 68–69, atR 69–70 Mary S. Zurbuchen APO 84, PO 85–87, Theodore Smith atR 67–72, aR 73, R 76–79 R 95–00 Paul E. Booz AR 68–71 Michael J. Dibley PO 85–88 Gray W. Wilson AA 68–70 Bianti S. Djiwandono APO 85–87, PO 87–88, C 89-98 Adelaide B. Zamora PS 69–70 David Winder R 87–92 Edgar C. McVoy PS 69–71 Alan Feinstein PO 87–94 George E. Loudon TA 69–71 Frances Seymour APO 87–89, PO 89–92 Robert P. Greene atR69–72, AR 72 John S. Ambler PO 88–90 William A. Schaffer PA 70–74 Cynthia L. Myntti PO 90–93 Robert J. Van Leeuwen TA 70–72, PA 72–73, atR 73–75 Suzanne E. Siskel PO 90–91, AR 92–97, Barry D. Gaberman PA 71–73, atR 73–75 R 00-sekarang Kenneth Colin Rosser PA 72–74, PS 74 Paul C. Fay PO 92–96 Guillaume de Spoelberch R 73–76 Rosalia Sciortino PO 93–99 James J. Bausch AR 73–75 Jennifer Lindsay PO 95–99 Peter Weldon PS 73–77 Jeffrey Y. Campbell PO 96–00 Robert D.A. Shaw PA 73–77 Hans-Göran Antlöv PO 98–sekarang Edward Heneveld PS 74–79 Meiwita P. Budiharsana PO 99–sekarang Howard Benjamin Fisher PS 74–79 Diah Yulinar Rahardjo PA 99-02 Menno H. Van Wyk atR 74–77 Philip Yampolsky PO 00–sekarang Sheldon Shaeffer APO 74–77 Firsty Husbani PA 01-03 Brent K. Ashabranner AR & PO 75–80 Ujjwal Pradhan PO 01–sekarang

AR=Assistant Representative, atR=assistant to Representative, aR=Acting Representative, R=Representative, AA=Administrative Associate, PA=Program Associate, TA=Training Associate, PS=Project Specialist, APO=Assistant Program Officer, RD=Representative Designate, RA=Research Assistant, PO=Program Officer, C=Consultant 238 MENYAMBUT INDONESIA

KONSULTAN

Dalam 50 tahun terakhir, banyak orang yang telah bekerja untuk Ford Foundation dengan posisi sebagai penasehat, konsultansi, dan administrasi. Beberapa konsultan bekerja untuk waktu yang lama, tapi ada juga yang bekerja untuk penugasan jangka pendek. Bagi sejumlah kecil karyawan internasional, hanya nama keluarga mereka yang dicetak di sini. Kami telah mencoba untuk memasukkan semua nama, namun kemungkinan ada yang terlewatkan.

