University of Cincinnati
Date: 4/22/2011
I, Margaret T Ozaki-Graves , hereby submit this original work as part of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts in Voice.
It is entitled: A Performer’s Guide to Minoru Miki’s _Sohmon III for Soprano, Marimba and Piano_ (1988)
Student's name: Margaret T Ozaki-Graves
This work and its defense approved by:
Committee chair: Jeongwon Joe, PhD
Committee member: William McGraw, MM
Committee member: Barbara Paver, MM
1581
Last Printed:4/29/2011 Document Of Defense Form A Performer’s Guide to Minoru Miki’s Sohmon III for Soprano, Marimba and Piano (1988)
A document submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Musical Arts
in the Performance Studies Division of the College-Conservatory of Music by
Margaret Ozaki-Graves
B.M., Lawrence University, 2003 M.M., University of Cincinnati, 2007
April 22, 2011
Committee Chair: Jeongwon Joe, Ph.D.
ABSTRACT
Japanese composer Minoru Miki (b. 1930) uses his music as a vehicle to promote cross- cultural awareness and world peace, while displaying a self-proclaimed preoccupation with ethnic mixture, which he calls konketsu. This document intends to be a performance guide to
Miki’s Sohmon III: for Soprano, Marimba and Piano (1988). The first chapter provides an introduction to the composer and his work. It also introduces methods of intercultural and artistic borrowing in the Japanese arts, and it defines the four basic principles of Japanese aesthetics.
The second chapter focuses on the interpretation and pronunciation of Sohmon III’s song text.
The first part of Chapter 2 introduces and analyzes source poetry taken from the Man’y sh , giving special consideration to topics of intercultural and artistic borrowing, as well as identifying and explaining the use of Japanese poetic devises, such as makurakotoba and kakekotoba [epithets and homonyms]. The remainder of Chapter 2 provides general rules of
Japanese diction, focusing on their application in Sohmon III. The third chapter provides musical examples of influence from traditional Japanese music upon Sohmon III. Similarities arise between the formal structure of Sohmon III and that of the instrumental ensemble genre of gagaku. The vocal and instrumental parts of Sohmon III also show influence from jiuta and nagauta traditional song styles, as well as from the folk song styles of warabeuta and sh ka. The latter portion of Chapter 3 discusses Miki’s compositional desire for konketsu and compares it with the terms “synthesis” and “fusion,” which have appeared in contemporary musicological studies of cultural hybridity. Additional materials include three appendices: Appendix A: An IPA
Transcription of Sohmon III, Appendix B: A Glossary of Japanese Terms, and Appendix C: A
Compilation of Miki’s Vocal Works.
© Margaret Ozaki-Graves, 2011
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to my advisor, Dr. Jeongwon Joe, and to my document committee members,
Professor William McGraw and Dr. Barbara Paver. Also, thanks to Dr. Mikiko Hirayama of the
Art History Department at the University of Cincinnati’s College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning and to Dr. Robert Zierolf of the Graduate School for taking a special interest in my endeavors and for supporting me in my self-designed cognate studies. I am grateful Professor
Mary Henderson Stucky for her guidance as my DMA advisor and her unfailing support and mentorship and to Patti Rencher in the College Office for her extra assistance. Special thanks are also due to Clarence Brown and Kenneth Thornton for their assistance with IT issues and
Sibelius.
Without the support of my friends and family, none of this would be possible. I thank my husband for his patience and support through my graduate studies and my parents for their unconditional love and dedication. Finally, I am indebted to past teachers Yoko Hiraoka, Nancy
Ozaki, and Gary Tsujimoto for exposing me to traditional Japanese music at a young age and for providing me with an outlet to share it with others.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES ix
NOTE ON THE TRANSLITERATION OF JAPANESE TEXT xi
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 1
Composer 4
Japanese Aesthetics: Terms and Trends 8
CHAPTER 2: TEXT AND DICTION
Understanding the Text 15
Diction 33
CHAPTER 3: MUSIC
Introduction 48
Sohmon III: Understanding the Music 48
Synthesis, Fusion and Konketsu 78
CONCLUSION 89
IBLIOGRAPHY 94
APPENDIX A: AN IPA TRANSCRIPTION OF SOHMON III
Names and Titles from Spoken Dialogue 100
Poetry 101
APPENDIX B: A GLOSSARY OF JAPANESE TERMS 104
APPENDIX C: A COMPILATION OF MIKI’S VOCAL WORKS
Published Works 109
Japanese Publishers’ Contact Information 115
Unpublished Works 116
LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER 2
Table 2.1: Structure and Use of Text in Sohmon III 18
Table 2.2: Romaji Transcription of Japanese Phonetic Alphabet in Normal Order 39
Table 2.3: Inter-Syllabic Glides 41
Table 2.4: Consonant Phonemes in IPA as Classified by Articulation and Voicing 44
Table 2.5: Words from Sohmon III Poetry that Contain /r/ 46
CHAPTER 3
Table 3.1: Alternation of Narrative, Sung, and Instrumental Units in Sohmon III 49
Table 3.2: Features of Two Lyrical/Dramatic Units: Akane sasu C and Kimi matsu to B 54
Table 3.3: The Relationship of Six-Part Nagauta Form to Jo-ha-ky Structure 61
Table 3.4: Jo-ha-ky Structure in Two Subsections of Sohmon III 62
LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES
Example 1: First Two Instances of Marimba Ostinato 50
Example 2: Marimba Ostinato in Narration III 51
Example 3: Piano Accompaniment to Narration IV 51
Example 4: Lyrical Style of Singing 52
Example 5a: Declamatory Style of Singing: Repeated Pitches 52
Example 5b: Declamatory Vocal Style: Initial Ascending Interval 53
Example 5c: Special Notation of Piano Interjection 53
Example 6a: Jiuta Vocalism 63
Example 6b: The Trill Type Figure 64
Example 6c: The Glissando Figure 64
Example 6d: The Glissando Release 64
Example 7: Sakura, Sakura Vocal Melody 66
Example 8a: Vocal Line from Akane sasu A 67
Example 8b: Vocal Line from Akane sasu A (2nd) 67
Example 9: Variations on the Rhythmic Motive from Akane sasu A 68
Example 10: Antecedent-Consequent Phrases in the Melody of Akatombo 69
Example 11: Two-Bar Phrasing in the Vocal Melody of Akane sasu D 70
Example 12a: Response-Style Accompaniment in Marimba and Piano 71
Example 12b: Response-Style Accompaniment in the Piano 72
Example 13: The Sliding-Doors Effect 73
Example 14a: Warabeuta Influence in the Piano Accompaniment to Akane sasu A 74
Example 14b: Sh ka, Inspired Accompaniment Pattern in Akane sasu D 75
Example 15: Miki’s Symbol for Ma 77
Example 16: Syllabic Expansion in the Vocal Cadenza 77
Example 17: Melismatic Expansion at Transition 78
NOTE ON THE TRANSLITERATION OF JAPANESE TEXT
As there are no standard spelling rules in transliterated Japanese Romaji, I would like to clarify my spelling decisions. In the use of proper names, I reproduce the transliterations presented in the manuscript score of Miki’s Sohmon III. In this score double length vowels are denoted by using a macron, or long mark, over the vowel (i.e. ama-no-Miko) or by following the single vowel in question with an “h” (i.e. Sohmon). In this paper, all other Romaji words taking double length vowels use the macron. The practices of showing double length vowels by way of adding an “u” vowel (i.e. Satou) and through vowel repetition (i.e. ooki) are avoided in this paper, because of the confusion that it may cause the Western reader (i.e. soumon, soomon).
Modern Japanese names are spelled according to the most common transliterations and are given in Western order, with given name preceding surname, at first mention. This varies from normal Japanese order, in which the surname precedes given name. Ancient Japanese names are spelled according to standard Romaji transliteration (i.e. Nukata rather than Nukada) and follow the normal Japanese order, with surname preceding given name or title. Repetitions of names are treated in the standard manner, by surname, unless there are multiple people with the same family name (i.e. Minoru and Kosaku Yamada). In these cases, the first person mentioned will be referred to by their family name (i.e. Yamada for Minoru Yamada). In the case of others with the same family name, the first initial of the person’s first name appears preceding his family name (i.e. K. Yamada for Kosaku Yamada).
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this document is to provide the singer with the background in Japanese music, aesthetics, language, and pronunciation necessary to create a sophisticated performance of the 1988 vocal chamber work Sohmon III: for Soprano, Marimba and Piano by Japanese composer Minoru Miki (b. 1930). In this document, I intend to uncover what is most important and essential to preparing an informed reading of this work: an understanding of both the text and the music. Chapter 1 presents essential background information on the composer and his work. Chapter 2 discusses Japanese poetry and pronunciation in Sohmon III. The first section,
Understanding the Text, introduces and analyzes the source poetry of Sohmon III. Providing the necessary background for the singing artist’s own interpretive reading, this section discusses the poetic lyrics and spoken narration of Sohmon III in historical context, and gives special attention to the topics of intertextuality and iconic referencing in its analysis. The remaining section, Diction, provides general rules of pronunciation in lyric Japanese diction, highlighting specific applications that appear in Sohmon III. Understanding the Music, the opening section of Chapter 3, encompasses musical topics including influences from both non-Western aesthetic values and traditional Japanese musical styles. Synthesis, Fusion and Konketsu, the latter portion of the third chapter, examines contemporary scholarship on the topics of musical and cultural hybridity, comparing studies of fusion and interculturation with Miki’s own concept of ethnic mixture in composition. The musical evaluation compares Sohmon III with formal analyses of traditional Japanese compositions and folk songs. For further support, I cite musical events in Sohmon III that resemble performance practices from traditional Japanese musical styles, making reference to Miki’s special notation. In the final section of the chapter, I introduce
the ideas of intercultural synthesis and musical fusion. In instances of synthesis, the composer transforms the traditional musical systems, forms, and timbres into a new, distinctive blend of
Western and Asian musical idioms. Fusion, on the other hand, is ethnic mixture produced by an initial juxtaposition and eventual melding together of the Western elements over Eastern elements. I conclude the third chapter with a discussion of how konketsu, Miki’s self-proclaimed desire for ethnic mixture in his work, is expressed through music and how it relates to the concepts of musical synthesis and fusion, as defined by contemporary musicologists.
Accompanying materials follow the Conclusion and provide important resources for the singer, including a translation and IPA transcription of Sohmon III in Appendix A, a glossary of
Japanese terms in Appendix B, and a compilation of Miki’s published vocal compositions in
Appendix C. This document strives to promote the works of Miki and other Japanese composers by addressing the challenges of written Japanese while drawing attention to the compelling features of this little-known repertoire. Furthermore, as this document exposes vocalists trained in the Western classical tradition to broader concepts of Japanese aesthetics, it strives to spark a greater interest in the Japanese arts in general.
The methodology of this study is highly interdisciplinary in nature, due to the variety of information required to develop an informed reading and performance of the work. In my development of the three main components of this document, I draw together research from historical and cultural resources, as well as from the text and music. Analysis of the text employs techniques from poetic analysis, including discussions of form and content, while placing the song texts in the historical and cultural context. I also discuss literary concepts of particular interest to Japanese poetry, which include intertextual relationships, symbolism, and iconic referencing. I contextualize my own poetic analysis amongst other interpretive readings of the
source poetry by Kanji Haitani, Donald Keene, and Michael F. Marra.1 My discussion of diction draws from the structure and format of major singing diction texts, focusing on the most salient features of Japanese diction for singers. I also discuss the influence of aesthetics, religion, and traditional Japanese musical style upon texture, timbre, and rhythm in Sohmon III, while presenting musical examples of such influences. I compare Sohmon III with the analyses of traditional Japanese chamber music and folk song by scholars such as William P. Malm, Bonnie
C. Wade, and Elizabeth May.2 I examine Miki’s concept of konketsu and compare it with theories of transcultural synthesis and fusion, as discussed by Yayoi Uno Everett and Anthony J.
Palmer, respectively.3
1 Kanji Haitani, “Man’youshu Best 100 With Explanations and Translations,” Man’youshu Best 100: 2005– 2007, http://home.earthlink.net/~khaitani1/manyoushu.htm (accessed August 1, 2008); Donald Keene, Seeds in the Heart: Japanese Literature from the Earliest Times to the Late Sixteenth Century (New York: Henry Holt & Company, 1993); and Michael F. Marra, Seasons and Landscapes in Japanese Poetry: An Introduction to Haiku and Waka (Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2008).
2 William P. Malm, Nagauta: The Heart of Kabuki Music (1963; repr., Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1973); Bonnie C. Wade, Tegotomono: Music for the Japanese Koto, Contributions in Intercultural and Comparative Studies 2 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1976); and Elizabeth May, The Influence of the Meiji Period on Japanese Children's Music, in University of California Publications in Music 6, ed. by Mantle Hood, A. W. Imbrie, R. U. Nelson and J. W. Rosen (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963).
3 Yayoi Uno Everett, “Intercultural Synthesis in Postwar Western Art Music: Historical Contexts, Perspectives and Taxonomy,” in Locating East Asia in Western Art Music, ed. by Yayoi Uno Everett and Frederick Lau (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2003), 1–21; and Anthony J. Palmer, “To Fuse or Not to Fuse: Directions of Two Japanese Composers, Miki and Takemitsu,” in Tradition and Its Future in Music: Report of the Fourth Symposium of the International Musicological Society 1990 Osaka, ed. Yoshihiko Tokumaru et al. (Tokyo: Mita Press, 1991), 421–426.
CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND
Composer
Although Minoru Miki is one of the most recognized contemporary Japanese composers in America, relatively few scholars have written about him. Of the handful of publications on
Miki’s compositions, none discusses his vocal chamber music.4 Best known for his collaborations with the Opera Theater of Saint Louis on J ruri in 1985 and The Tale of Genji in
2000, Miki has expressed a preoccupation with ethnic mixing, which he calls konketsu. Miki not only references Japanese literature and theater in his Western genre works, but also blends
Japanese and Western musical influences in a variety of ways. His body of work includes over
200 compositions, ranging from large symphonic pieces and operas to chamber and solo music for both Western and traditional Japanese instruments.
Miki was born on March 16, 1930 in Tokushima City, Japan and his birth story is most likely mythologized. He claims that he came into the world accompanied by the sounds of his uncle’s shakuhachi flute rendition of the famous song Chidori no Kyoku [Song of the Plovers], and although the story that Miki recounts cannot be verified, he was most certainly exposed to traditional Japanese music and musical instruments throughout his childhood.5 Miki’s formal
4 For discussions on marimba compositions, see Mario Gaetano, “An Analysis of the Pitch Content in Minoru Miki's Time for Marimba,” National Association of College Wind and Percussion Instructors 38, no. 3 (Spring 1990): 9–13; Brian Zator, A Comparative Analysis of Minoru Miki’s Time for Marimba and Concerto for Marimba and Orchestra (DMA diss., University of North Texas, 2008); and David K. Bessinger, A Catalog of Works for Marimba Soloist with Percission Ensemble Composed Between 1959 and 2008 with Analysis of Selected Works (DMA doc., University of Oklahoma, 2009). For discussions on choral music and symphonic works, respectively, see Matthew C. Howell, A Conductor's Introduction to the Performance of Modern Japanese Choral Music (DMA diss., The University of Arizona, 2008); and Palmer, “To Fuse or Not to Fuse.”
5 Minoru Miki and John Tedford, “The Role of Traditional Japanese Instruments in Three Recent Operas,” Perspectives of New Music 27, no. 2 (Summer 1989): 170.
musical training, however, was—like many other Japanese composers of his generation—strictly in the Western classical tradition. He received his degree in composition from the Tokyo
National University of Fine Arts and Music in 1955. While there, Miki studied with Tomojiro
Ikenouchi, a neo-Impressionist, and Akira Ifukube, a film music composer most famous in
America his scoring for the science fiction film Godzilla, which depicts a giant monster’s attack of Tokyo.
Miki began composing for traditional Japanese instruments in 1964, when he founded
Pro Musica Nipponia, an ensemble dedicated to performing chamber music for traditional
Japanese instruments. Since that time, Miki has been a major force in the revivalist movement of contemporary Japanese traditional music, a genre known as H gaku. In congruence with the aims of other post-World War II traditional music revivalists, most notably T ru Takemitsu
(1930–1996), Miki has worked to reintroduce traditional instruments and compositions to the
Japanese musical audience and to promote the composition and performance of modern works written in the traditional Japanese style.
By the late-1960s, Miki began experimenting with mixed ensembles of traditional
Japanese instruments and Western instruments. Miki believes that music and culture are deeply intertwined; therefore, as he combines diverse music, he also promotes peace through the blending of diverse cultures. Miki writes, “All this has led me to the conviction that only through
‘konketsu’ can we guarantee peace. Art cannot exist in isolation from society. Even in the field of serious music, ethnic mixture should be an important theme.”6 His Eurasian Trilogy of symphonic works combines the forces of the traditional Japanese instrumental ensemble with
Western strings and other orchestral instruments. The large-scale form of its three symphonies is
6 Ibid., 167.
based on the tripartite form found in traditional Japanese music, called jo-ha-ky .7 The Eurasian
Trilogy consists of Jo no Kyoku (1969), a prelude that combines shakuhachi, koto, and shamisen with Western strings; Ha no Kyoku (1974), a concerto for 21-string koto and Western orchestra; and Ky no Kyoku (1981). The most famous of the three, Ky no Kyoku: Symphony for Two
Worlds, was commissioned for the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra’s 200th anniversary and received performances under the baton of Kurt Mazur in both Leipzig and New York City during the early 1980s.8 A prolific composer of vocal works, Miki recently completed an epic series of eight operas that span over 1,600 years of Japanese history and culture, beginning with Shunkin-
Sh (1975) and ending with Ai-En (2005), in addition to the many choral works, folk operas, operettas and songs he has penned.9
Miki’s collaborations with respected performers from both the traditional Asian and classical Western musical spheres have resulted in fruitful composition as well. Keiko Nosaka, with whom Miki developed the 20- and 21-stringed kotos, premiered performances of many of
Miki’s works that feature koto, including Ha no Kyoku and the koto interludes from the opera
J ruri. Miki composed several works for Chinese pipa virtuoso Yang Jing, including the Pipa
Concerto (1997) and a prominent solo part in the opera The Tale of Genji. He began composing for marimba star Keiko Abe at the beginning of her professional career. Their collaborations, which include Time for Marimba (1968) and Marimba Spiritual (1983–84), are some of the most frequently performed marimba repertoire in the United States.
7 In jo-ha-ky form, the opening movement is slow and the remaining movements become increasingly active. For further explanation of the concept of jo-ha-ky , see Chapter 3.
8 As discussed in Chapter 3, Palmer critiques and analyzes Symphony for Two Worlds.
9 For a complete list of published and unpublished vocal works, see Appendix C.
After receiving public criticism for his konketsu compositions in the mid-1980s, Miki was no longer confident in his ability to express multi-ethnic mixture through multi-ethnic instrumentation. Miki decided to stop composing for Japanese instruments entirely from 1986 until 1989. He writes, “I attempted to combine instruments which had developed completely independently over hundreds of years. It now seems only natural that combining the characteristic differences between these instruments resulted in an effect which might be called dissimilation.”10 During this period, Miki turned to traditional Western instruments and idioms, composing chamber music for trio and string quartet, a ballet called From the Land of the Light
(1987), a collection of sh ka songs for solo voice with violin and piano accompaniment named
Nohara Uta (1987), a small orchestral work entitled Godzilla is Dancing (1988), and the solo
Organ Nirvana (1988).
Miki also wrote Sohmon III during his hiatus from H gaku composition. Sohmon III was commissioned by soprano Takako Selby-Okamoto and The Japan Music Pool of London.
According to the manuscript score, Selby-Okamoto premiered the work at the Purcell Room in
London on May 19, 1988 with Richard Benjafield on marimba and Keiko Tokunaga on piano.11
The Japan Federation of Composers, Inc. catalogued the score in 1988 but did not publish it until
1994. Sohmon III was only recently published in the United States due to the efforts of percussionist Brian Zator. “Between the summer of 2005 and fall of 2006, Miki gave me permission to engrave his unpublished percussion pieces and distribute them through Go Fish
Music. These efforts culminated in a showcase concert entitled, New and Unknown Percussion
Works of Minoru Miki at the 2006 Percussive Arts Society International Convention [PASIC in
10 Miki and Tedford, “The Role of Traditional Japanese Instruments,” 170.
11 Miki, Sohmon III: for Soprano, Marimba and Piano (Tokyo: The Japan Federation of Composers, Inc., 1994).
Austin, Texas],” Zator writes.12 The showcase at PASIC included the American premiere of
Sohmon III. In 2007, the Texas A&M University-Commerce Percussion Ensemble released an album under the direction of Zator entitled Sohmon III: New and Unknown Percussion Works by
Minoru Miki.13 Sohmon III is the second track on the album includes performances by soprano
Jessica McCormack and pianist Nathan Ratliff in addition to Zator. Since the publication and recording of Sohmon III, there have been several other American performances of the work.14
The fact that Sohmon III’s commission, notable performances, professional audio recording and internet-distributed video recordings all came from Western countries, is particularly interesting when placing it as an intercultural composition.
Japanese Aesthetics: Terms and Trends
Intercultural and Artistic Borrowing
Both hybridity and intertextuality deal with the concept of borrowing. Hybridity is a type of intercultural borrowing and, in this case, it refers to the recurrent absorption of foreign cultural, political, religious, and artistic traditions by the Japanese throughout their history. In comparison, intertextuality is a type of artistic borrowing between Japanese artists of various
12 Zator, dir., “Sohmon III,” Sohmon III: New and Unknown Percussion Works by Minoru Miki, Texas A&M University-Commerce Percussion Ensemble (Bandmaster, 2007), liner notes.
