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Unbinding the Japanese Novel in English Translation

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Unbinding the Japanese Novel in English Translation Department of Modern Languages Faculty of Arts University of Helsinki UNBINDING THE JAPANESE NOVEL IN ENGLISH TRANSLATION The Alfred A. Knopf Program, 1955 – 1977 Larry Walker ACADEMIC DISSERTATION To be presented, with the permission of the Faculty of Arts of the University of Helsinki, for public examination in Auditorium XII University Main Building, on the 25th of September at 12 noon. Helsinki 2015 ISBN 978-951-51-1472-3 (paperback) ISBN 978-951-51-1473-0 (PDF) Unigrafia Helsinki 2015 ABSTRACT Japanese literature in English translation has a history of 165 years, but it was not until after the hostilities of World War II ceased that any single publisher outside Japan put out a sustained series of novel-length translations. The New York house of Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. published thirty-four titles of Japanese literature in English translation in hardcover between the years 1955 to 1977. This “Program,” as it came to be called, was carried out under the leadership of Editor-in-Chief Harold Strauss (1907-1975), who endeavored to bring the then-active modern writers of Japan to the stage of world literature. Strauss and most of the translators who made this Program possible were trained in military language schools during World War II. The aim of this dissertation is to investigate the publisher’s policies and publishing criteria in the selection of texts, the actors involved in the mediation process and the preparation of the texts for market, the reception of the texts and their impact on the resulting translation profile of Japanese literature in America, England and elsewhere. The theoretical backdrop is built around the distinction of product, process and function viewed through developments in the sociology of translation. This includes Bourdieu’s constructs of habitus and capital, and the Actor-Network Theory applied to the translations under discussion, as well as Thornber’s concept of literary contact nebulae in settings of less steeply inclined hierarchical relations. An examination of Japanese to English translations investigates the trends and practices which developed in the early decades following the forced opening of Japan. This background provides insight into influences which carried over to the translations in the Program under study. The dissertation draws upon empirical materials from the Knopf archives housed at The Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin, including correspondence between the authors, the editor and the translators. My own personal interviews and personal correspondence with the translators involved, autobiographies, and memoirs add to the archival records. Peritextual and epitextual data help to trace the events and the actions of the actors involved during this period of Japanese literature in English translation, as well as assist with an investigation into the reception and legacy of the texts. The findings help to clarify the policies and criteria employed at a major publishing firm. The role of the editor and authors in the translation process is explored in perhaps more detail than available in previous reports, as are the roles of the translators and the writers. Bourdieu’s concepts of habitus and capital complement the notion of following the actors in Actor-Network Theory. Materials obtained from a translator and interviews with others add a qualitative perspective supported by Thornber’s conception of literary contact nebulae. Other findings indicate that the Knopf translations have a larger circulation in Japan than in the English-language markets. The source culture Japan maintains its own subcultures and discourse communities which focus on these translations. Moreover, a number of the Knopf publications have proven more profitable in European languages. The long tail sales of the Knopf translations in paperback, augmented by improved printing technology, have kept these works in print and in classrooms to this day. These findings point to new areas of investigation. The Knopf firm, led by Harold Strauss, was the most active publisher worldwide in this time-restricted period when these English translations were published for the general reader and later inscribed as text and research materials in the university curriculum of the then-nascent fields of Japanese studies and comparative literature. Keywords: Japanese literature in English translation, habitus, capital, Actor-Network Theory, transculturation, translation history i ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................... i TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................... ii-v CONVENTIONS, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS & LIST OF TABLES .................................... vi 1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 1 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................................................... 4 2.1 Bourdieu ................................................................................................................................ 7 2.1.1 Bourdieu’s notion of habitus ........................................................................................... 8 2.1.2 Bourdieu’s notion of capital ............................................................................................ 8 2.2 Transculturation ................................................................................................................. 10 2.3 Actor-Network Theory (ANT) .......................................................................................... 12 2.4 On Bourdieu and Latour ................................................................................................... 13 3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS, METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS ............................... 15 3.1 Research Question 1 ........................................................................................................... 15 3.2 Research Question 2 ........................................................................................................... 16 3.3 Research Question 3 ........................................................................................................... 17 3.4 The Data Examined ............................................................................................................ 18 3.4.1 Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. Archives ..................................................................................... 18 3.4.2 First- and second-person accounts ................................................................................ 19 3.4.2.1 Interviews with translators active in the Knopf Program ....................................... 20 3.4.3 Memoirs and autobiographies, biographical materials and other interviews ................ 20 3.4.4 The Published Translations of the Knopf Program ....................................................... 21 3.4.5 Miscellaneous Materials ................................................................................................ 21 4. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF JAPANESE LITERATURE IN ENGLISH TRANSLATION....................................................................................................................... 22 4.1 Overview of Japanese Literature in English Translation ............................................... 22 4.1.1 Early translation ............................................................................................................ 23 4.1.2 Early works ................................................................................................................... 24 ii 4.1.2.1 The primary role of English ................................................................................... 25 4.1.2.2 Directionality and the tension amongst practitioners ............................................. 26 4.1.2.3 Team translation, camouflaged collaboration and retranslation ............................ 28 4.1.2.4 Translation, international relations and language prestige ..................................... 28 4.1.2.5 Adaption and domestication ................................................................................... 29 4.1.3 The emergence of the Japanese novel in English translation ........................................ 30 4.1.4 A summary of the Japanese novel in English translation before World War II with special reference to aspects of translation relevant to the study ................................... 36 4.2 Postwar Discourse on Japanese Literature in English Translation .............................. 38 5. ANALYSIS OF THE STUDY DATA PART I - THE LAUNCH ........................................ 46 5.1 The House of Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. .................................................................................. 47 5.1.1 Editor-in-chief Harold Strauss ...................................................................................... 49 5.1.2 Strauss’ early activities and contacts ............................................................................. 51 5.2 Strauss’ Pre-Launch Promotional Articles ...................................................................... 57 5.3 The Debut Titles ................................................................................................................. 60 5.3.1 Homecoming (1955) .....................................................................................................
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