William I. Abraham, Achadiati Ikram, Adriani Sumampouw Manring, Kurt Martin, Masdar F. Mas’udi, Betty Matthews, Soemantri, Agus Purnomo, Alfian, Amna Kusumo, Virgil L. Jack Mathias, Mattulada, Theodorus Cornel van der Meij, Colin Anderson, David Baradas, J.A. Barnett, Richard Batt, A.L. McAndrews, David McCauley, A. Colin McClung, Peter Becker, Richard C. Bedford, C.E. Beeby, Timothy E. Behrend, McDonald, John H. McGlynn, E. Edwards McKinnon, Gordon Joel Bell, Martin Bell, Sita Thamar van-Bemmelen, Christopher McLean, Geoffrey McNicoll, Leon A. Mears, Charles B. Mehl, P.A. Bennett, John Bentley, Paul Th. Berghuis, Robert Bernstein, Annella Manalo Mendoza, Walter Mertens, Meuthia Ganie Warren Bilkey, Mark Blang, James Boon, Anne Booth, Elizabeth Rochman, Elizabeth Meyer, Jon Miksik, Paul Minault, Bert Booz, Wilhelm Boucherie, Bennet Bronson, Edward Bruner, Miripolsky, Judith Mitoma, Mochtar Buchori, Frank Momberg, Bryan R. Bruns, Henny Buftheim, Harrison Bryan, John A. Christine Morfit, Stephanie Morgan, Elizabeth Morris, Morrisey, Butler, Richard Buxbaum, Jean Capelle, Harold Carpenter, Arthur T. Mosher, Kenneth E. Mueller, Mervin E. Muller, Bryan Carson, J.G. Casparis, Lance Castles, Ian Catford, Sol Thomas Murray, Robert Myers, Michio Nagai, Mitsuo Chafkin, Robert Chambers, Robert Chandler, Chandra Kirana Nakamura, Edward van Ness, Robert Northrup, Richard Noss, Prijosusilo, Srisaksidi Charmonman, Shubha Chaudhuri, J.P. Nursyahbani Katjasungkana, Nuryadi M. Yasin, Geoffrey Clark, Jarret Clinton, David Cole, William Collier, Elizabeth Oldam, Burton Onate, Wyn Owen, James Palmore, Jan Palte, Fuller Collins, Gordon Conway, Richard Cooper, Geoff Corner, Gustav Papanek, Richard Patten, Richard Pearse, James Pedersen, Richard Cullen, Ralph Cummings, Clark Cunningham, Christian Pelras, Nancy Peluso, Anugerah Pekerti, Gordon Christopher Dagg, Claudie D’Andrea, Maja Daruwala, Perkin, Marc Perlman, Joseph Perrigo, A.K. Pickering, G.R. Daugherty, Alison Davis, Ruth Darusman, Isodoro P. David, Platt, Lincoln Polissar, J. Perry Polson, William Pounds, Pudentia Digby Davies, John Anthony Day II, Durstine, Richard Dye, MPSS, Andrew Quarmby, Diana Quarmby, Rachmad Soetopo, J.F. Edward, Fred Eggan, Samuel Eilenberg, Warwick Elley, Erna Rahmi Sofiarini, Carlos Ramos, Raj Rao, Victoria C. Read, Linda Witoelar, Errol Jonathans, Hans-Dieter Evers, Fahmi Mu’thi, Redman, Morris Rieger, Rifqi, Gerard Rixhon, Beryl J. Roberts, Wally Falcon, Fazlur Rahman, Eric Fell, Joseph Fischer, Lawrence Marguerite Robinson, Jessie Robredo, Everett M. Rogers, Jeff A. Fisher, Don Michael Florney, Maria Cristina Formaggia, Romm, Edward Rubin, Abby Cole Ruddick, Rudolf Sinaga, Jefferson Fox, Ronald Freedman, Stephanie T. Fried, Reuben Eric Rusten, Danilyn Rutherford, Vernon Ruttan, Samsuri, Frodin, Edward Fuller, Galuh Wandita, Jack Garlington, Samsuridjal Djauzi, Sans Hutabarat, Sapto Raharjo, Sarimawar William Gates, Clifford Geertz, Adrienne Germain, Richard Djaja, Madhu Sarin, Lyle Saunders, Stuart Schlegel, William Gilbert, Malcolm Gillis, C.H. Gladwell, Bruce Glassburner, Peter Seddon, Anthony Seeger, Bernard Sellato, Setyadi, E.P. Sharman, Goethals, Goris Lewoleba, Clive Gray, Omar Dean Gregory, S.V.S. Shastry, Robert Shaw, Sih Yuniati, Jeanne Sinquefield, Gordon Groves, John G. Gurley, James Hagen, Peter Hagul, Sinta Nuryah A. Wahid, Ismael Sirageldin, Martua Thomas Arthur J. Hanson, Mark Hanusz, Haryo Habirono, Oscar Sirait, Sjarifah Sabaroedin, John Slocum, Leslie Small, David Harkavy, Arnold Harberger, Jimmy Harris, John R. Harris, N. Smith, Michael Smithies, W.G. Solheim, Bronwen Solyom, Haryono Suyono, Priscilla Hayner, Everett D. Hawkins, Ole George Spiva, Sri Rumiati Atmakusumah, Eugene Staley, Carol Hendrickson, Hendro Sangkoyo, R. William Hodge, William Stoney, Alan M. Strout, Martha Stuart, David J. Stuart-Fox, Hollinger, Robert Hornick, Roger Howley, Philip S. Hughes, Richard B. Sturgis, Ippei Sugiura, Suhardi Suryadi, Sumartini Graeme Hugo, Terence Hull, Valerie Hull, Jon M. Huntsman, Hadad, Sun Yik Ching, Beatrice Sutherland, F.X. Sutton, Jr., Ibrahim Alfian, Kay Ikranegara, Irawaty Pulungan, Iwan Williams Sweeney, F.B. Sweeting, Syaiful W. Harahap, Jaya Azis, Iwan Tjitradjaja, Robert Jackson, S.B. Joedono, Gavin Syamsuddin Mahmud, Andrew Symington, Tatan Sjuflana, Jones, Robert M. Johnson, Rosall Johnson, George Kahin, Eligio Tavanlar, Donald Taylor, Gary Theisen, Terzo, Jan Kamala Chandrakirana, Karlina Leksono-Supelli, Kathpalla, Thomas, R. Murray Thomas, Peter Timmer, Roger Gerard Tol, Robert Kerwin, Nathan Keyfitz, Asmeen Mariam Khan, Philip Andrew Toth, Toto Sugito, Tri Nugroho, Edward Triebe, Ashley Kochman, Koesoebiono, Nathan M. Koffsky, Christina F. Kreps, Maxwell Turner, Umar Kayam, Andrew P. Vayda, Anmol Vellani, Krisnawati Suryanata, Hans E. Krusa, William R. Kunsela, Wolf E. deVries, Mildred L.E. Wageman, Valerie Waken, Richard Ladejinsky, Keith C. F. Lathrope, Michael Leigh, Gilbert Levine, Weckstein, Louis T. Wells, Benjamin White, Lawrence White, Lily Patir Kak, Lily Zakiyah Munir, Jan Livingstone, Robert Vincent Whitney, Theodore Wiese, Barbara Wiggin, Kenneth Loken, Lola S.T. Wagner, William A. Loxley, Lukman Sutrisno, Williams, Wimar Witoelar, Yang Yiqi, Alwin J. Young, Edwin Elizabeth Lyons, Paul MacAvoy, J.P. Malingreau, Timothy Young, Melvin Zelnick.