13 Zator, dir., Sohmon III: New and Unknown Percussion Works by Miki (Bandmaster, 2007), compact disc.
14 Recent American public performances of Sohmon III include performances by Margaret Ozaki (soprano), Erika Drake (marimba), and Myron D. Brown (piano) at the Grandin Vocal Chamber Music Festival at the University of Cincinnati’s College-Conservatory of Music in August of 2008 and at CCM recitals in May of 2009. There is also a recent recording on YouTube, posted by the University of Arizona Percussion program, see Sohmon III: Part 1 at http://www. youtube.com/watch?v=WE9L1PWyq1I; and Sohmon III: and Part 2 at http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v= jBDwWhxGXRc&feature=related (accessed August 1, 2009).
disciplines, where important literary themes and images consistently reappear in the works of their various media. For instance, literary scholar Edward Kamens has done work on the structural role of place-names through the frequent reference to famous places (i.e. Mt. Fuji) within and between poems of the Heian Period (794–1185).15
Japan has a long history of importing and adopting foreign cultures, while retaining indigenous traits, and, ultimately, of reinterpreting foreign elements into an assimilated and synthesized hybrid. This history began in the Nara Period of the eighth century, when
Confucianism, Buddhism, and written language were imported to Japan from China. Music, musical instruments, and even the musicians themselves also traveled to Japan from China and
Korea. For instance, the pipa lute originated in China and was disseminated to Korea and Japan, where it was slightly altered and became known as the bipa and biwa, respectively.
During the Heian Period, the Japanese court devoted itself to miyabi, an obsession with artistic refinement, and mono no aware, a restrained individual artistic expression of emotion often motivated by unrequited love.16 Artistic pursuits were considered necessities and poetry was a primary form of communication between members of the court. The development of the kana, phonetic alphabet, from the Chinese kanji, symbolic characters, resulted in part from this new obsession with self-expression. The extrapolation of kana from kanji exemplifies cultural hybridity as expressed through the development of the written Japanese language.
The long era of preservation and isolation, which characterizes the Tokugawa Period of
1600–1868, led to the development of indigenous performing arts that appealed to both the
15 Edward Kamens, Utamakura, Allusion and Intertextuality in Traditional Japanese Poetry (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997).
16 For an extensive example of mono no aware from The Tale of Genji, see H. Paul Varley, Japanese Culture, 4th ed. (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2000), 64–66.
highest and lowest of social classes in Ed City—present day Tokyo. One such example was the new theatrical genre of kabuki, an ostentatious and colorful music drama steeped in sensuality, in which male actors perform characters of both genders. Largely due to the popularity of kabuki, songs accompanied by a three-stringed fretless banjo-like instrument, called shamisen, became incredibly popular in the public realm as well. These songs are broadly named jiuta, or songs of the country; they are characterized by their settings of lyric poetry and by their large-scale ternary musical formal structure.17
Japan was flooded with cultural influences from the West following the arrival of
Commodore Perry in 1868. This period of modernization, called the Meiji Era (1868–1912), significantly changed music in Japan. Western musical instruments, music theory, and music education were introduced, adopted, and given preference over traditional instruments and methods. In the early 1880s a book of school songs appeared as part of a new “Westernized” music education curriculum designed by American Luther Whiting Mason and Sh ji Izawa, head of the Ongaku Torishirabe Gakari [Music Investigation Committee for the Japanese Ministry of
Education].18 These school songs were overwhelmingly based on Western songs, with much less influence from traditional Japanese melodies. The few indigenous song examples included warabeuta, ancient children’s folk songs, and old folk songs originally accompanied by koto.
Subsequent volumes of school songs, called sh ka, appeared over the following decades.
Although the post-Meiji volumes of the 1920s and 1930s show an increase in original writing by native composers, the musical style of these works reveal an overwhelmingly European
17 Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Japanese Musical Instruments, new ed. (New York: Kodansha International, 2000), 229–237.
18 Luciana Galliano, Y gaku: Japanese Music in the Twentieth Century, trans. by Martin Mayes (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2002), 29–31.
influence. This is due in part to the fact that Japanese composers of the time were educated in
Europe and, therefore, were influenced by French and Germanic art song traditions.
In the twentieth century, Japanese composers of art music struggled to identify
“Japanese-ness” in their work.19 This identity crisis led to the rediscovery of traditional instruments and musical forms by the last half of the century and fueled a revivalist movement where many composers produced contemporary compositions inspired by traditional Japanese music. The contemporary genre movement of H gaku encourages the composition of traditional
Japanese music scored for traditional Japanese instruments.20 In congruence with the aims of other post-war traditional music revivalists, Miki has worked to reintroduce traditional instruments and compositions to the Japanese musical audience.
Like the tradition of hybridity, intertextuality permeates across the ages and throughout the history of Japanese poetry, painting, and music. In poetry, this has resulted in the development of a literary vocabulary of iconic symbols, demonstrated through descriptions of nature, the four seasons and famous locations. For example, the poetry of Sohmon III includes references to special plants and flowers, meaningful gestures and seasonal references, all of which imply certain emotions. Merrily Baird, author of Symbols of Japan: Thematic Motifs in
Art and Design, discusses the metaphorical and suggestive meanings of many of these icons and catalogues their visual use.21 It is common to “re-present” such iconic images and themes from poetry in other creative media as a cross-disciplinary quotation. In the visual arts, “re-presenting”
19 Composer Katsumi Sunaga coined the term “Japanese-ness” in his 1932 article Ongaku ni okeru nihonteki narumono [The Nature of the Japanese-ness as Expressed Through Music]; for more on the debate on Japanese-ness, see Galliano, Y gaku, 98–99.
20 For a discussion on the H gaku genre and its composers, see Galliano, Y gaku, 29–31.
21 Merrily Baird, Symbols of Japan: Thematic Motifs in Art and Design (New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc., 2001).
is evident in Yamat -e style painting, which often depicts scenes from Lady Murasaki’s epic novel The Tale of Genji, by using seasonal imagery and other icons to imply specific scenes from the story.
In music, the jiuta song genre exemplifies intertextual implication. In jiuta form, instrumental music interrupts the setting of lyrical poetry with at least one extended interlude.
These instrumental interludes, tegoto, are similar to programmatic sketches, as they are meant to
“re-present” a sonic picture of the iconic images and themes presented in the poetry that surrounds them. Nagauta, or long song form, is a specific type of jiuta, which demonstrates the following features: 1) sung portions alternate with instrumental interludes; 2) there are at least six contrasting sections; 3) each section is through-composed.22 Miki’s supposed birthday song,
Chidori no Kyoku, is a famous nagauta composed by Yoshizawa Kengyo II (1800–1872) and it contains the characteristic descriptive musical interludes. The longest interlude, which sits in the middle of the composition, falls between the two poems that form the song’s lyrics and depicts the rolling waves of the poem’s beach location and imitates the call of the plover shorebird.23
Four Primary Principles of Japanese Aesthetics
Japanese literary scholar Donald Keene defines the major characteristics of Japanese literature and art through four primary aesthetic principles: suggestion, irregularity, simplicity, and perishability. These aesthetic values were first introduced, along with others, in
22 See Chapter 3 for a more detailed discussion of nagauta.
23 Scholar and koto artist Ayako Hotta-Lister excerpted this interlude for an arrangement that she recorded on her 1995 album The Japanese Koto, digital recording, at iTunes Music, http://itunes.apple.com/us/artist/ayako- hotta-lister/id262257603 (accessed April 1, 2010).
Tsurezuregusa [Essays in Idleness] by Shint priest Kenk Yoshida (ca. 1283–1350). Keene simplifies and summarizes Yoshida’s text in the article entitled “Japanese Aesthetics.”24
The first value, suggestion is described as a particular interest in beginnings and endings.
Keene elaborates further, contrasting the Japanese fondness for the static stages of the plot with the Western preoccupation with its dramatic climax in the middle. He cites such Western examples of attention as “the moment when the soprano hits high C, or when the rose is in full bloom.”25 In Japanese poetry, Keene notes that suggestion appears readily in the love poetry of the Heian period. He describes the poetic approach to suggestion through temporality. Rather than focusing on the climactic event of meeting one’s beloved, most love poetry focuses on the beginning—the period of longing before a tryst—or the ending—the period of mourning after the end of an affair—of a love story.
Keene’s second aesthetic quality, irregularity, refers “not only to incompleteness, but to another variety of irregularity, asymmetry.”26 An obvious literary example of irregularity, manifested as asymmetry, is found in the form and syllabic structure of Japanese verse forms.
The preference for odd numbers permeates the structure of haiku on every level. Haiku form consists of three lines in the syllabic pattern of five syllables, followed by seven syllables, and ending with five final syllables. Keene notes, “This is in marked contrast to the quatrains that are typical poetic forms not only in China but throughout most of the world.”27
Simplicity is the third aesthetic principle. However, the principle of simplicity surpasses
24 Keene, “Japanese Aesthetics,” in Japanese Aesthetics and Culture: A Reader, ed. Nancy G. Hume (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995), 27-41.
25 Ibid., 31.
26 Ibid., 32.
27 Ibid., 36.
the “less is more” concept so valued in contemporary Western culture. Moving beyond mere minimalism, the Japanese concept of simplicity implies that rusticity and roughness best translate the idyllic beauty of nature in its purist form. Keene associates it with the wabi-sabi aesthetic, which he describes as “unobtrusive elegance.”28 The understated elegance of wabi-sabi is evident in the utensils, accessories and decor of the tea ceremony, which feature found natural objects and understated art pieces. For example, a tea ceremony flower arrangement can be as simple as dried twigs set in a crude, clay vase.
The fourth and final aesthetic quality, which Keene names “perishability,” relates to both the Buddhist concept of impermanence and to the Shint fixation with eternal freshness, expressed through traditional ceremonies that focus upon acts of renewal following the natural cycle of decomposition. Keene states that perishability is a “necessary condition of beauty” for the Japanese people.29 To the Western aesthetic, this draws attention to an unconventional side of beauty, its aftermath, while celebrating fragility and the ephemeral, rather than lamenting it.
Through an examination intercultural and artistic borrowing along with influence from the four primary principles of Japanese aesthetics, unique cultural viewpoints appear in Sohmon
III in a profound fashion. The influence of borrowing and aesthetics are reviewed as expressed through Sohmon III’s source literature, in Chapter 2, and its music, in Chapter 3.
28 Ibid.
29 Ibid., 39.
CHAPTER 2: TEXT AND DICTION
Understanding the Text30
The poetry of Sohmon III comes from the Man’y sh [Collection of Ten Thousand
Leaves], the oldest anthology of Japanese poetry, dating from the seventh and eighth centuries.
The Man’y sh is a massive collection of poetry, unique in its diverse subject matter and authorship, as well as in the variety of its poetic forms, which range from brief lyrics to epic tales. The collection is of historical and cultural importance, not just because it chronicles important events, but also because it plays an integral role in the development of Japanese as a literary language. The Man’y sh is famous for converting the indigenous Japanese Yamat dialect into a written language. This was accomplished through the use of man’y gana script,
Chinese ideograms made phonetic.
Haruo Shirane, a scholar of ancient Japanese literature, describes the development of man’y gana. In Traditional Japanese Literature: An Anthology, Beginnings to 1600, he explains that some poems of the Man’y sh use Chinese kanji “phonetically to record poetry composed in
Japanese.”31 Shirane argues that, whether a Man’y sh poem was written in “a style close to orthodox classical Chinese” or in man’y gana, it was recited “in the aristocratic Japanese dialect.”32 Consisting of over 4,000 poems, the anthology’s compilers divided the contents of the
Man’y sh into twenty books, organized rather inconsistently by genre, subject matter, and
30 For an English translation, and Romaji and IPA transcriptions of Sohmon III’s text, see Appendix A.
31 Haruo Shirane, Traditional Japanese Literature: An Anthology, Beginnings to 1600, trans. by Sonja Arntzen, et al. in Translations from the Asian Classics Series, ed. by Wm. Teodore de Bary et al. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 2.
32 Ibid., 20.
chronology. Although many poems are anonymous, scholars have noted the prominence of female authorship, or kotoba no onna, in attributed poetry from the earlier books.33 Two of the three poems from Sohmon III are written by Princess Nukata no kimi (ca. 630–690s); the remaining poem is attributed to Prince ama no Miko (622–686). Some scholars, including poet
Haroldo de Campos, speculate that, in addition to being an official court poet, Nukata served as a ghost writer for nobility including Emperor Tenji (r. 662–671) and Empress Jit (r. 690–697).34
The first two poems, Akane sasu and Murasaki no, are linked verses between Nukata and ama that appear in Man’y sh , Book I (verses 20 and 21). The third poem, Kimi matsu to by Nukata, is taken from Man’y sh , Book IV (verse 488).
In the introduction to his translation of the Man’y sh , William Theodore de Bary describes how Man’y sh compilers frequently wrote prefaces to insert before the poems they organized. In addition to providing standard authorship information, compilers’ prefaces encompass topics including “the occasion, the date and place of composition, the source book or the manner of transmission, or anecdotes or legends concerning the authors or the poems.”35
From time to time, compilers’ notes include subjective commentary and criticism. For example,
Kimi matsu to appears with the compilers’ preface, “Yearning for the Emperor Tenji,” who was
Nukata’s husband and ama’s older brother.36
33 According to Keene, Susumu Nakanishi discusses the prominence of kotoba no onna [words of women; women of words], who were given the task of writing poetry for important court events, sometimes as surrogates. See Keene, Seeds in the Heart, 92 and Nakanishi, Man’y no Sekai, in Ch k Shinsho Series (Japan: Ch K ron Sha,1973), 20, 47–50, 53–54, 101 (footnoted in Keene, Seeds, 162, fn. 31).
34 Haroldo de Campos, “Nukata no kimi: A Princess Poet and Magician in the Man’y sh ,” in The Renewal of Song: Renovation in Lyric Conception and Practice, ed. by Earl Miner and Amiya Dev (Calcutta: Seagull Books, 2000), 56–7.
35 Wm. Theodore de Bary, The Man’y sh , in Records of Civilization: Sources and Studies Series, LXX (New York: Columbia University Press, reiss. 1965), xvii–xviii.
36 Ibid., 11.
In the manuscript version of Sohmon III, the sections of text performed as spoken narration appear both in Japanese and in English translation; Miki wrote Sohmon III’s spoken narration in Japanese and then Mike Selby translated into English.37 The spoken narration does not appear in Romaji transcription in the manuscript score, although the sung lyrics are printed in hiragana, the Japanese phonetic alphabet, and Romaji, the Roman alphabetic transcription of
Japanese. However, the edition of Sohmon III published by Go Fish Music in 2006 contains no
Japanese script. Instead, the Go Fish Music version omits the Japanese version of the narration, printing the English translation exclusively, and displays the Japanese sung lyrics in Romaji transcription alone.38
The overall construction of the text of Sohmon III alternates between sections of narrative and poetic text. Table 2.1 shows the structure of the text. The four sections of narration cited in the leftmost column are original prose compositions. The poetic quotations are identified by their first lines and include authorship and source location (book and poem numbers). Shading in the left hand column of Table 2.1 highlights passages written by Nukata. The second column notes whether the text is original or quoted and the third column describes the delivery of the text, be it spoken or sung. When applicable, the two right-hand columns define Miki’s handling in setting the poetry to music. In order to create new structures and rhythmic patterns in his lyrics in some sections of Sohmon III, Miki reorganizes Nukata’s poetry through the use of textual repetition and omission, in addition to making changes in word order (fragmentation). The composer also employs a variety of approaches to text setting that include syllabic, melismatic and combined syllabic-melismatic methods.
37 Miki, Sohmon III (Japan Federation of Composers, Inc.), 2.
38 Miki, Sohmon III (Corpus Christi, TX: Go Fish Music on Paper, 2006).
Table 2.1: Structure and Use of Text in Sohmon III39 SECTION OF TEXT WITH TYPE DELIVERY POETIC TEXT SOURCE AND AUTHORSHIP REORGANIZATION SETTING Narration I (Miki/Selby), p. 1–2 original; spoken Akane sasu (Nukata, I:20) full quotation Akane sasu, p. 2–3 full quotation sung syllabic Narration II (Miki/Selby), p. 3 original; spoken Murasaki no ( ama, I: 21) full quotation Akane sasu, p. 4–5 full quotation sung syllabic Akane sasu, p. 6–7 full quotation sung syllabic/ melismatic Akane sasu, p. 9 partial sung omission/repetition syllabic quotation Akane sasu, p. 9–10 full quotation sung repetition syllabic Akane sasu, p. 10 partial sung omission/repetition syllabic quotation Akane sasu, p. 11–14 partial sung fragmentation with melismatic quotation omission/repetition Akane sasu, p. 18 full quotation sung syllabic Narration III (Miki/Selby), p. 19 original; spoken Kimi matsu to (Nukata, IV: 488) full quotation Kimi matsu to, p. 19–20 full quotation sung syllabic Kimi matsu to, p. 21–22 full quotation sung melismatic Kimi matsu to, p. 23–24 full quotation sung syllablic/ melismatic Narration IV (Miki/Selby), p. 24 original spoken
An Analysis of Narration in Sohmon III
Miki uses the spoken narrative sections to frame Man’y sh poetry excerpts, creating a plot structure that highlights a love triangle between the quoted poets, Nukata and ama, and
39 Page numbers correspond to the vocal score of Sohmon III published by Go Fish Music. All text reproduced by permission of publisher.
Emperor Tenji, Nukata’s husband and recipient of Kimi matsu to. To enhance the storytelling aspect of Miki’s narration, all four sections of spoken narration appear below, condensed into the format of a four-paragraph story. Although the narrative text of Sohmon III is entirely original, it is feasible that Miki drew from information provided in compilers’ comments surrounding poems I: 20, I: 21, and IV: 488; Miki does reproduce the compiler’s preface to IV: 488 in
Narration III. Selby’s translation of the poetry does little to imitate the structure of the original
Japanese poetry.40 As a result, the poems, which appear in italics below, lose some of the ambiguity and lyric beauty present in their Japanese versions.
At a hunting party given by the Emperor in the year 668, the Princess Nukata-no- kimi composed a poem. She was there as one of the wives of the Emperor. She dedicated the poem to another of the party, her former lover ama-no-miko, the younger brother of the Emperor. Before her marriage, the Princess had borne a daughter by her lover, named Princess T chi: “The grounds of the hunting lodge are full of purple Murasaki flowers. You wander here and there through the fields, showing off your fine kimono for my benefit. You had better take care that the groundsman doesn’t notice your indiscreet behavior.”
ama-no-miko composed this poem in reply: “You are as beautiful as the Murasaki flowers. If I thought you were hateful, why would I love you like this, especially knowing that you are another man’s wife? Although it is dangerous folly to love a married woman, I can’t help but show my passion for you!”
Princess Nukata’s heart no longer yearned for Prince ama, but belonged to his elder brother, the Emperor. Some days after the party, the Princess composed this poem for the Emperor: “I sit here in keen anticipation of your visit. As if it were your breath hurrying ahead of you, the autumn breeze billows the blinds of my house and enters the room, caressing my skin.”
In the Jinshin-no-ran Rebellion of 672, a crucial incident in Japanese ancient history, ama-no-miko overthrew Prince tomo, the Emperor’s son, whom he had named as his successor, and seized power.41
40 The translation of Japanese poetry is a pervasive scholarly topic, whether managing the various translations of the Man’y sh or determining how to recapture (or ignore) the defining characteristics of structure and form that permeate indigenous poetic genres including haiku and waka.
41 Miki, Sohmon III (Go Fish), 1–2, 3, 19, 24.
The soprano plays multiple roles through the recited passages of Sohmon III. In the first three paragraphs above, a narrator introduces the lovers’ poems before reciting them, providing
Sohmon III with a third party “observer” who explains and comments upon the love story that ensues, but does not participate in the emotions and actions of main characters, Nukata and
ama. At the close of the first three sections of narration, the soprano must switch roles and represent one of the characters, as Miki presents Nukata and ama’s poetry in quotation, effectively giving his characters brief monologues. Just as a Man’y sh compiler’s notes would,
Miki’s narration blends factual information—poetic authorship, date of composition, and relevant historical background—with subjective information, such as the source of poetic inspiration or the author’s emotional state at the time of composition.
Most of Miki’s narration in the third paragraph is speculative and subjective. He expounds upon the original preface, “Yearning for the Emperor Tenji” as translated by de Bary.42
Miki also magnifies the dramatic content of Sohmon III’s love story by claiming that Nukata “no longer yearned for ama,” but, rather, loved Emperor Tenji. Miki’s narrative implies that Nukata has a change of heart “some days after the party.”43 Historically speaking, there is no evidence that Nukata’s poem Kimi matsu to was written during the same time period as her poem for
ama. Miki also sets up the fourth and final paragraph, ama’s succession to the throne, as that of a jealous lover’s actions of revenge.
Multiple sources confirm the dates and historical events referenced in Narrations I, II and
IV.44 Nukata, likely descended from royalty, married the Emperor Tenji (r. 662–671) following
42 Miki, Sohmon III (Go Fish), 19; and de Bary, Man’y sh , 11.
43 Miki, Sohmon III (Go Fish), 19.
an extended affair with his brother, ama. Sources also confirm that Princess T chi (?–678) was
Nukata and ama’s biological daughter.45 According to Keene, Nukata married Emperor Tenji after the birth of her daughter, but before writing of Akane sasu in 668.46 Keene confirms that
Nukata wrote the poem to ama “during the course of a hunt staged by the Emperor Tenji,” which is in congruence with Miki’s narration, describing the poem’s place of composition as “at a hunting party.”47
Most sources report that ama and Nukata’s correspondence of love letters was sincere.
Keene discusses the “extreme love” apparent in the poems between Nukata and ama, while translator Haitani argues that the poems “were presumably exchanged half in jest at a banquet in the presence of Emperor Tenji.”48 The “Jinshin-no-ran rebellion of 672,” which Miki mentions at the close of Sohmon III, refers to the political unrest and fighting that followed Emperor Tenji’s death. Although Tenji formally invited his brother ama to be successor to the throne, he actually preferred that his son tomo ascend to the throne and, after Tenji’s death, the crown prince took power. Over the next several months, ama retreated from the court and rallied support against his nephew, eventually overpowering tomo’s government through the battles of the Jinshin War, and finally taking the throne as Emperor Temmu (r. 672–686) upon his nephew’s forced suicide.49
44 For historical details, see de Bary, The Man’y sh , 458; de Campos, “Princess Nukata,” 56–57 and 60; Keene, Seeds in the Heart, 100; Ian Hideo Levy, Hitomaro and the Birth of Japanese Lyricism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), 33, 37–8, 44 and 47; and Shirane, Traditional Japanese Literature, 18 and 65.
45 de Bary, 458.
46 Keene, 100.
47 Keene, 100; and Miki, Sohmon III (Go Fish), 1.
48 Haitani, https://home.earthlink.net/~khaitani1 /mysx1.htm#1-20 (accessed August 1, 2008); and Keene, 100.
49 de Bary, 67.
