IJAR Vol 2 Issue 1 March 2008.Indb

ISSN - International (Online) 1994-6961 ISSN - United States (Online) 1938-7806

OCLC & World Cat # 145980807 Library of Congress Catalogue # 2007212183 International Journal of Architectural Research

Architecture Planning Built Environment Studies An International Fully Refereed Journal Published three times a year http://www.archnet.org

In this issue: Ferwati, M. S.; Lawrence, R. J.; Mahgoub, Y.; Mandour, M. A.; Masden II, K. G.; Mostafa, M.; Nasar, J. L.; Owen, C.; Preiser, W. F.E.; Rapoport, A.; Salama, A. M; Salingaros, N.A.; Sanoff, H.; Wang, X.

Editor Ashraf M. Salama Volume (2) - Issue (1) March 2008

Archnet-IJAR is published and archived by ARCHNET, the most comprehensive online community for architects, planners, urban designers, interior designers, landscape architects, and scholars working in these ﬁelds, developed at the MIT School of Architecture and Planning in close cooperation with, and with the full support of The Aga Khan Trust for Culture, an agency of the Aga Khan Development Network. 1

ISSN - International (Online) 1994-6961 ISSN - Unites States (Online) 1938-7806

OCLC & World Cat # 145980807 Library of Congress Catalogue # 2007212183 International Journal of Architectural Research

Chief Editor Ashraf M. Salama

Advisory Board Attilio Petruccioli Architecture Besim S. Hakim Hashim Sarkis Planning Henry Sanoff Jamel Akbar Built Environment Studies Michael J. Crosbie Mohamad Al-Asad Nasser Rabbat An International Fully Refereed Journal Nicholas Wilkinson Published three times a year Nikos A. Salingaros Peter Rowe Suha Ozkan Volume (2) - Issue (1) - March 2008 William Mitchell Copyright © 2008 Archnet-IJAR, MIT- Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Editorial Board All contributors granted Massachusetts Institute of Technology (“MIT”) worldwide Akhtar Chauhan rights and permission to reproduce, distribute, publicly display, and publicly Aleya Abel-Hadi perform the following Work in electronic format on the ArchNet Internet web site Ali Cengizkan at URL http://archnet.org. Amer Moustafa Anne Beamish Views, opinions, and research results are the responsibility of the contributors. Budi Sukada Images and ﬁgures are provided by the contributors. Dalila Al-Kerdani Donatella Mazzoleni Eman El-Nachar Fuad Mallick Hulya Turgut Ihab Elzeyadi M. Alaa Mandour Malika Bose Magda Sibley Archnet-IJAR is edited by Ashraf M. Salama and is published and archived by Mashary Al-Naim ARCHNET, the most comprehensive online community for architects, planners, Peter Kellett urban designers, interior designers, landscape architects, and scholars working Rabee Reffat in these ﬁelds, developed at the MIT School of Architecture and Planning in Yasser El-Shehstawy close cooperation with, and with the full support of The Aga Khan Trust for Yasser Mahgoub Culture, an agency of the Aga Khan Development Network.

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International Journal of Architectural Research Archnet- IJAR

ArchNet International Journal of Architectural interested in developing their understanding Research – Archnet-IJAR is the ﬁrst of its kind; and enhancing their knowledge about how an interdisciplinary comprehensive scholarly environments are designed, created, and used in journal of architecture, planning, and built physical, social, cultural, economic, and aesthetic environment studies, that is blind reviewed and terms. Archnet-IJAR content keeps readers published on the World Wide Web three times up-to-date on the latest ideas, designs, and a year. developments in built environment related ﬁelds.

Objectives Archnet-JAR publishes research studies, criticisms Archnet-IJAR objective is to establish a bridge and evaluation studies, and critical analyses between theory and practice in the fields about the creation, use, and evaluation of of architectural and design research, and different types of environments at the macro urban planning and built environment studies. and micro scales. The journal includes original It reports on the latest research findings and empirical research papers, analytical case innovative approaches for creating responsive studies, and high quality position papers. Three environments, with special focus on architecture major areas are covered by Archnet-IJAR: and planning in developing countries. Architectural and Design Research: Archnet-IJAR is truly international and aims Topics include –but not limited to: architectural at strengthening ties between scholars from pedagogy and design studio teaching practices; different parts of the world with contributors architectural technology and sustainable design; and readers reaching across geography, design methods and architectural theories; boundaries, and cultures. design and project programming; environment- behavior studies; information technology; Archnet-IJAR articles come from architects, Islamic architecture; computer applications interior designers, planners, and landscape and virtual environments; post occupancy and architects, and from those working in these fields facility performance evaluation; and social and in academic institutions, universities, research cultural factors in design. centers, government agencies, and private practice. Urban and Built Environment Studies: Topics include --but not limited to: administrative Reader and political factors contributing to the shaping Archnet-IJAR addresses academics, practitioners, of communities, cities and urban regions, and students of archi-tecture, planning and community planning; sustainable urban interior design. It addresses those who are conservation; environmental planning and eco

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development; housing policy, planning, and Interested contributors contact the chief editor design; new urbanism; sustainable development; expressing interest, and submitting a summary of space syntax and GIS applications; and way- their paper. One page will do. ﬁnding and signage systems. The chief editor consults with the advisory and editorial board members according to their Critical Essays on Architectural and relevant expertise. Planning Projects: Essays that cover the above topics; critically Soon after receiving feedback from the referees, discussing projects in use; after they have been author(s) are contacted to submit their full designed, built and occupied. Articles are papers. preferred to utilize the case study approach as a When full papers are received, they will be critical method in built environment research. forwarded to two editorial board members for blind review, according to the referee form. Advisory and Editorial Boards The Chief Editor is in charge of developing The chief editor contacts the author(s) with the journal issues, seeking out resources and articles, referee form ﬁlled by the reviewers. While papers establishing publishing strategies, coordinating will be blind reviewed, in exceptional cases the review process, and posting each issue author(s) will be asked to communicate directly and its articles online. Archnet-IJAR has two with the reviewers. boards; advisory and editorial. The range of Author(s) revise their papers as noted by the expertise of the boards that include the panel reviewers and re-submit their work to the chief of referees –academics and professionals- editor. - ensures high quality scholarly papers and allows for a comprehensive academic review Author(s) should make sure that their submissions of contributions that span wide spectrum of should be free of jargon, clear, simple and to the issues, methods, theoretical approaches, and point. professional practice. Papers will be published in the next issue according to the following schedule: Submission Process March 30th (publishing date): December 15th Unlike other printed Journals where contributors (deadline to receive papers after reviews) wait for periods that reach two or three years July 30th (publishing date): April 15th for their work to get published, the value of (deadline to receive papers after reviews) Archnet-IJAR as an online journal is that it November 30th (publishing date): August 15th eliminates the large lead time needed for (deadline to receive papers after reviews) publication. However, submission, referee, and publishing processes are strict and adhere to Interested reviewers and members of the the following procedures: advisory board may submit their work for publication in Archnet-IJAR. Their work will go

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through the same blind review process and will the readers’ search on Archnet Website, and follow the preceding procedures. should not exceed 5 key words. Articles Notes to Contributors Articles should not exceed 6000 words, including references. 1. Submission of Manuscripts The language of the journal is English. All Notes submissions will be online. One copy of the Avoid the use of footnotes and endnotes, if manuscript (in word document format) together unavoidable, label as (1), (2) and list all together with original figures and tables must be submitted at the end of the paper. to the editor: Ashraf Salama [email protected] The name, mailing address, position, affiliation, References telephone, fax, and email of each author must References in the text should give the surname be supplied in a cover letter attached to an of the author and the year of publication in email. All papers will be blind reviewed and brackets, for example, Rowe (1985) or (Rowe, assessed by at least two referees. 1985), followed by a, b,...when two or more references to work by one author are given 2. Preparation of Manuscripts for the same year. Page numbers should be Layout given for quotes (Mitchell, 2003:33). At the Manuscripts should be typed in double spacing end of the text the references should be on one side of A4 (21x29.7 cm) paper with listed in alphabetical order of authors’ names reasonable margins (2.5 cm). All pages should and in chronological order for each author. be numbered consecutively. Initial and final page numbers of articles and Title page (page 1) papers should be given. The names of books The first page of the manuscript must contain a and periodicals should be given in full, and concise and informative title; names, affiliations the publisher and the city of publication should and addresses (including e-mail) of all authors, be given for books, conference proceedings, and identify the corresponding author (who etc. Details of availability should be given for will be responsible for correspondence and unpublished conference papers. Full references reviewing proofs). An abbreviated title of less should also be given for legal judgments, bylaws than 50 characters (including letters and spaces) and regulations, and government publications, should also be suggested. etc. Examples of reference citation are given below. Title of paper, abstract and keywords (page 2) Title of the paper should be witten at the top Dutton, T.A. (Ed.). (1991). Voices in Architectural of abstract without authors’ name. A concise Education: Cultural Politics and Pedagogy, Bergin & and informative abstract must not exceed 300 Garvey, New York, NY, USA. words in length, should summarize the objective, Hegvold, L. (1999). “Seeking an Effective Cross- methods and major findings of the paper. Cultural Design Pedagogy.” In William O'Reilly (Ed.), Keywords must be carefully selected to facilitate Architectural Knowledge and Cultural Diversity,

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Comportments, Lausanne, Switzerland, pp. 93-100. 3. Submission Process, Copyright, and Salama, A. (1998). “Integrating Environment-Behavior Originality of Work Studies into Architectural Education Teaching Proofs will be sent to the corresponding author Practices,” In J. Teklenburg, J. Van Andel, J. Smeets, for checking. Proofs should be returned within & A. Seidel (Eds.), Shifting Balances: Changing Roles one week of receipt. Authors should correct in Policy, Research, and Design, EIRSS Publishers, typesetting errors only; they should not add any Eindhoven, Netherlands, pp.128-139. new material to the paper at proof stage. Salama, A. (2006). “Learning from the Environment: Evaluation Research and Experience Based Please read the submission process and Architectural Pedagogy,” Transactions, CEBE-Center procedures, and copyright notes under the for Education in the Built Environment, Cardiff, UK, 3 general outline of the ARCHNET-IJAR. (1), pp. 64-83. Salama, A., O’Reilly, W. & Nochis, K. (Eds.). (2002). Architectural Education Today: Cross Cultural Perspectives, Comportments, Lausanne, Switzerland. Sanoff, H. (1992). Integrating Programming, Evaluation, and Participation in Design, Avery, London, UK.

Tables Each table must be typed, and con-secutively numbered. They should have a brief informative title placed as a heading. Tables should be understand-able without reference to the text, but they should be referred to in the text. Explanatory captions should be brief and placed beneath the table. Figures Figures should be numbered consecuti- - vely throughout the paper and identified with the authors’ name and the figure number outside the reproduction area. Figures should be referred to in the text and should be placed within the body of the paper. However, all figures should be supplied in separate files as JPEG file format. All correspondence should be addressed to Figure dimensions should not exceed 21x30 cm. the chief editor. Photographs should be used with restraint and must be of high quality. Explanatory captions Ashraf Salama should be brief, placed beneath the figure. [email protected]

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International Journal of Architectural Research Archnet- IJAR Volume (2) - Issue (1) - March 2008

Contents

Editorial: Excellence in Architectural and Urban Research 07/15 Ashraf M. Salama

Some Further Thoughts on Culture and Environment 16/39 Amos Rapoport

Architecture between the Culture-Nature Dualism: 40/56 A Case Study of Geoffrey Bawa’s Kandalama Hotel Ceridwen Owen

Multiple Views of Participatory Design 57/69 Henry Sanoff

Rethinking Residential Mobility: An Interdisciplinary Interpretation 70/83 Roderick J. Lawrence

Assessing Building Performance: Its Evolution from Post-Occupancy Evaluation 84/99 Wolfgang F. E. Preiser and Jack L. Nasar

A Theory for Integrating Knowledge in Architectural Design Education 100/128 Ashraf M. Salama

Intelligence-Based Design: 129/188 A Sustainable Foundation for Worldwide Architectural Education Nikos A. Salingaros & Kenneth G. Masden II

An Architecture for Autism: Concepts of Design Intervention for the Autistic User 189/211 Magda Mostafa

Quantitative (GIS) and Qualitative (BPE) Assessments of Library Performance 212/231 Wolfgang F.E. Preiser and Xinhao Wang

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International Journal of Architectural Research Archnet- IJAR Volume (2) - Issue (1) - March 2008

The Impact of War on the Meaning of Architecture in Kuwait 232/246 Yasser Mahgoub

Proportions and Human Scale in Damascene Courtyard Houses 247/263 M. Salim Ferwati & M. Alaa Mandour

Reviews and Trigger Articles

Book Reviews: Selected Scandinavian Contributions to 264/269 Contemporary Architectural Discourse Ashraf M. Salama

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research 7

EDITORIAL: EXCELLENCE IN ARCHITECTURAL AND URBAN RESEARCH

Ashraf M. Salama

This issue marks the beginning of a new year - University of Waterloo, Canada for Archnet-IJAR. A considerable effort has - University of Guelph, Canada been put to position the journal among other - UIA List of Architectural Reviews, France distinguished journals in the field. After a year, - Wikipedia: the Online Encyclopedia the three issues included in the first volume - York University, Canada accommodated 23 research paper and 14 reviews and trigger articles. While research What was a pleasing news piece I received this papers are refereed by the independent year is a message responding to my request of panel of reviewers who are well versed in including Archnet-IJAR in the Avery Index of their areas of specialization and expertise, the Architectural Periodical at Columbia University, reviews and trigger articles are reviewed by the United States. After conducting the necessary editor based on relevance and the targeted reviews Mr. Ted Goodman, the general editor reader. As a result of this effort and the rigorous of Avery Index mentioned: “I am happy to review process, Archnet-IJAR is now standing say that we will add your journal to the Avery among the leading periodicals in architecture, Index. It fits in perfectly with our strategic goals planning, and built environment studies. This of increasing global coverage and indexing is reflected in the recognition the journal has online journals.” Starting from January 2008, received over the past year. In addition to Archnet-IJAR became part of the Avery Index being part of the Library of Congress database of Architectural Periodicals, and is aspiring and the OCLC-Online Computer Library System, to be part of other indexing databases and Archnet-IJAR is now included in the following abstracting directories. directories and databases: Some colleagues were wondering about the - Arclib, Arch Library Services - Australia images used in the cover pages of the previous - InformeDesign, University of Minnesota, USA three issues. They recommended that some - Trellis Catalogue, Canada form of identification of these images and what - Ulrich’s Periodicals Directory they represent needs to be mentioned in the

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editorial. Such a recommendation is considered that of Petronas Twin Towers, Kuala Lumpur, starting from this issue. In this respect, one needs Malaysia—designed by Cesar Pelli (Figures 1, 2, to relate IJAR readers to the cover images of and 3). While information on Khalifa Stadium the ﬁrst three issues: The cover image used and Petronas Towers can be found on the in the inaugural issue was that of Khalifa web and in some of the reviews and theory Stadium in Doha, Qatar—redeveloped by Cox books on contemporary architecture, the city Architects in partnership with GHD-Australia, of Damascus, Syria is described in many of the while the cover image of the second issue was books on the history of Islamic architecture or

ASHRAF M. SALAMA an aerial view of the city of Damascus, and the architecture in the Middle East. image used for the cover of the third issue was

Figure 1: Khalifa Stadium in Doha, Qatar—redeveloped by Cox Architects in partnership with GHD-Australia. (Source: A. Salama).

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 2 - Issue 1 - March 2008 Editorial: Excellence in Architectural and Urban Research 9 ASHRAF M. SALAMA

Figure 2: An aerial view of the city of Damascus, one of the only two continuously inhabited places throughout human history; the cover image of Archnet-IJAR, Vol.1, Issue 2. (Source: A. Salama).

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two continuously inhabited places throughout human history. One should note in this context that Archnet-IJAR covered issues that pertain to the urban environment of Damascus—in the third issue the work of M. Salim Ferwati offered a discussion on human curiosity in the environment through a street walk in Damascus and the head-turning situations involved. In this

ASHRAF M. SALAMA issue, Ferwait and Mandour offer a spatial and formal analysis of historical courtyard house types found in the city while investigating the notions of proportions and human scale in architecture. The cover of this issue is an image of Al Azhar Park project, one of the outstanding projects recently developed in Cairo (inaugurated in 2005). In 1984, the project’s idea came into existence at the Aga Khan Award for Architecture’s conference titled The Expanding Metropolis: Coping with the urban growth of Cairo. With the clear decline of the Cairene built environment, the project was conceived as an urban park, the aim of which was to bring some greenery and open spaces to Cairo, a city with less than one footprint of green for every resident. The site is a centrally Figure 3: Petronas Twin Towers, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia— located derelict 30 hectare region in Darrassa designed by Cesar Pelli; the cover image of Archnet-IJAR, Vol.1, Issue 3. (Source: A. Salama). neighborhood, abandoned for over 500 years, bordering the 12th century Ayyubid wall, the 15th century Mamluk City of the Dead, and Damascus was founded in the 3rd millennium the vibrant historical yet ever decaying Darb B.C.; it is one of the oldest cities in the world. In Al Ahmar district. The park was conceived the Middle Ages, it was the centre of a ﬂourishing to include: main spine (palm colonnade); craft industry, specializing in swords and lace. a series of formal garden; hilltop lookout kiosk; According to UNESCO reports, the city has over hilltop restaurants; children’s structured play a hundered monuments from different periods area; children’s amphitheatre and stage; of its history – one of the most spectacular is the lookout plaza; water cascade and stream; 8th-century Great Mosque of the Umayyads. It lake; orchard; playing ﬁelds; historical wall is said that Damascus and Aleppo are the only promenade and amphitheatre (Figure 4).

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 2 - Issue 1 - March 2008 Editorial: Excellence in Architectural and Urban Research 11 ASHRAF M. SALAMA

Figure 4: A view to the north through the main spine of Al-Azhar Park, Cairo, Egypt. The cover image of this issue of Archnet-IJAR, Vol.2, Issue 1. (Source: A. Salama).