The Poetry of Sohmon III
The Sohmon III poetry consists of three waka, the most common poetic form found in the
Man’y sh . Waka form is comprised of a mere thirty-one syllables that are organized into five lines by the syllabic pattern of 5-7-5-7-7. This form later became known as tanka, the predecessor to the more familiar seventeen syllable haiku. Miki’s title, Sohmon, refers to a particular genre of the waka called the s mon, translated as “mutual inquiries” by Keene or
“exchanges” by Torquil Duthie. These poems were like brief letters in which one poet wrote in response to another.50 Keene states that the term s mon is “an oblique way of referring to love poetry.”51 S mon are often dedicated to topics of unrequited love. Duthie describes three primary types of poetry found in the Man’y sh : 1) z ka, which he translates as “miscellaneous poems” or “public” poems; 2) s mon; and 3) banka, or elegies.52 Although all three Sohmon III poems are published in the miscellaneous category, Akane sasu and Murasaki no qualify as s mon.
Akane sasu is printed below in Romaji transcription.
Akane sasu Murasaki no yuki Shime no yuki Nomori wa mizu ya Kimi ga sode furu
Akane sasu follows the traditional form and structure of the waka with five lines in the syllabic ordering of 5-7-5-7-7. It is somewhat unusual that this particular waka also displays repetition of text; the word yuki appears at the end of both the second and third lines. The
50 Torquil Duthie, “Introduction to Man’y sh ,” in Traditional Japanese Literature, ed. by Shirane, 60; and Keene, 92.
51 Keene, 92.
52 Duthie, 60.
rhyming that occurs between the first and fifth lines (sasu/furu) and the second and third lines
(yuki/yuki) is not typical to the waka and should not be perceived as rhyme scheme in the
Western European sense; however, the recurrent appearance of the u-vowel towards the end of each line (sasu/yuki/yuki/mizu/furu) is deliberate. The repetition of vowels in classical Japanese poetry acts similarly to the Western poetic devise of assonance, giving the poem a sound of sensitivity and lightness in recitation.
In his studies of Japanese poetry, Akira Amagasaki discusses the three types of subdivision that occur within waka form, either by use of parallelism or by use of association.53
Amagasaki defines parallelism as the use of rhyme scheme or syntactic/symbolic complements to link adjacent lines into couplets. He also cites the influence of Chinese poetic devices upon the two types of waka subdivision that employ parallelism, which restructure lines of poetry into couplets of either 5+7/5/7+7 or 5+7/5+7/7. The third type of regrouping reorients the lines of the waka toward asymmetrical grouping into the pattern of 5+7+5/7/7 while using various techniques of association between lines. Amagasaki believes this method of association is uniquely Japanese and, resolutely, that it employs special poetic devices to “link” poetic ideas and imagery together in a uniquely Japanese way, rather than relying upon traditional Chinese poetic structure and construction, which is based on parallelism and symmetry. Considering
Amagasaki’s theory of structural subdivision, the repetition of yuki at the end of the second and third lines of Akane sasu may be read as an attempt to create the “uniquely Japanese” subdivision of lines into 5+7+5/7/7, featuring an initial three-line grouping and overall asymmetrical line structure.
53 Akira Amagasaki, “Frame and Link: A Philosophy of Japanese Composition,” in Japanese Hermeneutics: Current Debates on Aesthetic Interpretation,” ed. by Michael F. Marra (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press: 2002): 36–43.
Amagasaki cites various techniques of association, which include the use of poetic devices to enhance deeper meaning: 1) engo [associated words]; 2) utamakura [literally, song words; words that reference famous places]; 3) kakekotoba [literally, pivot words; homonyms]; and 4) makurakotoba [literally, pillow words; epithets]. Nukata and ama use the latter two poetic devices in Akane sasu and Murasaki no.
Both kakekotoba and makurakotoba appear in Akane sasu. Although Akane sasu seems overtly descriptive in the English translation by Haitani, printed below, the use of traditional
Japanese poetic devises enhance the meaning of the poem greatly in its original version.
You ride back and forth through the Imperial fields of gromwell plants: Isn’t the groundkeeper watching you wave your sleeves at me?54
Kakekotoba are essentially homonyms. Homonyms are more common in the Japanese language than in English. This is due, in part, to the development of written Japanese kana phonetic alphabet from the Chinese kanji. In kanji, far more symbols exist than do pronunciations for them. The meaning of a word falls heavily upon its written identification. When ancient Japanese poets began using kanji phonetically, they began to obscure the definitive meaning of words, as written language moved from being symbolic to phonetic. This is one reason why Man’y sh poetry is notoriously difficult to analyze and translate.55 Since the advent of man’y gana,
Japanese poets have capitalized on its ambiguity, using the suggestive nature of homonyms to allow for multiple readings of their poetry. For example, in Akane sasu, the word yuki refers riding through to the fields of gromwell plants in the second line (murasaki no yuki) and riding through the fields marked with sacred ropes—Haitani’s “Imperial fields”—in the third line
(shime no yuki). In this instance, the pivot word yuki shares its phonetic spelling and
54 Haitani, http://home.earthlink.net/~khaitani1/mysx1.htm#1-20 (accessed August 1, 2008).
55 Keene, 90.
pronunciation with other words that vary in meaning; yuki also translates as snow and blessing.
So, while the literal definition of the poem refers to Nukata’s lover passing through the field, because yuki is a homonym, its appearance in the poem implies the alternate meaning of blessing, and conjures the alternate imagery of snowfall.
Makurakotoba are common in Japanese classical poetry. A makurakotoba is an epithet, usually five syllables long, which modifies an important word of the poem, often preceding it.
Man’y sh translator J.L. Pierson compares the makurakotoba to the simile, as they both frequently end with a particle “which may be rendered by ‘like’ or ‘as.’”56 Haitani writes,
“Makurakotoba are often not translated—that is, they do not directly affect the meaning of the poem—but in many cases their original meaning may affect the image or the tone of the poem.”57 He also makes note of the fact that makurakotoba occur in classical poetry and that these epithets are used to modify specific words. For example the five-syllable epithet aratamano usually appears as a modifier of words related to the kanji symbols for sun, moon, and year.58
Similarly, in Akane sasu, the first line of the text (akane sasu) acts as a modifier of the adjective (murasaki). It is a typical makurakotoba, as it is five syllables long and precedes its modifier. Although in literal translation the meaning of the first two lines amounts to “the field of gromwell plants,” the phrases akane (deep red) and murasaki (purple) create colorful imagery, both describing the plants and adding to the atmospheric effect of the waka. In his volume that charts The Makurakotoba of the Man’y sh , Pierson lists Nukata’s poem as the first of seven
56 J.L. Pierson, The Makurakotoba of The Man’y sh (Netherlands: Leiden for E. J. Brill, 1964), 1.
57 Haitani, http://home.earthlink.net/~khaitani1/mysx0.htm#makura (accessed April 14, 2010).
58 Ibid.
waka that begin with the same pillow word.59 He defines akane sasu as “with red roots shining, radiant, ruddy.”60 Other scholars, such as de Bary, explain the “gradual transference of association” of akane sasu from “madder-root color” to “sunlight, day, purple,” and “rosy- cheeked youth.”61 Aside from its varied translations and associated meanings, akane sasu serves its purpose as a pillow word, drawing attention to the word that it modifies—murasaki.
Murasaki is an important word, independent of its function in relationship to its modifying epithet, akane sasu. This is because murasaki is the only word that appears in both
Nukata and ama’s words in their s mon exchange. ama’s immediate use of the word murasaki refers both to Nukata’s poetic invitation, as well as to the poetess herself. ama’s response poem is printed in Romaji below.
Murasaki no Nioeru imo wo Nikuku araba Hitozuma yue ni Ware koime ya mo
Haitani translates ama’s reply as follows.
If I did not care for you, who are as beautiful as the glowing purple gromwell plants, Would I dare to be so madly in love with you, knowing full well that you are another’s wife?62
The word murasaki carries special poetic meaning, although scholars debate whether ama uses it as a makurakotoba. Haitani does not consider murasaki no a poetic device, despite the fact that
59 Pierson, The Makurakotoba, 8–9.
60 Ibid., 8.
61 de Bary, xxii.
62 Haitani, http://home.earthlink.net/~khaitani1/mysx1.htm#1-21 (accessed August 1, 2008).
his literal translation of the line, “like/as the murasaki plants,” presents it as a simile.63 In contrast, Pierson documents this poem as the first of four “murasaki no” poems in his list of makurakotoba. Each waka uses “murasaki no” as an epithet.64 In Murasaki no, Pierson translates
ama’s first two lines as, “My love, delightful in color and scent (as the murasaki-flower).”65 In his analysis of poem I:21, Pierson explains that Murasaki no is an epithet to the word nioeru,
“which has the original meaning to take on color or scent.”66 In Nukata’s waka, Pierson translates murasaki no according to its other definitions—as a color, purple, and by its use as a plant dye. These differences in translation arise due to poetic context and because of the relationship to their modifiers.67
Pierson’s additional definitions take on inferred meanings when other scholars, including
Michael F. Marra, examine the intertextual iconography of murasaki. As defined in Chapter 1, intertextuality is a type of artistic borrowing that occurs between interdisciplinary creative sources.68 In his analysis of the poetic exchange between Nukata and ama, Marra fixates on the word murasaki. He does not simply regard it as an epithet for Nukata; rather, Marra is interested in the associative power accumulated through the repetition of the word between various texts over a number of years.69 In Seasons and Landscapes in Japanese Poetry, Marra discusses how, through repetition and cross-referencing in poetry and literature over several centuries, the word
63 Ibid.
64 Pierson, The Makurakotoba, 91–92.
65 Ibid., 91.
66 Pierson, The Man’y sh : Translated and Annotated, vol. I (Netherlands: Leiden for E. J. Brill, 1933), 113.
67 Ibid.
68 For an detailed explanation, see Chapter 1 of this document, pp. 5 and 8–9.
69 Marra, Seasons and Landscapes in Japanese Poetry, 17–21.
murasaki has become an iconic and multi-dimensional intertextual image. “Originally,
‘murasaki’ was the name of a plant, the gromwell, the roots of which were used for extracting medicines and as a purplish dye,” but through its use in the poetry of Nukata and ama, it “came to be associated with exquisite beauty and illicit love.”70 Marra argues that the association of the word murasaki with beauty and forbidden love became metaphorical and provided a means for other writers to reference or tribute the poems by Nukata and ama. Ultimately, he concludes that intertextual association gave birth to the deeper meaning of murasaki and that later Japanese writers retell the story of Nukata and ama’s love affair through the mere mention of the word murasaki. As an example, Marra cites a famous passage in The Tale of Genji that chronicles the first exchange of poetry between Genji and his lover.71
Keene offers another implied meaning of murasaki in relation to Nukata’s ethnic heritage. He mentions that Susumu Nakanishi’s work, which describes murasaki as a metaphor for Nukata. However, in Nakanishi’s analysis the meaning of murasaki varies from those that
Marra presents. Nakanishi hypothesizes that Nukata was of Korean heritage and finds it
“significant that the prince should have associated her with murasaki, a plant whose use as a dyestuff had been taught to the Japanese by Koreans.”72 Whatever the particular implications of the word murasaki, the poetic exchange between Nukata and ama famously epitomizes the archetypal story of love that knows no bounds. Keene believes the two were willing to
70 Ibid., 18–19.
71 Ibid., 18.
72 Nakanishi, Man’y no Utabitotachi (Japan: Fudokawa Shoten, 1980), 39 and Man’y no Jidai to F do. (Japan: Kadokawa Shoten, 1980), in Keene, Seeds footnotes, 165, fn. 82.
“transgress social conventions” and reach out to each other despite their relationship as siblings- in-law.73
Nukata’s second poem, Kimi matsu to, comprises the final lyrics of Sohmon III. As mentioned earlier, Miki adds subjective information to his narration, moving the plot of the love triangle forward and setting the stage for ama’s final jealous actions at the close of Sohmon III.
Despite the fact that the Man’y sh scholars’ research cannot substantiate Miki’s inferences, most translations of Kimi matsu to include a compiler’s preface which addresses the poem to
Emperor Tenji, as de Bary’s does below.
Yearning for the Emperor Tenji. While, waiting for you, My heart is filled with longing, The autumn wind blows—74
Although this waka contains no kakekotoba or makurakotoba, it does use imagery in a symbolic way. As with the murasaki plant, many natural objects and seasonal images carry deeper meanings in Japanese poetry. Autumnal imagery is incredibly important in Kimi matsu to, which is printed below in Romaji transcription. The final line of the poem carries the greatest seasonal meaning. The words of highest symbolic value appear in bold.
Kimi matsu to Waga koioreba Waga yado no Sudare ugokashi Aki no kaze fuku
Selby’s translation of Kimi matsu to, below, is more accurate than de Bary’s, and Selby misses no opportunity to increase poetic meaning through the use of seasonal imagery. The third line, in bold, corresponds to bold text in the fifth line of Romaji version of the poem printed above.
73 Keene, Seeds, 100.
74 de Bary, Man’y sh , 11.
I sit here in keen anticipation of your visit. As if it were your breath hurrying ahead of you, the autumn breeze billows the blinds of my house and enters the room, caressing my skin.75
Marra discusses the importance of nature and the seasons in Japanese literature in his waka analysis. He describes how the seasons have special expressive capabilities in Japanese literature; specific words deepen in meaning through repetition, increasing their ability to cross- reference other poetry and, therefore, to implicate other symbolic meanings through repetition.76
For instance the word for bamboo blinds, ugokashi, is rich in its imagery because bamboo carries a greater implied symbolic meaning.
Through years of cross-referencing between the visual and literary artistic fields, bamboo has come to be associated with Zen Buddhism and the wabi-sabi aesthetic of the Zen-influenced tea ceremony.77 Onj ji, a simple cracked bamboo flower container created by artist Sen no Riky
(1552–1591), is one of the most important folk art pieces of the Japanese tea ceremony utensils.
Storyteller Shigenori Chikamatsu imparts a colorful story regarding the development of Riky ’s bamboo flower containers in “The Hot Temper of Hideyoshi,” from his collection called Stories from a Tea Room Window.78 Bamboo flower containers are important wabi [rustic] images as they use simple, natural materials and are presented in an unadorned fashion.
The association between bamboo and Zen is evident as well, especially through the simple single jointed flower container called Shakuhachi, after a long transverse bamboo flute of
75 Miki, Sohmon III (Go Fish), 19.
76 Marra, Seasons and Landscapes, 1–2.
77 Herbert E. Plutschow, Rediscovering Riky and the Beginnings of the Japanese Tea Ceremony (Folkestone, Kent: Global Oriental, 2003).
78 Shigenori Chikamatsu, Stories from a Tea Room Window, ed. by Toshiko Mori, trans. by Kozaburu Mori (Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle, Co., 1982), 37–40.
the same name. Zen monks play the shakuhachi as a form of meditation. Riky ’s bamboo vases also appear in Zen parables. One such well-known Onj ji story highlights Riky ’s use of it. The
Onj ji was known to leak water and the story relates that when a guest asked Riky if he had noticed the leaky vase that the tea master replied, “It is in the very nature of this vase that it leaks.”79 Art historian Herbert E. Plutschow likens Riky ’s statement to “a Zen k an [puzzle or teaching] in which the teacher tries through various means to guide the disciple into a further dimension of consciousness.”80 In his statement, Riky challenges his guest to move beyond the logical observation of the vase in relation to its function, and presents a statement that urges the guest to let go of intellectual observation in order to intuitively examine the object’s essence.
While inspecting important seasonal words, Marra identifies several poems that include the phrases “Aki no kaze” and “Akikaze no” [wind of autumn; autumn breeze].81 Marra discusses the association between ogi [reeds] and autumn breezes; the combination of the two comes to infer “the essential theme of sadness, lonesomeness, at the whispering of the reeds in the autumn wind.”82 Marra includes a poem that presents an image of the autumn breeze rustling the reeds outside of the poet’s home.83 This is similar to the autumn breeze that rustles the bamboo blinds of Nukata’s home in Kimi matsu to. In his interpretation, Marra states, “the rustling of the reeds in the wind increases the sense of desolation that the poet feels in the house where he/she is
79 Plutschow, Rediscovering Riky , 126.
80 Ibid.
81 Marra discusses aki no kaze in his section on seasonal references to autumn, see Marra, Seasons, 165– 223.
82 Marra, Seasons, 173.
83 The poem Marra cites is V: 220 from the Gosen Waka Sh .
usually lost in thoughts of unrequited love.”84 By inference, Nukata communicates the same feelings of “desolation” and “unrequited love” as she awaits Emperor Tenji in Kimi matsu to.
Sohmon III is shaped by poetry from a source of the highest standard. The poetic analyses of multiple scholars prove the provocative and profoundly meaningful nature of Miki’s poetic selections. In addition to the normal adjustments of source materials that are necessary in any composer’s setting of text, Miki reorganizes his source poetry, altering its form, and frames it within a greater dramatic structure. Miki’s sections of spoken narration are his original contribution to the text of Sohmon III. They provide a platform for storytelling; each of the four speeches has its role in the plot structure from beginning to end, effectively making Sohmon III into the story of unrequited love between Nukata and ama, fading due to Nukata’s change of heart, and ending with ama’s act of revenge, fueled by the jealousy evoked by his loss.
The three Man’y sh poems act as quotations from Nukata and ama, who act as characters in Miki’s play. In the first three sections of narration, the characters’ quotations lead into musical interludes and, in the case of Nukata, melodic musical settings of her poetic quotations. However, ama’s Murasaki no receives no musical treatment after its spoken quotation. Instead, Miki embarks upon extensive repetition of Nukata’s Akane sasu and Kimi matsu to. As shown in Table 2.1, Miki sets Nukata’s first poem eight times, in complete or partial form, and reshapes Akane sasu through various methods of internal repetition and truncation. Later, Miki presents Nukata’s second poem, Kimi matsu to, in three complete musical settings.
The repetition of Nukata’s words is quite extensive and, in this case, Miki’s purpose extends beyond compositional necessity. In the story of Sohmon III, Nukata acts as the central
84 Marra, Seasons, 173.
character, the work’s strongest voice, and she controls the theatrical point of view. Miki’s primary focus upon Nukata elevates her role in the work. She transcends her identity as an individual to that of the archetype of the “Woman Condemned to Suffer,” representing the lovesick, lonely, and forlorn woman who is trapped in a hopeless triangle of unconsummated desire. An icon, Nukata represents the aesthetic core of Sohmon III: unrequited love.
Diction
As pronunciation resources for Japanese lyric diction are sparse, I will draw from my earlier research and publication.85 For reference on the Japanese language, I consulted linguistics texts and drew from my own education and life experience with the language.86 I examined some of the most popular diction manuals used in collegiate voice programs and I consulted the major singing diction manuals for their specific methodology and reviewed their overall structure, crediting some organizational ideas that they presented, as inspiration for the design of the brief diction manual below.87 For the purposes of this discussion, I assume that the singer will be working from Japanese text in Romaji or International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) transcription,
85 Margaret Ozaki-Graves, “Japanese Lyric Diction,” Journal of Singing 65 (September 2008): 63–71.
86 Linguistics writings that I consulted include: Richard Fiordo, “General Semantics and the Revision of Romaji,” in ETC: A Review of General Semantics (October 2007): 367–81; Roy Andrew Miller, Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1971) and Origins of the Japanese Language: Lectures in Japan During the Academic Year 1977–78 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1980); and Timothy J. Vance, An Introduction to Japanese Phonology, from SUNY Series in Linguistics, ed. by Mark R. Aronoff (Albany: State University of New York, 1987).
87 David Adams, A Handbook of Diction for Singers: Italian, German, French, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008); John Moriarty, Diction: Italian, Latin, French, German; The Sounds and Eighty-one Exercises for Singing Them, 2nd ed. (Boston: E.C. Schirmer Music Company, 1975); and Joan Wall, Robert Caldwell, Tracy Gavilanes, and Sheila Allen, Diction for Singers: A Concise Reference for English, Italian, Latin, German, French, and Spanish Pronunciation (Dallas, TX: Pst…Inc., 1990).
both of which appear for Sohmon III in Appendix A. This is the reason why I have chosen to skip an extensive discussion of the three Japanese scripts and have not included a guide to kana and kanji symbols.
In the following pages, Romaji transcriptions are italicized. Transcriptions in IPA are surrounded by front slashes or brackets; front slashes surround phonemes and brackets highlight transcriptions of everything from single phonetic syllables to complex phrase groupings, which may be mulitple words in length. The guide begins by explaining rules of syllabification and stress. After a brief explanation of the Japanese alphabets, the guide discusses rules of diction and pronunciation for vowel and consonant sounds, with examples from Sohmon III texts. The discussion of vowels provides information on vowel quality and length, including double length vowels and glides, as well as the unique semi-vowels. The section on consonants discusses several challenging consonant sounds that appear in the song text of Sohmon III.
Syllabification
There is no need to denote syllabification in hiragana, as every symbol consists of a single syllable. In Romaji, syllabification sometimes appears in printed text in order to link a particle to its modifier. For example, in his translation of the Sohmon III narration, Selby uses hyphens to link the particle, no, to proper names and titles, as in Nukata-no- kimi. Other times,
Romaji transcriptions appear without the use of hyphens, creating long multi-syllabic words that can be cumbersome to the Western eye. The sung lyrics of Sohmon III display syllabification by standard rules. Within a word, single consonants are always linked to the adjacent, following vowel, while double consonants are divided into syllables between consonants. In Romaji, syllabification is essential, as it denotes complex vowel groups—such as glides and double
vowels—from independent adjacent vowels. For example in poem I: 21, the word for beautiful,
“nioeru,” appears as ni-o-e-ru when properly syllabified.
Pitch Accent Stress
As syllabic stress does not exist in spoken Japanese, both literary context and pitch accent stress provide the necessary means for differentiating its many homonyms. Furthermore, pitch accent stress helps to provide an aural means of grouping multi-syllabic words into single units, as syllabic stress does in Italian.
In his dissertation on lyric diction for native Japanese speakers, Minoru Yamada explains the importance of pitch accent stress. “Generally in a two-syllable word, when the pitch reverses, the meaning changes, e.g. the word kami means God when the /ka/ is higher, but means paper when lower.”88 Although pitch accent stress does not present a great diction challenge for the singer, Miki demonstrates his sensitivity to stress and meaning in his musical setting of homonyms that appear in the poetry of Sohmon III. For example, the word yuki—a homonym discussed in the earlier poetic analysis of Akane sasu—means “snow” when the first syllable,
“yu,” is higher, with the pitch descending to the second syllable, “ki.” When the second syllable,
“ki,” is higher in pitch than the first, the word means “field” and Miki’s setting of the word
“yuki” features an ascending interval from the first to the second syllable of the word “yuki,” reflecting the pitch accent stress associated with the word’s meaning.
88 Minoru Yamada, “A Manual of Japanese Diction for Native Singers of Music in the European Tradition” (EdD diss., Columbia University Teachers College, 1978), 34–35.
The Japanese Alphabets
There are three alphabets used in written Japanese. Hiragana and katakana, are indigenous phonetic alphabets and kanji is an ideographic alphabet that was imported from
China. While there are over 3,000–5,000 kanji characters used in written Japanese, the kana are phonetic alphabets, each consisting of forty-six symbols. Written Japanese combines all three alphabet and both kanji and hiragana appear in the manuscript version of Sohmon III, while katakana does not appear. One can think of hiragana as the cursive script to katakana’s block print; however, in modern Japanese, the differences in script determine word origin, rather than showing the level of formality of written communication. For instance, katakana most commonly transcribes words of foreign origin into Japanese, which is why it is not used in the texts of Sohmon III. The Romaji alphabet first appeared during the post-Meiji Era and was devised by American missionary Charles Hepburn as a pedagogical tool to assist Western students of Japanese not yet literate in kana and kanji.89
Diacritical Marks
Diacritical marks are symbols used in the kana alphabets to expand the number of phonetic sounds available without creating additional individual kana symbols for each sound.
Because all of the consonant sounds, with the exception of n, are linked to one of the existing five vowel phonemes, kana contains a large number of symbols in relation to the number of sounds that result from their available phonetic combinations. The kana system has devised the addition of diacritical marks to the script of the alphabet to denote changes in pronunciation,
89 Fiordo, “General Semantics,” 372.
such as the voicing and devoicing of consonant sounds, as well as the lengthening of vowel sounds. Subscript kana are used to denote vowel glides and to imply consonant doubling.
In Romaji, most of these symbols are conveyed through their spelling in transcription. All of the symbols used to voice and devoice kana consonants already exist in the Roman alphabet
(b, d, g, j, p, z). In transcription, vowel glides are conveyed with the addition of a “y” between the consonant and the vowel. Except in the case of foreign words, vowel glides only appear in combination with the vowels a, u, and o. In transcription, consonant doubling is reproduced, as expected, by repeating the stopped consonant in its Romaji spelling. The only diacritical symbol imitated in Romaji is the long mark; although the spelling of double-length vowels in Romaji is not standardized, most publications now use a macron set over the doubled vowel to show its length. The Sohmon III score also uses the method of following the double-length vowel with an
“h” to show lengthening, as in “Sohmon.”
Phonetics and Diction
When compared with other languages, Japanese has a fairly limited inventory of phonetic sounds. The Japanese language is characterized by the prominence of its vowel sounds. There are five vowels—transcribed as a, i, u, e, and o in Romaji—that occur in spoken Japanese. These vowels may stand alone as independent phonetic sounds or they may link consonants to create new phonetic syllables. Table 2.2 shows the Romaji transcription of the Japanese kana alphabet in normal order. Vowels and semi-vowels appear in shaded boxes. Single kana symbols that carry more than one pronunciation are grouped into a single box with the root pronunciation capitalized. Because all but one consonant is linked to a vowel, Japanese is nearly devoid complex phonetic structures, such as initial consonant clusters. It is even rare for multiple
consonant sounds to appear within a single syllable. One exception occurs when the syllable concludes with the independent consonant sound, n, as in the second syllable of the word s mon.
Vowels and Semi-Vowels
As mentioned above, there are five vowel sounds in Japanese. The Japanese normal order of vowels, demonstrated in Table 2.2, does not follow the standard sequence of vowels familiar to the classically trained singer, /i, e, a, o, u/. The Romaji sequence of vowels, a-i-u-e-o, is transcribed in IPA as /a, i, u, , o/. The Japanese vowels e and o are open. This IPA transcription uses the closed o-vowel, /o/, because its pronunciation in Japanese lies somewhere between the closed and open versions standard to European lyric diction. In Japanese, u and o are produced with much less lip-rounding than in standard rules of lyric diction. This may present some technical challenges in Sohmon III’s high range excerpts, which rely heavily upon the u vowel.
The sounds /o/ and /u/ should only be produced without the rounding of the lips, if the singer can do so comfortably.
Semi-vowels occur when a glide precedes a vowel within a single syllable. There are four natural semi-vowels in the kana alphabet: ya, yu, yo, and wa. Three of the four alphabetic semi- vowels are initiated with a /j/ semi-vowel and one is initiated by a /w/ semi-vowel. In Table 2.2, semi-vowels are shaded in the same manner as the alphabet’s five primary vowels. The kana letter wo appears in parentheses because its semi-vowel, /w/, is silent. Although there are some exceptions in historical dialects, in standard speech, wo is identical to the vowel o, both being pronounced as /o/.
Table 2.2: Romaji Transcription of Japanese Phonetic Alphabet in Normal Order a i u e o
SA/za SHI/ji SU/zu SU/ze SO/zo
TA/da CHI/ji TZU/zu TE/de TO/do
HA/ba/pa HI/bi/pi FU/bu/pu HE/be/pe HO/bo/po
ya yu yo
wa (wo)
N/m
When reading in kana, singers must be aware of situational semi-vowels, which usually appear as a /j/ semi-vowel that is inserted between adjacent vowel sounds. For example, i-e may be pronounced as [ij] or [j]. In Romaji, such exceptions are often spelled out by their pronunciation, ye, rather than by their literal transcription, ie. Sohmon III includes the instance of a situational semi-vowel that is not respelled with a y+vowel in Romaji transcription. In the second line of the poem Murasaki no, a /j/ semi-vowel develops between consecutive vowels in the word “nioeru,” which is pronounced as [nijoru].
Yamada also discusses the insertion of semi-vowels for dramatic and syllabic emphases when singing.90 He believes that, especially in sung Japanese, the singer may decide to alter the pronunciation of repeated /o/ sounds by inserting semi-vowels and directs singers to “use the
90 Yamada explains to use the semi-vowel /j/ “when the flavor of antiquity is suggested or required by the lyric.” See Yamada, “A Manual of Japanese Diction,” 71.
semi-vowel /w/ to differentiate a vowel sound repeated at the same pitch.”91 Once again, the second line of Murasaki no provides an opportunity for a dramatic insertion of the semi-vowel.
The line ends with the particle “wo,” which is usually pronounced as [o]. The word that directly precedes it, “imo,” ends with the same vowel sound and is pronounced as [imo]. In order to emphasize the change in syllable between the two /o/ vowels, the narrator may treat the particle as a semi-vowel in context, pronouncing the phrase as [imowo]. Ultimately, semi-vowel substitution is an artistic decision in this case and it is equally correct to read the phrase as
[imo:], with a double length /o/ vowel.
Inter-Syllabic Glides
Because of the category of the semi-vowel, glides have a much narrower definition in
Japanese pronunciation than they do in standard singers’ diction. In Japanese diction, nearly every syllable that begins with a glide is considered a semi-vowel, rather than as a glide linked to an independent vowel sound. Glides are defined by their internal location in syllables. In kana, vowel glides are denoted by a subscript semi-vowel symbol that follows a normal kana letter. In pronunciation, this means that the /j/-glide is inserted between the consonant and vowel sounds of a kana syllable. Glides cannot be combined with syllables that include /i/ or /o/ vowels. Table
2.3 lists the multiple kana spellings (in Romaji transcription) for the eleven consonant glides that result from the insertion of subscript semi-vowels.
91 Ibid.
Table 2.3: Inter-Syllabic Glides a i u e o
KYA/gya KYU/gyu KYO/gyo
SHA/jya SHU/jyu SHO/jyo
CHA/gya CHU/gyu CHO/gyo
NYA NYU NYO
HYA/bya/pya (FU)/byu/pyu HYO/byo/pyo
MYA MYU MYO
RYA RYU RYO
Double Length Vowels
Double length vowels are aptly named, as they double the amount of time a vowel sound occupies in speech. In kana and kanji, double length vowels can be difficult to pronounce properly due to their varied spellings and they are often used to differentiate homonyms in written and spoken Japanese. For instance the prefix for large, , is doubled in length as [o:] for purposes of definition from other words that begin with the same vowel sound. Similarly, the only thing differentiating the word for grandmother, ok san, from the word for aunt, okasan, is a double length vowel . Occasionally, vowel lengthening is also used for emphasis, using length to draw attention to the most important syllables of a phrase or of a sentence. In Romaji, it is easy to differentiate double length vowels from adjacent vowel repetition, as long as vowel lengthening is transcribed using a macron over the vowel, as in s mon, or with an h following the vowel, as in Sohmon. Most Western speakers tend to accompany vowel lengthening with syllabic stress and should take extra care not to do so. In IPA transcription, double length vowels are transcribed with a colon, as in [so:mon].
Vowel Devocalization
The high frequency of vowels in the Japanese language is matched by a nearly equal frequency of final syllables that end with vowels. In certain cases in Japanese speech, the final u vowel is devocalized, effectively ending the word on a consonant and Minoru Yamada describes this as the “elimination of vowel sounds.”92 Apocopation is the most common type of vowel devocalization that occurs in spoken Japanese, despite the fact that there are no instances of apocopation in the text of Sohmon III.
An alternate type of vowel devocalization results from the appearance of “silent” vowels.
Although i, u and o can all appear as “silent” vowels, devocalization happens most frequently when an i-vowel sound appears in the first syllable of a word. In the case the “silent” i-vowel, the vowel is preceded and followed by unvoiced consonant sounds, effectively devocalizing the vowel that they surround. Unfortunately, Romaji does not accommodate vowel devocalization in its transcriptions and words affected by vowel devocalization are not spelled out according to their changes in pronunciation. Linguistics expert Richard Fiordo is critical of this aspect of
Romaji, as the students most reliant on transcribed Japanese are also the ones who are least likely to recognize silent i and u vowels, increasing their possibility of mispronunciation and, resolutely, inadvertently changing the meaning of words.93
The Sohmon III poetry contains two examples of vowel devocalization in Murasaki no, a silent u vowel and a silent i vowel. The silent u vowel appears in the third line of the poem. In the word nikuku, the final u is dropped in order to retain the five-syllable structure of the line, nikuku araba. Therefore rather than pronouncing both the final vowel of nikuku and the initial
92 Ibid., 65–67.
93 Fiordo, “General Semantics,” 376–77.
vowel of araba, the words are elided together and pronounced as [nikuk:araba]. The silent i vowel appears in the initial syllable of the word “hitozuma,” which begins the fourth line of the poem. The silent i vowel creates an elision between the first kana syllable, /çi/, and the second kana syllable, /to/, and results in a sound initiated by a consonant cluster, /ç:t/. Based on the rules of vowel devocalization, hitozuma is properly pronounced as [ç:tozuma], with the initial doubling of the consonant sound /ç/ meant to retain the seven syllable design of the poetic line
“hi-to-zu-ma yu-e ni” as /ç:-to-zu-ma yu- ni/.
Consonants and Consonant Doubling
Like Italian consonants, Japanese consonants are articulated further forward than
American consonants and should also be more dentalized than they are in English. Generally, consonant sounds should remain as brief as possible, but there are three potential instances of more sustained consonant sounds: 1) in the instance of consonant doubling; 2) in the instance of a consonant that precedes a devocalized vowel, as mentioned; or 3) in the instance of a final consonant. As Table 2.3 demonstrates, the unvoiced consonant sounds /k, s and t/ become voiced through the application of diacritical symbols to their kana. The sound /k/ is linked to /g/, /s/ is linked to /z/ and so forth. The /h/-based sounds—ha, hi, fu, he and ho—are related to the labial
/b/ or the plosive /p/, depending upon the diacritical symbol that follows their kana in superscript.
Table 2.4 lists all consonant phonemes existing in the Japanese language, following
Minoru Yamada’s classification of consonants by place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing. Although there are no instances in Sohmon III, doubled consonants do occur in
Japanese. In Romaji transcription, doubled consonants are reproduced sensibly, repeating the
consonant in spelling. In kana, consonant doubling results when a subscript letter tsu separates two syllables, doubling the consonant sound that follows the tsu in subscript.
Table 2.4: Consonant Phonemes in IPA as Classified by Articulation and Voicing94 Place of Articulation Bilabial /p, b, m, w, / Tongue (tip) to alveolar /n/ Tongue (blade) to alveolar /s, z, t, d, r/ Pre-dorsum to alveolar /, , , /
Pre-dorsum to alveolo-palatal // Mid-dorsum to palatal /ç, j/ Post-dorsum to velum /k, g, / Laryngeal /h/ Manner of Articulation Constrictive (fricative) /, , s, h, ç, z, w, j/ Plosive /b, d, g, p, t, k/ Affricative /, , / Nasal / , m, n/ Tapped /r/ Voicing Voiced /z, w, j, b, d, g, , m, n, , r/ Unvoiced /, , s, ç, h, p, t, k, , /
Common Mistakes in Consonant Pronunciation
It is common for native speakers of American English to over-aspirate the consonant sounds /k/, /s/, /t/, and /p/, separating them from their associated vowels. “In general Japanese people are not accustomed to make clear distinctions between vowel and consonant” because
94 The contents of this table are based on Yamada’s classification. See Yamada, “A Manual of Japanese Diction,” 75–76.
they are thought of as single units, exemplified through the kana writing system.95 Singers may also find it difficult to keep from voicing unvoiced, intervocalic consonants and they should take extra care when pronouncing the intervocalic /s/, not to produce the voiced /z/ out of habit.
Several consonant sounds are particularly difficult for those who are not native speakers of
Japanese, as they do not exist in American English. These sounds include fu and the r-based syllables, both in normal form and in combination with inter-syllabic glides.
Unique Consonant Sounds: /u/, /tsu/, /r/, and /rj/
Fu, or /u/, appears several times in the text of Sohmon III, so mastering its accurate pronunciation is crucial. Important words to practice from Sohmon III poems include furu [uru], from the poem Akane sasu, and fuku [uku], from the poem Kimi matsu to. Although transcribed as an f-based consonant sound in Romaji, this u-vowel sound belongs to the series of h-based syllables ha, hi, fu, he and ho. For the novice, it may be helpful to think of the // consonant sound as being a combination between /f/ and /h/. Singers may practice correct pronunciation of
[u] using the following methods: 1) the singer can concentrate on creating an /f/ sound without drawing the upper-teeth to the lower lip; or 2) the singer can imagine the sensation of blowing out a candle while practicing the /f/ sound through the Japanese /u/ vowel, which does not use lip rounding. Minoru Yamada compares // to the consonant sound in the word “hood” and [u] may be found by alternately pronouncing the word hood with open and closed u vowels.96
95 Ibid., 73.
96 Ibid., 105.
Minoru Yamada also argues that, for practical purposes when singing, [fu] is an acceptable pronunciation of fu.97
The consonant syllable tsu is in the /t/-based family of sounds. Experienced singers will be comfortable with the sound, /ts/, from the German language. However, in Japanese the /ts/ consonant sound always appears in combination with the /u/ vowel, as in /tsu/. On occasion, the u vowel is silent and results in devoicing, as is the case in the word for cross, batsu, which is pronounced [bats:]. The /tsu/ sound appears in the opening line of poem IV: 488 in the word, matsu. The opening line, Kimi matsu to, is pronounced as [kimi matsu to] when sung. The u is not silent in this case, as Miki’s text setting supports.
Table 2.5: Words from Sohmon III Poetry that Contain /r/ POEM ROMAJI TRANSCRIPTION IPA TRANSCRIPTION I:20 murasaki [murasaki]
nomori [nomori]
furu [uru]
I:21 murasaki [murasaki]
nioeru [nijoru]
araba [araba]
ware [war]
IV:488 koioreba [koijorba]
sudare [sudar]
The r-based syllables include the primary sounds: ra, ri, ru, re, and ro. Three of these kana can be combined with the subscript semi-vowels—ya, yu, and yo—producing three glides:
97 Ibid., 106.
rya, ryu, ryo. In its original presentation, the /r/-based syllables are similar to the flipped /r/ in combination with the sound of an Italian style /l/. This is also known as the “tapped r.”98 In
Sohmon III, the /r/ sound is more approachable to the Western tongue because it never appears in the first syllable of a word or phrase. Singers should approach words listed in Table 2.5 in a fashion similar to the Italian intervocalic flipped /r/. When /r/ is combined with an inter-syllabic glide, it becomes palatalized, melding aspects of the /rj/ sound with that of /d/. The /rj/ sounds are the most difficult for Westerners to master, but, luckily, there are no words that include this inter-syllabic consonant glide in the text of Sohmon III.
The Independent Consonant: n
The only independent consonant sound from the kana alphabet, n, has the greatest variety in pronunciation of any kana syllable. Depending upon context, n can be pronounced as: /n/, /m/ or / /. It is also unique as /n/ is the only consonant sound that can appear at the end of a syllable or phrase. Although the n-based vowel kana appear in Sohmon III, there are no instances of the kana symbol n.
98 Ibid., 75.
CHAPTER 3: MUSIC
Introduction
This chapter discusses musical topics focusing on the influence of traditional Japanese musical styles upon Miki’s Sohmon III. The first section begins by describing the form and structure of Sohmon III and then compares it with the formal designs of traditional Japanese repertoire, as described by koto specialist Bonnie C. Wade and Japanese music scholar
William P. Malm. The music of Sohmon III, as well as the traditional Japanese musical genres, shows influence from Japanese aesthetics and religion. The influence of Buddhism and aesthetic values, for example, is described as it affects Japanese music in general, as well as how Miki’s work reflects it. The following sections introduce and describe Japanese musical forms, song types and vocal performance practices while the musical examples drawn from Sohmon III specify and demonstrate such influences in detail. The chapter closes by contextualizing Miki’s concept of multi-ethnic mixture, or konketsu, in theories of intercultural synthesis and musical fusion by musicologists Yayoi Uno Everett and Anthony J. Palmer, respectively.
Sohmon III: Understanding the Music
Form and Structure in Sohmon III
Generally, when considering the structure of Sohmon III, three primary types of contrasting music appear throughout the composition. These types, or units, include: 1) periods of spoken narration accompanied by a solo instrument; 2) sections of sung poetry paired with instrumental accompaniment by the marimba, piano, or both together; and 3) instrumental
interludes. The three units appear in alternation throughout the duration of Miki’s composition.
Table 3.1: Alternation of Narrative, Sung, and Instrumental Units in Sohmon III
99 UNIT LOCATION TEMPO VOCALIZATION INSTRUMENTATION Narration I p. 1–2 =64 spoken M ostinato
Akane sasu A p. 2–3, r. 1 =60 lyrical P accompaniment
Narration II p. 3, r. 2 =64 spoken M ostinato
Instrumental interlude p. 3–4, r. 3 =60 tacit M/P
Akane sasu B p. 4–5, r. 4 =48 declamatory M/P
Instrumental interlude p. 5–6, r. 5 =65 tacit M/P
Akane sasu C p. 6–7, r. 6 = 72 lyrical/dramatic P accompaniment
Instrumental interlude p. 8–9, r.7–8 =96/112 transition then tacit M solo; M/P
Akane sasu D p. 9–10, r. 9 =80 lyrical P and M accompaniment
Transition; p. 10–12, =120/144 fragment then tacit M/P Instrumental interlude r. 10–12 Akane sasu Cadenza p. 13, r. 13 freely vocal cadenza tacit Transition; p. 13–17, =144 transition then tacit M/P Instrumental interlude r. 14–17 Akane sasu A p. 18, r. 18 =44 lyrical M transition P accompaniment Narration III p. 19, r. 19 =112 spoken M ostinato then M transition Kimi matsu to A p. 19–20, r. 20 =112 declamatory M/P then M transition Kimi matsu to B p. 20–22, r. 21 =48 lyrical/dramatic M/P
Instrumental interlude p. 22–23, r. 22 =48 tacit P/M
Kimi matsu to C p. 23–24, r. 23 =53 lyrical P/M Narration IV p. 24, r. 24 spoken P ostinato Instrumental Postlude p. 25 tacit M/P
99 Miki, Sohmon III (Go Fish).
Table 3.1 shows the alternation between these units, with sung portions shaded. The second column catalogues the location of each section by page and rehearsal number. The remaining columns provide descriptive information about the unit identified in the left two columns, which include tempo, type of vocalization and instrumentation. “M” and “P” signify marimba and piano, respectively.
The sections of spoken narration are supported musically with instrumental ostinati. The first three narrative sections are accompanied by marimba and the fourth narration is accompanied by piano. In Narration I and Narration II, the marimba ostinato is replicated identically. Example 1 shows the marimba ostinato.
Example 1: First Two Instances of Marimba Ostinato, m. 1100
The accompaniment to Narration III differs slightly from the original marimba ostinato, as it begins at a lower pitch level and then modulates in an upward pattern twice, as is visible in
Example 2. This adjustment adds to the atmospheric intensity of the section and, when combined with the final measure’s quick ascending line and an accelerando, the marimba effectively moves the music forward into the first setting of Kimi matsu to. The final section, Narration IV, is
100 All musical examples used by permission of publisher. Miki, Sohmon III (Go Fish Music), p. 1.
accompanied by a piano ostinato. This piano line first appears as an instrumental interlude preceding Kimi matsu to C (Example 3).
Example 2: Marimba Ostinato in Narration III, mm. 1–2101
Example 3: Piano Accompaniment to Narration IV, mm. 5–7102
101 Ibid., p. 19.
102 Ibid., p. 22.
As Table 3.1 shows, in addition to speaking, the soprano demonstrates a variety of vocalism in the sung sections of Sohmon III. Most often, the sung styles alternate between lyrical and declamatory singing. The sung sections that employ a lyrical style are characterized by their strong melodic character, rhythmic regularity and continuous instrumental accompaniment, as shown in Example 4.