I now return to where I began; the efforts and words of wisdom out of decades of undertaken to establish Archnet-IJAR over the experience in teaching and research. There past year resulted in attracting both a large are great contributions from authorities such body of readers while distinguished professors as Amos Rapoport; Henry Sanoff; Jack Nasar; and scholars started to contribute their work. Nikos A. Salingaros and Kenneth G. Masden In this issue, a considerable number of giants II; Roderick Lawrence; Wolfgang Preiser; and in the ﬁelds of architecture and human- Xinhao Wang. High quality contributions from environment interaction offer their thoughts younger committed scholars include those

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of Ceridwen Owen; Ashraf M. Salama; Yasser how architecture may operate in the space Mahgoub; Magda Moustafa; and M. Salim between them. Referring to the work of Dutton Ferwati and M. Alaa Mandour. Metaphorically, (1996), Owen emphasizes that architecture one can argue that in this edition of Archnet- is both “a product of and condition for our IJAR different generations meet to reflect on relationship to the world” and argues that its very their experience, interests, and concerns. manifestation may serve to structure the forms that these visions may take. Based on the Case Amos Rapoport offers some further notes on of Bawa’s Kandlama Hotel, she concludes that culture-environment relations based on four ASHRAF M. SALAMA architecture not only provides a visible record decades of exploring and synthesizing ideas of changing cultural ideals and social practices from different fields toward a more responsive manifest in built form as a “spatialization” of interpretation of culture as it relates to the history, “it also plays a powerful future formative everyday physical environment. Referring role in imagining other possibilities.” to his latest book: Culture, Architecture, and Design (2005) as his “last word” on the subject, Henry Sanoff’s three decades’ experience Rapoport relates some of the concepts he in community design and development is has introduced to a considerable number of reflected in his paper on multiple views of new examples from different cultures around participatory design. Sanoff’s vision is that the world. These insights are based on his “participatory design is an attitude about recent travels, while at the same time strongly a force for change in the creation and emphasizing the value of exploring and management of environments for people.” understanding ideas and concepts from other Community participation in design and fields in developing deeper and thoughtful planning, as a movement, emerged from a insights of culture-environment relations. growing realization that the mismanagement He reiterates that understanding culture- of the physical environment is a major factor environment relations remains an important contributing to the social and economic aspect of Environment-Behavior Studies (EBS). ills of the world, and that there are better He argues, and rightly so, that developing such ways of going about design and planning. an understanding is “much more complex than Consequently, how to make it possible for it appears at first glance,” and therefore needs people to be involved in shaping and managing more research and in-depth knowledge. their environment is what the community design movement has been exploring over the Continuing the topic of culture, Ceridwen Owen past few decades. Sanoff asserts that citizens offers a provocative analytical discussion on must be well-trained in participating in their the relationship between culture and nature as community and workplace at the local level represented by a continuous dynamic tension and in practicing self-governance in order to involved in the creation of built environments. implement participation programs on the larger Selecting Geoffrey Bawa’s Kandlama Hotel in scale national level. Sri Lanka, Owen considers culture and nature as two polarities and provides an argument on Addressing the issue of residential mobility,

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Roderick Lawrence introduces an article recent project, reported in the book Designing which is culled from a wide spectrum of issues for Designers: Lessons Learned from Schools of he has explored for twenty years. His work Architecture that utilized distributed technology takes into account how a human ecology to systematically evaluate the performance of perspective can be applied to improve our 17 contemporary architecture school buildings current understanding of housing, including from around the world. Reﬂecting on the future housing cultures, and identities which are linked development of the ﬁeld, the approaches to motives concerning why households move utilized, lessons learned, and ways in which the

ASHRAF M. SALAMA or stay in the same housing unit. As Lawrence methodology and findings apply to other kinds states “These are complex subjects that of facilities are explained and discussed. influence housing markets and domestic life especially in a period of rapid change.” On this While the contributions of Rapoport, Owen, basis, he offers a review of some key concepts Sanoff, and Preiser and Nasar can be related to human ecology, including housing, categorized under the general heading culture, identity and cultivation while linking of human-environment interactions, two these concepts to the way in which residential contributions of Ashraf M. Salama and Nikos mobility can be re-interpreted utilizing an A. Salingaros and Kenneth G. Masden II focus interdisciplinary approach. Lawrence presents on architectural education. Based on his an empirical case study of residential mobility research and experimentation on architectural in Geneva, Switzerland which delineates the education and design studio teaching way in which this approach may help develop practices, Salama conceptualizes a new theory a deeper understanding of the motives people for integrating knowledge into architectural have regarding their wishes to stay in their design education. His work is structured in four residence or to move elsewhere. distinct but related parts that involve the reasons for developing a new theory. Salama explains Analyzing the evolution of the field of post- the current context in which such a theory is occupancy evaluation and aesthetic developed, then presents the components programming and evaluation from their origins and elements of the theory, and the way in in the 1960s, Preiser and Nasar analytically which such components and elements can describe different transformations which led to be accommodated at the studio level and at current developments in building performance the overall curriculum level. Salama bases his and visual assessment studies. Their discussion work on some alarming figures, the syndrome relates this field to the consumer-oriented of viewing architects as art and only art, the approach that embodies a number of qualities syndrome of emphasizing the development including self organization, adaptation and of skills at the expense of knowledge, and continuous improvement. Preiser and Nasar comments on a number of missing conceptions outline issues that pertain to the future of this in architectural pedagogy. field, its value, viability, cost-effectiveness, and benefits for different types of stakeholders. Nikos A. Salingaros and Kenneth G. Masden II Their work concludes with an examination of a offer a provocative position based proposal

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that goes beyond current discussions on Mostafa, Wolfgang Preiser and Xinaho Wang, architectural education and addresses a new Yasser Mahgoub, and Ferwati and Mandour all way of thinking based on integrating other ﬁelds contribute to such a theme through different into architecture. Such a proposal is responsive perspectives and interests. Magda Mostafa in nature. On the one hand, it responds to the argues that architecture should respond to all current ills of architectural education worldwide. types of users. With interest in the autistic user They eloquently phrase some of these ills and and how design guidelines may contribute this is evident in their statements: “Forced to to autistic needs Magda sets the stage for

ASHRAF M. SALAMA formulate a body of work constrained by the discussing this type of special population, paradigm of contemporary design, students “Despite this high incidence of autism, there learn to copy fashionable images without are yet to be developed architectural design understanding their geometry; or simply invent guidelines catering specifically to the scope forms that look as if they possess a contemporary of autistic needs.” Through a rigorous research sense of architecture.” On the other hand, these process, she first determines the spatial authors respond to the fact that a considerable elements that have a strong impact on the work to rejuvenate architectural pedagogy behavior of autistic children, and then rank has been done but perhaps neglected “While those elements to identify specific behavioral many innovative didactic materials and ideas indicators including attention span, response for revising the architectural curriculum are time and behavioral temperament. Her work available today, they are often overlooked results in a series of findings that include design or ignored.” The proposal of Salingaros and strategies for autism involving a “sensory design Masden is aimed at students, faculty, and matrix” and a set of hypothetical design those who make decisions about the structure guidelines developed as possible design of architectural curricula. It is based on the interventions for future testing. It is believed that evolutionary process of human interaction this work provides a basis for developing design with the environment. Overall, the proposal standards for autistic users. brings to life some of the forgotten values that shaped the education of architects throughout Wolfgang Preiser and Xinhao Wang articulate the years. One should note that while this an innovative approach for investigating the proposal is responsive, it is also generous as it performance of public libraries. The approach details a new curriculum model for programs integrates qualitative building performance leading to professional degrees in architecture. evaluation (BPE) and a quantitative Such a curriculum model is underpinned by geographic information system (GIS) into a a considerable number of theories, concepts, coherent methodology. Such a methodology is and paradigms. implemented in a research project which was to create a Facilities Master Plan for the Public People’s understanding of, reaction to and Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton County in interaction with the environment appear to the United States. The outcomes of the project be a sustained theme throughout the papers are recommendations, as well as medium to of this issue. Evidently, the papers of Magda long term projections, with primary emphasis

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on branch libraries. Speciﬁc recommendations Reiterating, they offer a wide venue for achieving for each branch placed emphasis on: needed excellence in online publishing in architecture and improvements; closure and/or consolidation urbanism, while paving many roads for debating with other branch libraries; and, the creation the complexity of built environment related ﬁelds. of new full-service “hub” libraries. These I invite interested academics to contribute to the recommendations are envisioned to achieve future issues of Archnet-IJAR, especially fellow greater cost-effectiveness and improved academics and practitioners who do not have services. Practical implications of this project access to other printed journals.

ASHRAF M. SALAMA include a rational decision making tool for library facility master planning in the future. Ashraf Salama Archnet-IJAR Editor Yasser Mahgoub investigates the impact of the February 2008 war on architecture in Kuwait as a literal and figurative target of the warfare. His intention ------is to offer an understanding of the change of Ashraf M. Salama Kuwaitis attitudes towards architecture as an Ashraf Salama holds B.Sc., M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in outcome of the war aggressions. Mahgoub Architecture. He is Professor of Architecture currently concludes that while the war had a physical teaching at Qatar University, was Associate Professor at impact on buildings and structures; it also had KFUPM (2004-06), and was the Director of Consulting at a perceptual impact on their meaning as Adams Group Architects in Charlotte, North Carolina, architecture and places. “It polarized attitudes USA (2001-04). He is licensed architect in Egypt received his training at Al Azhar University in Egypt and North towards architecture and its significance; while Carolina State University, Raleigh, USA. Salama chaired traditional architecture gained importance the Department of Architecture, Misr International and admiration; global styles of architecture University in Cairo (1996-01). He has published became more trendy and fashionable.” One numerous papers and authored and co-edited five of the important contributions of this paper is books on Architectural Education: Designing the that a significant impact of the war in Kuwait Design Studio (USA), Human Factors in Environmental on the progress and implementation of many Design (Egypt), Architectural Education Today: Cross strategic urban initiatives is explained and Cultural Perspectives (Switzerland), Architecture as Language of Peace (Italy), and recently, Design Studio outlined. It is believed that this work offers a Pedagogy: Horizons for the Future (United Kingdom). good basis for understanding the relationship He is member of the scientific boards of several intl. between war and architecture and ideas for journals including Open House International, Time future understanding of healing the processes Based Architecture International, and the Chief Editor of human, societal, and cultural evolution in of “Archnet-IJAR.” He can be reached by email at war-torn countries and cities. [email protected] or [email protected].

The eleven contributions presented in this edition offer a wide variety of ideas, concepts, arguments, conclusions presented by authorities, distinguished professors, and committed scholars.

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SOME FURTHER THOUGHTS ON CULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT

Amos Rapoport

Abstract Keywords I begin with a recent book Culture, Architecture, Culture; evolution; human universals; explanatory and Design that summarizes my work on culture- theory; abstraction; dismantling; multidisciplinarity. environment relations. Three of its important general points are discussed and some possible misconceptions clarified (e.g. that culture is the Introduction only, or most important, variable). Some other points I have recently summarized my work on culture are elaborated and developed, and a number and culture-environment relations in a book.1 In of important new developments, concepts, this paper, therefore, I begin with that book and findings and ideas introduced from a number of relevant sciences. In this connection I reiterate the summarize some of its most important general importance of Environment Behavior Studies-EBS points. I do this because, in a way, it represents being a science, hence developing explanatory my “last word” on the subject. At the same time theory and, consequently the importance of keeping there is no need to repeat most of what is in up with a large number of disciplines beyond those it. My purpose here is to develop and explain with which EBS started. The relevance of those may some ideas and, most important, to introduce not be apparent at first, but becomes apparent some very significant new developments in the at some level of abstraction. Among new topics relevant sciences. This is important because introduced are the potential role of culture in non- the process of updating always continues, residential environments (so far not much discussed), so that one needs to keep up with such new the question of cultural identity and the possible role of scale in both. The utility of dismantling for a ideas. There is also a need to take these number of the topics introduced is re-emphasized. new developments further, to consider their Among important new concepts I emphasize relevance to environment-behavior studies human universals, the evolution of culture, the role (EBS) and to interpret them into existent body of of niche construction and the handicap principle work, i.e. to continue empirical and theoretical (costly signaling), rule systems (and simulation) and research. their implications for studying culture-environment relations. I had three distinct purposes in writing the book:

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1. The ﬁrst was general and not related to completely variable but has major constancies culture as such. It is the reason that a book and, moreover, that some apparently variable summarizing almost 40 years of work is so aspects are expressions of underlying constants short. The intention was to show that a strong or universals. This is important conceptually, conceptual framework is of critical importance, not only regarding culture, but regarding EBS and makes it possible to compress a great deal generally, by emphasizing the existence and of material, and that this can then be done role of human nature and human universals

AMOS RAPOPORT simply and concisely. Although, as I have long (Brown, 1991, 2000; Goldsmith, 1991; Pinker, argued, theory can do this very much better 2002; Rhoads, 2004; new journal: Anthropology and is, therefore essential, “… a conceptual and Human Nature, to begin soon). This also framework that draws all the necessary has practical implications: It may reduce the distinctions, a framework that organizes the variability that one needs to consider and relevant categories into the appropriate deal with, may suggest alternatives and may structure, a framework whose taxonomy help the transferability of research done in one reflects at least the more obvious of the rough culture to others (discussed later). nomic categories holding across the elements … is already a theory” (Churchland, 2000: p.120). A recent very interesting reinforcement of this idea uses the concept of an ‘ethnographic 2. The second more specific (but still general) hyperspace.’ It is possible to visualize a vast purpose was to synthesize one part of my work number of possible (imaginable) cultures, on EBS, that on culture, and thus strengthen based on combinations of a restricted my arguments for the importance of synthesis number of accepted variables, for example and implication (and generalization) and from the human relations area. That number to suggest how this can be done, by using a is 12 followed by 52 zeros! In fact, however, strong conceptual framework. Such synthesis, the number of human cultures is very much implication and generalization are also an smaller. Moreover, these cultures share many essential step for theory development. of the universals identified in Brown (1991), and other work (Cronk, 1999). These developments 3. The third, most specific, purpose was to provide an important corrective to much work develop some insights into the nature of on culture and environment (and in the social culture, especially as it relates to the physical sciences) which in emphasizing the role of environments and through this, and above all, culture tends to concentrate on variability and to make ‘culture’ operational, so that one can neglect constancies. use it even while a full-pledged explanatory theory of EBS is lacking. This aspect has two components. One is purely conceptual and abstract, and the second is more ‘concrete’ and pragmatic.

a.) The ﬁrst of these is the idea that culture is not

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Figure 1: Constant and variable aspects of ‘culture,’ with the possibility of speciﬁc expressions of constants. (Based partly on A. Rapoport, History and Precedent in Environmental Design, New York, Plenum, 1990. Fig. 3.12, p.111; “Using ‘Culture’ in Housing Design,” Housing and Society, Vol. 25, No. 1&2, 1998, Fig. 7, p. 14; “Architectural Anthropology or Environment-Behavior Studies,” in M-J. Amerlink (ed.), Architectural Anthropology, Westport, Conn., Bergin and Garvey, 2001, Fig. 2.1, p. 32; 2003, Fig. 39, p.81 (Source: A. Rapoport, 2005).

b.) The second component is based on the dismantling that I have developed and now argument that the concept of ‘culture’ has use in connection with culture is best shown by proved to be much too broad and abstract a diagram. to be usable, at least in connection with the environment (which is also too broad and Each expression and component of culture vague). The solution which I have proposed, can be examined separately and links which I use frequently and which is highly established with speciﬁc aspects of the general I call dismantling (the term ‘unpacking’ environment. Such a process can also lead to is also used in some literatures). I have used this a better understanding of the whole system, approach for environmental quality, vernacular since dismantling a complex system yields an design, tradition, ambience, spontaneous understanding of how the whole system works settlements and meaning, and found it both (Poon and Ferrell, 2007). useful and enlightening in each case. The

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Figure 2: Combined diagram of the Tub Dismantlings of ‘culture,’ relating its expressions to the built environment (e.g. housing). The width of the arrows corresponds approximately to the feasibility and ease of relating the various elements. (From A. Rapoport, “Theory, Culture, and Housing,” Housing, Theory, and Society, Vol. 17, No. 4, 2000, Fig. 4, p. 149; “Science, Explanatory Theory and Environment-Behavior Studies,” in S. Wapner et. al. (eds.), Theoretical Perspectives in Environment-Behavior Research, New York, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2000. (Source: A. Rapoport, 2005).

I have recently given an example of how this that this dismantling is useful in the studying of can be done for housing, an environment most aspects of culture-environment relations. where culture probably plays the largest For example culture change among rural role (Rapoport, 2002 a; Rapoport, 1998). migrants can be studied by examining changes This approach was also used, with different in social expressions and components (such as components and expressions for housing in a images); one can study the role of rule systems developing country and provided useful insights (discussed later); the speciﬁcs of culturally (Jabareen, 2005). This reinforces my argument supportive environments and the role of cultural

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competence (Rapoport, 1983). environment relations (and EBS more generally). These I discuss in no particular order. Note also that this particular dismantling can also be linked to other formulations. These First, however, a general observation, it seems are often not only compatible with it but, clear that much of the literature on culture I would argue, can be derived from it. One and environment (including much of my earlier clear example is provided by the approach of work) has been concerned primarily with

AMOS RAPOPORT Mazumdar and Mazumdar (1994). It would be arguing for the important role of culture, trying useful systematically to look for, and analyze to demonstrate it through examples mainly others to see if they can be related to, and cross-cultural comparisons, showing differences derived from, the proposed dismantling. among environments. In my case, this has been accompanied by trying to explain this One important aspect of this approach is variability, e.g. by emphasizing meaning (and not only to dismantle ‘culture’ into aspects hence latent aspects) as a most important and expressions that can be studied, but also function. to study how these (still invisible/intangible) aspects and expressions become visible in the As a result, ‘culture’ may sometimes have been tangible physical environment. However, they over emphasized in that literature, and the may not necessarily become visible in the fixed- impression created that it was the only variable, feature realm (the concern of designers). They since others were not discussed. That was never may be expressed by aspects of environmental the intention. The sole role of culture is as quality, particular organization of settings, unlikely as the view that it has no impact and specific penetration gradients, or flexibility— can, therefore be ignored. Clearly it cannot, which makes possible tangible (and hence since culture is a major, indeed defining, visible) semi-fixed and non-fixed features of attribute of humans, with deep evolutionary environments which are supportive of culture, roots. The importance of its role must then lie express cultural identity, and so on. This will be between these two extremes. How important discussed in more detail later. it is generally, and in any given case, is an empirical question and can only be answered New Developments, Concepts, and Ideas through research. Its role may (and probably does) vary with the type of environment, In research, however, there is rarely a ‘last overtime, for different groups, in different word,’ especially in a relatively new field. This situations and contexts and so on. is even more the case in an interdisciplinary field, and when one relies on new work in Consider types of environments. The examples different disciplines. I will, therefore, now turn used are usually of housing (in the broad to some developments, ideas and additions to sense of systems of settings for living, including the book which emerged during further work neighborhoods, their urban spaces, other and further synthesis. These seem important setting types, etc.). This is because the role of for a more complete understanding of culture- culture there is particularly strong. Moreover,

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a large number of these examples tend to be building in Bangalore ‘Indian’ (Rai, 2005 b). Two of traditional and vernacular where the role of assumptions are made implicitly: 1. that steel culture is stronger still. In this sense, these become and glass represent the west, are global. 2. model systems for studying culture-environment that, therefore, solid buildings with few windows interaction (Rapoport, 2006 a). Also frequently and particular colors are ‘Indian.’ This is very used are spontaneous settlements—today’s doubtful. If, in the photograph, one takes away vernacular (Rapoport, 1988 a). the people and their dress that could well be a 3

AMOS RAPOPORT building in Scandinavia or anywhere else. The question, can be asked, one hardly discussed or researched, is whether culture The role of culture in non residential also plays a potential role in other types of environments could possibly vary with scale. For environments, if so—how, which components/ example, while office buildings as such might expressions of culture and their relative not be able to be culture-specific, interiors, importance, regarding what (identity, image, the organization of settings, expressions of expressions of hierarchy, how tasks are hierarchy, expressions of status, and so on performed, people involved, etc.). might well vary with culture (Doxtater, 1994; It seems worth-while, therefore, to consider Choi, 1986; the obvious differences among and do research on the role of culture on offices in the US, France, India, China and so the full range of environments, i.e. the non- on). Although culturally specific ways of dealing residential environment. I have long wanted with disease, especially psychiatric disorders is to look at this but have not gotten around to well known (and briefly discussed later), the it. I have, however, suggested that in the case environmental implications have received of universities,2 airports, scientific laboratories, hardly any attention. There has, however, been office buildings, sport arena and stadia, etc, anecdotal evidence for quite some time. Early th the role of culture may be minimal or even in the 20 Century Albert Schweitzer patient insignificant (see photographs of Infosys in wards in his hospital in Africa in culturally Rai 2005, and New York Times, April 15, 2007, specific ways (and was severely criticized for p.4). This hypothesis may be wrong and, it). He argued that wards should respond to the consequently research and evidence are fact that the patient’s whole family moves in, badly needed. cooks and cares for him etc. I observed similar issues in Papua New Guinea in the early 1970’s. This raises another issue. If, for some reason, There has, however, been little research on it one wants non-residential environments until a recent doctoral dissertation in Sweden to express cultural identity, what physical about Namibia (Nord, 2003). I would argue (as a elements would do so? Such attempts are hypothesis) that while patient areas might need not based on any research or evidence and to be variable, more technically dominated are dubious. Thus oriental roofs on skyscraper settings—operating theaters, X-ray, MRI, CT office buildings, as one sees in China do not scanning areas, laboratories, etc would hardly seem to work (cf. Barnard, 1984). Consider a be influenced by the local culture ( a point recent attempt to make a high-tech research made below about urban areas).

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There is evidence that facilities for the elderly Consider the latter. Scale can, and does, (admittedly an institutional form of housing) vary play a role in the urban realm. For example, cross culturally both across countries, and for downtown areas, business centers, main streets different groups within countries. Drinking and and avenues tend to be non-culture speciﬁc, eating patterns may also vary i.e. at the scale having the same character everywhere, as of bars and dining settings. For example, culture in the case of Jakarta, Nairobi, Kampala, Saõ change, and changes in the components and Paulo, Shanghai and other Chinese cities,

AMOS RAPOPORT expressions of culture has been shown to have and elsewhere. That is the case at the level of major impacts on the English pub (Vassey, 1990). fixed features. Differences may still be found in Cultural differences are also considered in the the semi-fixed feature realm and, especially, design of visa sections of US diplomatic buildings in the non-fixed feature realm, and in non- (T. Rosenheck; personal communication). visual senses. Entertainment areas are often much more culture specific both by their very Consider shopping. The display of goods and how existence and through semi-fixed elements vending occurs may influence the character of such as signs (e.g. China, Japan, Istanbul etc), streets and portions of buildings, i.e. at the scale intensity of use, use outdoor areas, behavior, of the street level (Liu, 1994; Fernando, 2007; etc.. At the neighborhood scale, especially Rapoport 2000 b). A ‘quick and dirty’ way to streets and other urban spaces, cultural do research on ethnic and cultural groups (at specificity may be very marked indeed (but see least in the US.) is to use the types of products on the discussion of global suburbanization later). sale and how they are displayed. An example of display in a different context shows high- In Human Aspects of Urban Form (Rapoport, tech electronic products being sold in a typical 1977, Fig 5.A. p. 263) and in On Cultural outdoor market in Indonesia (photograph in Landscapes (Rapoport, 1992, Fig 2, p. 39) I used Erard, 2004). However, even the adoption of what I considered an abstract diagram. But high-tech may be culture-specific. One thus this is in fact, the case in many cities (India, the finds the high-tech industry using anthropologists Kamprings of Indonesia, the Sois of Bangkok, to study the role of culture in the spread of and the highly traditional areas just behind technology. In the particular case described the streets and avenues of the new centers of 19 cities in 7 countries of the Asia pacific region Chinese and African cities). For example, just were studied to see how technology was being two months ago as I write this, as I photographed adopted (Erard, 2004) (The differential adoption a ‘Western’ downtown in Kampala, Uganda, of technology has been known for some time, by turning 90° I photographed a Cow and e.g. Foster’s study on Latin America starting in the Calf being led down a dirt street, vendors ox- 16th Century, cited in Rapoport, 1983). If this is the drawn carts, bicycles carrying huge branches case in a high-criticality domain like technology, of plantains—a highly culturally specific scene. it is to be expected that more variability will (cf. Raporpot, 1977; 2000 b; 2004 a, in press). be formed in shops, markets, open spaces in neighborhoods etc.