Example 4: Lyrical Style of Singing, mm. 4–6103
Example 5a: Declamatory Style of Singing: Repeated Pitches, m. 7104
The declamatory sections are characterized by the monotonous repetition of pitches
(Example 5a) in combination with instances of more angular phrase shapes that exhibit initial ascending intervallic leaps (see Example 5b). Miki sets the declamatory vocal sections in a rhythmically free manner. This is shown through Miki’s special method of notation. There is no time signature. The most rhythmically free sections of the vocal line are notated with obscurity,
103 Ibid., p. 2.
104 Ibid., p. 4.
and duration is communicated visually with the aid of long horizontal lines. Instrumental interjections appear between sung phrases as its accompaniment. The vertical, hash-marked lines that run between the vocal and piano lines give a sense of location and duration of the accompanying piano interjections without specifying their exact rhythmic locations, as shown in
Example 5c.
Example 5b: Declamatory Vocal Style: Initial Ascending Interval, m. 1105
Example 5c: Special Notation of Piano Interjections, m. 3106
In Table 3.1, two of the vocal units, Akane sasu C and Kimi matsu to B, are labeled as
“lyrical/dramatic.” These two sections differ from those in the lyrical and declamatory categories, because of unique features that set them apart. These differences include the application of extreme dynamic contrasts, the use of wide vocal ranges and the appearance of long melismas, identified by a series of at least six pitches sung on a single syllable of text. Table
105 Ibid., p. 5.
106 Ibid., p. 5.
3.2 categorizes the descriptive features of the two lyrical/dramatic vocal units, Akane sasu C and
Kimi matsu to B.
Table 3.2: Features of Two Lyrical/Dramatic Units: Akane sasu C and Kimi matsu to B
Akane sasu C, p. 6–7, r. 6 Kimi matsu to B, p. 20–22, r. 21 Length 17 measures 13 measures Meter/Tempo 4/4, =72 4/4; 6/4; 3/4; 4/4; 6/4, =48 Vocal Range E4–A5 F4–Ab5 Dynamic Scheme begins and ends f; begins f and ends p; includes 4 rapid cresc. from p to f includes messa di voce, rapid decresc. From f and rapid cresc. from p to f Melismas five instances of long melismas two long melismas Melody diatonic, lyrical vocal melody; begins with declamatory symmetrical phrasing then moves to lyrical melody Accompaniment P accompaniment, continuous begins with P interjections; accompaniment texture; changes to continuous P. accompaniment some melodic doubling w/ M interjections
Influences from Japanese Aesthetics and Religion
The cultural difference in the approach to and perception of time in traditional Japanese music provides a clear example of some of the general aesthetic differences that set it apart from music of the Western tradition. The Japanese approach to music is influenced by broader concepts of beauty in Japanese culture. In the Foreword to his book, entitled Composing for
Japanese Instruments, Miki discusses the influence of Zen Buddhism upon rhythm in traditional
Japanese music. He explains the concept of free meter as follows: “the space between one note and the next is not considered a ‘rest,’ but rather an important space containing the absence of
sound.”107 The absence of sound, or ma, informs the pacing of phrases and sections in both the traditional Japanese vocal genres as well as in the compositions of contemporary Japanese composers.
This relates to the concept of emptiness, or sunyata, from the philosophy of Zen
Buddhism.108 Zen scholar Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki explains that in Buddhist philosophy, emptiness carries a “positive connotation,” rather than a negative one.109 Emptiness, the lack of tangible experiences in daily life, creates a space for reflection and an opportunity to appreciate experiences in their absence. In a similar fashion, ma is an essential “non-event” in the temporality of traditional Japanese music. Malm calls ma the “hidden aspect of time in Japanese music.”110 He draws attention to the fact that, because ma is not notated while being so integrated into the music, the Western listener may not be aware of its existence. To the trained ear, however, these points of silence provide space to confirm the music that surrounds them, just as sunyata provides the Buddhist with the opportunity to confirm the experiences of his daily life.
In his compositional guide, Miki goes on to explain the primary instruments used in traditional music. He views the individual instrumental timbres and popular textures as a reflection of nature: “Imitating the sounds of Japan’s natural environment is a fundamental precept in composition and performance. The non-musical sounds produced by the instruments are also considered an integral part of the music.”111 Miki is referring to wabi-sabi, the aesthetic
107 Miki, Composing for Japanese Instruments, ed. by Phillip Flavin, trans. by Marty Regan (New York: University of Rochester Press, 2008), 3.
108 Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, “Chapter 4: Reason and Intuition in Buddhist Philosophy (1951),” in Studies in Zen, ed. by Christmas Humphreys (New York: Dell Publishing Co., Inc., 1955), 117.
109 Ibid.
110 Malm, Six Hidden Views of Japanese Music (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 43.
concept of rusticity that equates beauty with simplicity, perishability, asymmetry, and unobtrusiveness. As a result, the timbral preference of traditional Japanese music differs from the
Western ideal of a resonant tone. According to Miki, wabi-sabi puts value upon muted and unobtrusive tones.112 Traditional Japanese music also reflects the wabi-sabi quality of simplicity in its preference for transparent accompaniment textures.
Asymmetry is another aesthetic feature that permeates the approach to rhythmic structure in traditional Japanese music. Malm calls this the “sliding-doors effect.”113 In a traditional
Japanese composition, it is common for the individual parts within an ensemble work to operate in rhythmic independence from each other. Each part operates at its own pace of rhythmic phrasing, which Malm describes as “sliding,” and exhibits a phrase structure independent from its accompanying parts, which Malm describes as “disjunct.”114 He believes that these are among
“the hidden devices that contribute to the sense of forward motion in time” so essential to the
Japanese temporal aesthetic.115
To explain the Japanese concept of musical structure and the relationship that exists between the rhythmic phrases of concurrent musical lines, Malm likens the independent musical parts to the rice paper sliding doors found in traditional Japanese architecture. In the “sliding- door effect,” Malm writes, “If there are two or more doors in a frame, each has a specific size and each has a track parallel to that of the other doors. However, when doors move along their tracks they may start from different positions. They usually come to an equal, parallel position
111 Miki, Composing, 3.
112 Ibid., 4.
113 Malm, Six Hidden Views, 42.
114 Ibid.
115 Ibid., 43.
only at the end of the track.”116 Likewise, each independent musical line has a specific “size” and runs parallel to the lines that surround it within a musical composition. Although individual musical lines may start at “different positions,” in heterophony and rhythmic disjunction, they eventually come together into rhythmic synchronization, or “equal, parallel position” on Malm’s sliding-door track. There is a structural importance to this coming together as it only happens “at the end of the track,” as Malm says, or the close of major sections within a composition.
Effectively, the synchronized rhythmic ending is as important to defining structure in Japanese music as the cadence is in Western music.
Influences from Japanese Musical Structure
One of the primary structural features of traditional Japanese music is that it is through- composed, open form. Malm describes this as an emphasis on the experiential in Japanese art music, “where a piece moves forward without repeating or developing previous themes.”117
Several different types of traditional Japanese music exhibit influence upon the structure and formal design of Sohmon III. These influences come both from the instrumental genre of gagaku, as well as the vocal genres of jiuta and nagauta, which are accompanied by koto or shamisen.
Gagaku is a type of instrumental ensemble music, somewhat unrelated to the vocal chamber music tradition in Japan and far too complex to describe adequately within the scope of this paper. Rather than attempting to summarize the many complexities of gagaku music in a few paragraphs, this paper will focus upon its major contribution to the world of traditional Japanese music: the jo-ha-ky structure. Malm describes jo-ha-ky as a compositional “concept,” where
116 Ibid., 42–43.
117 Malm, Traditional Japanese Music, 275.
“Jo means the introduction, ha is the breaking apart or exposition, and ky is the rushing to the finish, or the denouement.”118 The tempo increases between each section, from slow to moderate to fast. The jo-ha-ky structure permeates Japanese traditional music on all levels and Malm compares it “to the tenacity with which the binary theory of question and answer or arsis and thesis dominates Western music.”119 Similarly, jo-ha-ky can occur on a large scale, defining the overall structure of a work, and a small scale, creating forward motion within a section of a larger composition, concurrently. Malm argues that over time, jo-ha-ky “came to be applied to both the entire composition and to individual phrases.”120 In this sense, jo-ha-ky acts dually, as both a formal structural device and as a tempo marking. Its musical influence is prolific, as jo- ha-ky permeates the many solo song styles that developed during the seventeenth- and eighteenth-centuries, with the rising popularity of the koto and shamisen as vocal accompanying instruments.
Katarimono and utamono, or the narrative and lyrical styles, divide shamisen song repertoire in two. Malm describes the many types of jiuta or utamono, lyrical shamisen songs in his book Traditional Japanese Music and Japanese Musical Instruments and dedicates an entire book to the genre of nagauta, or lyrical long song, written for shamisen accompaniment.121 Jiuta are through-composed songs, in which sung passages alternate with instrumental interludes, performed by shamisen and koto, either in ensemble together or featuring one instrument alone.
The longest and most substantial of these interludes, called the tegoto, is located in the center of
118 Ibid., 115.
119 Ibid., 116.
120 Ibid.
121 Malm, “Chapter Eight: The Shamisen and Its Music,” in Traditional Japanese Music, 213–238; and Malm, Nagauta.
the piece. For this reason, jiuta songs are also called tegotomono.122 The basic tripartite form consists of an opening song [maeuta], followed by the tegoto, and concludes with the closing song [atouta]. Malm explains that over time, the three-part structure of the jiuta increased in length and relative complexity, eventually expanding into “a six-part form: introduction-song- tegoto-song-tegoto-song.”123
In Tegotomono, Bonnie C. Wade discusses the canon of jiuta repertoire for voice and koto at length. She discusses the musical subsections of the primary central tegoto interlude and catalogues its major structural features through an examination of various jiuta compositions.
Although specific tegoto interludes vary greatly from piece to piece, Wade concludes that the main body of the tegoto may be divided into subsections, or dan. Most often, these “subdivisions begin with a clear melodic statement of the pitch hierarchy.”124 The main body of the tegoto is often surrounded by introductory and concluding instrumental material. The transitions that lead into the main interlude are called the makura or the mae-jirashi [pillow or pre-scattering] and are not obligatory. The concluding material, called the hon-chirashi [or true scattering], consistently appears “as a final climax to the section.”125
The shorter instrumental interludes, also known as ai no te, can be imitative and are often expressive and descriptive, as Malm explains. “Many of them are clever imitations of other styles of music, representations of weather conditions or famous places, or even natural sounds.”126 Wade describes ai no te essentially by its function as a musical transition between
122 Malm, Traditional Japanese Music, 208.
123 Ibid., 209.
124 Wade, Tegotomono,141.
125 Ibid., 105.
sections; “occasionally, an ai no te shifts the focus from the primary pitch on which a preceding phrase ended to the different primary pitch on which the next phrase begins.”127
In jiuta song form, there is a gradual acceleration across sections, from slow to medium to fast, referencing the popular jo-ha-ky structural device. These tempo increases are not traditionally notated in jiuta scores, but have become a part of performance practice over the decades and do appear in some modern publications. The transition between sections of the jo- ha-ky temporal scheme is usually initiated during instrumental interludes and often culminates at the end of the central tegoto part with a grand pause, a percussive roll or the quick succession of both the pause and the roll.
Nagauta is a through-composed song form popularized in kabuki theater. Malm dedicates an entire book to his description and analysis of the genre; in it, he explains that nagauta “does not use specific first or second themes that need to be developed throughout the piece.”128 As in jiuta, the music is through composed and changes based on the content and form of the song text.
The nagauta is the kabuki theater’s equivalent to the operatic scena, and it is divided into six standard musical sections determined by the structure and subject matter of the story. These sections are listed and described by musical and dramatic function in Table 3.3. According to
Malm, “there are general repertory-wide conventional melodic styles and orchestrations that help one to recognize a specific moment [or structural section] in the music.”129 The longest and most substantial of the nagauta’s six sections is the odoriji, or the instrumental dance interlude, located in the center of the piece, and it reflects the jiuta’s central tegoto in a number of ways.
126 Malm, Traditional Japanese Music, 236.
127 Wade, Tegotomono, 101.
128 Malm, Nagauta, 232.
129 Ibid.
Table 3.3: The Relationship of Six-Part Nagauta Form to Jo-ha-ky Structure
Jo Ha Ky oki michiyuki kudoki odoriji chirashi dangire
tsunagi-transition finale with “scattering,” recitative, instrumental concluding soft, lyrical long accel., texture declamatory interlude musical song instrumental thickens gesture
Musical Musical description w/shamisen interlude
introduction of scene before actor’s stage plot material actor dances on stage; theatrical scene stage action entrance ensues ensemble response concludes begins Dramatic description
Not surprisingly, the concept of jo-ha-ky is also reflected in nagauta; there are two major increases in tempo across its six musical sections. As in jiuta, the tempo increases that result from jo-ha-ky are a result of performance practice, not notation. In contrast with jiuta, jo- ha-ky accelerations are initiated between the grouped pairs, rather than during instrumental interludes. This is due to the fact that instrumental breaks occur more frequently in jiuta than they do in nagauta. Based on the jo-ha-ky pattern of acceleration, the six-part nagauta form becomes a compound three-part structure. Each of the six individual sections of the nagauta fuse into paired groups, based on consistency in temporal scheme, and the three-part jo-ha-ky form encompasses the six sections of nagauta design (Table 3.3).
The tempo markings of some of the adjacent the units of Sohmon III (Table 3.1), relate to each other strategically in gradual acceleration. According to the concept of jo-ha-ky , there are two substantial unit groupings that appear in Sohmon III. The groupings that imitate jo-ha-ky structure are exhibited in Table 3.4 and are labeled Section I and Section II. Section I shows a gradually quickening speed and an instrumental interlude culminating with a roll. Section II
demonstrates a similar acceleration across musical units and, despite the interruption of the vocal cadenza, concludes with a fast instrumental section followed by a grand pause.
Table 3.4: Jo-ha-ky Structure in Two Subsections of Sohmon III
SECTION I SUB-SECTION LOCATION TEMPO
jo Akane sasu B p. 4–5, r. 4 =48
Instrumental interlude p. 5–6, r. 5 =65
ha Akane sasu C p. 6–7, r. 6 = 72
Marimba solo p. 8, r.7 =96, più mosso
ky Instrumental interlude p. 8–9, r. 7 (second system)–8 =112, accel.
Vocal transition p. 9, r. 8 Roll “Cadential figure” p. 9, r. 8 (second system) rit.
SECTION II SUB-SECTION LOCATION TEMPO jo Akane sasu D p. 9–10, r. 9 =80 ha Transition p. 10–12, r. 10–12 =120 ky Instrumental interlude =144
Vocal cadenza p. 13, r. 13 freely ky Instrumental interlude p. 13–17, r. 14–17 =144 contin. GRAND PAUSE following final measure of p. 17
The Vocal Line of Sohmon III: Influences from Japanese Song
The melodic content and phrase structure of Sohmon III’s vocal part is influenced by various styles of Japanese song in multiple instances. These indigenous song styles include those found in jiuta, as well as in two folk song types, warabeuta and sh ka. Jiuta is the popular vocal/shamisen song genre, structurally described above. Warabeuta, or ancient songs, pre-date
the Meiji Period. Sh ka, or school songs, developed concurrently with the Westernized music education curriculum that Japanese schools adopted under the direction of Luther Whiting
Mason and Sh ji Izawa during the reformation of music education in the late-1800s.130 The following provides a description of these three song types, while identifying their impact upon
Miki.
Example 6a: Jiuta Vocalism, m. 1131
In accordance with the performance practice of shamisen song, portions of the vocal line of Sohmon III show influence from jiuta vocalism. Example 6a displays Miki’s notation of these
130 Donald P. Berger, “Isawa Sh ji and Luther Whiting Mason: Pioneers of Music Education in Japan,” in Music Educators Journal 74, no. 2 (October 1987): 31–36, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3401254 (accessed January 13, 2009).
131 Miki, Sohmon III (Go Fish), p. 13.
sections. The jiuta style is characterized by the drawn out phrasing of the poetry, with single syllables being sustained for long durations, either on a single pitch or in a melismatic phrase.
The vocal style also employs ornamentation including a trill-like figure and a glissando release, which are traditionally improvised. Miki, however, has devised special notation for both types of vocal ornamentation, displayed in Examples 6b, 6c, and 6d.
Example 6b: The Trill-Type Figure; below left, the accidental appears above the wavy line to denote upward oscillation; right, the accidental appears below to denote downward oscillation132
Example 6c: The Glissando Figure; an onset figure with an ascending glissando133
Example 6d: The Glissando Release; the ossia line shows an ascending version and the standard line shows a descending version134
The trill-type symbol is represented by a wavy line with a note in parenthesis to denote the direction and distance of pitch oscillation and may be directly followed by a glissando release (as
132 Ibid.
133 Ibid.
134 Ibid.
in Example 6b). The glissando figure can occur at the beginnings of phrases, as exhibited in
Example 6c, and as a release at the ends of phrases, as shown in Example 6d. In the glissando release, the vocalist performs a rapid, sliding ascent or descent at the end of the phrase. These phrase releases occur several times in the vocal cadenza of Sohmon III, including at the beginning of the second system and at the end of the third system (Example 6a).
Other sections of Sohmon III share more similarities with Japanese folk song styles than they do with shamisen song. Influential folk song styles include the ancient warabeuta and the sh ka of the early twentieth-century. Sakura, Sakura [Cherry Blossoms] is one of the most recognized Japanese tunes in the West and the most famous warabeuta. In his anthology,
101 Favorite Songs: Taught in Japanese Schools, Ichiro Nakano presents a modernized school song version of the song, which was arranged for piano and published during the 1860s.135 The tune itself predates Nakano’s vocal piano version by many centuries. Nakano explains that
Sakura, Sakura is “one of the traditional koto songs.”136 The brief poem, in Romaji transcription and English translation below, describes the sight and smell of blooming cherry trees in spring.
The song is a great example of its genre, displaying many defining features.
Sakura, Cherry blossoms, Sakura Cherry blossoms, Yayoi no sora wa Are in the spring sky Miwatasu kagiri As far as you can see, Kasumi ka kumo ka Is it mist? A cloud? Nioi zo izuru Fragrant in the air Iza ya, Come now, Iza ya, Come now, Mi ni yukan. Let’s look, at last.137
135 Ichiro Nakano, 101 Favorite Songs: Taught in Japanese Schools, International Edition (Tokyo: The Japan Times, Ltd., 1991), 267.
136 Ibid.
137 Trans. by Ozaki-Graves.
In The Influence of the Meiji Period on Japanese Children’s Music, Elizabeth May characterizes the warabeuta by its ability to both conform to and to break away from the representative features of other nations’ folk song types.138 She cites that most folk songs, despite their national origin, reveal short phrase lengths of two- to four-bars and demonstrate repetition, be it musical repetition or otherwise. In fact, May states that repetition may be melodic, rhythmic or textual in nature; any of these three types may be repeated together. She further defines traditional Japanese folk songs by their high frequency of 2/4 or 4/4 time signatures, as well as their narrow melodic ranges. The warabeuta is written in a pentatonic scale, with its melody usually centering around two pitches of the scale, whereas in Western folk song types, the melody is diatonic and is constructed about a single tonal center or tonic pitch.
Example 7 shows the vocal melody of Sakura, Sakura. The song opens and closes with the combined melodic, rhythmic and textual repetition of a two-bar phrase, beginning with
“sakura, sakura” and ending with “iza ya, iza ya.”
Example 7: Sakura, Sakura Vocal Melody
This pentatonic scale consists of the pitches, E-F-G-A-B, and is known as hirachoshi, a primary scale used in koto music.139 Sakura’s pentatonic melody centers about two pitches of the scale, A
138 May, The Influence of the Meiji Period on Japanese Children's Music, 8–10.
and E. As expected, Sakura, Sakura is transcribed in 4/4 time. Nakano also maintains 4/4 time in his arrangement of Sakura, Sakura.140
In Sohmon III, the opening vocal melody, Akane sasu A, demonstrates characteristics of the warabeuta and is the only melodic theme repeated in Sohmon III. Both versions of the vocal line appear in Examples 8a and 8b.
Example 8a: Vocal Line from Akane sasu A, mm. 3–6 and mm. 1–4141
Example 8b: Vocal Line from Akane sasu A (2nd). This version appears a third lower and at a slower tempo, mm. 2–9142
139 Nakano, 101 Favorite Songs, 267.
140 Ibid., 2–3.
141 Miki, Sohmon III (Go Fish), pp. 2–3.
142 Ibid., p. 18.
Decisively, it is more relevant that both repetitions of the melody maintain their characteristic warabeuta features; the 4/4 time signature, the two-bar phrases and the application of regular rhythmic repetition. Akane sasu A contains a repeated rhythmic pattern, which appears with slight variations. This pattern is defined by sixteenth-notes, which act as markers at the beginning of each line of poetry in the vocal line and are added to the textural pattern of the piano accompaniment. Example 9 lists all four variations of the section’s basic rhythmic motive.
Example 9: Variations of the Rhythmic Motive from Akane sasu A
Akatombo [Red Dragonflies] is a sh ka school song, written by the European-educated
Japanese composer Kosaku Yamada (1886–1965) in 1927. It appears in Part 4 of Nakano’s anthology.143 This section of the anthology compiles sh ka from the 1880s through the mid-
1940s, written by Japanese composers and poets.144 K. Yamada was one of the first successful
European-trained Japanese composers and Akatombo demonstrates the influence of Western art music upon both composer and upon the sh ka style. The highly structured, symmetrical poem is
Japanese in origin, written by the well-known Japanese poet Rofu Miki (1889–1964). However, the poetry demonstrates strong Western influence. The poetic form consists of four stanzas, in which each stanza is symmetrical (four lines) and each line is also symmetrical (either six- or eight-syllables in length).
As explained in Chapter 2, traditional Japanese poetry is not organized with multi-stanza
143 Nakano, 101 Favorite Songs, 40–243. Akatombo appears in this section of the anthology. See, Nakano, 194.
144 Ibid., vii–x.
structures or symmetry in mind. Rather, Japanese poems are short and characteristically asymmetrical in structure, with features that highlight odd numbers. Most indigenous forms of poetry, including the s mon, consist of an odd number of lines, based on an odd number of syllables. Brevity and asymmetry are certainly evident in the lyrics of Sohmon III and Sakura,
Sakura and these qualities appear in the text-setting and the phrase structure of the music.
Similarly, the regular and symmetrical structure of Akatombo’s poetry is reflected in
K. Yamada’s composition. Each of the poem’s four stanzas is set to the same vocal melody and is accompanied by the same piano part. K. Yamada highlights the symmetrical structure of the poetic lines with periodic phrasing in the melody. The first two lines of the stanza appear as a four-bar antecedent phrase, while the third and fourth lines of the stanza are set as its four-bar consequent phrase. In Akatombo and other representative examples from the sh ka repertoire, there is evidence that the preferred strophic song forms result from Japanese composers’ exposure to German poetry and art song.145
Disregarding the effects of potential Western influence, it is clear that sh ka differ from warabeuta musically. Example 10 provides the vocal melody from Akatombo.
Example 10: Antecedent-Consequent Phrases in the Melody of Akatombo
In this example, some of the defining traits of sh ka include meter, scale and melodic features.
As in warabeuta, the scale of Akatombo consists of five pitches, F-G-A-C-D. However, this pentatonic scale has no relationship to hirachoshi or the other traditional koto scales.
145 Ibid., 255.
Furthermore, when taken in context, the vocal melody of Akatombo sounds diatonic. This is due to the prominent use of ascending fourths, which help to promote F as a single tonic pitch.
The comparatively expansive range of Akatombo’s melody allows for the inclusion of upper and lower octaves of scalar pitches, which is not regular practice in the melodic construction of the average warabeuta. The inclusion of C4 and F5 provide Yamada with a means of expanding his melodic options while varying phrase shape. Akatombo’s melodic shape is dictated by climactic high notes, rather than by the unidirectional phrases that appear in traditional songs, such as
Sakura, Sakura. In Akatombo, Yamada’s music displays Western influence through the frequent appearance of dynamics and other expressive markings, which results in more musical contrast.
In Sohmon III, Miki references the sh ka in one of his settings of the poem Akane sasu, labeled as Akane sasu D in Table 3.1. He manipulates the poetry, repeating text, to provide the symmetrical poetic foundation upon which the sh ka-influenced melodic phrasing is layered.
Example 11 demonstrates many sh ka style musical features that appear in an excerpt from the vocal line of Akane sasu D. These include the instance of repetitive melodies and symmetrical phrasing. The example also shows the two-bar pattern of phrasing that form four-bar antecedent- consequent phrases.
Example 11: Two-Bar Phrasing in the Vocal Melody of Akane sasu D, mm. 11–14; mm. 1–4146
146 Miki, Sohmon III (Go Fish), pp. 9–10.
Texture and Accompaniment in Sohmon III: Influences from Japanese Song
There are two prevalent types of vocal accompaniment in the shamisen song: 1) response-style insertion of small gestures between the vocal phrases in response to the line of text; and 2) melodic doubling, usually with slight-rhythmic displacement occurring between voice and shamisen. The second type of accompaniment is a specific application of Malm’s
“sliding-door” effect and he explains, “though both parts are following the same general melodic line, they seldom change pitches on the same beat.”147
Two sections of Sohmon III that display the response-style accompaniment appear in
Examples 12a and 12b. Traditionally, response-style instrumental accompaniment occurs in tandem with a declamatory vocal line. The declamatory version of Nukata’s first poem, Akane sasu B, is accompanied in the typical fashion, with the marimba and piano interposing short gestures between fragmented vocal declamations, in order to punctuate the particular moments in the vocal recitation and to draw attention to important words in the poetry.
Example 12a: Response-Style Accompaniment in Marimba and Piano, m. 4148
147 Malm, Six Hidden Views, 43.
148 Miki, Sohmon III (Go Fish), p. 5.
The response-style accompaniment, displayed in Example 12b, shows that the piano interjects between the vocal declamations of Kimi matsu to, while the marimba provides a continuous texture. The second type of accompaniment is exhibited extensively in shamisen song, especially nagauta.
Example 12b: Response-Style Accompaniment in Piano, mm. 3–4149
The displaced melodic doubling that occurs between the voice and shamisen in nagauta passages highlights the “sliding-door” effect of Japanese musical temporality. Effectively, the process of displaced melodic doubling is synonymous with Malm’s term, “rhythmic disjunction.”150 In Six Hidden Views of Japanese Music, Malm describes the aesthetic implications of rhythmic disjunction between the voice and shamisen. He explains that the vocal line takes on a position of neutrality, “for it often seems to float behind the line of the accompanying shamisen.”151 Malm also provides several non-aesthetic reasons for this type of accompaniment and he states that the “rhythmic disjunction not only helps clarify syllables of the text from the sound of the shamisen.”152 He also believes that the displacement allows for more
149 Ibid., p. 19.
150 Malm, Six Hidden Views, 43.
151 Ibid.
152 Malm, Traditional Japanese Music, 234.
forward motion in the music and, rather than resulting in heterophonic confusion, the unique accompaniment “creates another line of rhythmic tension that requires release at the cadence.”153
Example 13 shows the soprano’s final sung phrases near the end of Sohmon III. In this final section, the vocal melody is embedded in the piano part, but the piano’s version varies rhythmically from the vocal melody. This simulates the rhythmic disjunction that appears in nagauta style song between the vocal line and its shamisen accompaniment.
Example 13: The Sliding-Doors Effect, mm. 4–11154
153 Malm, Six Hidden Views, 43.
154 Miki, Sohmon III (Go Fish), p. 23.
Because of its origins as koto music, warabeuta piano accompaniments often imitate the original accompaniment’s instrumentation. For example, Nakano’s piano arrangement for
Sakura, Sakura reflects the idiomatic style of the koto accompaniment. Some of the koto idioms that appear in Nakano’s piano accompaniment include ascending scales and arpeggios, broken octaves and rolled chord clusters. Accompaniment patterns from the warabeuta and sh ka appear in Miki’s work as well. Like Nakano, Miki employs idiomatic koto figures in his piano accompaniments, such as the scalar passages in the pianist’s right hand in Akane sasu A, which simulate koto music (Example 14a). The open fifths in the bass also imply traditional koto accompaniment, which frequently features open fifths and octaves.
Example 14a: Warabeuta Influence in the Piano Accompaniment to Akane sasu A, mm. 2–7155
As is expected in sh ka, the piano accompaniment of Akatombo exhibits more similarities with Western art song, in that the accompaniment is more pianistic and less imitative of the koto. Yamada makes use of standard accompaniment patterns, as found in the German lieder; his accompaniment texture is repetitive and continuous and the vocal and piano lines
155 Ibid., p. 2.
demonstrate a high level of independence, with very little melodic doubling. Just as the sh ka song influences the vocal line of Akane sasu D (Example 11), it also influences the corresponding piano accompaniment.
As seen in Example 14b, no traditional koto accompaniment patterns appear in the piano accompaniment to the sh ka-inspired rendition of Akane sasu D. In contrast, the accompaniment pattern reflects a more Germanic style, as is exemplified by the repeated rhythm in the left hand of the piano. Both the piano and marimba parts operate in independence from the vocal melody, while supporting it harmonically (see vocal line in Example 7). This accompaniment shows influence from neither of the two types of traditional Japanese accompaniment. The frequent dynamic contrasts and musical expressive markings in Miki’s score also reflect Yamada’s use of expressive markings for purposes of emphasizing contrast, as is characteristic in sh ka.
Example 14b: Sh ka-Inspired Accompaniment Pattern in Akane sasu D, mm. 11–14156
Traditional Vocal Styles and Performance Practices
Malm describes vocal ornamentation and performance practice in his analysis of a nagauta from the kabuki play, Goro Tokimune (1841) by Kineya Rokuzaemon X (1800–1859).
156 Ibid., p. 9.
He focuses upon vocal gestures that he calls “closing ornamentations,” which were used to signify the endings of poetic sections within a work, in addition to signifying musical endings.
At these structural points, the singer inserts vocal ornament to signal the ending. “Closing ornamentations” include the application of a wide vibrato or slow vocal trill and “the elongation of syllables,” resulting in a natural slowing of the phrase like a final ritardando.157 Malm also explains the use of another type of vocal improvisation called fushimawashi, or “various shadings and subtleties of interpretation,” in Goro Tokimune.158 There is no strict location or vocalization for this type of ornamentation, although Malm cites instances of “gentle undulation of tone on longer cadential notes.”159
The jiuta singing style is characterized by the drawn out phrasing of the poetry, making use of two main methods. In the first method, the singer sustains a vowel from a single syllable of text for long durations on a single pitch with frequent breaks and periods of silence. In the second method of jiuta phrase expansion, the singer draws out syllables melismatically.
Issues of Performance Practice and Miki’s Methods of Notation in Sohmon III
In Sohmon III, Miki uses a special symbol to notate ma within the vocal cadenza (see Example
6). This symbol, detailed in Example 15, demonstrates Miki’s use of ma, where the “absence of sound” within and between phrases of the vocal line serves as musical activity rather than as moments of rest between musical phrases. Such periods of ma aid Miki in creating dramatic tension through his repeated settings of Akane sasu, propelling forward both the music and the
157 Malm, Nagauta, 53.
158 Ibid.
159 Ibid.
declamation of poetry.
Example 15: Miki’s Symbol for Ma160
In accordance with vocal performance practices from the jiuta shamisen song, the vocal cadenza also shows influence from jiuta vocalism. Examples of jiuta phrasing styles are prominent in the vocal cadenza, which appears in Example 16. These examples show the expansion of vowel syllables over long periods by sustaining single pitches, as notated with horizontal bars.
Example 16: Syllabic Expansion in the Vocal Cadenza161
In the second method of vocal phrase expansion, the singer often uses a melisma to either mark the end of a poetic phrase or to draw attention to new section of music. This is exemplified in Example 17, which shows the transition from the unaccompanied vocal cadenza back to an ensemble texture of voice and marimba. In this instance, Miki uses the vocal melisma to draw attention to the marimba’s entrance, signifying the beginning of the composition’s major instrumental interlude.
160 Miki, Sohmon III (Go Fish), p. 13.
161 Ibid.
Example 17: Melismatic Expansion at Transition, mm. 1–5162
Synthesis, Fusion and Konketsu
In general the terms “synthesis” and “fusion” in music are used synonymously to mean multi-cultural hybrids. However, contemporary scholars have made attempts to separate the vocabulary of this general idea into more specific types. Yayoi Uno Everett defines synthesis as
“those works that effectively transform the cultural idioms and resources into a hybrid entity (so that they are no longer discernible as separable elements).”163 Anthony J. Palmer, on the other hand, defines fusion as the melding together of Eastern and Western instrumentation and musical styles that, ultimately, produces Westernized compositions, where the Japanese influences have been subjugated.164 I conclude by discussing how konketsu, Miki’s self-proclaimed desire for ethnic mixture in his work and life, relates to Everett’s requirements for cross-cultural synthesis and Palmer’s judgment against musical fusion as a literal means of implicating a Japanese national musical style in the wake of Westernization.
162 Ibid., p. 13.
163 Everett, “Intercultural Synthesis,” 19.
164 Palmer is wary of the ability to synthesize or mix cultures through multi-ethnic instrumentation. See sub-section below.
Yayoi Uno Everett’s Concept of Synthesis
To support the conclusion that Miki accomplishes synthesis in Sohmon III, this argument will turn to Everett’s method of categorizing cross-cultural compositions. In the opening chapter, entitled “Intercultural Synthesis in Postwar Western Art Music: Historical Contexts,
Perspectives, and Taxonomy,” Everett presents seven categories of compositional strategies organized into three general methods of interculturation: transference, syncretism, and synthesis.
Her taxonomy identifies methods for intercultural mixing, as evident in postwar compositions of
Western art music that she has analyzed and examined. The three general methods of interculturation are tiered, beginning with the most inclusive category, in which all intercultural compositions find a place, and ending with the most exclusive category. The most inclusive category is called transference, followed by syncretism and, ultimately, concluding with synthesis.
Everett defines the category of transference as the “form of transferring or embedding of
East Asian aesthetic or musical resources within various contemporary Western musical contexts” and lists four types of transference.165 The first method of transference is to “quote culture through literary or extramusical means.” The second “draw[s] on aesthetic principles or formal systems” excluding those considered icons of Asian sound.166 The third type of transference involves “evok[ing] Asian sensibilities without explicit borrowing of preexistent musical materials or styles” and it manifests itself in two different ways: 1) as a predominantly
Western musical style with evidence of Asian musical aesthetics such as in rhythm and gesture or the use of traditional instruments; 2) as evidenced in the “exotic” borrowing of pentatonic
165 Everett, “Intercultural Synthesis,” 15.
166 Ibid., 16.
scales and several other “Asian” features in Western compositions of the nineteenth century.167
The fourth type of transference presents quotations of “preexistent musical material in the form of a collage.”168
Syncretism, the second general method of interculturation, requires more of compositions than mere “exoticism” and musical or cultural borrowing. Examples of syncretism demonstrate instances where the composer uses an organized method to merge aspects of Eastern and
Western music within a single composition. Everett lists two types syncretism. In the first, the composer “transplant[s] East Asian attributes of timbre, articulation, or scale system onto
Western instruments” and in the second the composer “combine[s] musical instruments and/or tuning systems of East Asian And Western musical ensembles.”169
Synthesis is the most exclusive category, requiring the greatest variety of methods of transference and syncretism in addition to drawing more unusual methods of synthesis.170 In instances of synthesis, the composer transforms the traditional musical systems, forms and timbres into a new distinctive blend of Western and Asian musical idioms. Everett also argues that the composer must use multiple compositional techniques in order to accomplish synthesis.
In instances of synthesis Everett posits that often times “composers may have employed more than one technique in arriving at a synthesis of musical resources.”171 She also mentions that the perception of synthesis is highly subjective. Naturally, subjectivity results from the tensions that arise between “the structures of communication” and “the structures of signification.” The first
167 Ibid., 17.
168 Ibid., 16.
169 Ibid., 18.
170 Ibid., 19.
171 Ibid.
can be classified as the composer’s intended communication of musical ideas and the second encompasses the audience interpretation of the work. In the end, Everett concludes that, even when synthesis is achieved both in the conception of the work and in its critical reception, “the body of art music that hybridizes cultural traditions, nonetheless, falls squarely into the canon of
Western art music by extension.”172
Anthony J. Palmer’s Concept of Fusion
In his article, “To Fuse or Not to Fuse: Directions of Two Japanese Composers, Miki and
Takemitsu,” Palmer discusses the issue of musical identity and how contemporary Japanese composers approach cultural integration of Japanese and Western music. Palmer argues that although contemporary Japanese composers “have asserted a distinctly Japanese musical personality in the Western style,” there is no consensus as to what defines this music or the philosophies behind them.173 Palmer describes Takemitsu’s compositional approach as one of the
“side by side existence” of two separate musical aesthetics and cultures; conversely he believes that Miki “chose to state that synthesis is not only possible but desirable” in his work.174 In his examination of Miki’s Symphony for Two Worlds (1981), Palmer determines that the composer creates ethnic mixture by melding together traditional Japanese and Western instruments into a single greater orchestral texture, which he dubs fusion.175
172 Ibid., 21.
173 Palmer, “To Fuse or Not to Fuse,” 421.
174 Ibid.
175 The process of assimilation through instrumentation in Miki’s operatic orchestration is the primary topic of the Miki and Tedford article, “The Role of Traditional,” discussed in the sub-section on konketsu below.
Palmer’s fusion differs from Everett’s synthesis in several ways. First of all, Palmer communicates that fusion is negative. Secondly, he believes that in fusion, the two cultures exist in a relationship of dominant and subordinate. The dominant culture ends up over-riding the defining traits of the subordinate culture, engulfing it. He cites Miki’s Symphony of Two Worlds as an example, listing its many Western musical features: its logical organization, its structural adherence to linear time and its “sequential development of ideas.”176 Although he does recognize Miki’s integration of Japanese musical influences, Palmer devalues them because of the subordination resulting from Westernization. He concludes that, despite the fact the instrumentation of Symphony for Two Worlds demonstrates “a broadened palette of rhythmic, tonal, and coloristic features,” the composition is still overwhelmingly Western.177 “The argument here is not one of ultimate value but of which values dominate the subject-object relationship.”178 Palmer describes specific Japanese elements in the Symphony for Two Worlds, explaining, “There are noticeable aberrations in the Western orchestral components that are
Eastern in concept—the bending of tones, the slides and microtonal inflections. In the final analysis, however, this is a Western work featuring Western processes. Accents from the
Japanese tradition abound but they had to conform to non-Japanese standards.”179
Palmer uses instrumentation as an example of the subjugation of “accents from the
Japanese tradition.” In the Symphony for Two Worlds, traditional Japanese musical instruments are forced to “conform to non-Japanese standards,” including Western orchestral tuning and ensemble-based instrumental textures. He points out that the unique timbre of the shakuhachi, a
176 Palmer, “To Fuse or Not to Fuse,” 425.
177 Ibid.
178 Ibid.
179 Ibid., 423
vertical bamboo flute traditionally played as a solo instrument, is obliterated in Miki’s composition. Palmer believes that scoring a part for multiple shakuhachi “minimizes” its inherent features.180 Furthermore, the shakuhachi is not traditionally tuned to the same concert pitch as that of the Western orchestra. In his article, Palmer confirms with Miki that the bamboo flutes had to be reconstructed in order to play with the Western instruments. Palmer concludes his paper, acquiescing that the “process of combining seemingly disparate techniques, instrumental colors and articulations, forms and performance venues, is necessary to the development of a world cultural aesthetic.”181 However, he does maintain that developing a world cultural aesthetic requites the obliteration of the dominant-subordinate or subject-object relationship that continues to persist between the music and cultural aesthetics of the West and
Japan.
Miki’s Concept of Konketsu
Miki’s philosophy of konketsu and the methods that he uses in his quest for a multi-ethnic compositional style, are most easily understood amongst more familiar concepts of musical- cultural change. In a broad sense, konketsu is synonymous with contemporary buzzwords like globalization, hybridization, acculturation and Westernization. Miki’s article, “The Role of
Traditional Japanese Instruments in Three Recent Operas,” defines konketsu in better detail.182 In this article, Miki describes his approach to multi-ethnic instrumentation in his first three major operas: Shunkin-sh (1975), An Actor’s Revenge, and J ruri. More importantly, the composer
180 Ibid., 424.
181 Ibid., 425.
182 Miki and Tedford, “The Role of Traditional Japanese Instruments in Three Recent Operas.”
expresses his desire for konketsu, which literally translates from Japanese as “mixing blood,” but to which Miki applies greater artistic and philosophical goals of cultural mixture.
In the first half of the 1980s, while dealing with various public and personal difficulties, I began to devote considerable thought to ‘konketsu’ (ethnic mixture, or ethnic diversity). All this has led me to the conviction that only through ‘konketsu’ can we guarantee peace. Art cannot exist in isolation from society. Even in the field of serious music, ethnic mixture should be an important theme.183
In a closer reading of his statement, it is evident that Miki defines konketsu as the synthesis of two diverse yet equal artistic spirits into a unique and harmonious whole. He elaborates, explaining that “if the ethnic mixture is not one of kindred spirits, each of equal artistic merit, the resultant union will be little more than a meaningless exercise.”184 Miki believes that music and culture are deeply intertwined; therefore, as he combines diverse cultural types of music, he also promotes peaceful discourse between nations through the blending of diverse cultures. His comments infer that, in light of the globalization of the world economy, the artistic pursuit of music must also embrace globalization in order to remain relevant and engaged in the society into which it is conceived and appreciated. His belief resonates with those of
Arjun Appadurai, the father of globalization theory, for whom globalization is made of more than “just commodities, money, sounds, images, and people that move but also…ideologies.”185
Furthermore, the composer’s desire for the successful “union” of divergent ethnic qualities of “equal artistic merit” implies the creation of a new hybrid within a new cultural context. Miki rejects the binary construct assumed in both acculturation and Westernization,
183 Ibid., 167.
184 Ibid.
185 In addition to Appadurai’s globalization theory, ethnomusicologist Timothy Taylor elaborates upon post-Colonial theorist Homi K. Bhabha’s concept of “Third Space” in this discussion of hybridism. See Timothy Taylor, Beyond Exoticism: Western Music and the World (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), 159–60.
where one culture dominates over a subordinate culture, as in Western culture dominating over
Eastern culture. Numerous scholars—including Palmer, historian H. Paul Varley, Nakano and ethnomusicologist Bruno Nettl—argue that, upon its re-opening to the world in the nineteenth century, Western culture successfully dominated the culture of Japan, resulting in a Westernized modern Japanese society. H. Paul Varley contextualizes Westernization within Japan’s long history of and preference for subordination of indigenous culture by its people. In his study,
Varley discusses Japan’s adoption of the many cultural imports from China that ultimately shaped Japanese culture; imports from Chinese culture include everything from written language and painting styles to musical instruments and religion.186 Nakano also supports theory of the
Japanese cultural assimilation, which he attributes to the curiosity of Japanese people; “as an isolated island country, the people have possessed a deep curiosity about other countries along with the idea that anything foreign must be superior to something indigenous. The Japanese have always longed for something mysterious and fantastic beyond the sea.”187 Although Nakano’s statement is subjective opinion, the relationship of anything foreign being superior to anything indigenous is synonymous with Palmer’s dominant-over-subordinate theory. Nettl supports the views of Nakano and Palmer. In The Western Impact on World Music: Change, Adaptation, and
Survival, Nettl finds that “Western music has become so important a factor that musically these nations [Japan and Korea] might well be regarded, at least in their urban centers, as members of the western cultural system.”188 He cites the preservation of traditional Japanese music in modern society as a type of “museumification,” where the indigenous music exists in “an aura of
186 Varley, Japanese Culture.
187 Nakano, 101 Favorite Songs, 258.
188 Bruno Nettl, The Western Impact on World Music: Change, Adaptation, and Survival (New York: Schirmer Books, 1985), 158.
exoticism and rediscovery.”189 In his ethnomusicological field studies, Nettl shows that Western music dominated indigenous music in Japan and Korea before the 1980s.
In addition to explaining the concept of konketsu, Miki’s article helps describe how he composes and organizes musical works that represent the idea of multi-ethnic harmony. Miki’s operas demonstrate varied approaches to konketsu in compositional process. An Actor’s Revenge is set in the world of the kabuki theater. The opera contains kabuki scenes that act as a play- within-a-play. Miki experiments with instrumentation, accompanying kabuki scenes not only with Japanese instruments but also with Western instruments that simulate the timbre of
Japanese instruments. Miki composed five different orchestral versions of the opera for its various productions around the world. For example, the version of the score revised for the 1987
German production combines a Japanese solo instrument, the fretless lute-like shamisen, and a
Western harp substituting for the Japanese zither, or koto. In this case, Miki attempts to develop konketsu through juxtaposition by contrasting the Japanese instrumental solos with the Western orchestra. This instrumentation creates a “sense of East-West dualism,” as described by the composer, expressing konketsu through juxtaposition between the contrasting timbres of the
Japanese solo instruments with the Western orchestra.190
In J ruri, Miki and librettist Colin Graham attempt to create an entirely new art work by blending features from both Japanese and Western traditions, rather than adapting pre-existing materials to combine with or to juxtapose against each other. Graham infuses Christian morality into the bunraku puppet play-inspired plot. The koto, the shakuhachi flute, and the large futo-zao
189 Ibid., 159. In his case study, entitled “Treasures,” Nettl discusses the topic of the preservation of traditional Japanese music and the promotion of modern-day traditional musicians as National Treasures.