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Figure 3: Neighborhoods ‘behind’ a main artery. Following route 1 only global landscape is visible; route 2 reveals neighborhoods A-G. (Source: Redrawn from A. Rapoport 1977, Fig. 5, p.263; 1992, Fig. 2, p.39).

Figure 3 relates to a more general point which I In many cases, however, these more culture- made about the relation of high-style frameworks specific areas seem to conflict with the desired and vernacular infill in cities (Rapoport, 2002 a, image and meanings—that of modernity. Fig. 5, p. 43). This can be shown to apply quite The images and meanings of culture-specific widely, including the present discussion about environments are often negative (see local and culture-specific smaller scale urban examples in Rapoport, 1994; cf. Shrestha et al, areas in modern cities. The modern framework 1997 on Kirtipur, Nepal). As a result, in design can be seen as machine (mainly car) space, and planning and among users attempts the smaller scale neighborhoods as slower are made to get rid of these many examples speed human spaces providing a good fit can be found. In Seoul (Korea) while visiting with human behavior, activity systems and a traditional neighborhood, I was prevented so on and, as a result vary more with culture from photographing it, and experienced (for a more detailed discussion, see Rapoport, great hostility, because the residents wanted it 2004 a, in press). The prevalence of such areas redeveloped. In Taipei (Taiwan), quite recently, may also be related to the earlier discussion of I visited a neighborhood group trying to save human nature. their culture-specific area that the city wanted

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to redevelop (Note the residents contradictory dwelling. In all cases general, global elements attitudes!). In Jakarta (Indonesia) the city threw are used to achieve desired results, such as becaks (bicycle rickshaws which work extremely comfort, environmental quality and, especially well in the kamprings) into the sea—their image meaning as communicated by the appropriate was wrong for a capital city. At the same time, image as discussed earlier. the redevelopment in-place of kamprings has been accepted. Currently, Saõ Paulo (Brazil) is Some recent work on the human mind (Nunn,

AMOS RAPOPORT banning the rather colorful signscape which is 2005, esp. p. 83) introduces the idea of an highly culture-specific (Jorge Willheim, personal “enduring cognitive object,” of which culture is, communication) i.e. semi-fixed elements may I think, a good example. This allows us to use the also be eliminated. Thus a question already core/periphery distinction not only in studying raised comes up again—to what extent fixed and understanding patterns of culture change features is important vs. semi fixed features and but in understanding culture more generally. hence open endedness in design (Rapoport ‘Culture,’ described by its components and 1990; 1991; 1995 a; cf. O’ Donnell, 1995) and expressions of its dismantling, has a core and the role of non fixed features (and appropriate periphery, so that in any given case, depending settings). on context, scale, group, setting type etc, different elements become important. Which I now return to the dismantling and the these are then becomes an empirical question. operationalization of culture and consider another aspect of it. This also shows the The idea of a culture core, and its potential importance of continuing synthesis and of role in maintaining cultures, is also supported keeping up with research in other fields which by other work. In one case, it was shown that may, at first seem rather remote. there exist “keystone species” among animals and plants that may be critical for the stability In 1983, in dealing with the impact of rapid of human cultures and communities overtime culture change on the built environment in (Cristancho and Vining, 2004). developing countries, I proposed a distinction between the culture core (changing little, In the above discussion I mentioned slowly, or not at all because it is central to the possible role of groups. This leads to the group, its identity and, possibly, its very a further development both in the book and survival as a distinct group) and the culture elsewhere (e.g. Rapoport 2000 a; 2002 a). This periphery (changing quickly, easily, and even development, which I regard as extremely eagerly) (Rapoport, 1983). I also pointed out important, is the small scale of culture, the that even if the core is retained, for example to fact that groups defined by culture tend to be communicate identity, which elements of the small and hence numerous. This has become core are retained may vary. One example used even clear to me during some extensive was the Navajo and the Tswana. In the case of recent travels, e.g. to Burma, Laos, Melanesia, the former the settlement pattern was primary, Papua New Guinea etc. It follows that in for the latter the spatial organization of the studying culture-environment interactions one

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cannot look at countries, but need to consider also to provide open endedness for the semi- numerous lifestyle and other groups (See Figure fixed and non-fixed features used in defensive 1). This, of course, also becomes important restructuring. when trying to use cultural variables in design, i.e. in application. Not only do we find an Even when material culture is involved, it may increase in the number of lifestyle groups, but be unrelated not only to architecture but also the revival of cultures (e.g. Kanaks in New even to semi-fixed features of living or other

AMOS RAPOPORT Caledonia; Basques, Catalans and Galicians in environments. To give one example, among Spain; Maori in New Zealand; Bretons in France; the Chumash (S. California Indians) cultural Aborigines in Australia and so on). The increase revitalization has emphasized the Tomolo as in migration and the consequent presence of its symbol—a wood plant-built boat important many immigrant groups, with different levels of in indigenous North America (Jones and Klar, acculturation in many countries also play a role 2005, p. 461).4 To reiterate, one cannot and (thus, at the moment 12.5% of the US. population must not assume that environmental design are immigrants from very many different places) is always essential, critical, important or even (Preston, 2007). significant. It should be noted that in such cases and in The growing importance of culture in many the expression of core elements generally, fields, which I emphasized in the book, there is often an emphasis on a single symbol, continues. Examples include medicine, what has been called defensive structuring business, military studies, fashion, psychiatry and (Siegel, 1970)—a concept I have found useful many others. In the case of psychiatry in the since 1970’s. It should also be emphasized that US, for example, with the increase in migration, these do not have to be architecture or the new types of illnesses are found, in this particular built environment, although they may be. They case among Chinese, Koreans, Malaysians, and can be semi-fixed features such as plants or Indonesians, which are even being discussed in landscaping, objects, colors, art, furnishings etc. the media (e.g. Kershaw, 2003). This changes They do not even have to be part of material how psychiatry needs to be practiced and culture, and may be non-fixed features, such provides an analogue of how environmental as language, music, behavior, manners, design might need to respond. This is also hairstyles, food, religion, rituals, clothing, the use happening in medicine, with much research of costumes, dance and others (Morell, 2001 by medical anthropologists, and new journals b; Navarro, 2004). Of course, in some of these, (e.g. Ethnicity and Healthy, starting in 1996). As design interventions may play an important role discussed earlier, whether these changes have by providing appropriate settings, supportive of implications for the relevant settings needs these non-fixed features; these are often found in research. the culture-specific small scale areas discussed earlier, but not available in the new global areas This shows not only that culture is increasingly and frameworks (e.g. French, 2004 b). Another being recognized as an important variable, role of designers (as I have redefined them) is used and researched in many disciplines. It also

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reinforces a point that I have emphasized for growing body of work on the role of culture in some time—that many new disciplines and new human evolution, the evolution of societies, ﬁndings in those and others, are increasingly etc. (e.g. Richardson and Boyd, 2005). In other becoming relevant to EBS generally, and words, not only has evolution led to culture, culture-environment relations speciﬁcally. This, but culture (including built environments) has, in turn, reinforces the potential importance in turn, affected evolution. This provides a link of keeping up with these including those that to my suggestion (Rapoport, 1990 a, 2004 b)

AMOS RAPOPORT seem remote, or excessively abstract and about the potential usefulness of looking at theoretical (Rapoport, 2000c; 2004 b). the development of animal architecture (Von Frisch, 1974; Hansell, 1984; Gould and Gould, As an example of the above (before concluding 2007). In fact, this, in turn, can be generalized with a few more new ideas) I consider, very through the important new idea of Niche brieﬂy, some important developments at Construction (Jones, 2005; Odling-Smee et. al, a highly theoretical level and from apparently 2003; Vandermeer, 2004). This emphasizes the unlikely sources. It needs to be emphasized crucial importance of the (often constructed) that the relevance of these developments only environment within which even very primitive becomes apparent at some level of abstraction organisms, such as earthworms, and even (the need for which I have long emphasized). parasites, live and evolve (e.g. Combes, 2005). This has very important implications not only for I refer to a large and growing body of work human evolution (which is still ongoing) but for on the origins and evolution of culture among the role of the built environment as one aspect animals. This work is often linked to work in of culture in this. In turn, this has important genetics (e.g. Jabolanka and Lamb, 2005) and implications for the study of the history of the neuroscience, illuminating human psychology; built environment (Rapoport, 1990 a) showing cognition, the role of emotions, social how new ideas from other ﬁelds lead to further development and leading to ideas, which even developments and synthesis. It should also be have implications for design. (See references in noted that, because of the appropriate level Rapoport, 1990 a, 2004 b; Cohen, 2007; Emery of abstraction involved, the same concept can and Clayton, 2004; Holden, 2005; Miller, 2005; be used for very different purposes for example McGrew, 2004; Morell 2007 a; Pennisi, 2006; for the development of aspects of ecological Prenack and Prenack 2003; Raby et. al. 2007; psychology (Heft, 2007). Shettleworth 2007; Templeton et. al. 2005; Van Schaik 2004; 2006 among many others). Another new concept emerging from evolutionary science seems to have major There is, of course, a very large literature on the implications for EBS, the role of culture in the evolution of culture in hominids and humans, built environment and through the role of and its relation to material culture, art etc. (e.g. meaning (and hence latent function) has references in Rapoport, 2004 b; Mithen, 1996, major explanatory potential. I refer to the 2006; Shennan, 2002; Wong, 2005 among many handicap principle (Zahawi and Zahawi, 1997). others). In addition, there is a large and rapidly The suggestion is that among animals the

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sometimes extravagant, and counter-intimate A starting point for the examples to be given is in terms of fitness and survival, sexual displays my discussion of capital cities (Rapoport, 1993; (e.g. the Peacook’s tail) have an important examples and references in Rapoport, 2004 b; function—to display fitness by showing that cf. Kehoe, 2002). It is significant that examples they can be afforded. I have recently used come from archaeological studies of pre-state it in developing EBS theory and subsequently, societies to the present day. Once the idea is discovered that it has been applied in there, evidence is found everywhere. In pre-

AMOS RAPOPORT archaeology as costly signaling (McGuire and state societies it is often the use of much labor Hildenbrandt, 2005). Although, as is often the that is the significant variable (cf. Hammond, case with new ideas, there is criticism of this 1972, cited in Rapoport, 1993). Thus, at Poverty and not everyone agrees (e.g. Codding and Point, LA., 4000 calendar years B.P., we find Jones, 2007; McGuire et. al, 2007). (This is also a 3 km² complex of earthworks, 750,000 m³ the case with Niche Construction. The idea has of mounded earth in 6 elliptical half-rings, been applied to the development of art and 2 massive mounds, smaller cones and flat music (Miller, 2000)). Also, I find it very useful topped earthworks (Kidder, 2006, p. 195). Great both as an example of what, on the face of it, Zimbabwe is a structure 100 m. by 70 m., where seems unlikely linkage and as an explanation the outer wall alone contains 900,000 stone of monumental, extravagant and ‘wasteful’ blocks and parts of it are 11 meters high, with construction. How it explains a large number a double chevron decorated 85 meters long. of examples of different environments and This immediately communicates the intended periods is most impressive. Note, that as in other message, especially in the context of African cases of non-verbal communication through typical residential huts—the contrast of scale environments, cultural variability of a universal (cf. Haus Tambarans in Papua New Guinea; is achieved through specific expressions (see Maya dwellings and ceremonial centers) figure 1 of Rapoport, 1990 c). and material (stone) is highly significant, powerful and inescapable—it immediately In its application to built environments the communicates the intended meaning. The role handicap principle suggests that environments of material is also seen in Madagascar tombs can become a form of “propaganda” and memorials (which use stone), and may (Diamond, 2003). It explains why certain even help explain Stonehenge (Parker Peasron environments are created at great expense and Ramilisonina, 1998). In other cases it is the and effort—to communicate the ability of organization of environments, for example the builders to muster resources, labor, etc, making an otherwise intangible sacred order; to communicate power and impress people. concrete and visible (see Fig. 1). I have given Thus, with the revival of Sufi Islam in Chechnya, many examples elsewhere (Rapoport, 1990 c, a new mosque is being built. It will hold 10,000 1993). (for a series of examples from the Maya, worshippers (the largest in Chechnya) and its see Ashmore, 1991, 2004 a and b; Ashmore minarets will be 179 ft. high, “it will speak not just and Sabloff, 2002). What we find in all those of faith, but of power” (Chivers, 2006). examples is a culturally specific expression of

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a universal, general means of communicating a The handicap principle/costly signaling can also single message.5 help us understand striking changes occurring in residential environments. I refer to the fact I would suggest that in the contemporary world that as the resources available increase even certain images are what is being communicated, housing becomes less culture specific. The for example in developing countries one of reason, I believe, is that with prosperity images modernity. But, the underlying principle is the of modernity and of difference (which currently same—the ability to mobilize major resources AMOS RAPOPORT are those of US suburbia) begin to dominate, e.g. the competition to build the world’s tallest and are found everywhere. In a housing tower, to have glass skyscrapers, freeways class, I showed students slides of housing in and so on, and the ‘disdain’ for traditional Africa (Nairobi, Mafekeng etc.), Asia (Tokyo environments and materials discussed earlier. and Bangkok). They were usually identified The handicap principle/costly signaling is useful as being in the US. One photo of Russia was in understanding all these, beginning to relate correctly identified by people’s faces (non- culture to the non-residential environment. fixed features) (cf. Myre, 1997; Varoli, 2000). A dramatic example which well illustrates the Other examples include billboard for housing value of this approach is provided by the Beijing projects in Bangkok, Shanghai, and Beijing, Arts Center, several aspects merit attention and a booklet of a new housing development (Kahn, 2007). (Merapi View—in English!) in Jakarta (Indonesia) (cf. Rapoport 2000 a). A former student (Dr. The complex cost $ 400 million, and proved Vehbi Tosun) took me around a number of new difficult to build; it has a “dazzling interior” housing developments around Istanbul. These and demonstrates “mechanical wizardry.” At were walled and gated communities, with the opening it was described as “a concrete large green spaces and water features, golf example of China’s rising soft power and courses, tennis courts and bridle-paths, houses comprehensive national strength.” The architect often indistinguishable from their US equivalents (who is French) employed “provocative and street and directional signs in English. The aesthetics,” at the same time the center is handicap principle/costly signaling is expressed having problems lining up performances, i.e. through the extravagant use of resources, i.e. there is little need for it. There are other, similar emphasizing expense. This is also shown by the projects: the Olympic Stadium, the China extremely high prices. Central Television New Headquarters which have “remade” the Beijing skyline and I would All these developments are highly relevant add, that of Shanghai and many other Chinese for understanding issues of culture change, cities, and the process is going to continue “as identity, culture-environment relations, other cities pour hundreds of millions of dollars developing countries etc. Once the concept into their own cultural showcases” in order to becomes available, examples are everywhere, project “the soaring ambitions and bulging and the concept becomes explanatory for coffers of the communist party leadership.” a large number of environments. For example, (Kuhn, 2007).6 a photograph of a copy of a 17th century

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French chateau, built to attract buyers to a desired). It is more a matter of meaning (cf. new development in China, with golf courses, Shrestha et. al, 1997). equestrian tracks, etc. (Kahn 2004; cf. French, 2004 and the Westernizing of food, furnishings, In terms of design it makes highly questionable etc. also in China). recent attempts to design housing in the US based on Mexican spontaneous settlements I have previously given examples of similar (quite apart from the purely visual approach)

AMOS RAPOPORT patterns of suburbanization in Guadalajara (cf. Rapoport, 1988 a, 2006 a). I refer to the (Mexico) and elsewhere, and its use in attempts project in California by Cruz (Ouroussoff, 2006). to revive an inner city neighborhood in The issue is much more complex than implied, Milwaukee (Rapoport, 1999 c). This latter process and the above discussion should help to seems to be continuing, as in an example from understand both the potential problems using Chicago (Johnson, 1992). spontaneous settlements as a model and ways of succeeding (should that be desirable). These developments, and their origin, have implications for policy, planning, and design. I do not claim that this process of suburbanization For example it greatly complicates proposals is inevitable, nor that cultural specificity in to improve sustainability by learning from residential environments is no longer needed traditional environments. Such proposals tend or wanted (although it may be achieved to communicate the wrong image, the wrong through the organization of settings, semi-fixed meaning and many users’ wants (Rapoport, elements, rules about behavior, etc.). There 1994). This discussion also helps to explain may, in fact, be two ‘conflicting’ tendencies. difficulties with the preservation of traditional On the one hand, there are many, and more, environments (as discussed earlier; cf. Rapoport small groups with an interest in local identity 2002 b). For example, in Luang Prehang (Laos), as opposed to global meanings, or with both. the traditional wooden houses (unlike domestic There may also be reversals in attitude, with buildings such as temples) are being rejected the rise of cultural revival movements and the for concrete. UNESCO architects are trying to seeking of cultural identity symbols (as discussed preserve this world heritage site. Locals say this earlier). This may occur especially among is unrealistic: people are getting richer. They younger people who have not experienced the do not want the old things (my emphasis), traditional environments (now gone) and tend if they own a wooden house they will move to romanticize them as seems to be the case in outside the town and build concrete houses Kuwait (M. Al-Jassar; personal communication). (Perlez, 2004; cf. Guiliani and Rossi, 1992) on the abandonment of Tuscan hill towns. The locals In discussing the handicap principle/costly also claim that traditional wooden houses are signaling, I have frequently referred to the role hotter than concrete houses. Having recently of meaning, which leads to a development visited Luang Perhang (and houses) I personally of another aspect of meaning. I have always feel that the exact opposite is the case (in the emphasized the important role that culture absence of air-conditioning which is also highly plays in meaning. It is the culture-specific

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nature of settings, which leads to appropriate Consider the Pyramids; the general meaning behavior and makes co-action possible. I have has already been discussed. One knows that also argued that in order to work the areas they are important, and communicate power, in settings communicating such meanings authority, and the like without knowing the must be noticeable (sufﬁciently redundant cultural speciﬁcs of Egyptian religion and its cf. signal detection theory in Rapoport, 1977, gods, the role of death and hence how the p 180, 221,225) and also comprehensible, dead are treated, the afterlife and so on. These

AMOS RAPOPORT i.e. culturally appropriate (Rapoport, 1990 are highly culture-specific. Moreover, most of c; cf. the related, but different ‘architecture these meanings are communicated through reception theory,’ in Robinson, 2006, p. 33-55). writing (books, and murals, e.g. The Book of Also, if the meanings are too subtle, are not the Dead), statues, paintings, sarcophagi, received, or are inappropriate, it becomes offerings and rituals (i.e. behavior)—through easier to impose meanings, the environment semi-fixed and non-fixed elements (for which effectively becomes like a Rorschach test. This specialized settings may be needed (e.g. is my interpretation of the multiple meanings funerary temples)). Many other such examples imposed by critics on Mies’s Barcelona Pavilion from around the globe make the same point (Bonta, 1975). (e.g. the Maya Pyramids, Teotihuacan, Bagan, Dzougs in Bhutan, eastern Islamic states, the In the past, I have applied the principle of Nasca lines, etc.). Another example is provided dismantling, by distinguishing among high, by Great Zimbabwe, the general meaning of – middle – and low level meanings (Rapoport which has already been discussed. Its specific 1988 b, 1990 b,c. ‘epilogue’).7 But in terms of meanings are very complex and need much the handicap principle/costly signaling the knowledge (e.g. Huffman, 2001). possibility of a further dismantling suggests itself. There may be a useful distinction to be made In all these, and many other cases, the general between general and specific meaning, with meaning is clear in terms of the handicap culture playing a larger role in the latter.8 principle but the specific meanings are much more complex. There is a relation here with This was foreshadowed in my discussion of Aztec the idea developed by Ekman of display Temples when I pointed out that the Spanish rules, which I used in developing a non-verbal immediately recognized their importance communication approach to the study of and probably sacred role without ever having meaning (Rapoport, 1990 c, p. 101-121). Once encountered the culture. I also discussed some again this shows the interplay of universals of the variables that might communicate such (in Ekman’s case, the anatomical facial general meanings. This was developed further expressions of emotions) and the culturally in subsequent work (Rapoport, 1993, 2004 b), specific expressions—the rules about where, showing the usefulness of continuous synthesis when, by whom and under what conditions and incorporating new material (discussed they can be revealed (Ekman, 2007). I believe earlier). that this further shows the value of dismantling as a general approach to complex topics. It

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also reinforces the importance of continuously of how the brain makes such decisions (Marsh keeping up with the research literature in many et al 2004, pp.281-283; Science, 2007, esp. pp. fields and doing comparative research, which is 602-606). becoming an increasingly important approach in many fields. Clearly, the criterion used in choosing among alternatives and the alternatives considered This raises another question involving the role of (and the values and utility functions involved) need to be studies cross-culturally, since the AMOS RAPOPORT culture in EBS. It arises from the international spread of EBS, EBS research and institutions (such as IAPS, single process may possibly use very different PAPER, MERA, and EBRA, in addition to EDRA). This criteria equally well (although that is an is the question of the transferability of research empirical question). Note also that both the done in one culture to other cultures (Rapoport, alternatives considered and the criteria used 2002 c). Clearly in this connection, comparative vary cross culturally—the constancy is the studies involving replications of findings, methods, brain which implements the choice process, and applications will play a major role in studying the human universals discussed earlier (which and answering this question. may also constrain the range of choices considered). I address one final point, albeit very briefly since it opens up a whole new subtopic. This is that one Rules cannot be seen—only the outcomes way of thinking about culture is in terms cultural (environments and behavior). The underlying rules. These can be about behavior, so that its rules, however, can be inferred and studied on activity systems are the result of rules about the basis of various data such as ethnographic who does what, where, when, including and records, myths, oral traditions or written excluding whom (and why).9 Rules also play a records.10 These latter played a role in work that central role in various components of culture, shows that, at least in some cases, these rules where choice plays a role, such as lifestyle. can be identified and studied (Akbar, 1988; It is also a most useful way to conceptualize Hakim, 1986, 2001 a, b; Hakim and Ahmed, design—as a set of rules for choosing among 2006). It is also now possible to test the validity alternatives the consistent application of which of such findings by using simulation, which leads to distinctive and recognizable cultural has been called the third branch of science landscapes. (in addition to theory and experiment). One particular, more specific type of simulation, I developed what I call the Choice Model might well be useful—agent based modeling of Design for a rather brief discussion by an (e.g. Gummerman, 1988; Gummerman and anthropologist discussing pots (Deetz, 1968). Gell-Mann, 1994; Kohler and Gummerman, (Linkages again!). This model was developed 2000; Kohler et al, 2005). For example, it should over a number of years (e.g. Rapoport, 1977, in principle, be possible to test Hakim’s (1986) pp.15-18, Figs 1.6, 1.7, 1.8,; 2005, pp.64-70, Figs study of Tunis by starting with a single dwelling, 28, 32,33). The model has recently received having agents apply rules as other buildings go support from cognitive neuroscientific studies up and see whatever the medina of Tunis results.