190 Miki and Tedford, “The Role,” 165.
shamisen, all appear throughout the score. Miki describes this new approach to the combination of Eastern and Western elements through a method he calls assimilation.
In J ruri, unlike in the previous two operas, there are absolutely no untouched traditional materials [no quotations of pre-existing compositions]. Rather, elements of both East and West are combined to yield a new music identity; that is, the two cultures are filtered within myself so that aspects of each emerge in a new musical language.191
One example of this new musical language appears in the composer’s use of the shamisen. Miki often combines it with the Western orchestra and does not confine the instrument to its traditional role of accompanying narration. In the alternate version of J ruri, which omits the
Japanese instruments entirely, Miki replaces the koto and shakuhachi with similar Western supplements; however, Miki re-orchestrates the shamisen part for various small groups of instruments to play in unison. This sometimes results in strange instrumental combinations, which Miki says is necessary in order to translate the unique timbre of the shamisen into Western tone colors.192
To conclude, through the examination of musical influences upon Sohmon III, Minoru
Miki accomplishes his goal of konketsu, and the intercultural context in which the piece was commissioned, performed, and recorded supports evidence thereof. Miki also employs compositional methods of cross-cultural transference, syncretism and, ultimately, synthesis, as defined by Everett. Because he rejected instrumentation as a means of expressing konketsu, Miki was forced to explore new means of juxtaposing and fusing the diverse musical aesthetics of
Japan and the West in a variety of unique ways. Furthermore, Sohmon III successfully bypasses the issues of Westernization and the subordination of Japanese musical instruments that Palmer
191 Ibid., 167.
192 Ibid.
so despises in Miki’s Symphony for Two Worlds.
In Sohmon III, Japanese aesthetic elements are not forced to re-adjust to fit within a
Western musical construct; despite their prominence, Western musical elements they do not dominate the work. Rather, the Japanese and Western elements co-exist. Miki erases the boundaries between these elements, creating a new musical language more reflective of his individual musical voice than of traditional Japanese or Western music. His innovation helps to divorce Sohmon III from its two divergent worlds of musical influence and allows it to stand alone as a unique creative work of singular musical and dramatic merit, not simply as a pastiche of cultural mixture.
CONCLUSION
This document, a performance guide, has presented a comprehensive overview and description of information essential to the preparation of Miki’s Sohmon III, providing background on the work and its composer. The scope of this document encompasses the multi- disciplinary areas of Japanese aesthetics, literature, language and music. Sohmon III is important to Miki’s greater compositional output, because it exemplifies the multi-ethnic compositional style resulting from the composer’s vision of konketsu—ethnic mixture and diversity—especially in his approach to ethnic diversity during his period of abandonment of traditional Japanese instrumentation in the mid- to late-1980s . In Sohmon III, Japanese aesthetic and musical elements blend with those of the Western tradition to result in a unique product that rises above the sum of its parts.
Rather than simulating the dominance of Western musical features, which occurs in instances of “fusion,” as described in Palmer’s analysis of Symphony for Two Worlds, Sohmon
III displays exclusive qualities of intercultural synthesis, according to categories of transference, syncretism and synthesis, according to Everett’s taxonomy. As described in Chapter 3, Sohmon
III employs multiple methods of musical, extramusical and literary interculturation. The infusion of Japanese musical influences into Sohmon III is pervasive. Not only does Miki include references to the vocal style of the traditional Japanese jiuta through special notation, he also includes the traditionally improvised fushimawashi ornamental shadings and “closing ornamentations,” which, according to Malm, characterize the vocal genre. The melodic content of the settings of Akane sasu show a great deal of variety in their repetitions, while maintaining musical connections to various Japanese song genres. For example, some renditions of Akane
sasu are more traditional in their declamatory style, while others are marked with the characteristics of Japanese folk songs. While one rendition of the poem mimics the style of the
Westernized sh ka-style in its symmetrical and sweeping phrase characteristics, an earlier setting shows more similarities to the older and more purist warabeuta, which uses pentatonic scales to build melodies more stagnantly than the over-arching melodic phrases that are characteristic of the sh ka. Traditionally, sh ka phrases build towards an apex before descending back to a single tonic pitch, while warabeuta are more monotone and the melodies gather around two central pitches. Furthermore, the form and texture of Sohmon III shows influences from the traditional genres of nagauta and jiuta, as well as the instrumental genre of gagaku. The overwhelming influence of jo-ha-ky upon the temporal and structural design on both macro- and micro-levels permeates every genre of traditional Japanese music, including twentieth-century H gaku.
Scholars, including Malm and Wade, describe the influence of jo-ha-ky upon the six-section form of the nagauta. Malm’s “sliding door theory” describes the textural result of a unique rhythmic relationship between the voice and solo instrumental accompaniment or between the various instruments of a larger ensemble. Extramusical, aesthetic characteristics from Zen
Buddhism have influences upon the music of Sohmon III as well. Miki discusses the value of traditional instrumental timbres for their rustic qualities, harkening the wabi-sabi aesthetic of the tea ceremony, and states the necessity ma, or silence, in his composition manual, much in the same way that Suzuki argues for the experiential need for sunyata, or emptiness, in daily life.
Necessary technical information and the rules of Japanese diction in the latter section of
Chapter 2 provides the foundation for a clear and understandable recitation of Sohmon III’s song texts, and illuminates particular specifics of pronunciation devoid of the Romaji transcription of the text. As many of the difficult and unique consonant sounds are communicated insufficiently
though Romaji, including the r-based phonemes and fu, they should be divorced from their
English phonetic transcriptions. In addition, the difficult consonant sounds that appear in Sohmon
III texts require independent repetition for true technical mastery in context. Beyond the basic understanding and correct pronunciation of the vowel-based phonemes, the sensitive singer will recite the Japanese poetry with knowledge of the particular defining qualities of devocalized vowels, double-length vowels, inter-syllabic glides and semi-vowels. Despite its diction-related shortcomings, the Romaji transcription of Man’y sh lyrics erases many of the inherent challenges of reading in the modern Japanese alphabets of hiragana, katakana and kanji, let alone the transitional obscurity of man’y gana.
Additionally, the extensive discussion of the Sohmon III source poetry in the opening section of Chapter 2 includes literary analyses by Man’y sh scholars independently of Miki’s own musical dramatic setting of a woman suffering from the toils of unrequited love. Through the varying thoughts and translations of Marra, de Bary, Keene, Pierson, de Campos and Haitani, the aspiring performer will ultimately draw her own literary conclusions, creating a unique reading of the poetry, but only after establishing and understanding the standard poetic devices that Nukata’s Akane sasu and Kimi matsu to share with the greater body of Japanese poetry. The prominence of homonyms and simile in these poems, kakekotoba and makurakotoba, are symptoms of the permeating instance of artistic borrowing across the vast body of Japanese poetry and literature, known as intertextuality. Structural linkage also occurs in the poetry of
Sohmon III, both in a line-by-line fashion as generally promoted by Amagasaki, and between poems, as in the linkage of Nukata’s invitation, Akane sasu to ama’s response poem, Murasaki no. The singer’s basic understanding of the syllabic construction of the waka form is as important to the development of an individual textual interpretation as her understanding of the
plot-structure that Miki’s original spoken narration imposes upon the poems. Similarly, knowledge of the history that surrounds both the original and excerpted language of Sohmon III will only enhance the depth of the performer’s interpretation. Identifying the poets as historical figures, who acted through love and in battle, adds realism to the text. Compounded with a general knowledge of the important historical, cultural, and literary value of the Man’y sh , which is Japan’s oldest anthology of poetry, the various “correct” readings of Sohmon III’s song texts take on a pervasive quality of importance.
In addition to the specific knowledge of Japanese music, pronunciation, and literature, the performer must master a level of comfort with the general principles, terms, and trends, of
Japanese aesthetics, as introduced in Chapter 1. The first chapter lays out important and permeating theories as originated in the twelfth-century spiritual writings of a Shint priest. In his Essays in Idleness, Kenk Yoshida describes the four primary aesthetic principles of
Japanese aesthetics as suggestion, irregularity, simplicity, and perishability, all of which are expertly translated and described by Keene. Another important quality of Japanese aesthetics is the existence of cultural hybridity, which is a multidisciplinary type of borrowing from imported ideas and artistic traditions. Japanese history provides ample examples of intercultural borrowing from the relatively recent Westernization of the late-nineteenth and twentieth centuries to the early import of Chinese Buddhism during the eighth century. In concord, basic background knowledge of Miki and his compositions provide an opportunity for the identification of Sohmon
III amongst his other konketsu-inspired works and his body of compositions that avoid traditional
Japanese instrumentation, not to mention the numerous vocal dramatic works that span the length of his long and prolific career.
Through an understanding of the many facets of Sohmon III’s music and text, the
performer will find the information necessary for developing a well-read rendition of Miki’s piece. Ultimately, although this paper strives to guide the performer, the vocalist’s final interpretation and performance of Sohmon III should be a product of individual decision-making and creative choices. Beyond its function as a guide to Sohmon III, this document aims to draw attention to the lesser-known vocal works of Miki and his contemporaries. Miki’s greater body of vocal chamber works, solo art song, and theatrical vocal compositions provide valuable subjects of further performance and discussion. Despite the fact that Japanese literature has inspired many composers in both Asia and the West, the Japanese art song is a virtually untouched area of scholarship worthy of further research.
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APPENDIX A: AN IPA TRANSCRIPTION OF SOHMON III
Names and Titles from Spoken Dialogue
[nukatano o:kimi]193
Nukata-no- kimi
Princess Nukata
[o:amanomiko]194
ama-no-miko
Prince ama
[to:i]
T chi
T chi (Princess, daughter of ama and Nukata)
[ininoran]
Jinshin-no-ran
Jinshin War195
193 The two consecutive /o/ vowels should be pronounced with an awareness to tonal stress. The double length vowel /o:/ of Nukata’s title kimi, should begin higher in pitch than the preceding /o/ of the word for “of,” no.
194 Similarly, the double length /o:/ of ama begins higher in pitch and descends through the remaining syllables.
195 Jinshin refers to the ninth year of the sixty-year calendar.
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Poetry
[akan sasu] Akane sasu Redness to-pierce/to-shine
Radiant196
[murasakinojuki] Murasaki no yuki Murasaki-plant’s-field-be-walking-through
Walking through the fields of purple Murasaki
[im nojuki] Shime no yuki Occupied-field-be-walking-through
Walking through the fields of the Imperial hunting grounds197
[nomoriwamizuja] Nomori wa mizuya Not-have-seen will (the) field-watcher
Wouldn’t the guard have seen it?
[kimigasod uru] Kimi ga sode furu Dear-one of-the sleeve-waving
The waving of my dearest’s sleeves, calling to me198
196 From Pierson’s idiomatic translation of the makurakotoba that modifies Murasaki. See Pierson, Man’y sh , vol. I, 111.
197 The Imperial Hunting Grounds and gathering areas were roped off to show that they were reserved for the nobility and court.
198 According to Pierson “the waving of the sleeves was the sign for lovers and friends to draw one another’s attention,” see Pierson, Man’y sh , vol. I, 112.
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[murasakino] Murasaki no (The)-purple-plant of/as/like
Like the purple and fragrant murasaki flower
[nijo ruimo:] Nioeru imo wo199 Smell darling O!
The scent of my darling girl,
[nikukwaraba]200 Nikuku araba Hatefully exist
O, how could I find you hateful?
[ç:tozumaju ni] Hitozuma yue ni Another-person’s-wife201 even-though (particle denotes the preceding noun is the verb’s object)
Even though you are another’s wife,
[war koim jamo] Ware koime yamo How-would-(I) suffer-the-anguish-(of-no-longer-loving-you) (I-would-not)!202
Could I suffer the anguish of not allowing myself to love you? No!
199 Imo means sweetheart or sister and is always used as an endearing term for women by men. It is related to the word for little sister, imoto.
200 The second /u/ of nikuku should be silenced to retain the syllabic structure of the poem. Being the third line of the poem, it should contain five syllables although there are six phonetic syllables transcribed.
201 The “other person” is ama’s older brother, the Emperor.
202 Yamo denotes a rhetorical question.
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[kimimatsuto] or [kimimats:to]203 Kimi matsu to Dear-one I-am-waiting-for and
While I am waiting for my dearest and
[wagakoijor ba] Waga koi (w)oreba My love longing-for
Longing for my love
[wagajadono]204 Waga yado no My house of
My home’s
[sudar ugokai] Sudare ugokashi Bamboo-blinds move/are-agitated205
Bamboo blinds whisper—
[akinokaz uku]206 Aki no kaze fuku autumn’s wind is-blowing
It is only the blowing of the autumn breeze.
203 In speech, a silent u may occur in the syllable tsu.
204 There is a descending pitch relationship between the consecutive /o/ sounds of yado and no.
205 Pierson believes that this line “indicates that her attention is concentrated on that blind through which her Lord and lover will enter,” and that, ultimately, Nukata is disappointed that it is “only the autumn-wind that moves the blind.” See Pierson, Man’y sh , vol. IV, 10.
206 In general, any time the no particle appears between nouns, the tonal stress dips. Most particles are spoken at a lower pitch level than the words that surround them. For example, the tonal stress of aki-no-kaze in speech will be high-low-high.
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APPENDIX B: A GLOSSARY OF JAPANESE TERMS
ai no te: a short instrumental interlude between passages of sung poetry or a brief instrumental introduction preceding the central instrumental movement of a nagauta song form; these interludes are often illustrative of some aspect of the song text
Ai-En: “to die for love,” 3-act opera by Minoru Miki composed in 2005
Akatombo: “red dragonflies,” a sh ka song composed by Kosaku Yamada to lyrics by Rofu Miki, written in 1927 banka: a poetic elegy in tanka form; funeral song or song of mourning biwa: a four-stringed Japanese lute used to accompany vocal solos and in instrumental ensembles including gagaku ensembles; related to and descendant from the Chinese pipa lute bunraku: traditional Japanese puppet theater
Chidori no Kyoku: “song of the plover,” a nagauta composition originally arranged for voice and koto by Yoshizawa Kengyo II; later arrangements appeared for sankyoku ensemble; the song text is comprised of two waka from historical poetry anthologies, the Kokin Waka Shu of the 10th Century and the Kin’y sh of the 14th Century chirashi: “scattering,” the beginning section of the final dance in a kabuki scena; the culmination of the acceleration or ky in the jo-ha-ky structure; the longest and most complex musical interlude of the nagauta form dan: a musical section; used frequently to label and denote sections of koto music dangire: the final coda at the close of the kabuki scena; the concluding musical gesture, i.e. final roll engo: “threaded words,” a Japanese poetic device using associated words to imply additional meaning through very limited vocabulary fushimawashi: “melody, intonation,” vocal improvisation and ornamentation used in traditional song forms futo-zao shamisen: “fat, thick shamisen,” large, lower-toned 3-stringed Japanese lute played with a plectrum; this particular type of shamisen is traditionally used in the bunraku puppet theater gagaku: “elegant music,” instrumental ensemble music imported to the Japanese court from China in the 6th and 7th Centuries
haiku: short poetic form of seventeen syllables, organized into three lines in the syllabic pattern of 5-7-5; derived from older, longer Japanese forms including ch ka hirachoshi: “regular/standard tuning,” a pentatonic scale that is most frequently appears as D-Eb- G-A-Bb; synonymous with hirajoshi; the most common tuning for the koto hiragana: the first of two phonetic alphabets of Japanese syllables; this script has feminine connotations because it originally developed in the poetry of female poets of the Heian Era
H gaku: “music of our nation,” traditional Japanese music; this label encompasses historical works and “new” music composed for traditional Japanese instruments as well as contemporary compositions inspired by traditional Japanese music hon-chirashi: “the real scattering,” the primary climax of an instrumental musical section in nagauta form; corresponds with the final and fastest section of jo-ha-ky structure and temporality jiuta: “songs of the country,” a genre of shamisen song dating from the seventeenth century jo-ha-ky : “beginning-break-rapid,” a concept of movement and incremental change that permeates Japanese music, theater, and poetry; in Noh theater, it acts as a type of dramatic structure that provides the universal aspect of movement to the plot; in music, it often manifests in sectional shifts and temporal acceleration on macro- and micro-levels
J ruri: “narrator” in Bunraku puppet theater, accompanied by futo-zao shamisen; an opera in three acts by Miki, premiered in 1985 kabuki: “the art and skill of song and dance,” a Japanese theatrical style developed in the early- 17th Century by a woman named Okuni no Izumo; initially an erotic entertainment, kabuki became a respected theatrical form by the late 17th Century kakekotoba: “pivot words,” rhetorical device used in waka poetry where phonetic and homophonic readings of words imply other meanings through the use of homonyms, near- homonyms, and closely related words kana: the syllabic/phonetic Japanese scripts, including hiragana, katakana, and Romaji kanji: “Han/Chinese characters,” the ideographic/logographic alphabet of Chinese characters, imported to Japan in documents from the first century AD katakana: “fragmented kana,” the second Japanese phonetic alphabet; developed from man’y gana in the Heian period; in modern times, this script is often used to transcribe words of foreign origin into Japanese phonetically
105 k an: “puzzle, teaching,” in Zen Buddhism, a story, question, problem, or statement that confounds rational thought, but can be understood on other levels, for example by intuition konketsu: “mixed blood/race,” Miki’s concept of ethnic mixture and combination in music, art, and culture; ties into the philosophy that such mixture will insure and promote world peace koto: 13-stringed long Japanese zither; newer additions include a 17-stringed bass koto, 20-, 21-, and 25-stringed versions kudoki: in the kabuki scena, a soft lyrical solo song accompanied by shamisen that occurs in the middle of the scene; corresponds with ha of jo-ha-ky structure ma: “silence/space,” the concept of the lack of sound as an important musical event in traditional and contemporary Japanese music mae-jirashi: “before scattering,” introductory interlude into the main body of the tegoto in nagauta form makura: “pillow,” instrumental transitions that occur between the end of vocal/instrumental textures and purely instrumental textures, which occur in sections of nagauta makurakotoba: “pillow word,” a five-syllable epithet that most commonly appears as the first line of a waka; a noun or adjective that acts as a modifier of the subject of the following line man’y gana: “Man’y sh script,” a special transitional written language developed in the poetry of the Man’y sh anthology; poetry that uses Chinese kanji phonetically rather than idiomatically/logographically michiyuki: the initial instrumental interlude in a kabuki scena marking the actor’s entrance on stage; corresponds with jo of the jo-ha-ky structure miyabi: “refinement, courtly elegance,” a Japanese aesthetic ideal promoted most strongly during the Heian era; beauty for beauty’s sake mono no aware: “the pathos of things; things of empathy/sensitivity,” a belief drawn from the Buddhist ideal of impermanence that focuses upon the transience of things and the feelings of melancholy and sadness that result from their passing; in a literary sense, the topic of unrequited love nagauta: “long song,” originally a vocal song accompanied by a single instrument (either shamisen or koto; song texts consist of at least one waka; a through-composed song of at least six contrasting sections; vocal/accompaniment textures alternate with solo instrumental interludes odoriji: “dance section,” the longest instrumental interlude of the kabuki scena, where the actor performs a long dance; this section is marked by a gradual increase in tempo and a dramatic build in the musical texture and often culminates in an ensemble theatrical event
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oki: opening, introduction; in the kabuki scena, the initial narration/recitative before the actor’s entrance on stage; corresponds to the slow section of jo-ha-ky structure
Romaji: the Romanized phonetic transliteration of written Japanese
Sakura, Sakura: “cherry blossoms, cherry blossoms,” a warabeuta shakuhachi: “ eighth-tenths of a hachi” (refers to size), a bamboo, transverse flute with four holes on the front and a fifth hole in the back imported to Japan from China through Korea; in Buddhism, used as a form of meditation; in music, it appears a solo instrument, in the sankyoku trio with koto and shamisen, and in modern compositions shamisen: “three flavor strings,” a three-stringed, fretless lute played with a large plectrum called bachi; the shamisen developed from the sanshin, which was descendant from the Chinese sanxian, imported to Japan from China by the 16th Century; an obligatory instrument in various theatrical genres including bunraku and solo vocal/instrumental song types and instrumental ensembles sh ka: Japanese songs composed starting from the mid-19th Century to promote Western musical education in schools
Shunkin-sh : originally, a short story by Jun’ichiro Tanizaki; a three act opera by Miki, written in 1975; the plot centers around the love triangle between the blind, yet beautiful Shunkin, her koto master Ritaro, and her guide Sasuke and culminates with Shunkin’s tragic death s mon: “mutual inquiries, linked verses,” one of three primary genres of poetry in the Man’y sh ; poems that served as correspondence, usually between lovers sunyata: “void, emptiness, void-ness” from Sanskrit; in Buddhism, the concept of emptiness as a necessary result of the impermanence of all things; promoted in D.T. Suzuki’s teaching on Zen Buddhism tegoto: “hand work,” originally a long solo koto interlude; later an instrumental interlude; the central instrumental interlude of nagauta form tegotomono: “hand work things,” the body of vocal/koto song repertoire, mostly nagauta, that include long, central instrumental solos utamakura: “song pillow, poem pillow,” a literary and poetic rhetorical device that uses place name words (or the imagery of famous places) to allow for allusion and intertextuality between associated poetry and literature wabi-sabi: “loneliness of solitude-withered,” the beauty of rusticity, imperfection and age/decay; aesthetic values first promoted in the tea ceremony and represented visually in its accoutrements; related to the Buddhist concept of impermanence and the Shint concept of eternal freshness
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waka: “Japanese poem,” a genre of indigenous Japanese poetry that developed during the Heian Period from Chinese poetry and Japanese poetry in the Chinese language; originally encompassed many different poetic forms, both long and short; later came to be synonymous with the short poem form of tanka, 5-7-5-7-7 warabeuta: “ancient song,” traditional Japanese folk songs, originally sung unaccompanied
Yamat : “East Land,” the original name for Japan and its indigenous people
Yamat -e: “East Land style,” the indigenous Japanese style of painting that developed from the fifteenth century on; a response in opposition to the styles imported from China z ka: “miscellaneous/public poems,” the largest category of Man’y sh poems; no particular thematic or structural qualities draw these poems together
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APPENDIX C: A COMPILATION OF MIKI’S VOCAL WORKS207
Published Works
Solo Vocal
Shunrai [Thunder of Spring] (1960) Poem: Nanako Miki Voice: baritone Accompaniment: piano Duration: 7 mins. Publisher: Zen-on
To the Winter Sun (1964) Poem: Nanako Miki Voice: soprano or tenor Accompaniment: piano Duration: 2 mins. Publisher: Zen-on
Those Days (1966) Poem: Michizo Tachihara Voice: baritone or mezzo Accompaniment: piano or guitar Duration: unknown Publisher: Zen-on
Ne, Ushi, Tora, U and Yok Kon Kon (1972) Poem: Hiro Sakata Voice: any Accompaniment: piano (alternate version: Japanese instruments) Duration: 4 mins. Publisher: Hoso Shuppan Kyokai
207 Compiled from the Complete works list available in three sections (1953–1975, 1975–1989, and 1990 on) on Minoru Miki’s website. See Minoru Miki, “Minoru Miki Work List (1953–1975),” http://www2u.biglobe. ne.jp/~m-miki/en/work/index.html; “Work List (1975–1989),” http://www2u.biglobe.ne.jp/~m-miki/en/ work/index1.html; and “Work List (1990~),” http://www2u.biglobe.ne.jp/~m-miki/en/work/index2.html (accessed April 18, 2010).
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Shirabe (1980) 1. Tide Sounds 2. Voice and Wings 3. Unrequited Love 4. Youth Poem: Tohson Shimazaki, Yuji Kinoshita, Hakushu Kitahara, Shiro Murano English Translation: James Kirkup Voice: soprano or tenor Accompaniment: harp Duration: 7 mins. Publisher: Zen-on
Fuyu no Hae: A Song with Piano (1992) Poem: Keiko Oguro Voice: any Accompaniment: piano Duration: 5 mins. Publisher: Zen-on
Bareisho no Hana: A Song with Piano (1992) Poem: Keiko Oguro Voice: any Accompaniment: piano Duration: 5 mins. Publisher: Zen-on
Fuyu no Yobanashi: A Song with Piano (1993) Poem: Rei Nakanishi Voice: any Accompaniment: piano Duration: 5 mins. Publisher: Zen-on
Nostalgia: A Song with Piano (1994) Poem: Momoko Obuchi Voice: any Accompaniment: piano Duration: 3 mins. Publisher: Zen-on
Tabimakura: A Song with Piano (1995) Poem: Keiko Shiihashi Voice: any Accompaniment: piano Duration: 3 mins. Publisher: Zen-on
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Hana Monogatari [Flowers’ Story]: 14 Songs with Piano (1996) Contents include: 1. Hakubai [Japanese White Apricot] 2. Kantsubaki [Winter Camellia] 3. Fujimai [Dance of Wisteria] 4. Ajisai [Hydrangea] 5. Bareisho no hana [Flowers of potato] (1982) 6. Satsumaimo no hana [Flowers of sweet potato] 7. Dahlia 8. Anemone 9. Byakuren [White Lotus] 10. Hosenka [Balsam] 11. Ichijiku no Hana [Fig Leaves] 12. Hozuki no Hana [Flowers of Chinese Lantern Plant] 13. Odamaki no Hana [Flowers of Columbine] Poem: Keiko Oguro Voice: any Accompaniment: piano Duration: 47 mins. Publisher: Ongaku no Tomo Sha
Namioto ni Tsutsumarete: A Song with Piano (1996) Poem: Rio Nagano Voice: any Accompaniment: piano Duration: 3 mins. Publisher: Zen-on
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Vocal Chamber Music
Nohara Uta: 22 Songs with Violin and Piano (1987) Contents include: 1. Haru ga Kita 2. Ogawa no March 3. Hana no Michi 4. Detari Hikkondari 5. Tanjobi 6. Oto 7. Mugi Mugi Ondo 8. Ore wa Kamakiri 9. Naniro Do Re Mi 10. Sanpo 11. Umiyo Watagumoyo 12. Yoru no Sora 13. Fuyu no Hi 14. Yama no Komoriuta 15. Ten-Ten no Uta 16. Hi ga shizumi 17. Inochi (1989) Voice: solo, duets, trios, ens. Instruments: violin, piano Duration: 45 mins. Publisher: Zen-on
Sohmon III: for Soprano, Marimba and Piano (1988) Voice: soprano Instruments: marimba, piano Duration: 27 mins. Publishers: JFC, Inc. (1989); Go Fish Music (2006)
Choral/Instrumental Work with Vocal Solos
Requiem (1963) Form: Prelude plus 5 movements Poem: Nanako Miki, adapted from Polynesian folklore/text Voice: baritone solo Chorus: men’s choir (or mixed choir) Instruments: orchestra (alternate versions for 2 pianos, piano and organ, or 1 piano) Duration: 34 mins. Publisher: Kawai Shuppan
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Theatrical Productions
Husband the Hen: An Operetta in One Act (1963) Libretto: Tetsuji Kono and Hiroshi Katsuki; based on Maupassant Cast: soprano, tenor, baritone Chorus: male chorus Instruments: orchestra Alternative chamber version: sop, ten, bar; female ensemble (6); fue, shaku, b-tbn, vn, perc, pf Publisher: Ahn & Simrock, Munich (free)
Shunkin-sh : An Opera in Three Acts (1975) Libretto: Jun Maeda based on the novel of the same title by Jun-ichiro Tanizaki Setting: 19th-C. Osaka Cast: sop, bar, ten, mezzo, bass, 13 additional characters Chorus: female chorus Instruments: 21-string koto, koto, shamisen, shakuhachi, orchestra Duration: 2 hrs. Publisher: Zen-on Premiere: Nihon Opera Kyokai, Tokyo, 1975
An Actor’s Revenge: An Opera in Two Acts (1979) Japanese title: Ada Libretto: James Kirkup, based on the novel Yukinojo Henge by Otokichi Mikami Setting: 18th-C. Edo Cast: sop, ten, bass, ten, bar, bass, bar, ten Chorus: mixed or male chorus Instruments: orch, 21-str koto (harp), shamisen (ad lib) Duration: 2 hrs. 20 mins. Publisher: Faber Music, London Premiere: English Music Theater, London, 1979
Berodashi Chomma: A Karaku in One Act (1980) Original story: Ryusuke Saito Cast: baritone (sing and narrate) Instruments: 21-str koto (alternate version for piano) Duration: 30 mins. Publisher: Zen-on
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The Monkey Poet: A Folk-Opera in Two Acts (1983) Original story and libretto: Mitsuo Kawamura English version: Colin Graham Setting: modern age Tohoku (North-East Japan) Cast: sop, mezzo, alto, ten, bar, bass, Chorus: 6 solo singers also act as chorus Instruments: fue-shaku, 21-str koto, gamalan, perc Duration: 1 hr. 53 mins. Publisher: Zen-on Premiere: Geidankyo special production, Tokyo, 1983
J ruri: An Opera in Three Acts (1985) Original story and libretto: Colin Graham Setting: 17th-18th C. Osaka Cast: sop, ten, bar, bass, ten, bar, bass, Instruments: shaku, 21-str koto, futo-zao shamisen, orch Duration: 2 hrs. 40 mins. Publisher: Zen-on Premiere: Opera Theater of St. Louis, 1985
Wakahime: A Grand Opera in Three Acts (1991) Libretto: Rei Nakanishi Cast: sop, ten, bar, sop, bass, 20 soloists Chorus: mixed chorus Instruments: orch, kayagum Duration: 2 hrs. 24 mins. Publisher: BCA Japan Premiere: Okayama Symphony Hall, 1992
The Happy Pagoda: A Folk Opera in 10 Scenes (2007) Libretto: Tatsuji Iwata Cast: sop, sop, mezzo, alto, ten, ten, bar, bass Instruments: vn, cl ,pf, perc Duration: 1 hr. 55 mins. Publisher: Yui Shuppan Premiere: Tokushima Kyoudo Bunka Kaikan, 2007
The Happy Pagoda: An Opera in Two Acts, 10 Scenes (2010) Libretto: Tatsuji Iwata Cast: sop, sop, mezzo, alto, ten, ten, bar, bass Instruments: orch, perc, pf Duration: 2 hrs. Publisher: Yui Shuppan (forthcoming)
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A Parody of J ruri-hime Story (Strange Tales of J ruri-hime Monogatari) (2009) Libretto: Shizuhiro Iyoda and Minoru Miki, based on Masakasu Yamasaki’s choral drama “Toge no makauni naniga aruka” Cast: sop, mezzo, ten, bar Instruments: fue, hichiriki, 3 shaku, biwa, sham, futo-zao shami, 3 21-str koto, 3 bass koto, 2 perc Duration: 1 hr. 12 mins. Publisher: Yui Shuppan
The Voice Calling You: An Opera in One Act (6 scenes) (2009) Libretto: Tomoko Takemura Cast: sop, mezzo, ten, bar Chorus: female chorus Instruments: piano, 2 uchiwa-daiko Duration: 60 mins. Publisher: Kawai Shuppan (forthcoming)
Anthologies
Opera Arias, Volume 1 (2006) Vocal/Piano score Contents: Selections from Miki’s Grand Operas 4 arias from Shunkin-sh 3 arias from Ada [An Actor’s Revenge] 6 arias from J ruri 8 arias from Wakahime Publisher: Zen-On
Japanese Publishers’ Contact Information
Please note that there may be limited English access available on these websites.
PUBLISHER NAME WEBSITE ADDRESS Zen-on www.zen-on.co.jp/shop/ Ongaku no Tomo Sha www.ongakunotomo.co.jp/ Kawai Shuppan www.kawai.co.jp/shopping Best Composers Association of Japan www.bcamusic.com The Japan Federation of Composers, Inc http://www.jfc.gr.jp/contents/jfc/AbouttheJFC.html
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Unpublished Works
Solo Vocal
Tomurai no Uta (1967) Poem: Satoshi Akihama Voice: any Accompaniment: guitar Duration: 3 mins.
Sabaku no Hana (1976) Poem: Taiko Hirabayashi Voice: soprano Accompaniment: 21-str koto Duration: 15 mins.
Ballades of the Four Seasons (songs composed from 1960 on, compiled in 1976) 1. Shunrai (1960)208 2. Those Days (1966)209 3. November Ballade (1976) Voice: baritone Accompaniment: piano alt. version for Japanese instruments 4. To the Winter Sun (1964)210
Hiroba no Uta (1976) Poem: Satoshi Akihama, Kenji Miyazawa Voice: any solo (or mixed chorus) Accompaniment: piano alt. version for Japanese instruments Duration: 3 mins.
Vision of Rice (1977) Poem: Satoshi Akihama Voice: narrator Accompaniment: 21-string koto Duration: 18 mins.
208 See page 112 of this appendix.
209 Ibid.
210 Ibid.
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Murasaki no Fu (1979) Poem: adapted by Miki from the Kokinsh Voice: alto Accompaniment: shamisen Duration: 12 mins.
Kimi ni Sasageru Ai no Uta (1982) Poem: Masanori Tomotake Voice: baritone Accompaniment: piano Duration: 4 mins.
Iwai Uta (1990) Words: Asaya Fujita Voice: any Accompaniment: hand-clapping Duration: 1 min.
Itsumo Sobani: Song with Piano (1998) Poem: Yukari Nishiguchi Duration: 3 mins.
Greeting Songs Without or With Piano (2000) 1. Welcome Song 2. Nakajime-no-Uta Poem: Minoru Miki 3. See You Again211 Poem: Nanako Miki; English trans. by Minoru Miki and ed. by Colin Graham
Vocal Chamber Music
Paraphrase after Ancient Japanese Music (1966) 1. Prelude 2. Sohmon 3. Tanomai 4. Ruika 5. Kagai Voice: soprano Instruments: fue, shaku (2), shamisen, biwa, koto (2), bass koto, perc (2) Duration: 28 mins.
211 The vocal part and a digital recording of “See You Again” appears on Miki’s website. See Miki Website, http://www2u.biglobe.ne.jp/~m-miki/en/work/seeyouagain_E.html (accessed April 18, 2010).
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Marriage (1970) Poem: Ryuichi Tamura Voice: alto Instruments: sho, bass koto, 5 perc, str Duration: 2 mins.
Muma no Shirabe (1974) Poem: Satoshi Akihama 1. Boat Song 2. Beggar’s Song 3. Lullaby Voice: unspecified Instruments: koto, double bass Duration: 10 mins.
New Kagura-uta (1979) Poem: Asaya Fujita Voice: any Instruments: fue, shaku, shami, biwa, 21-str koto, bass koto, 2 bass perc Duration: 5 mins.
Onitte Ittai Nandarou (1979) Poem: Asaya Fujita Voice: any Instruments: fue, shaku, shami, biwa, 21-str koto, bass koto, 2 perc Duration: 3 mins.
Awa no Tanuki Bayashi (1980) 1. Ukibyoshi 2. Bakashiuchi 3. Tanukibushi Poem: Masaharu Fuji Voice: Any Duration: 2 mins.
4. Mochitsuki Daiko (1982) 5. Abare Danuki (1983) Duration: 7 mins. Instruments: fue, shami, Japanese perc
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Iwaki Dance (1981) Text: Iwaki-City Committee Voice: any (spoken) Instruments: shami, shaku, hayashi Duration: 5 mins.
Shiki Emaki Hokkaido “Ten to Chi Hito” (1981) Poem: Zenzo Matsuyama Voice: soprano Instruments: fue, shaku, shami, biwa, 21-str koto, koto, bass koto, perc, str Duration: 44 mins.
Arisano Tameni (1986) Poem: Away Fujita Voice: soprano Instruments: violin, perc Duration: 2 mins.
Choral/Instrumental Works with Vocal Solos
Ballades for Winging (1968) Poem: Satoshi Akihama Voice: tenor Chorus: mixed chorus Instruments: 2 fue, 3 shakuhachi, hichiriki, 3 shamisen, biwa, 3 koto, bass koto, 2 perc Duration: 22 mins.
Tanu Tanu Ballade (1971) Voice: bass Chorus: children’s chorus Instruments: fue, hichiriki, 3 shaku, shami, biwa, 2 koto, 20-str koto, bass koto, 3 perc Duration: 24 mins.
Sohmon II (1972) Voice: mixed chorus Accompaniment: 21-string koto Duration: 15 mins.
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Sinfonia Concertante per Wasan (1976) Voice: bass Chorus: female chorus Instruments: nohkan, 21-str koto, orch Duration: 22 mins.
Taro: A Cantata for 5 Solo Voices, Children’s Chorus and 17 Japanese Instruments ( 1977) Form: 6 parts Poem: Taizo Horai Voice: sop, boy sop, mezzo, alto, bass Chorus: children’s chorus Instruments: fue, 3 shamisen, biwa, tambula, 2 21-str koto, 2 koto, 2 bass koto, 3 perc Duration: 57 mins.
Ki no Kane (1992) Words: Minoru Miki; quotations from the Man’y sh Voice: soprano solo Chorus: female chorus Instruments: 2 fue, 2 sho, hichiriki, 2 shaku, 3 shami, biwa, 2 21-str koto, bass koto, 3 perc Duration: 33 mins.
Theatrical Productions
Kikimimi: A Musical Drama for Children (1967) Libretto: Asaya Fujita Cast: children’s solos alternate version for sop, mezzo, ten, bar Chorus: children’s chorus alternate version for 2 female voices Instruments: orch alternate version for vn, pf, 3 recorders (played by singers) Duration: 18 mins.
Urakagura, Seikai no Houkoku (1976) Poem: Satoshi Akihama Cast: singers, actors Instruments: fue, 3 shakuhachi, shamisen, biwa, kokyu, 21-str koto, koto, bass koto, 2 perc Duration: 60 mins.
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Dance Tragedy “Tsuru” (1978) Libretto: Taizo Horai Cast: soprano, dancers Instruments: shakuhachi, kokyu, biwa, 2 21-str koto, perc Duration: 57 mins.
“Tsuru”: Karaku in One Act (1978) Libretto: Taiko Horai Cast: sop or ten (narration) Instruments: shakuhachi, 2 21-str koto Duration: 30 mins.
Mitsuyama Bansho: A Dance Drama (1979) Libretto: Katsuichiro Kaizu Cast: soprano, dancers Chorus: mixed chorus Instruments: shamisen, orch Duration: 70 mins.
Dances Concertantes No. 3, “A Tale of Hachiro” (1980) 1. Introduction 2. Ballade and Bamboo Pipe 3. Play 4. Wandering 5. Fighting Poem: 2nd and 4th songs, Ichiro Wakabayashi Cast: any voice (song and narration) Instruments: fue, shaku, shami, biwa, 21-str koto, bass koto, perc Duration: 15 mins.
Touge no mukou ni Nani ga Aruka: A Choral Opera (1982) Original story and libretto: Masakazu Yamazaki Cast: mezzo, ten, bar, bass Chorus: mixed chorus Instruments: fue, shaku, 2 shami, biwa, 21-str koto, bass koto, perc Duration: 1 hr. 45 mins.
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Tsuki no Usagi, A Karaku for Children (1982) Original story: Ichiro Wakabayashi Cast: mezzo (song and narration) Instruments: fue, shami, perc Duration: 17 mins.
At the Flower Garden: A Mini Opera (1985) Cast: sop, mezzo, ten, bar Instruments: fue, kayagum, vib & drums, tambula Duration: 20 mins.
Poemusica “Frog Fantasy” (1986) Cast: sop, ten, bar, ten, bass, 4 additional singers Instruments: fue-shaku, synth, perc Duration: 45 mins.
Tennoh-han to Yamata no Orochi: A Small Folk Opera in One Act (1990) Libretto: Asaya Fujita Setting: 5th C. in Kibi, Yamato (West Japan), and South Korea Cast: 7 singers Chorus: mixed chorus w/ dancers Instruments: shaku, perc, pf Duration: 28 mins.
Yomigaeru: A Folk Opera in Two Acts (1992) Poem: Shinpeni Kusano Libretto: Asaya Fujita Setting: modern day Japan Cast: bar, sop, sop, ten, bar, bass, 8 other singers Chorus: mixed-chorus Instruments: orchestra including perc, synth, str Duration: 1 hr. 28 mins. Premiere: Uta-za, Tokyo, 1992
Orochi Den: A Folk Opera in One Act (1992) Co-composer: Sakurako Ota Libretto: Wako Ota
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Shizuka and Yoshitsune: A Grand Opera in Three Acts (1993) Libretto: Rei Nakanishi Cast: sop, ten, bar, bass, mezzo, sop, sop, ten, ten, bass, bar, ten, bar, bar, alto, ten Chorus: mixed chorus Instruments: orchestra, 21-str koto, tsuzumi Duration: 2 hrs. 15 mins.
Terute and Oguri: A Musical Drama in Two Parts (1993) Libretto: Asaya Fujita Cast: sop, bass-bar, sop, bass, ten, sop, bar, other singers w/ actors and dancers Instruments: vn, vc, 21-str koto, shaku, 2 perc, 2 hn, 2 tpt, 2 trbn Duration: 2 hrs. 23 mins.
Hagoromo: A Music Drama in Two Acts (1995) Co-composer: Yoko Satoh Libretto: Toyoko Nishida Duration: 1 hr. 34 mins.
The River Sumida: An Opera in One Act (1995) Libretto: Asaya Fujita based on original libretto by Motomasa Kanze of famous Noh play Setting: 15th C. Edo Cast: sop, ten, bass, Chorus: mixed chamber chorus Instruments: vn, vc, cl-b cl, 21-str koto, perc Duration: 56 mins. Premiere: Double bill with Kuasbira, Geidankyo special production, Tokyo, 1995
Kusabira: An Opera in One Act (1995) Libretto: Asaya Fujita, from Kyougen play “Kusabira” Cast: ten, bar Chorus: mixed chamber chorus Instruments: vn, vc, b. cl, 21-str koto, perc Duration: 28 mins. Premiere: Double bill with The River Sumida, Geidankyo special production, Tokyo, 1995
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The Tale of Genji: An Opera in Three Acts (1999) Libretto: Colin Graham, based on epic novel of same title by Lady Murasaki Shikibu Setting: 10th-11rh C. in Kyoto, Suma, Akashi Cast: lyric sop, lyric sop, spinto sop, spinto sop, lyric mezzo, mezzo, contralto, ten, bar, bar, bar, bass-bar Chorus: mixed chorus Instruments: orchestra, pipa, qin, 21-str koto Duration: 3 hrs. Premiere: Opera Theater of St. Louis, 2000
Ai-En: A Grand Opera in Three Acts (2005) Libretto: Jakucho Setouchi Setting: 8th C. Nara, South China (Tang), Zhang An Cast: sop, ten, bar, sop, ten, bar, alto, bass-bar, bass, 3 other female and 2 other male soloists Chorus: mixed chorus Instruments: wind orch, 3 perc, 1 harp, str, solo pipa Duration: 2 hrs. 15 mins. Premiere: New National Theater Opera House, Tokyo, 2006
Musical Legend “Hagoromo” (2005) Part One Part Two 1. Small Overture 17. Mukashi mukashi arutokoro 3 2. Mukashi mukashi arutokro 22. Tennyo wa Kokoro de naita 4. Watashitachi ha Tennyo 24. Hagoromo no Komori-uta 7. Sonohi hajimete 25. Chichi no Himegoto 8. Interlude: Yamamichi wo iku 26. Watashi no Hagoramo 9. Yamazato no Ie 27. Hagoromo wa Kokoro no Tsubasa 10. Hata-ori Uta 29. Itsuka kono Hi ga 12. Watashi ha hitori 30. Hagorootte dokoni aru? 15. Chijou no Inochi 31. Mukashi mukashi arutokoro 4 16. Mukashi mukashi arutokoro 2 Libretto: Toyoko Nishida Cast: sop, bar, narrator Instruments: sho, fue, 2 shaku, biwa, 2 21-str koto, bass koto, perc Duration: 74 mins.
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