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In fact, many fascinating research opportunities to the evolution of social complexity, on which there is suggest themselves. a very large literature, especially in anthropology and archaeology. The idea of rule systems is also potentially 6. Three personal examples. The tourist pamphlet for highly relevant for design. On can possibly not the City of Tianjin which I picked up there, emphasizes only study but design rule systems rather than tall buildings, green ways, the subway, lakes, and environments as such—but that is another topic parks – nothing Chinese is shown. The importance of

AMOS RAPOPORT (see Rapoport, 1992; 1995 a). Western styles is also shown by a white renaissance building, with a classical pediment, Corinthian columns and a dome; large gold letters identify it as Conclusion a Chinese restaurant (for a published examples, see the photograph of a company headquarters near I conclude that understanding culture- Shanghai that looks like the US Capitol in Washington, environment relations remains an important D. C. (Smith 2002)). A travel brochure I have just aspect of EBS. Also, it is much more complex than received (for a 2008 trip to China) shows the Shanghai it appears at first glance. As a result, it needs much Financial District – a most dramatic change image of more knowledge and further research in order to modernity that could be anywhere. become usable and to achieve the aim of EBS—to 7. Note that the dismantling into levels of meaning create more supportive environments for people. (Rapoport 1988b, 1990b, c (epilogue)) made possible some interesting and potentially useful hypotheses. On is that the relative importance of these levels Notes changes in different environments and also that high 1. Culture, Architecture and Design, Chicago, Locke level meanings play an insignificant (or no) role in Scientific Publishers, 2005. (completed in 2000). There contemporary environments. Among examples I used, are also Spanish, French, Chinese, and Turkish versions. recent US churches where one would expect such A Japanese translation is underway. meanings to remain important. Much new evidence about such churches has greatly strengthened 2. After all, the name comes from “universal”! this argument – the many examples seen devoid of any high level meanings (see photographs and 3. Note, however, that even people and their clothing descriptions in Brown 2002; Bernstein 2002; Hawthrone are not an infallible indicator, since there are large 2003; Pristin 2004; Leland 2004, 2005). Note the Indian immigrant communities in many countries. important role of newspaper accounts in this and other discussions in this paper and my other work 4. Note that this is an archaeology journal. generally (cf. Rapoport 1995b (1990)). Re-emphasizing that role of many disciplines and linkages among them. This is a two-way process 8. Because general meanings are not culture specific, and EBS can also inform archaeology so that have it may be easier to impose a variety of meanings on recently lectured to archaeology students and environments in which general meanings currently published in archaeological publications (Rapoport, dominate (specific meanings being uncertain), e.g. 1999, 2006b). "new age" meanings imposed on Stonehenge, the Nasca Lines, etc. 5. This kind of analysis also provides a potential link to a very different topic – the relation of built-environments 9. Rules are obviously also centered in the display rules

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discussed earlier. Implications, in N. Roughley (ed.), Being Humans: Anthropological Universality and Particularity in 10. Note that this important issue about the nature Transdisciplinary Perspective, Walter de Grnyter, New of rule systems, their role and how they operate York, USA. becomes possible through the dismantling of culture. Like the other components and expressions, they can Brown, P.L. (2002). Megachurches as Minitowns, May 9. then be studied, understood, and used. Chivers, C.J. (2006). Revival of Sufi Ritual in Chechnya, International Herald Tribune, May 24. AMOS RAPOPORT References Choi, J. (1986). An Exploratory Study of the Conceptualization of Architectural Tradition of Akbar, J. (1998). Crisis in the Built Environment: The Korea in Terms of the Koreans’ Spatial Behavior, in Case of the Muslim City, Mimar Books, Singapore. J. Wineman et al. (ed.s), The Costs of Not Knowing, (EDRA 17), EDRA, Washington, D.C., USA, pp. 31 – 40. Ashmore, W. (1991). Site-Planning Principles and Concepts of Directionality Among the Ancient Maya, Churchland, P.M. (2000). A Neurocomputational Latin American Antiquity, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 199 – 226. Perspective, MIT Press/ Bradford Books, Cambridge, MA, USA. Ashmore, W. (2004a). Classic Maya Landscapes and Settlement, in J.A. Hendon and R.A. Joyce (ed.s), Codding, B.F. and T.L. Jones (2007). Man the Mesoamerican Archaeology: Theory and Practice, Showoff? Or the Ascendance of a Just-So-Story: A Blackwell, Oxford, UK, pp. 169 – 191. Comment on Recent Applications of Costly Signaling Theory in American Archaeology, American Ashmore, W. (2004b). Ancient Maya Landscapes, in Antiquity, Vol. 72, No. 2 (April), pp. 349 – 357. C.W. Golden and A. Borgstede (ed.s), Continuities and Changes in Maya Archaeology: Perspectives at the Cohen, J. (2007). The World Through a Chimp’s Eyes, Millennium, Routledge, New York, USA, pp. 97 – 111. Science, Vol. 316, No. 5821 (April 6), pp. 44 – 45. Ashmore, W. and J.A. Sabloff (2002). Spatial Orders in Combes, C. (2005). The Art of Being a Parasite Maya Civic Plazas, Latin American Antiquity, Vol. 13, (translated by D. Simberloff), University Chicago No. 2, pp. 201 – 215. Press, Chicago, IL, USA. Barnard, B. (1984). Cultural Facades: Ethnic Architecture in Cristancho, S. and J. Vining (2004). Culturally Defined Malaysia, Universities Field Staff International (USFI) Reports Keystone Species, Human Ecology Reviews, Vol. 11, (1984/No.5, Asia), Hanover, New Hampshire, USA. No. 2, pp. 153 – 164. Bernstein, F. (2002). A Critic Takes the Catholic Cronk, L. (1999). That Complex Whole (Culture and Church to Task for Architecture, Sept. 7. the Evolution of Human Behavior), Westview Press, Boulder, CO, USA. Bonta, J.P. (1975). An Anatomy of Architectural Interpretation: A Semiotic Review of the Criticism of Danchin, E. et al. (2004). Public Information: From Mes van Der Rohe’s Barcelona Pavillion, Gustavo Gili, Nosy Neighbors to Cultural Evolution, Science, Vol. Barcelona, Spain. 305, No. 5683 (July 23), pp. 487 – 491. Brown, D.E. (1991). Human Universals, Temple Deetz, J. (1968). Cultural Patterning of Behavior University Press, Philadelphia, PA, USA. as Reflected by Archaeological Materials, in K.C. Change (ed.), Settlement Archaeology, National Brown, D.E. (2000). Human Universals and Their

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Press, Palo Alto, CA, USA, pp. 31 – 42. Gummerman, G.J. and M. Gell-Mann (ed.s) (1994). Understanding Complexity in the Prehistoric Diamond, J. (2003). Propaganda of the Pyramids, Southwest, Santa Fe Institute Studies in the Sciences Nature, Vol. 424, No. 695 (August 21), pp. 891 – 893. of Complexity, Vol.XVI, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Doxater, D. (1994). Architecture, Ritual, Practice, and MA, USA. Co-Determination in the Swedish Ofﬁce, Avebury, Hakim, B.S. (1986). Arabic-Islamic Cities (Building and Aldershot, UK. Planning Principles), KPI, London, UK.

AMOS RAPOPORT Ekman, P. (2007). Emotions Revealed, revised edition, Hakim, B.S. (2001a). Reviving the Rule System OWI Books, New York, USA. (An Approach to Revitalizing Traditional Towns in Emery, N.J. and N.S. Clayton (2004). The Mentality Maghreb, Cities, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 87 – 92. of Crows: Convergent Evolution of Intelligence Hakim, B.S. (2001b). Julian of Ascalon’s Treatise of in Corvids and Apes, Science, Vol. 306, No. 5703 Construction and Design Rules from Sixth-Century (December 10), pp. 1903 – 1907. Palestine, J. Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. Erard, M. (2004). For High-Tech Companies It’s No 60, No. 1 (March), pp. 4 – 25. Small World, International Herald Tribune, May 7. Hakim, B.S. and Z. Ahmed (2006). Rules for the Built th Fernando, N. (2007). Culture and Identity in Urban Environment in 19 Century Northern Nigeria, J. Streets: A Case Study of Chinatown, New York Architectural and Planning Research, Vol. 23, No. 1 City, Ph.D Dissertation in Architecture, University of (spring), pp. 1 – 26. Wisconsin – Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA. Hansell, M.H. (1984). Animal Architecture and French, H.W. (2004a). China’s Martha Stewart with Building Behavior, Longman, London, UK. Reasons to Smile, New York Times, April 10. Hawthorne, F. (2003). Drive Right Up and Don’t Get French, H. (2004b). Surrounded by Factories, A Out, New York Times, October 22. Cobbler Takes His Time, New York Times, June 7. Heft, H. (2007). The Social Constitution of Perceiver- Giuliani, M.V. and M.C. Rossi (1992). Urban Environment Reciprocity, Ecological Psychology, Vol. Settlements and Residential Quality in an Italian 19, No. 2, pp. 85 – 105. Town, in M.V. Giuliani (ed.), Home: Social, Temporal, Holden, C. (2005). Cetacean Culture?, Science, Vol. and Spatial Aspects, Sam Giuliano Milanese, 308, No. 5728 (June 10), p. 1545. Progetto Finalizzato Edilizia, pp. 215 – 228. Huffman, T.N. (2001). Snakes and Crocodiles (Power Golsmith, T.H. (1991). The Biological Roots of Human and Symbolism in Ancient Zimbabwe), Johannesburg Nature: Forgive Links Between Evolution and Witwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg, South Behavior, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Africa. Gould, J.R. and C.G. Gould (2007). Animal Architects Jabareen, Y. (2005). Culture and Housing Preference (Building and the Evolution of Intelligence), Basic in a Developing City, Environment and Behavior, Vol. Books, New York, USA. 37, No. 1 (January), pp. 134 – 146. Gummerman, G.J. (ed.) (1988). The Anasazi in a Jablonka, E. and M.J. Lamb (2005). Evolution in Four Changing Environment, Cambridge University Press, Dimensions, Bradford Books/ MIT Press, Cambridge, New York, USA. MA, USA.

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Johnson, D. (1992). A Suburbiascape Grows in Inner Wisconsin – Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, USA. City Chicago, New York Times, October 20. Marsh, B. et al. (2004). Cognitive Heuristics, in J.P. Jones, D. (2005). Personal Effects, Nature, Vol. 438, Leighton and R.J. Sternberg (ed.s), The Nature of No. 7064 (November 3), pp. 14 – 16. Reasoning, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, pp. 273 – 287. Jones, T.L. and K.A. Klar (2005). Diffusionism Reconsidered…(s.t.), American Antiquity, Vol. 70, McGuire, K. and W.R. Hildebrandt (2005). Rethinking No. 3, pp. 457 – 484. (citing Cordero and Sanchez Great Basin Foragers: A Great Lakes Middle AMOS RAPOPORT 2001/2002) Holocene Settlement System, American Antiquity, Vol. 70, No. 4 (October), pp. 695 – 712. Kahn, J. (2004). “China’s Elite Learn to Flaunt It While the New Landless Weep”, New York Times, McGuire, K. et al. (2007). Costly Signaling and the December 25. Ascendance of No-Can-Do Archaeology, A Reply to Codding and Jones, American Antiquity, Vol. 72, No. Kahn, J. (2007). Chinese Unveil Mammoth Arts 2 (April), pp. 358 – 365. Center, New York Times, December 24. McGrew, W. (2004). The Cultured Chimpanzee: Kehoe, A.B. (2002). Theaters of Power, in M. Reﬂections on Cultural Primatology, Cambridge O’Donovan (ed.), The Dynamics of Power, Center for University Press, Cambridge, MA. USA. Archaeological Investigations, Occasional Paper No. 30, pp. 259 – 272. Mazumdar, S. (1994). Societal Values and Architecture: A Socio-physical Model of the Kershaw, S. (2003). Friend Meets Buddha: Therapy for Interrelationships, JAPR, Vol. 11, No. 1 (spring), pp. Immigrants, New York Times, January 12. 66 – 90. Kiddler, T.R. (2006). Climate Change and the Archaic Miller, G. (2005). Tool Study Supports Chimp Culture, to Woodland Transition (3000 – 2500 Cal. B.P.) in the Science, Vol. 309, No. 5739 (August 26), pp. 1311. Mississippi River Basin, American Antiquity, Vol. 71, No. 2 (April), pp. 195 – 231. Miller, S. (2000). The Mating Mind, Doubleday, NY, USA. Kohler, T.A. and G.T. Gummerman (ed.s) (2000). Mithen, S. (1996). The Prehistory of the Mind (The Dynamics in Human and Primate Societies (Agent- Cognitive Origins of Art and Science), London and Based Modeling of Social and Spatial Processes), Hudson, London, UK. Oxford University Press, NY, USA. Mithen, S. (2006). The Singing Neanderthals (The Kohler, T.A., G.T. Gummerman and R.G. Reynolds Origins of Music, Language, Mind, and Body), (2005). Simulating Ancient Societies, Scientiﬁc Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, USA. American, Vol. 291, No. 1 (July), pp. 77 – 84. Morell, V. (2007a). Nicky and the Joys (People Leland, J. (2004). Hip New Churches Pray to a of Nicole Clayton), Science, Vol. 315, No. 5815 Different Drummer, New York Times, February 18. (February 23), pp. 1074 – 1075. Leland, J. (2005). A Church that Packs them in 16,000 Morell, V. (2007b). The Zuni Way, Smithsonian, Vol. 38, at a Time, New York Times, July 18. No. 1 (April), pp. 76 – 83. Lin, C.W. (1994). From Old Town to New City: A Study Myre, G. (1997). “Russia Gets a Taste of Suburban of Behavior Settings and Meanings of Streets in Life: US Style Developments Increasingly in Demand”, Taiwan, Ph.D Dissertation in Architecture, University of Milwaukee Journal – Sentinel, November 20.

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Navarro, M. (2004). Young Japanese – Americans York Times, March 10. Honor Ethnic Roots, New York Times, August 2. Raby, C.R. et al. (2007) Planning for the Future by Nord, C. (2003). The Visible Patient (Hybridity and Western Scrub-Jays, Nature, Vol. 445, No. 7130 Impatient Wired Design in a Namibians Context), (February 22), pp. 919 – 921. Doctoral Thesis, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, UK. Rai, S. (2005a). MBA Students Bypassing Wall Street for a Summer in India, New York Times, August 10. Nunn, C. (2005). De La Mettrie’s Ghost, Macmillan, AMOS RAPOPORT London, UK. Rai, S. (2005b). A Touch of Indian-ness Amid the Glass and Steel, New York Times August 22. Odling-Smee, F.J. et al. (2003). Niche Construction Rapoport, A. (1977). Human Aspects of Urban Form, (The Neglected Process in Evolution), Princeton Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK. University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA. Rapoport, A. (1983). Development, Culture-Change O’Donnell, S. (1995). Towards Urban Frameworks and Supportive Design, Habitat International, Vol. 7, (Accommodating Change in Urban Cultural No. 5/6, pp. 249 – 268. Landscape, M. Arch. Thesis, University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, USA. Rapoport, A. (1988a). Spontaneous Settlements as Vernacular Design, in C.V. Patton (ed.), Spontaneous Ourouseff, N. (2006). Shantytowns as a New Shelter (International Perspectives and Prospects), Temple Suburban Ideal, New York Times, March 12. University Press, Philadelphia, PA, USA, pp. 51 – 77. Parker Pearson, M. and Ramilisonina (1998). Rapoport, A. (1988b). Levels of Meaning in the Stonehenge for the Ancestors: The Stones Pass on Built Environment, in F. Poyatos (ed.), Cross-Cultural the Message, American Antiquity, Vol., 72, No. 276 Perspectives in Non-Verbal Communication, H.J. (June), pp. 308 – 326. Hogrefe, Toronto, Canada, pp. 317 – 326. Pennisi, E. (2006). “Social Animals Prove Their Smarts”, Rapoport, A. (1990a). Historical and Precedent in Science, Vol. 312, No. 5781 (June 23), pp. 1734 – 1738. Environmental Design, Plenum, New York, USA. Perlez, J. (2004). “Where Pagodas Draw Tourists, Rapoport, A. (1990b). Levels of Meaning and Concrete Is Unwelcome”, New York Times, July 8. Types of Environments, in Y. Yoshitake et al. (ed.s), Pinker, S. (2002). The Blank Slate (The Modern Denial Current Issues in Environmental-Behavior Research, of Human Nature), Viking, New York, USA. Proceedings of the Third Japan-US Seminar, University of Tokyo, Kyoto, Tokyo, pp. 135 – 147. Poon, A.C. and J.E. Ferrell Jr. (2007). A Clock with a Flip Switch, Science, Vol. 318, No. 5851 (November 2), Rapoport, A. (1990c). The Meaning of the Built pp. 757 – 758. Environment, updated edition, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona, USA. Premack, D. and A. Premack (2003). Original Intelligence/ Unlocking the Mystery of Who We Are, Rapoport, A. (1992). On Cultural Landscapes, McGraw-Hill, NY, USA. Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review, Vol. III, No. II (spring), pp. 33 – 47. Preston, J. (2007). US Immigrant Population is the Highest Since the 1920s, New York Times, November 29. Rapoport, A. (1993). On the Nature of Capitals and Their Physical Expression, in J. Taylor et al. (ed.s), Pristin, T. (2004). A Sports Arena Gets Religion, New Capital Cities: International Perspectives/ Les

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Capitales: Perspectives Internationales, Carleton Rapoport, A. (2000d). The Role of Neighborhoods in University Press, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, pp. 31 – 67. the Success of Cities, Ekistics, Vol. 69, No. 412 – 414 (Triple Issue, January – June), (Out 2003), (Vol. 1, pp. Rapoport, A. (1994). Sustainability, Meaning, and 145 – 151). Traditional Environments, Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Working Paper Series, Vol. 75, IASTE Rapoport, A. (2002a). On the Size of Cultural Groups, 75 – 94, Center of Environment Design Research, Open House International, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 7 – 11. University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA. Rapoport, A. (2002b). Traditional Environments, AMOS RAPOPORT Rapoport, A. (1995a). Flexibility, Open-Endedness, Culture, and Preservation, in H. Turgut and P. Kellett and Design, in A. Rapoport, Thirty-three Papers in (ed.s), Traditional Environments in a New Millennium, Environment-Behavior Research, Urban International IAPS-CSBE, Istanbul, Turkey, pp. 25 – 32. Press, Newcastle, UK, pp. 529 – 562. Rapoport, A. (2002c). Research in Asian-Paciﬁc Rapoport, A. (1995b). Indirect Approaches to Context, Asian Urban Studies, Vol. 3, No. 3 (March), Environment-Behavior Research, in A. Rapoport, pp. 17 – 20. Thirty-three Papers in Environment-Behavior Research, Urban International Press, Newcastle, UK, Rapoport, A. (2004a). Local Environments in a th pp. 489 – 512. Global Context, Proceedings of the 6 International Symposium for Environment-Behavior Studies, Baihua Rapoport, A. (1997). The Nature and Role of Literature and Art Publishing House, Tianjin University, Neighborhood, Urban Design Studies, Vol. 3, pp. 93 October, pp. 1 – 15. – 118. Rapoport, A. (2004b). The Congress Themes in an Rapoport, A. (1998). Using ‘Culture’ in Housing Environment-Behavior Perspective, in J. Muntañola Design, Housing and Society, Vol. 25, No. 1/2, pp. (ed.), Architecture 3000 (The Architecture of In- 1 – 20. Difference), Proceedings of the Third International Congress, Barcelona UPC (June – July), Khôra II, 5, Rapoport, A. (1999). Archaeological Inference pp. 85 – 98 (Out 2006). and Environment-Behavior Studies, in F. Braemer, S. Cleusieu, and A. Coudart (ed.s), Habitat et Soieté, Rapoport, A. (2005). Culture, Architecture, and Proceedings of XIX International Conference of Design, Locke Scientiﬁc, Chicago, IL, USA. Archaeology and History of Antibes, Editions APDCA, Rapoport, A. (2006a). Vernacular Design as a Antibes, France, pp. 13 – 25. Model System, in L. Asquith and M. Vellinga (ed.s), Rapoport, A. (2000a). Theory, Culture, and Housing, Vernacular Architecture in the Twenty-First Century Housing, Theory, and Society, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 145 (Theory, Education, and Practice), Taylor and Francis, – 165. London, UK, pp. 179 – 198. Rapoport, A. (2000b). “On the Perception of Urban Rapoport, A. (2006b). Archaeology and Environment- Landscapes”, Urban Design Studies, Vol. 6, pp. 129 – Behavior Studies, in W. Ashmore et al. (ed.s), 148. Integrating the Diversity of Twenty-First Century Anthropology: The Life and Intellectual Legacy of Rapoport, A. (2000c). Science, Explanatory Theory, Susan Kent, Archaeological Papers of the American and Environment-Behavior Studies, in S. Wapner et Anthropological Association, No. 16, University of al. (ed.s), Theoretical Perspectives in Environment- California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA, pp. 59 – 70. Behavior Research, Khuver Academic/ Plenum Publishers, New York, USA, pp. 104 – 140. Rapoport, A. (in press). Local Environments in a

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Global Context, revised version, Ekistics. Van Schaik, C. (2004). Among Orangutans: Red Apes and the Evolution of Human Culture, Belknap Press of Rhoads, S.E. (2004). Taking Sex Differences Seriously, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, USA. Encounter Books, San Francisco, CA, USA. Van Schaik, C. (2006). Why Are Some Animals Smart?, Richerson, P.J. and R. Boyd (2005). Not By Genes Scientiﬁc American, Vol. 294, No. 4 (April), pp. 64 – 71. Alone (How Culture Transformed Human Evolution), University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, USA. Varoli, J. (2000). Post-Soviet Dream: Levittown on the Neva, New York Times, July 13.

AMOS RAPOPORT Robinson, J.W. (2006). Institution and Home: Architecture as a Cultural Medium (Transformations Vassey, D.E. (1990). The Pub and English Social 7), Techne Press, Amsterdam, Netherlands. Change, AMS Press, New York, USA.

Science (2007). Special Section on Decision-Making, Von Frisch, K. (1974). Animal Architecture, Hacourt, Science, Vol. 318, No. 5850, pp. 593 – 610. Bralefovanovich, New York, USA. Shennan, S. (2002). Genes, Memes and Human Wong, K. (2005). The Scientiﬁc of the Modern Mind, History (Darwinian Archaeology and Cultural Scientiﬁc American, Vol. 292, No. 6 (June), pp. 86 – 95. Evolution, Thames and Hudson, London, UK. Zahawi, A. (1997). The Handicap Principle (A Missing Shettleworth, S.J. (2007). Planning for Breakfast, Piece of Darwin’s Puzzle), Oxford University Press, Nature, Vol. 445, No. 7130 (February 22), pp. 825 – 826. New York, USA. Shrestha, U.G., N.H. Shokoohy and M Shokoohy ------(1997). “Social Effects of Land Use Change in Kirtipar, Nepal”, Urban Design Studies, Vol. 3, pp. 51 – 74. Amos Rapoport Amos Rapoport is Distinguished Professor Emeritus Siegel, B.J. (1970). Defensive Structuring and in the School of Architecture and Urban Planning Environmental Stress, American Journal of Sociology, at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, where Vol. 76, pp. 11 – 46. he was previously Professor of Architecture and Anthropology. He is one of the founders of the Smith, C.S. (2002). For China’s Wealthy, All But the environment-behavior studies. He received his Fruited Plain, New York Times, May 15. Bachelor’s degree in Architecture from Melbourne Social Cognition (2007). Special Section, Science, University (Australia), his Master’s in Architecture Vol. 317, No. 5843 (September 7), pp. 1337 – 1366. from Rice University as a Fulbright student, and his Postgraduate Diploma of Town and Regional Templeton, C.N. et al. (2005). Allometry of Alarm Planning from the University of Melbourne. He has Calls: Black-Capped Chicadees Encode Information taught at the Universities of Melbourne and Sydney About Predator Size, Science, Vol. 308, No. 5730 (Australia), the University of California at Berkeley, (June 25), pp. 1934 – 1937. and University College London. He has held visiting appointments in Israel, Turkey, Britain, Argentina, Vandermeer, J. (2004). The Importance of a Brazil, Canada, Puerto Rico, India, and Switzerland, Constructivist View, Review of F.J. Odling-Smee et al. among others, and has lectured by invitation all over (2003), Niche Construction (The Neglected Process the world. He is a registered Architect in two states in in Evolution), Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, Australia, a Fellow of the Royal Australian Institute of USA, Science, Vol. 303, No. 5657 (January 23), pp. Architects, and an Associate of the Royal Institute of 472 – 474. British Architects. As one of the founders of the new

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ﬁeld of Environment-Behavior Studies, Rapoport’s work has mainly focused on the role of cultural variables, cross-cultural studies, interdisciplinary work and theory development and synthesis. He is the editor or co- editor of four books and several monographs and the author of approximately 200 papers, chapters. His six books areHouse Form and Culture, 1969; Human Aspects of Urban Form, 1977; The Meaning of the Built

AMOS RAPOPORT Environment, 1982 (updated edition 1990); History and Precedent in Environmental Design, 1990 ; Thirty- three papers in Environment-Behavior Research, 1995; Culture, Architecture and Design, 2005. His books and many other publications have been translated into a number of languages, including French, Spanish, German, Greek, Japanese, Chinese, and Korean.

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ARCHITECTURE BETWEEN THE CULTURE-NATURE DUALISM: A CASE STUDY OF GEOFFREY BAWA’S KANDALAMA HOTEL

Ceridwen Owen

Abstract Introduction: The Culture/Nature Question This paper explores the relationship between architecture and natural environments through an The question of the relationship between interrogation of the culture-nature question and the culture and nature has been a subject of possibility of operating in the space between these fascination and contention, not only within two polarities. The immensity of this topic is investigated environmental discourse, but also more through one fragment of its representation, Geoffrey broadly within philosophy since the musings Bawa’s Kandlama Hotel in Sri Lanka. Visually this of the Ancient Greeks. This Classical period is building engages in a process of invisibility as the boundaries between inside and outside, architecture frequently the point of departure for a critique and landscape are dissolved. This is an approach of the separation of culture from nature in that is common in green architecture in general a linear historical narrative that extends from a and nature-based tourism destinations in particular. romanticised primordial past, in which humans However, spatially the building maintains a clarity of and nature were seen to be cognitively and separation, denying its connection with the ground. practically in harmony with nature, to the It is this negotiation between the visual and the viliﬁed present (Routley 1983, Capra 1985, 1995, spatial realm, where one is simultaneously part of Fox 1990, Merchant 1992, Naess 1995, Sessions and distanced from the external environment, which 1995, Worcester 1995, Farmer 1996, Marshall is the site of its potentiality. It is both literally and metaphorically a space ‘between’ inside and outside, 1996, Jones 1998, Callicott 1999, Dobson 2000, culture and nature, home and away. The paper Hay 2002). Thus, modern society’s arrogant concludes by arguing that it is this state of dynamic disregard for the environment is seen as a tension that can challenge traditional representations progressive unfolding from Platonic soul-body of human/environment relations as alternatively dualism, through Medieval Christian dogma undifferentiated or ontologically distinct. and Renaissance orderings of nature, to its culmination in Enlightenment rationality. Keywords Architecture; culture; nature; binaries; Geoffrey Notwithstanding the inevitable variations in Bawa. this narrative, recognition of inconsistencies in

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its unfolding, and disputes over the ultimate intentional or not, I will argue that Bawa’s root of the current environmental crisis, there design for the Kandalama Hotel reveals subtle is little dissent within mainstream environmental relationships and tensions that are productive discourse on the need to challenge the for such an exploration into the territory absolute privileging of culture over nature. The between culture and nature. contentions arise over how and to what extent this position can be resisted, resulting in the polar Beyond’ the Culture/Nature Dualism CERIDWEN OWEN extremes of ecocentric versus anthropocentric attitudes manifest in the dualisms of arcadian/ Haila (2000: 157-158) describes the nature/ utopian (Hagan 2001: 48), reversionaries/ culture dualism as a ‘conceptual prison’, progressives (Jones 1998: 237) and planet arguing from Danto that it is a philosophical fetishers/planet managers (Eisenberg 1998: xv). problem based on ‘indiscriminable’, but Both positions are variously dismissed for being ontologically distinct pairs. Thus, since both naïve, in the former case for the practical and change and humans are part of nature, ontological impossibility of ecocentrism as well then the cultural sphere and the actions of as the privileging of environment over human humans ‘upon nature’ are not distinguishable. concerns, and in the latter case for refusing to Nevertheless, this is a distinction that is endemic acknowledge the limits of our technological within environmental discourse. The issue is capabilities to address the scope of the generally sidestepped by presenting nature as impending environmental crisis. an unproblematised ‘other’ that is independent of human culture. However, if nature is viewed An alternative position that has emerged in this uncritical sense, then there is very little within contemporary environmental discourse that is truly ‘natural’ (Soper 1995). For example, is to challenge the very foundation of the the recent intrusions into the boundaries culture/nature dualism by operating in between culture and nature through genetic the space between these two polarities. modification might be viewed as ‘unnatural’. This paper will contribute to this debate by However, the widespread changes to flora and exploring the potential for architecture to fauna that have occurred as a result of more negotiate this conceptual space. Following than 50,000 years of aboriginal occupation of a review of contemporary theory that looks the Australian continent through the practices ‘beyond’ the culture/nature dualism, I will turn of fire management are less readily dismissed to its architectural interpretation through an from the natural sphere. The distinction between examination of Geoffrey Bawa’s Kandalma natural and unnatural interventions appears to Hotel in Sri Lanka. Bawa might not seem like be drawn somewhere along a temporal and an obvious choice from which to begin this geographical line. The slow and localised exploration. Unlike architects such as Eisenman versus the fast and global provides some who valorise the dimension of ‘betweenness’, means of differentiation, but the distinction is Bawa eschewed any form of theorising about inevitably blurred. architecture, particularly in relation to his own work (Robson 2002). Nevertheless, whether The conundrum of the culture/nature division

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is exacerbated when the deﬁnition of nature that has dominated within environmental is extended beyond the physical domain. discourse. The politically motivated counter- Gold & Revill (2004: 81-82) identify two further directive to challenge the privileging of the dimensions of deﬁnitions of ‘nature’, the social natural in discourses of gender, class and and the philosophical. In the social domain, race has resulted in “banishing the natural to nature is construed as a model for society in the the category of irrelevance” (Grosz 2001: 97). form of ideal types and fundamental characters, Several theorists, including Haraway (1991),

CERIDWEN OWEN whereas, in the philosophical domain, nature is Soper (1995), and Hagan (2001), are at pains to seen as an unquestionable authority leading to revive some semblance of an objective nature. ideas of morality, beauty and truth. In this way, Recognising that neither the ‘nature-sceptical’ ideas of nature are inherently bound to the nor the ‘nature-endorsing’ views are sufficient cultural sphere as evidenced in the connection to address our relation to the environment, of ‘nature’, ‘native’, ‘nation’ and ‘innate’ to the Soper (1995: 124) argues: same etymological root (Gold & Revill 2004). “It is true that we can make no distinction between For Grosz (2001: 96), the problem of defining the ‘reality’ of nature and its cultural representation ‘nature’ is a condition of its location as the that is not itself conceptual but it does not justify the suppressed binary within the culture/nature conclusion that there is no ontological distinction dualism, “rendering it definitionally amorphous, between the ideas we have of nature and that which the ideas are about: that since nature is only signified the receptacle of all that is excessive or in human discourse, inverted commas ‘nature’ is expelled from the circuit of the privileged nature, and we should therefore remove the inverted term.” This has reached its pinnacle within commas. In short, it is not language that has a hole contemporary theoretical discourse where the in its ozone layer; and the ‘real’ thing continues to outright supremacy of culture has resulted in the be polluted and degraded even as we refine our almost total erasure of the term ‘nature’, which deconstructive insights at the level of the signifier.” must now be written in inverted commas. For Haraway, the way out of this dilemma is All That is Nature Melts into Culture? to recognise that our objective knowledge can only ever by partial and situated and It is now almost impossible to conceive of that the ‘object’ of study be conceived as a nature outside of the frame of culture. This active agent rather than as passive ground position is alarming to many environmentalists, for our scientific mastery. Thus, the relationship since it permits the construction of everything between our cultured knowledge and our as ‘natural’ and excludes the notion of natural environment is one of conversation, ‘wilderness’. However, as Plumwood (1993: not with an anthropomorphic mother earth, 215) notes, the flip side of this argument, which but with the trickster ‘coyote’, which Haraway preserves the notion of wilderness through (1991: 201) presents as “a figure for the always a radical separation of humans and nature, problematic, always potent tie of meaning is similarly problematic. Nevertheless, this and bodies.” The space for such situated uncritical ecological naturalism is a position knowledge, for the conversation with the

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agent of nature is, in Grosz’s term, the space potential for this conception of the in-between ‘in-between’ the culture/nature dualism. in relation to architecture.

Drawing on the intellectual tradition of Architecture In-Between Derrida, Irigaray, and speciﬁcally Deleuze, Grosz (2001) situates the culture/nature Architecture can be conceived as a literal debate in the location between these two interface between culture and nature

CERIDWEN OWEN conceptual and arbitrary polarities. While the since its materiality derives directly from the dislocation of binary structures is popular within natural sphere while its form and function contemporary theory and particularly within are embedded in the cultural sphere (for feminist theory, it retains a marginal position example see Casey 1993: 112). However, this within environmental discourse. As with feminist only perpetuates the culture/nature dualism theory, it has the potential to liberate nature as an exploitation of the passive ‘body’ of from its marginalised status by working from nature in the service of the needs of ‘Man’ within a potential place of negotiation rather (Sofoulis in Haraway 1991: 198). For Grosz there than from the excluded ‘other’. However, the is a more poetic rather than literal interface reason for the marginalisation of such positions between culture and nature within the medium within environmental theory becomes evident of architecture. She describes it as “nature’s when the position of the in-between in relation open-ended completion by architecture, to the culture/nature dichotomy is articulated. the landscape’s fundamental openness to architectural rewriting” (2001: 100). Grosz’s For Grosz, nature must be seen as a site of choice of the word ‘landscape’ suggests potentiality, becoming, force, and malleability a rejection of the concept of an idealised that gives rise to the richness of variety of nature separate from human intervention. For cultural life. This presupposes the abandonment Bookchin (1996), this unfolding of nature into of the notion of ‘limits’, which is a mainstay of culture through landscape, architecture and environmental theory from the doomsday technology is the move from ‘ﬁrst’ to ‘second’ scenarios of Malthus (1798) and Ehrlich (1968), nature. Notwithstanding the hierarchies to the more moderate limits of greenhouse gas embedded in this terminology, this sense of emissions within the Kyoto Protocol. Questioning unfolding or ‘open-ended completion’, does the identity, and therefore ‘limits’ of nature along not position architecture on a continuum Deleuzian lines of becoming, is confronting somewhere between an idealised culture and to a ﬁeld that is predicated on identifying nature. Rather, it can be conceptualised in what and securing ‘real’ boundaries to human Soja (2000: 28) terms ‘third space’, or a space of intervention, despite the inherent dimension ‘multiplicitous representations’. This is not to say of change embodied in natural evolution. To that it erases the binary oppositions, but rather embrace such notions is potentially to open the opens up the possibilities of alternatives, of the door to environmental sceptics who argue that ‘both-and-also’, rather than the ‘either-or’ (ibid: global warming is ‘natural’. Notwithstanding 20). The tensions between culture and nature these oppositions, I would like to explore the cannot and should not be obliterated. Rather,

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as Friedman (1998:31) argues on the question not entirely erase the underlying tensions of moving ‘beyond’ gender, the critical space between the culture/nature dualism. For the must be written as a palimpsest. built environment this entails not the erosion of boundaries, but the construction of negotiable This conceptual position does not address ends. boundaries that facilitate encounters with It does not suggest how architecture should difference, permeability, and unpredictability ‘complete’ nature, but rather it provides only a (Sibley 2001). In the remainder of this paper, I

CERIDWEN OWEN framework within which to begin addressing this would like to explore the enormity of this subject question. It does, however, have the potential through the microscopic lens of the work of to release environmental architecture from the Geoffrey Bawa, specifically the Kandalma strictures of arcadian models of nature as purity Hotel. and reverence, and rationalist models of nature as empirical measurement. This is a position that Wines (1999) argues environmental architecture Geoffrey Bawa needs to inhabit. He sees architecture as a ‘transition’, both functionally, as the Geoffrey Bawa is Sri Lanka’s most eminent gradient between outside and inside, and and prolific architect producing a wealth of metaphorically, as a narrative that mediates projects, primarily within his home country, between its physical and cultural context. It is many of which have received international within this narrative dimension of architecture critical acclaim. His lifetime’s contribution to that I believe this conceptual position is most architecture was honoured in 2001 with the productive. Like Haraway, Soper and Hagan, Aga Khan Special Chairman’s Award (Robson I am reluctant to abandon an objective 2001). dimension to nature and the environmental limits this imposes on architectural production. Bawa came to his architectural career late in The architectural narrative offers opportunities life driven by his passion for landscape design. for engaging in a conversation with coyote The purchase of the rubber plantation at nature without denying the validity of measures Lununga in 1948 marked the beginning of his to mediate ‘real’ environmental impacts. interest in architecture and landscape and the transformation of this property through large- Since this is an open-ended dialogue, there scale terra-forming to micro-scale pruning are no limits to the forms such conversations continued until his death in 2003. Bawa was can take. For some, such as Wines (1999) who particularly concerned with the relationship articulates the conversation as one of a ‘fusion’ between buildings and landscape. Indeed, with nature, it would appear that architecture Bawa believed that the two were inseparable should ideally represent a seamless transition (Brawne 1995). For Bawa, it is not only the careful between culture and nature. However, I would situation of architecture within a landscape but like to adopt a slightly different tack and argue also the embodiment of that landscape within that in order to maintain the critical space as the building; a unity between architecture and palimpsest, the architectural narrative should place (Taylor 1986). He was strongly influenced

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by the architecture of his native Sri Lanka. For a carefully orchestrated sequence of spaces Bawa, ‘good Sri Lankan architecture’ is deﬁned between land and ocean. not in relation to particular styles or historical periods but through its response to place; Taylor (1986) has described Bawa’s architecture to light, views, topography, materiality and as a ‘fusion’ of the man-made and the natural. particularly climate (Bawa in Taylor 1986). However, as the case of the Kandalama hotel reveals, the boundaries between the cultural

CERIDWEN OWEN However, Bawa’s architecture was not and the natural are not erased, but are rather derivative. He returned to first principles, held in a state of dynamic tension. questioning preconceived relationships and patterns of dwelling. Perhaps most notable Kandalama Hotel was his reinvention of the house typology in response to the changing demographics and The Kandalama Hotel was an initiative of the lifestyles of his clients and to the increasingly Aitken Spence Group to extend the facilities tight subdivisions in the expanding metropolis for package tourism from the south-west coast of Colombo. His own house in Colombo is one to the ‘Cultural Triangle’ in the dry-zone of the of the most impressive examples. A row of four country’s north-east interior (Robson 2002). It is terraces has been progressively transformed one of Bawa’s last hotel designs, commencing into a maze of rooms and courtyards that blur in 1992 and opening in 1995. The 162 room, five- the distinction between inside and outside, star hotel is located at the edge of an ancient house and garden. His architecture is an tank or reservoir beside a rocky outcrop near exercise in spatial unfolding through varying Dambulla and the famous cultural site of degrees of enclosure and proportion and Sigirya. through the careful manipulation of vistas. Originally, the clients had planned to construct Given Bawa’s sensitivity to place and his the hotel near Sigirya itself, an impressive ability to reinterpret vernacular models for Sinhalese fifth century palace and fortress contemporary lifestyles, he was perhaps an built around, into and on top of a giant rock. obvious choice as an architect for the plethora However, Bawa rejected the site and instead of hotel projects that emerged from the early opted for a new location with distant views to 1960s in response to the demand for package Sigirya across the ancient Kandalama tank tourism in Sri Lanka. Over his career, Bawa (Robson 2002) (Figure 1). The new site kept designed more than 25 unbuilt and 15 built hotel Sigirya at a tantalising distance while offering its projects in Sri Lanka and internationally (Robson own topographic dramatism. Here, Bawa could 2002). In Sri Lanka, many of these are situated more readily explore his own version of the on the spectacular south-west coast from his Sinhalese love affair with picturesque planning, first built project for the Blue Lagoon Hotel near combining water and topology with man- Negombo in1965-66 to his last, the Blue Water made insertions in spectacular compositions Hotel at Wadduwa and the Lighthouse Hotel in (Robson 2002). Galle in 1995-1998. These hotel projects exhibit

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Figure 1: View across the Kandalama Tank to Sigiriya. (Source: C. Owen).

Bawa’s concept sought to accentuate the ridge (Robson 2002) (Figure 2). On the other his immediate impressions of the site – an side, the visitor would arrive on an upper level impenetrable ridge occupied by an old cave of an artiﬁcial cliff, separated from but aligned hermitage, opening up to a broad vista with the contours of the rock face (Figure 3). across the Kandalama tank to Sigiriya. The dramatism of the view was to be enhanced by compressing the entrance through a narrow cave-like passage, seemingly tunnelling through

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Figure 2: Entrance Tunnel. (Source: C. Owen). CERIDWEN OWEN

Figure 3: The Artiﬁcial ‘Cliff.’ (Source: C. Owen).

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The proposal was highly sensitive to the example, Sinhala Catholics protested against landscape in which it was situated, offering the perceived desecration of an old Buddhist a heightened sense of the topography of the monastic precinct but simultaneously infuriated site whilst concealing the mass of the building Sri Lankan Buddhists by their erection of a white along the cliff edge. The building was also to cross on the hallowed site, invoking ancient be masked in a blanket of vegetation so that cultural and religious divides (Bartholomeusz no trace of it could be seen from afar (Figure 1995). The privately owned ‘Island’ paper raised

CERIDWEN OWEN 4). Nevertheless, the proposed hotel prompted concerns over the effect on the water supply much controversy, sparking active protests and and the site ecology but also argued that the vigorous debate that featured almost daily in project would promote immorality, while the the Sri Lankan press. Objections centred on Government owned Daily News favoured the environmental issues and the preservation of development as an economic boost to the cultural heritage but masked deeper and more local community (ibid). pervasive moral and political concerns. For

Figure 4: Mask of Vegetation. (Source: C. Owen).

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Ultimately, economic rationality prevailed consultation and on-going relationships with the over religious morality and the project was local community providing educational and not shelved. However, the cultural and economic beneﬁts (Green Globe npd). environmental concerns did result in some modiﬁcations to the design. Most notably, Visual Narrative half of the rooms were moved to a new wing above the approach road on the Dambulla Architecturally, the sensitivity to site is manifest

CERIDWEN OWEN side to protect the old monastic site in the vegetative cloak that wraps the entire (Robson 2002). The project also embraced building and in the physical separation between environmental sustainability and became the hotel floors and ground plane allowing a first hotel in Asia to be accredited under the continuous flow of earth, vegetation and water premier international ecotourism standard, below the building (Brawne 1995) (Figure 5). Green Globe 21. Kandalama has received numerous other awards for its environmental This perceptual continuity between land and initiatives including reforestation of the hotel water is also realised in the internal spatial property and surroundings, on-site wastewater quality of the building, which remains the treatment, an extensive recycling program and most enduring experience for the visitor. From

Figure 5: Separation from Ground Plane. (Source: C. Owen).

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every perspective the skin of the building is baths provides the opportunity for a more diminished to the extent that it is perceived as intimate experience of sinking into the lake a giant open verandah, wrapping around the from the comfort of your room. The absence cliff face as its rear ‘wall’ and visually flowing of ornamentation, reflective floor surfaces and out to the Kandalama tank beyond. A range veils of greenery all serve to further confuse the of strategies is employed to blur the distinction distinction between building and environment between inside and outside along this edge. (Figure 7).

CERIDWEN OWEN The main swimming pool terrace erases the middle ground causing the pool to appear to The building engages in a process of invisibility blend seamlessly with the lake beyond (Figure as the boundaries between inside and outside, 6), while the careful placement of the private between architecture and landscape, are

Figure 6: Pool and Lake. (Source: C. Owen).

Figure 7: Veils of Greenery. (Source: C. Owen).

dissolved. This is a common theme in green from view. As Crist (2007) argues, the process architecture in general, which Crist (2007: of disappearance becomes bound up with a 54) describes as “a lingering battle between process of re-emergence and it is the slippery architecture’s visibility and the advancing movement between the two that is the very impacts of nature.” It is also a common image condition for sustainable architecture’s visibility. in place-based tourism destinations where At Kandalama, the architecture slips between buildings are sheathed in cloaks of earth emergence and disappearance, or between and foliage tending towards an architectural growth and decay. From one perspective it absence (Owen & Hes 2007). However, this does appears as a natural extension to the site, an not mean that architecture disappears entirely inhabited cliff sprouting new life. From another, it

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can be viewed as a glamourous ruin overcome simultaneously denying its connection with the by the ravages of nature. ground. With the obvious exception of the hotel entrance, it is relatively difﬁcult to gain access Spatial Narrative to the outside. Only a pool terrace extending from the main foyer level invites one to venture The question of imagery within the ﬁeld of beyond the boundaries of the ‘cliff’. Otherwise green architecture remains contentious (Owen guests are carefully contained within the

CERIDWEN OWEN 2007a). Sustainability cannot be made ‘visible’ clearly demarcated building edge. Terraces by identifying a universally identiﬁable style and snake around rock faces and hover close to indeed, as Crist (2007) concludes, any such the ground plane but resist a direct physical effort is likely to result in its disappearance. connection with the world outside. However, it is similarly dangerous to explore Kandalama has been described as an ocean the image alone in relation to architecture, liner marooned on a mountainside (Robson which is inevitably concerned with the broader 2002: 201). On board the ‘ship in the forest’, bodily experiences of place. In the case of the visitor is at once visually connected with the Kandalama, it is the contrast between the outside world and physically disconnected from visual blurring and the clarity of the spatial it. To fully interact with the world ‘out there’, the organisation that is the most striking feature visitor must disembark – an experience that is of this resort, and underlies its ‘visibility’. The heightened visually and spatially by the tunnel- ‘cliff’ of accommodation wraps, but remains like quality of the entrance (Figure 8). physically separate from, the rock face while

Figure 8: Embarking and Disembarking. (Source: C. Owen).

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Architecture as Threshold a re-framing of human-environment, or culture- nature relationships. Kandalama maintains a certain ambiguity and an unwillingness to entirely dissolve the boundary between culture and nature. It does Conclusion: The Narrative Dimension - A so, not only through its visual identity, through Space of Potential a negotiation between emergence and Architecture is both a product of and condition

CERIDWEN OWEN disappearance, but more particularly through the contrast between the visual and the spatial for our relationship to the world. It does not realm, where one is simultaneously part of and simply address societal visions, but its very distanced from the external environment. manifestation may also serve to limit and structure the forms that these visions may take The building can be seen as a liminal or (Dutton 1996). In this way, architecture not only ‘between’ space both physically and provides a visible record of changing cultural metaphorically. Physically, it adopts the ideals and social practices manifest in built architectural strategy of the verandah, the form as a “spatialization” of history, it also plays threshold space between inside and outside, a powerful future formative role in imagining public and private. The verandah is a common other possibilities (Davidson 1996). architectural device and one of the core elements of Sinhalese architecture (Robson Speciﬁcally, Kandalama represents an example 2002). However, here, the manipulation of of how architecture can move beyond traditional scale reverses traditional hierarchies, with the representations of human/environment generous verandah occupying central stage relations as alternatively undifferentiated or and the cellular rooms relegated to a position ontologically distinct. The building challenges as ancillary space. the culture/nature divide, not by collapse into an apparently undifferentiated whole as an Metaphorically Kandalama can be seen as uncritical absorption of culture into nature, a threshold between two realities – the familiar nor through privileging the surpressed binary internal world and the external world ‘out there’. as an apologetic response to place. Rather, it Pritchard & Morgan (2006) describe all hotels as maintains a space of dynamic tension, or what a form of liminal space in that they facilitate this Ockman (2004: 233) has described as an ‘edge negotiation between ‘home’ and ‘away’, from condition’, or a continuous “oscillation between the ‘known’ to the ‘unknown’. Such spaces, the ontologies of architecture and landscape.” together with their common location on the similarly liminal space of the beach, facilitate This is a productive place for architecture the suspension of ‘normal rules and conventions’ to inhabit. In particular for environmental and indulgence in the excesses that typify architecture it offers the opportunity of tourist experiences (Pritchard & Morgan 2006). moving beyond the limitations of sustainability However, such liminal spaces and their ‘out of discourse predicated on minimal impacts normal’ experience also offer the opportunity of to a more positive ‘regenerative’ agenda, a more reﬂexive engagement with place and which challenges the separation of subject

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and object – or culture and nature – and Renewed Understanding of the Place-World, Indiana reconnects environmentalism with a socio- University Press, Bloomington, Indiana, USA. political dimension (Owen 2007b). Crist, G. (2007). Invisible Sustainability. In Helen Lewis & Chris Ryan (eds.), Imaging Sustainability, RMIT This does not mean that environmental University Press, Melbourne, Australia, pp. 49-56. architecture need abandon its foundation on Davidson, C. (1996). Introduction. In Cynthia sustainability principles such as energy and Davidson (ed.), Anywise, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. CERIDWEN OWEN water efﬁciency. Working in the space between USA, pp.12-15. culture and nature does not entail rejecting any sense of an objective nature in favour of Dobson, A. (2000). Green Political Thought (3rd ed.), a culturally constructed ‘nature’. However, Routledge, London, United Kingdom. escaping the strictures of the conceptual Dutton, T. A. (1996). Cultural Studies and Critical prison of the culture-nature divide, a space of Pedagogy: Cultural Pedagogy and Architecture. possibilities emerges for the narrative dimension In Thomas A. Dutton & Lian Hurst Mann (eds.), of architecture. This is not a space for answers, Reconstructing Architecture: Critical Discourses but a space for further questions. and Social Practices, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, pp. 158-201.

Eisenberg, E. (1998). The Ecology of Eden, Alfred A. References Knopf, New York, USA. Bartholomeusz, T. (1995). Catholics, Buddhists, and Farmer, J. (1996). Green Shift: Towards a Green the Church of England: The 1883 Sri Lankan Riots. Sensibility in Architecture, Butterworth Architecture, Buddhist-Christian Studies 15, pp. 89-103. Oxford. United Kingdom. Bookchin, M. (1996). The Philosophy of Social Fox, W. (1990). Toward a Transpersonal Ecology: Ecology: Essays on Dialectical Naturalism, Black Rose Developing New Foundations for Environmentalism, Books, Montreal, Canada. Shambhala, Boston, Mass, USA. Brawne, M. (1995). Paradise Found. Architectural Friedman, S. S. (1998). Mappings: Feminism and Review, 198 (1186), pp. 70-74. the Cultural Geographies of Encounter, Princeton Callicott, J.B. (1999). Beyond the Land Ethic: More University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Essays in Environmental Philosophy, State University of Gold, J. R. & Revill, G. (2004). Representing the New York Press, Albany, New York, USA. Environment, Routledge, London, United Kingdom. Capra, F. (1985). The Tao of Physics: An Exploration Green Globe (npd). Green Globe Certiﬁed Case of the Parallels between Modern Physics and Eastern Studies: Kandalama Hotel. Accessed from . Viewed In George Sessions (ed.), Deep Ecology for the 21st 7/12/07. Century (2nd ed.), Shambhala, Boston, Mass, USA. Grosz, E. A. (2001). Architecture from the Outside: pp.19-25. Essays on Virtual and Real Space, MIT Press, Casey, E. S. (1993). Getting Back into Place: Toward a Cambridge, Mass, USA.

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Hagan, S. (2001). Taking Shape: A New Contract Owen, C. & Hes, D. (2007). Ecotourism in the between Architecture and Nature, Architectural Architectural Imagination. Paper presented at Press, Oxford, United Kingdom. Gazing, Glancing, Glimpsing: Tourists and Tourism in a Visual World, 13-15 June 2007, University of Brighton, Haila, Y. (2000) Beyond the Nature-Culture Dualism. Eastbourne, United Kingdom. Available from the Biology and Philosophy 15, pp. 155-175. author: [email protected] Haraway, D. J. (1991). Simians, Cyborgs and Women: Plumwood, V. (1993). Feminism and the Mastery of The Reinvention of Nature, Routledge, New York,

CERIDWEN OWEN Nature, Routledge, London, United Kingdom. USA. Pritchard, A. & Morgan, N. (2006) Hotel Babylon? Hay, P. (2002). Main Currents in Western Exploring Hotels as Liminal Sites of Transition and Environmental Thought, UNSW Press, Sydney, Transgression. Tourism Management 27, pp. 762-772. Australia. Robson, D. (2001). Sage of Sri Lanka. Architectural Jones, D.L. (1998). Architecture and the Environment: Review 210 (1257), pp. 72-75. Bioclimatic Building Design, Laurence King, London, United Kingdom. Robson, D. (2002). Geoffrey Bawa: The Complete Works, Thames & Hudson, London, United Kingdom. Marshall, P. (1996). Nature’s Web: Rethinking our Place on Earth, M.E. Sharpe, Armonk, New York, USA. Routley, R. (1983). Roles and Limits of Paradigms in Environmental Thought and Action. In Robert Elliot & Merchant, C. (1992). Radical Ecology: The Search for a Arran Gare (eds.), Environmental Philosophy, Liveable World, Routledge, New York, USA. University of Queensland Press, St Lucia, Australia, pp.260-293. Naess, A. (1995). The Deep Ecological Movement. In George Sessions (ed.), Deep Ecology for the 21st Sessions, G. (1995). Introduction: Toward the Century (2nd ed.), Shambhala, Boston, Mass, USA, 21st Century and Beyond: Social and Political pp.64-84. Implications. In George Sessions (ed.), Deep Ecology for the 21st Century (2nd ed.), Shambhala, Boston, Ockman, J. (2004). New Politics of the Spectacle: Mass, USA, pp. 3-7. “Bilbao” and the Global Imagination. In D. Medina Lasansky & Brian McLaren (eds.), Architecture and Sibley, D. (2001). The Binary City. Urban Studies 38 (2), Tourism: Perception, Performance and Place, Berg, pp. 239-250. Oxford, United Kingdom, pp. 227-239. Soja, E. W. (2000). Thirdspace: Expanding the scope Owen, C. (2007a). Contested Ground: The Image in of the geographical imagination, In Alan Read the Field of Architecture. In Helen Lewis & Chris Ryan (ed.), Architecturally Speaking: Practices of Art, (eds.), Imaging Sustainability, RMIT University Press, Architecture and the Everyday, Routledge, London, Melbourne, Australia, pp. 25-34. United Kingdom, pp. 13-30. Owen, C. (2007b). Regenerative Tourism: Re-placing Soper, K. (1995). What is Nature?: Culture, Politics and the Design of Ecotourism Facilities. Paper presented at the Non-Human, Blackwell, Oxford, United Kingdom. The 3rd International Conference on Environmental, Taylor, B. B. (1986). Geoffrey Bawa: Architect in Sri Cultural, Economic and Social Sustainability, Chennai Lanka, Concept Media, Singapore. India, 3-7 January. Published in The International Journal of Environmental, Cultural, Economic and Wines, J. (1999). Jewel in the Balance. In Amerigo Social Sustainability, 3 (2), pp. 175-181. Marras (ed.), ECO-TEC: Architecture of the In-

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between, Princeton Architectural Press, New York, USA, pp. 108-117. Worster, D. (1995). The Shaky Ground of Sustainability. In George Sessions (ed.), Deep Ecology for the 21st Century (2nd ed.), Shambhala, Boston, Mass, USA, pp.417-427.

CERIDWEN OWEN ------Ceridwen Owen Ceridwen Owen is a lecturer in the School of Architecture at the University of Tasmania and a partner with Core Collective Architects. She holds a Bachelor of Architecture (hons) from Heriot- Watt University in Edinburgh (1991), a Diploma in Architecture from the Mackintosh School in Glasgow (1993) and a PhD from the University of Melbourne (2004). Her broad field of research interest is concerned with the relationship between sustainability and architectural theory and practice. Her PhD utilised Bourdieu’s conceptual framework of fields of cultural production to examine how sustainability operates as a form of symbolic capital in the profession of architecture. Her current research focuses on regenerative design as an expansion of the concept of sustainability. Specifically, she is exploring the theoretical and practical applications of this concept to the area of ecotourism. She can be contacted at [email protected].

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MULTIPLE VIEWS OF PARTICIPATORY DESIGN

Henry Sanoff

Abstract Introduction: Historical Background Participatory design is an attitude about a force for change in the creation and management of Citizen participation in community decision- environments for people. Today participatory design making can be traced as far back as Plato’s processes are being applied to urban design and Republic (Plato & Grube, 1992). Plato’s concepts planning as well as to the fields of industrial and of freedom of speech, assembly, voting, and information technology. Citizen’s working towards equal representation have evolved through the collective outcomes, has been described as visioning, strategic planning, and deliberative democracy, years to form the basis upon which the United all aimed at actions that shape and guide what States was established. Some historians support a community is, what it does, and why it does it. the notion that Americans have always wanted Overall, studies in participation conducted during to be part of decisions affecting their lives. the past decade have referred to such benefits as Billington (1974) contends that freedom and the citizen empowerment, increasing social capital and right to make decisions on the early American promoting a sense of community. frontier was the shaping force in grass roots democracy, i.e., people’s right to participate. Keywords As many frontier villages grew in population it Participation; participatory design; democracy; became increasingly difficult for every citizen to visioning. actively participate in all community decisions. To fill the void in the decision making process, people began to delegate their involvement to a representative, which grew into the system of selecting officials by public elections, and the increase of volunteer associations and organizations (de Tocqueville, 1959). Although public participation can be approached and Published earlier in METU JFA 2006, Vol 23 (2) 131-143 defined in many different ways, this discussion Republished with permission is concerned with participation aimed at issues

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involving community decision-making. computer-system designers to collaborate with worker organizations to develop systems that Community consciousness in the 1960’s led most effectively promoted the quality of work to direct involvement of the public in the life. Pelle Ehn describes a design philosophy definition of their physical environment and called the “tool perspective,” whereby new an increased sense of social responsibility computer-based tools should be designed HENRY SANOFF constituted a new movement. Following this as an extension of the traditional practical movement, community design centers aiming understanding of tools and materials used to offer design and planning services to enable within a given craft of profession. “Design the poor to define and implement their own must therefore be carried out by the common planning goals, were established in the United efforts of skilled, experienced users and design States and the United Kingdom. They were professionals. Users possess the needed influenced by Paul Davidoff’s advocacy practical understanding but lack insight into model of intervention. Similarly, many design new technical possibilities. The designer must and planning professionals rejected traditional understand the specific labor process that practice (1965). Instead they fought against uses a tool” (Ehn, 1992: 112). In Denmark, the urban redevelopment, advocated for the rights MUST-method, a method of participatory of poor citizens, and developed methods of design that creates the computer support for citizen participation. Government financial aid the production and airing of radio programs programs that encouraged the participation of identifies strategic analysis and visioning as the citizens in community improvement programs main design activities (Bodker et al., 2004). supported this movement. With these programs, people outside the professions were allowed to In an alliance called Computer Professionals make decisions about planning and financing. for Social Responsibility (CPSR) participatory Citizens were given the right to participate design is described as an approach to the in planning and implementation processes assessment, design, and development of through grants and technical assistance technological and organizational systems that (Sanoff, 2005). Volunteer citizen participation places a premium on the active involvement of continues to be one of the key concepts in workplace practitioners in design and decision- American society. making processes.

In northern Europe participatory design grew out The International Association for Public of work beginning in the early 1970s in Norway Participation (IAP2), founded in 1990, seeks when computer professionals, union leaders to promote and improve the practice of and members of the Iron and Metalworkers public participation in relation to individuals, Union strove to enable workers to have more governments, institutions, and other entities that inﬂuence on the introduction of computer affect the public interest in nations throughout systems in the workplace (Winograd, 1996; the world. Core values for the practice of pubic Spinuzzi, 2005). Several projects in Scandinavia participation include that the public should set out to ﬁnd the most effective ways for have a say in decisions about actions that could

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affect their lives and that their contribution will creation and management instead of being influence the decision. Participants should treated as passive consumers (Sanoff, 2000). be provided with the information they need Democratic theory has always stressed citizen to participate in a meaningful way and be participation in public decision-making. With informed how their input affected the decision. few exceptions, however, democratic theory has traditionally encouraged ‘low quality HENRY SANOFF The Participatory Geographies Working Group citizen action by making a fetish out of only one (PyGyWG) based in the UK, reflects a surge form of political participation-voting’ (Pranger, of interest in the study and application of 1968: 30). Despite the insistence on ‘citizen rule’ participatory research methods such that in the ideology of democracy, large segments geographic research should have benefits for of the population in all modern nations are those affected by the social, economic and in reality powerless to significantly affect the environmental issues, which are at its heart. political decisions, policies, and actions of A range of participatory principles underpins their societies. The concept of participatory participatory geographies, such as a focus on democracy, which emerged in the 1960s, empowerment and collective action where was a rediscovery of traditional democratic participants learn from their engagement in philosophy (Olsen, 1982). The central features the process. They believe that participatory of a participatory democracy can be distilled work should be proactively inclusive with into the following definition: practitioners actively attempting to include and seek out people who are often ignored or In a participatory democracy, collective decision- do not take part in community development or making is highly decentralized throughout all research processes. Participatory geographers, sectors of society, so that all individuals learn therefore, often seek to work in bottom-up participatory skills and can effectively participate ways with the goal of actively engaging and in various ways in the making of all decisions that benefiting groups outside academia so that affect them. Particularly crucial in this conception traditional barriers between ‘expert researcher’ of participatory democracy is the insistence that and ‘researched community’ are broken down full democratization of decision-making within all (PyGyWg, 2006). local and private organizations is a necessary prerequisite for political democracy at the Participatory Democracy national level.

Participatory design is an attitude about a force It has been argued that a participatory for change in the creation and management democracy leads to persistent conﬂict, of environments for people. Its strength lies in eventual alienation from the political system, being a movement that cuts across traditional and unnecessary and expensive delays (Rosner, professional boundaries and cultures. The 1978). This argument holds that a majority activity of community participation is based of the population, who do not now actively on the principle that the environment works participate, hold attitudes that are intolerant better if citizens are active and involved in its of any deviation from the cultural norm.

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Consequently, if more of these people are collective outcomes. She describes her drawn into active political life, these attitudes approach as deliberative governance, which will influence the political process such that advocates democratic problem-solving they will affect the survival of a democracy. initiatives. Proponents of citizen deliberation argue that participation in deliberative forums In recent years, however, the idea of participatory has a positive impact on citizens’ attitudes and HENRY SANOFF democracy has invaded numerous areas of behaviors. The potential benefits of deliberation social life, including industry, neighborhoods, include more informed and reflective judgments, and race relations. Most evident has been a greater sense of political efficacy, and an the rapid expansion of relatively formalized increase in the frequency of political action programs for promoting participation in (Bohman, 1996; Cohen, 1997; Gastil, 2000). community programs and government (Cahn & Sirianni & Friedland (2005) refer to a deliberative Passett, 1971; Lind, 1975). The development of democracy whereby citizens and their a communities’ potential through collaborative representatives deliberate about community problem solving is described by social scientists problems and solutions through reflection and as participatory action research (PAR), where judgment, with the willingness to understand citizens are empowered to effect social change the values and interests of others in a search by controlling the knowledge produced by for mutually acceptable solutions. Deliberative participation (Whyte, 1991). democracy introduces a different citizen voice than that associated with public opinion and Is participatory democracy a realistic direction simple voting. It seeks a citizen voice capable of for our future, was a question asked in a study recognizing other group’s interests, appreciating in five U.S. cites-Birmingham, Dayton, Portland, the need for trade-offs, and generating a sense San Antonio, and St. Paul, in ten comparison of common ownership. The practical question cities, and in seventy participation projects for design and planning professionals is how best throughout the country over a two year period to be deliberative within conflictual, adversarial (Thomson et al., 1994). The findings revealed settings (Forester, 1999). a positive relationship between participation and support of the system, trust in government Underpinning a deliberative democracy is officials, and tolerance toward other’s points of Atlee’s (2003) concept of collective intelligence view. The stronger the participation system and (CI), which is based on the ability of groups to the more people who participate, the greater sort out their collective experience in ways that the support for democratic values. help to respond appropriately to circumstances - especially when faced with new situations. Deliberative Democracy Atlee (p.53) describes collective intelligence as a shared insight that comes about through the Carson (2003) recognizes the deficiencies of process of group interaction, particularly where representative government and proposes to the outcome is more insightful and powerful engage in deliberation, or build deliberative than the sum of individual perspectives. capacity whereby citizens’ work towards Collective intelligence has been suggested

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as being partly responsible for favorable for those who are politically involved. But these participatory design outcomes (Fischer et al., efforts also develop the participants’ sense of 2005). community for as long as they remain involved (Thomson et al., 1994). Planners and architects To increase the effectiveness of our democracy, facilitating a collaborative design process is Atlee advances the idea of Citizen Deliberative described as “co-design” by King (1983), with HENRY SANOFF Councils (CDC), which are small face-to-face such benefits as creating events that allow for groups of diverse citizens that convene for social interaction and developing a sense of short periods of time to consider some public community through face-to-face interactions, concern. Deliberation, states Atlee, is a form and publicly affirming community values. of dialogue with the intention of producing decisions, policies, recommendations or Similarly, the unique qualities of places where collective action. Deliberation involves a planning and development occur can play careful consideration of an issue, examining the a critical role in the process as well (Manzo, facts, viewpoints and consequences related to 2006). Citizens’ attachment to places in their it. Unlike an open participatory forum, a CDC community can help to inspire action because is an organized group of people selected such people are motivated to protect and improve that their collective diversity reflects the diversity places that are meaningful to them. Sense of of the larger population from which they were community has been linked to place attachment drawn. Unlike public hearings, which are often at the individual and community scale. Rivlin’s aimed at airing views, citizen deliberative (1987) study of a Brooklyn neighborhood found councils are small, usually between ten to fifty that attachment to the neighborhood served people, and generate a specific product such as a precondition for the development of as a recommendation, which would generate a sense of community among neighbors. Both further community dialogue. sense of community and place attachment are linked to participation, consequently sense Sense of Community of community has become a key planning goal (Morris, 1996; Perkins, Brown & Taylor, 1996). Building a participatory democracy also means Other studies in participation conducted during building an increased sense of community the past decade have referred to such benefits among the population at large. When as citizen empowerment, increasing social people have a strong sense of community, capital and promoting a sense of community they are more likely to respond positively to (Guy, 2002). efforts to solve community problems, and will be willing to contribute their time and The effectiveness of community organizations, resources to meeting community needs (Morris, social relationships and mutual trust is referred 1996). The process is a stabilizing rather than to as social capital. It is a measure of the a destabilizing force. Increased participation social networks in a community with such efforts do bring in more people who initially indicators as civic education, community have a lower sense of community than is typical leadership, volunteerism, community pride,

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government performance, and capacity for Participation can be addressed effectively if cooperation (Bens, 1994). Therefore, social the task of participation is thought of in terms capital, along with place attachment can be of what is to be accomplished when there is perceived of as community assets that can an acknowledged need to involve community be created through community participation members. Conceptualizing the issue means (Kretzmann & McKnight, 1993). A community asking simple questions: who, what, where, HENRY SANOFF organizing approach described as Asset how, and when? Based Community Development (ABCD) sees citizens as assets and as co-creators of • Who are the parties to be involved in their community. Citizens discover, map and participation? mobilize the assets that are within the people in • What should be performed by the the community, as well as informal associations participation prograμ? and formal organizations. Active community • Where should the participation road lεαd? participation is key to building an empowered • How should people be invολved? community. Empowerment is where people, • When in the planning process is organizations and communities have control participation? over their affairs (Rapoport, 1987). Communities seeking to empower themselves can build The planning that accompanies the active citizen participation by welcoming it, development of any participation event should creating valuable roles for each person to ﬁrst include a determination of objectives, such play, actively reaching out to build inclusive as, to generate ideas, to identify attitudes, participation, and creating and supporting to disseminate information, or to review meaningful volunteer opportunities. Studies of a proposal? The list of possible participation empowerment demonstrate that such power objectives will differ from time to time and from is achieved on the strength of interpersonal issue to issue. Once the objectives of community relationships among those working towards a participation are stated, it becomes clear that common goal (Perkins, 1995). Shiffman states participation is perceived according to the type that, “community development is not simply of issue and people involved. If differences in rebuilding…it is…about social and economic perception and expectations are not identiﬁed justice” (PICCED, 2000). Speer and Hughey at the outset, and realistic objectives are not (1995) claim that shared values and strong made clear, the expectations of those involved emotional ties are more effective bonding in the participation program will not have been mechanisms than reactions to community met, and they will become disenchanted. issues alone. Planning for participation requires that participation methods be matched to the Participation Objectives objectives, and the appropriate method be selected. The professional’s role is to facilitate Clearly, participation is a general concept the community’s ability to reach decisions covering different forms of decision-making about aspects of their environment through by a number of involved groups (Wulz, 1986). an easily understood process. Facilitation

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is a means of bringing people together to Visioning is a process that seeks to ‘create living, determine what they wish to do and helping useful guides for actions intended to position the them find ways in deciding how to do it. community for the future’ (Thomas et al., 1988). Facilitation can also include the use of a variety A community group is ready for a visioning of techniques whereby people who are not process when there is some dissatisfaction with professionally trained can organize themselves the present situation, when there is a sense HENRY SANOFF to create a change in the environment that they must pursue a different future than one suggested by the present approach. Citizen participation has a broad value to Participants in a visioning process are asked community life. In a general sense, the purpose to contribute ideas at the beginning, before of citizen participation is to inform the public, get experts and administrators narrow the range the public’s reactions regarding the proposed of options. Visioning reinvigorates citizenship in actions or policies, and engage in problem communities where it is used. solving to come up with the best solutions for everyone (Creighton, 1994). What adds A visioning process is usually the central element legitimacy to a decision is not only the substance in a community’s strategic plan. Participants of the decision but also the perception that the are asked to think about how the community process by which the decision was made was should be and find ways to identify, strengthen fair, open, and democratic. This is true, even if and work toward a community vision. Such some individuals or groups do not agree with information helps the visioning participants the final decision. History shows that better understand the context and constraints public decisions happen when the public is under which they are operating. Although involved in the decision-making process. People specialists may carry out specific policies and have more ownership for the program’s success recommendations, citizens remain responsible if they have had a part in creating it. They also for the framework within which decisions are hold a key element that only comes from their made. The shared vision belongs to the group experience. Decision-makers need the voice rather than to any one individual. of experience to line up with facts and figures produced by studies. Strategic planning is a management technique borrowed from the private sector. Poister and Streib (1989) report that 60% of cities with Strategic Planning and Visioning populations of more than 25,000 use some form of strategic planning. Basically, strategic Participation does not imply that there is no planning is an organized effort to produce longer a role for municipal authorities. It only decisions and actions that shape and guide means that a dialogue is necessary between what a community is, what it does, and why it citizens and public officials regarding needs does it. Strategy is the act of mobilizing resources and resources to meet needs (Sanoff, 2000). towards goals. It includes setting goals and This dialogue may take the form of a vision priorities, identifying issues and constituencies, statement implemented by a strategic plan. developing an organization, taking actions and

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evaluating results (Checkoway, 1986). Strategic • Improved quality of decisions planning requires information gathering, • Minimizing cost and delays an exploration of alternatives, and an • Consensus building emphasis on the future implications of present • Increased ease of implementation decisions. It can facilitate communication • Avoiding ‘worst-case’ confrontations and participation, accommodate divergent • Maintaining credibility and legitimacy

HENRY SANOFF interests and values, and foster orderly decision- • Anticipating public concerns and attitudes making and successful implementation. • Developing public expertise and creativity.

A strategic plan is a method of developing Promoting Participation strategies and action plans necessary to identify and resolve issues. The challenge in Being intentional about how a participation creating a plan is to be specific enough to program is designed helps to ensure that it be able to monitor progress over time. To be will involve the public in the places where usable, a strategic plan should have built-in their input is most needed. Good planning flexibility to allow for revisions to occur, as new for community participation requires careful opportunities become apparent. Strategic analysis. Although it is critical to examine goals planning is action-oriented, considers a range of and objectives in planning for participation, possible futures, and focuses on the implications there are various techniques that are available, of present decisions and actions in relation to each of which performs different functions. that range (Bryson, 1988). The development of In the last several decades, there have been a strategic plan requires the creation of a vision numerous efforts to accumulate knowledge statement to provide suitable guidance and about various participation techniques, as motivation for the ensuing process. The vision well as the function that these techniques should emphasize purposes arrived at through perform. Community surveys, review boards, group sessions in order to establish a common advisory boards, task forces, neighborhood and reference point for the broad objectives of the community meetings, public hearings, public- community. It outlines the key areas of concern information programs, and interactive cable within the community and will help people TV, have all been used with varying degrees make decisions that support that vision. of success, depending on the effectiveness of the participation plan. Because community Making community participation work means participation is a complex concept, it requires a commitment on the part of the local considerable thought to prepare an effective government division or community agency participation program. initiating the process. Local governments seeking citizen participation must want, and Informing a large audience about proposals, be willing to accept, citizen input (Moore & generating interest, or securing approval can Davis, 1997). When participation is successful, take the form of a community meeting also the following are some of the benefits the referred to as a public hearing or a public community receives (Creighton, 1994). forum. Public meetings allow community

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leaders to present project information at any • Obtaining public ιnput time during the process. The tight structure • Making public annouνχements of such meetings, however, does not permit • Holding face-to-facε meetings ample time for discussion. Although referred • Conducting progress surveys to as community participation, only the most aggressive personalities tend to participate Consensus HENRY SANOFF and often dominate the discussion (Creighton, 1994). Public reactions in open meetings are The idea of consensus has been evident since often taken by a vote through a show of ancient history, in the notion of consensus hands. The key to making community design gentium, the Latin phrase for ‘agreement of work effectively is a range of techniques for people’ (Gove and Merriam-Webster, 1986). enabling professionals and citizens to creatively Contemporary views of consensus have evolved collaborate, where voting is replaced by from educational and political philosophy. In consensus decision-making. the political world, consensus usually means that a signiﬁcant majority of people supports A community in Tennessee encountered a particular proposal. In small group situations a lack of involvement and a certain degree consensus is usually thought of as unanimity in of apathy within the community that was not agreement. initially anticipated when the strategic plan was developed (Reid, 2000). Consequently, There is a dark side of consensus in that it there was a gap between project needs and protects the system from change and results the human resources available to meet them. in homogeneity (Muldoon, 1996). The view It became evident that public participation is is that agreement oriented process have a powerful force that can signiﬁcantly impact achieved their goal by pressuring people activities within the community. As a result, toward an uneasy unanimous goal, that community leaders focused on maintaining they are a manipulated form of consent. The direction despite declining participation. One pressure for consensus has the potential to example of this need to maintain direction inhibit the argumentative process as well as became clear while examining the feasibility silence those who are marginalized. “Real” of a county community housing development consensus, according to Atlee, comes about organization. Negative preconceptions about as a result of “comfortably agreed-to outcomes its purpose and role resulted in poor attendance achieved through real dialogue,” where at subcommittee meetings. Among the steps differences are creatively explored (p.238).” taken by the community organizers to address Through shared discovery, where people listen lack of involvement and improve public to each other and identify points of agreement awareness were these: and disagreement, a process of co-sensing is achieved. • Establishing a policy of inclusiveness • Holding open meetinγσ On the grounds of equal participation and the • Making speeches to community grουps development of consensus, Connolly (1969)

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coined ‘the arena theory’, which involves an is where the decision-making process is typically ultimate appeal to the notion of consensus. a consensual, participative one. Egalitarianism This theory advocates the exchange of expert is a central feature of Type Z organizations. It and experiential knowledge. The assumption implies that each person can apply discretion of the arena theory is that there is at least and can work autonomously without close one agreeable outcome to which all parties supervision, because they are to be trusted. This HENRY SANOFF come to a consensus. However, there must be feature accounts for the high levels of loyalty a willingness of groups to accommodate one and productivity in Type Z organizations. another. Such consensus cannot be achieved in isolation. Through the iterative process of social Similarity in approaches between community learning and through the equality framework of design and participatory design, which has the arena theory, a consensus can develop. its origins in Scandinavia, are equally evident since both stress the importance of the user Group ownership is considered a signiﬁcant and the collaborative learning process with strength in furthering ideals of consensus. As designer/planners. Advocates of participatory Avery (1981, p. 20) states, ‘Group ownership action research distinguish between research acknowledges that new concepts are for the people and research by the people, developed through the process of members where participatory methods have had parallel responding to previous contributions of other developments in such ﬁelds as public health, members’. With group ownership of ideas, resource management, adult education, rural it is the idea itself, not the presenter that is development, and anthropology (Whyte, criticized. Through this process, all participants 1991). Research is seen not only as a process are involved in developing ideas and decisions of creating knowledge, but simultaneously, as where consensus has to do with shared insight or education and development of consciousness, awareness. When faced with complex problems and of mobilization for action. and diverse interests, collaborative decision- making embraces face-to-face interaction and Community participation in design and encourages creativity, open communication, planning, as a movement, emerged from a broad participation and agreement. Designing growing realization that the mismanagement a clear, well-managed collaborative process of the physical environment is a major factor can lead to agreement where all participants contributing to the social and economic ills of are likely to receive wide community support the world and that there are better ways of going during implementation. about design and planning. Consequently, how to make it possible for people to be involved in Conclusion shaping and managing their environment is what the community design movement has In organizational development, participation been exploring over the past few decades. refers to an approach that is rooted in trust, Starting with designers and planners working intimacy, and consensus. This relationship with, instead of against, community groups, it described by William Ouchi (1981), as Theory Z, has grown rapidly to include a new breed of

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professional in a variety of partnership programs Participatory IT Design: Designing for Business and involving the public sector with developers and Workplace Realities, MIT Press, Cambridge, MASS, USA. financial institutions and working closely with the volunteer sector. In such cases, it has become Bohman, J.F. (1996). Public Deliberation: Pluralism, evident that the planning that accompanies Complexity, and Democracy, MIT Press, Cambridge, the development of any participation MASS, USA. HENRY SANOFF program should first include a determination Bryson, J.M. (1988). Strategic Planning for Public and of objectives, such as, is the participation Nonprofit Organizations, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, intended to generate ideas, identify attitudes, California, USA. disseminate information, measure opinion, resolve some conflict, or review a proposal? Cahn, E.S., and Passett, B.A.(1971). Citizen Participation: Effecting Community Change, Experiences in the participation process show Praeger, New York, USA. that the main source of user satisfaction is not the degree to which a person’s needs have Carson, L. (2003). Building Sustainable Democracies, been met, but the feeling of having influenced Proceedings of Now We Are People Conference, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia. the decisions. Therefore, the re-emergence of the ideal of a participatory democracy at the Checkoway, B. (1986). Building Citizen Support for national level is effective only if people have Planning at the Community Level – Interdisciplinary been prepared for participation at the local Planning: A Perspective for the Future, Center for level, such as the workplace and community, Urban Policy Research, New Brunswick, New Jersey, since it is at this level that people learn self- USA. governance. Cohen, J. (1997). Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy, In J.F. Bohman and W. Rehg (eds.) Deliberative Democracy: Essays on Reason and References Politics, MIT Press, Cambridge, MASS, USA. Atlee, T. (2003). The Tao of Democracy: Using Co- Connolly, W.E. (1969). The Bias of Pluralism, Atherton Intelligence to Create a World that Works for All, The Press, New York, USA. Writers Collective, Cranston, Rhode Island, USA. Creighton, J.L. (1994). Involving Citizens in Community Avery, M. (1981). Building United Judgment: Decisions Making: A Guidebook, Program for A Handbook for Consensus Decision Making, The Community Problem Solving, Washington, DC, USA. Center for Conflict Resolution. Madison, Wisconsin, USA. Davidoff, P. (1965). Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning, Journal of the American Institute of Bens, C.K. (1994). Effective Citizen Government: How Planning, Vol. 31, pp. 331-338. To Make It Happen, National Civic Review, Vol. 83 (1), pp. 32-38. De Tocqueville, A. (1959). Democracy in America, Vintage Books, New York, USA. Billington, R.A. (1974). American’s Frontier Heritage, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York, USA. Ehn, P. (1992). Scandinavian Design: On Participation and Skill, In P. Adler and T. Winograd (eds.), Usability: Bodker, K., Kensing, F., and Simonsen, J. (2004). Turning Technologies into Tools, Oxford University

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Press, United Kingdom. Morris, E.W. (1996). Community in Theory and Practice: A Framework for Intellectual Renewal, Fischer, G., Giaccardi, E., Eden, H., Sugimoto, M., Journal of Planning Literature, Vol. 11, pp. 127-150. and Ye, Y. (2005). Beyond Binary Choices: Integrating Individual and Social Creativity, Human-Computer Muldoon, B. (1996). The Heart of Conﬂict, Putnam Studies, Vol. 63, pp. 482-512. Publishing Group. Forester, J. (1999). The Deliberative Practitioner: HENRY SANOFF Ouchi, W. (1981). Theory Z: How American Business Encouraging Participatory Planning Processes, MIT Can Meet the Japanese Challenge, Addison-Wesley, Press, Cambridge, MASS, USA. Boston, MASS, USA.

Gastil, J. (2000). By Popular Demand: Revitalizing Olsen, M. E. (1982). Participatory Pluralism: Political Representative Democracy through Deliberative Participation and Inﬂuence in the United States and Elections, University of California Press, Berkeley, Sweden, Nelson Hall, Chicago, Illinois, USA. California, USA. Perkins, D.D. (1995). Speaking Truth to Power: Gove, P.B., and Merriam-Webster (1986). Webster’s Empowerment Ideology as Social Intervention and New International Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Policy, American Journal of Community Psychology, Springﬁeld, MASS, USA. Vol. 23 (5), pp. 765-794.

Guy, B. (2002). Community Design Primer, Perkins, D.D., Brown, B.B., and Taylor, R.B. (1996). The Environmental Leadership Program, Online http: Ecology of Empowerment: Predicting Participation //www.elpnet.org in Community Organizations, Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 52 (1), pp. 85-110. IAP2 (2006). Online http://www.iap2.org/ displaycommon.cfm?an=4 Pratt Institute Center for Community and Environmental Development – PICCED (2000). Online Lind, A. (1975). The Future of Citizen Participation, The http://www.picced.org/basics/overview.htm Futurist, pp. 316-328. Plato and Grube, G.M.A. (1992). Republic, Hackett King, S. (1983). Co-Design: A Process of Design Publishing Company, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA. Participation, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, USA. Poister, T.H., and Streib, G. (1989). Management Kretzmann, J.P., and McKnight, J.L. (1993). Building Tools in Municipal Government: Trends Over the Past Communities from the Inside Out: A Path toward Decade, Public Administration Review, Vol. 49, p. Finding and Mobilizing a Community’s Assets, ACTA, 244. Chicago, Illinois, USA. Pranger, R.J. (1968). The Eclipse of Citizenship, Holt Manzo, L.A., and Perkins, D.D. (2006). Finding Rinehard & Winston, New York, USA. Common Ground: The Importance of Place Attachment to Community Participation and PyGyWg (2006). Participatory Geographies Working Planning, Journal of Planning Literature, Vol. 20 (4), Group, Online http://www.geog.leeds.ac.uk/ pp. 336-350. research/pygywebsite/about.html Moore, C.N., and Davis, D. (1997). Participation Tools Rapoport, A. (1987). Terms of Empowerment for Better Land-Use Planning, Local Government Exemplars of Prevention: Towards a Theory for Commission/Center for Livable Communities Community Psychology, American Journal of Sacramento, California, USA. Community Psychology, Vol. 15, pp. 121-143.

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Reid, J.N. (2000). How People Power Brings Winograd, T. (1996). Bringing Design to Software, Substantial Benefits to Communities, USDA Rural Addison-Wesley, Boston, MASS, USA. Development Office, Office of Community Development, Washington, DC, USA. Wulz, F. (1986). The Concept of Participation, Design Studies, Vol.7, pp. 153-162. Rivlin, L. (1987). Group Membership and Place Meanings in an Urban Neighborhood, Journal of ------

HENRY SANOFF Social Issues, Vol. 38 (3), pp. 75-93. Henry Sanoff Rosener, J. (1978). Matching Method to Purpose: Henry Sanoff received a Bachelor of Architecture The Challenges of Planning Citizen Participation in 1957 and a Master of Architecture in 1962 from Activities, In S. Langton (ed.), Citizen Participation in Pratt Institute, New York. He came to the College America, Lexington Books, New York, USA. of Design, North Carolina State University in 1966 from the University of California, Berkeley, where Sanoff, H. (2000). Community Participation Methods he was an Assistant Professor from 1963. A member in Design and Planning, Wiley, New York, USA. of the Academy of Outstanding Teachers, award winner as Alumni Distinguished Graduate Professor, Sanoff, H. (2005). Origins of Community Design, and a recipient of the Alexander Quarles Holladay Progressive Planning, Vol. 166, pp. 14-17. Medal of Excellence, Sanoff has been a visiting Sirianni, C., and Friedland, L. (2005) Deliberative professor at more than 85 institutions in the USA Democracy, Online, http://www.cpn.org/tools/ and abroad including Australia, Egypt, Brazil, South dictionary/deliberate.html Africa, Denmark and Mexico. He won many awards including the Statue of Victory World Culture Prize for Speer, P.W., and Hughey, J. (1995). Community Letters, Arts, and Science; awards from Progressive Organizing: An Ecological Route to Empowerment Architecture Design Awards Program; and the Award and Power, American Journal of Community of Honor, and Distinguished Service Award from Psychology, Vol. 23 (5), pp. 729-748. the Environmental Design Research Association. He received the Sigma Iota Rho Award for Distinguished Spinuzzi, C. (2005). The Methodology of Participatory International Service and the NCSU Outstanding Design, Technical Communication, Vol. 52 (2), pp. Extension Service Award. Sanoff is the USA editor of 163-174. the International Journal of Design Studies, a member Thomas, R.L., Means, M.C., and Greive, M.A. (1988). of the Editorial Board of the Journal of Architecture Taking Charge: How Communities are Planning Their and Planning Research, and the Istanbul Technical Futures, International City Management Association, University, Journal of Architecture, Planning and Washington, DC, USA. Design. Sanoff is widely published and well known for his many books—including Community Participation Thomson, K., Berry, J.M., and Portney, K.E. (1994). in Design and Planning (Wiley, 2000) and Creating Kernels of Democracy, Lincoln Filene Center at Tufts Environments for Young Children (NEA,1995) among University, Boston, MASS, USA. others. Many of his works have been translated into

Korean, Japanese, Spanish, Polish and Portuguese White, S.A., Nair, K.S., and Ascroft, J. (1994). languages. He is the principal founder of the Participatory Communications: Working for Change Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA). and Development, Sage Publications, Thousand He can be contacted at [email protected] Oaks, California, USA, p. 279. Whyte, W.F. (1991). Participatory Action Research, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, California, USA.

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RETHINKING RESIDENTIAL MOBILITY: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY INTERPRETATION

Roderick J. Lawrence

Abstract Introduction Since the 1950s academics and professionals have proposed a number of disciplinary and sector based Since the 1950s academics and professionals interpretations of why, when and where households have proposed a number of disciplinary and move or choose to stay in the same housing unit at sector based interpretations of why, when different periods of the life cycle and especially the a where households move or choose to stay family cycle. This article challenges studies that only in the same housing unit at different periods analyse one set of factors. The article stems from a of the life cycle and especially the family synthesis of 20 years of research by the author who cycle (Rossi, 1995; Michelson, 1997; Clark and has an interdisciplinary training in the broad ﬁeld of people-environment relations. First, it reviews some Dieleman, 1996). These contributions generally key concepts related to human ecology, including focus on the determinant role of one set of housing, culture, identity and cultivation. Then it will factors - for example, changes in employment consider how these concepts can be applied to conditions, or household demographics, interpret residential mobility using an interdisciplinary or housing markets - to explain residential approach. An empirical case study of residential mobility. Michelson, (1997) noted already 30 mobility in Geneva, Switzerland is presented in order years ago that different variables are rarely to show how this approach can help improve our considered simultaneously and he proved a understanding of the motives people have regarding more multi-factor analysis. Likewise, this article the wish to stay in their residence or to move elsewhere. challenges studies that only analyse one set of factors. It presents a broader interdisciplinary Keywords interpretation of residential mobility and Interdisciplinary; housing demand; human ecology; the results of an empirical study in Geneva, residential mobility Switzerland, to illustrate this kind of approach. Housing is meant to provide shelter and security by ensuring protection against climatic conditions - excessive heat and cold - and

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unwanted intrusions from insects, rodents, and These three subjects have commonly been environmental nuisances, such as noise and considered as separate fields of scientific air pollution, that may be harmful for health research and professional practice (van Vliet, and quality of life (Lawrence, 2002). Housing 1998). However, in order to deal with concrete contains household activities and material housing questions in contemporary societies, possessions. Housing is also an economic this segmented approach should be replaced good that can be rented and exchanged by a more integrated one that explicitly in housing markets. Beyond functional and considers the interrelationships between monetary values, housing also has aesthetic, residential mobility, housing design and housing symbolic and cultural values. Therefore housing policies. RODERICK J. LAWRENCE is attributed social representations according to the varied viewpoints of individuals and Statistics and household surveys in many social groups. Studies show that housing is an countries confirm that in specific urban indicator of cultural identity, a sign of social neighbourhoods, and large-scale housing status and a catalyst for the expression of estates, there are increasing numbers of individual preferences (Duncan, 1981). All different types of households (OECD, 1996). these attributes of housing should be taken into These households differ according to their account in studies of residential mobility. ethnic origin, their nationality, their socio- professional status, and their culture, especially Turner (1976) made the important distinction their domestic lifestyle. In-depth studies of between housing as a noun and housing as the layout, furnishing and use of housing units a verb. According to Turner, housing can be can provide a large amount of information considered simultaneously as a product (from which contradicts generalisations that have an individual housing unit to the housing stock characterised the interpretation of housing in a neighbourhood or city) as well as a process by professional planners and policy makers by referring to the provision and maintenance (Putman and Newton, 1990; Danermark and of all kinds of residential buildings either by Elander, 1994). These studies confirm that public authorities or private initiatives. Turner’s specific features of the housing environment interpretation of housing enables researchers can express and communicate cultural and and practitioners to consider the multiple social representations and shared values by the interrelations between housing conditions consumption patterns of specific social groups. and human processes in specific localities, in particular why households choose to move or It is now widely recognised that the built stay in a specific housing unit. environment of housing projects and residential neighbourhoods should serve multiple functions Turner’s will be used in this article to reconsider and uses for an increasingly diverse population the interrelations between the housing (Michelson, 1977; Franck and Ahrentzen, 1989). choices of residents, the conditions of local It is not wholly surprising that housing projects housing markets as well as specific dimensions do not meet the requirements of all households of housing design and housing policies. owing to increasing cultural differences. For

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example, requirements for visual and auditory large residential building or housing project may privacy, or social contacts with neighbours, not share the same opinion about what should or gender differences in the use of collective be accessible or inaccessible, what should be and public spaces, or domestic practices for visible or not seen, or what should be heard the preparation and eating of food, may not or unheard, and whether prescriptions about be met in a large-scale residential building or these aspects of household activities change housing project with many housing units having according to the status of the individual as a standardized floor plan, kitchen equipment well as at different times. Household surveys and interior finishes (Andrews, 1979; Arias, in several European cities have clearly shown 1993; Bernard, 1992; Cooper, 1975). When that disturbance by noise stemming from road RODERICK J. LAWRENCE requirements that are prescribed by cultural traffic is a significant cause of sleep disturbance conventions cannot be accommodated, then which does impact on health and well-being conflicts between the intended use of housing (Berglund and Lindvall, 1995; Halpern, 1995). (by the architect, housing manager or property However, disturbance by noise from the owner) and the actual use of housing (by activities of neighbours using their housing unit individuals, households and population groups) can be an even greater cause of concern to can have several consequences (Ravetz, residents irrespective of the objective measure 1974, 1980; Prak and Priemus, 1985). These of sound. consequences include moving elsewhere. The accumulated evidence from household The possibilities offered or prohibited by surveys indicates that disagreements about the built form of housing to accommodate the appropriate uses of housing, and different different kinds of household activities are values attributed to social relations between largely related to the inherent/implicit or the neighbours, reflect different social identities structural/explicit adaptability of housing units. at the micro-scale of residential buildings Certain ethnographic studies have provided and neighbourhoods (Bernard, 1992; Cooper detailed information about why residents have Marcus and Sarkissian, 1986). Therefore, it is made changes to housing rather than move appropriate to study the interrelations between elsewhere (Arias, 1993; Bernard 1992; Moudon, increasingly diverse domestic cultures. This 1986). The reasons for changes extend beyond raises the key question of how the knowledge functional adjustments that are often made in about housing cultures can be used effectively order to accommodate new circumstances in housing design, housing management and during the lifespan. housing policies. Too often, housing research by academics and scientists has not been Another source of conflicts can be the addressed to housing managers, housing incompatibility between different domestic designers or other professionals (Lawrence, cultures. This incompatibility can be expressed 1987). by conflicting lifestyles, meanings and values about housing (van Kempen, 1994). For The next sections of this article will briefly example, different households in the same review some key concepts related to human

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ecology, including housing culture, identity a broad conceptual and methodological and cultivation. Then it will consider how these framework that integrates contributions from concepts can be interrelated in order to apply the natural and the social sciences (Lawrence, the integrated perspective proposed. A case 2001). This is an interdisciplinary interpretation study of residential mobility in Geneva will because it includes concepts and principles then be presented in order to show how these from both the natural and the human concepts provide an analytical framework for sciences. Second, it underlines the systemic understanding the motives that people have interrelations between sets of biotic, a-biotic regarding the wish to stay in their residence or and anthropogenic factors. Hence it does to move elsewhere. not concentrate only on speciﬁc components RODERICK J. LAWRENCE because it considers the whole system as the Concepts and Principles of Human unit of study for people-environment relations. Ecology This interpretation can be applied at different geographical scales including the micro-scale Human ecology is a term that has been and of housing. It is meant to be reapplied at still is characterised by a lack of consensus different times to explicitly address a short- and about what it means (Lawrence, 2001; Steiner long- term perspective during the lifecycle. This and Nauser, 1993). For example, today there temporal perspective can identify change to is no consensus whether human ecology any of the speciﬁc components as well as the is a discipline, a conceptual framework, or interrelations between them. It also illustrates a set of principles. Nonetheless, there is some the principle that disciplinary knowledge and agreement that human ecology refers to the specialisation have hindered the development study of the relations, especially the reciprocal of a broader understanding of the contextual relations between people, their habitat and conditions of housing and how people relate to the environment beyond their immediate their residential environment (Lawrence, 2002). surroundings. Human groups and societies establish and maintain viable relationships with Diversity of Housing Cultures and Identities their habitat through collective mechanisms that stem from their «anthropos» and generate Culture refers to characteristics of human a system of relations and networks rather than societies that involve the acquisition and independent action. Hence, human ecology transmission by non-genetic means (from one studies people in their habitual living conditions person to another, between human groups using a systemic framework that explicitly and societies as well as over generations) of examines the reciprocal relations between shared beliefs, customs, information, institutions, individuals, social groups, the components of language, rules, symbols, technology and their residential environment and larger-scale values (Lawrence, 2001). Although culture conditions. was often interpreted by anthropologists to be a monolithic and static concept, today Human ecology transgresses traditional it increasingly designates a relativistic and disciplinary boundaries by explicitly applying pluralistic concept within and between human

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groups, societies and nations. that make a person distinct from others (self- identity). Identity has also been interpreted as Housing cultures are complex and diverse but the qualities of sameness between an individual they are too often taken for granted. Housing, and others. The most common categories for dwelling and home are fundamental human comparisons are education, ethnicity, gender, constructs that are crucial components of nationality, place of residence, profession human culture «anthropos» that partly deﬁne and religion. In this essay identity refers to the the condition and status of individuals and common characteristics of individuals and households in relation to others in their society. groups in prescribed residential environments. Cultures of domestic life explicitly concern: A human ecology perspective accepts that RODERICK J. LAWRENCE individuals and groups consciously choose 1. The artefacts and techniques of human their behaviour, lifestyle and values in order groups (housing units, infrastructure and to create a sense of self-esteem, of social services). This can be considered as the acceptance and belonging. An individual’s material culture of domestic life which can be housing environment, especially the social used to express and communicate cultural and and cultural context of daily life, are structured social/group representations that are a sign of frameworks for the expression and transmission identity (Duncan, 1981). of personal and social identities (Barbey, 1990; Duncan, 1981). 2. The social organisation of human groups, especially norms about kinship, household Cultivation implies that one should identify composition and social relations. The housing and understand the active, perhaps mobile environment not only expresses social interrelations between individuals and conventions but also social differentiation, and their habitat. It can also account for the perhaps it reinforces social exclusion instead of cognitive and symbolic interrelations between cohesion (OECD, 1996). individuals, groups and their past and present (Duncan, 1981; Putman and Newton, 1990). 3. The meanings attributed to the physical and Cultivation also stresses the importance of nonmaterial components of human habitats intentionality within the ongoing practices of and how these are expressed by language; domesticity, especially the way that individual, for example, a housing unit, dwelling, home social, and cultural identities are expressed and (Lawrence, 1987). communicated. Ethnographies show the interrelations between these dimensions of domestic culture, how Review of Disciplinary Interpretations of these dimensions are deﬁned by different Housing Demand groups, and whether or not they evolve over time (Arias, 1993; Low and Chambers, 1989). This section will consider housing demand in terms of the values, lifestyles and preferences The term identity commonly refers to properties of residents. It argues that until these qualitative of individuality, the essential characteristics dimensions are better understood, then housing

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demand will only be considered in quantitative important to emphasise that the characteristics terms. The following paragraphs present a brief of housing units, residential buildings and their review of diverse interpretations of housing site conditions, and the characteristics of demand by demographers, geographers, neighbourhoods are crucial components of economists, sociologists and psychologists. housing markets. These sets of characteristics Then the results of a case study in a Swiss can be interpreted using both quantitative municipality in the Canton of Geneva funded and qualitative criteria (Lawrence, 1987). The by the Cantonal Housing Office and the site of a residential building, for example, can Municipality of Meyrin will be summarized. be interpreted in relation to the distance to This case study was based on a collaborative community facilities including commerce, RODERICK J. LAWRENCE research agenda defined with staff of the schools, health care and education, as well Municipality, members of the local association as local environmental conditions (e.g. green of residents, and other actors involved in the parks, air pollution, and ambient noise levels), local housing market. the quality of public services (for example, garbage collection and public transport), What is housing demand? and the socio-economic profile of the resident The housing market is the outcome of set of population. Consequently, it is important to interrelated actions, procedures and policies note whether these different characteristics involving a wide range of individuals and of neighbourhoods are reflected in housing institutions including building contractors, real demand and housing prices (Galster, 2001). estate developers, property owners, financial institutions, local and national authorities There are diverse disciplinary interpretations of dealing with housing, building and land-use housing demand that have been used during planning, and households (owner-occupiers the 20th century. These interpretations can only and tenants). Housing demand and supply be sketched in this chapter. Demographers, are two crucial components of the housing for example, interpret housing demand in market in any locality, be it at the scale of terms of the interrelations between the size a neighbourhood, city or country. Housing and composition of the housing stock, and demand has various interpretations that are household composition and size (Clark and related to the viewpoints of actors in different Dieleman, 1996). sectors (Segaud, Bonvalet and Brun, 1998). Households can also be differentiated on the Two unique characteristics of housing are basis of socio-economic criteria, lifestyles and its durability and its fixed spatial location. preferences which can be considered in terms Consequently, it is not a simple task to alter of quantity and quality of housing attributes. the quantity or quality of the attributes of the Housing prices and rents are the outcome of the existing housing stock. This may lead to the interaction between the demand for housing scarcity of housing units with attributes that attributes and the supply of these attributes in have an inflexible demand, such as accessibility precise localities. Any change in the number or to schools and other community services. It is the characteristics of households can redefine

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the required quantity and the preferred quality choosing lower standards of housing (e.g. of the attributes of the housing stock. a housing unit with poor amenities, or in need of repair, moving to a remote location because Housing demand is commonly interpreted by housing is cheaper, and use of do-it-yourself economists as a list of prices for housing and the inputs for maintenance works). speciﬁc quantity of housing chosen or requested at each price, given that income other prices Some social policy analysts consider housing and preferences are held constant. For many demand according to tenure (Saunders, commodities, demand can be measured as a 1990). Tenure is considered an important desired quantity of goods or services. However, criteria because it is argued that owner

RODERICK J. LAWRENCE in the case of housing, just one unit is required occupation can provide a source of material but it preferably has several specific attributes wealth, promote consumption, and provide (e.g. number of rooms, floor area, quality of a sense of psychological security, well-being construction, standards of bathroom and and personal achievement. Since the 1980s, kitchen equipment, garden, on-site parking, owner occupation has been promoted in views from indoors etc.). Consequently, housing many western European and form socialist demand is usually considered in terms of the countries as a result of a policy to replace availability and affordability of a combination of a planned economy by a market economy in characteristics of a housing unit, the residential the housing sector (Danermark and Elander, building and its site, and the features of the 1994). This policy includes the conversion of neighbourhood (Michelson, 1977). Collectively the state owned housing stock into owner these characteristics can also be considered occupied or private rental housing. This policy by architects and engineers in terms of housing shift has been accompanied by a reduction quality. Economists commonly use the hedonic of public investments in housing in recent price function to estimate the utility value of decades. Many contributions on this topic specific characteristics or residential buildings, account for only two types of housing tenure, such as the number of rooms (Bender et al., namely owner-occupation (home ownership) 2000). and private rental, whereas they ignore co- operatives, leasehold or public rental housing. Some economists assume that each consumer Those contributions that consider housing has preferences that he or she uses to rank demand in terms of tenure usually compare choices from most to least preferred. These the financial costs of owner occupation and rankings are not meant to vary over time, or with renting. Consequently, they consider aspects respect to income and price. Residents make of income taxation related to the imputed rents housing choices from a range of alternatives of owner occupiers, capital gains or losses when that are all within their household budget. residential properties are sold, tax deductions From this perspective, housing demand can for mortgage loans, and property taxes. be interpreted as the outcome of household strategies used to cope with a costly part of Another interpretation of housing demand the domestic budget. Some strategies include considers the rationale of actors in the housing

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market. The first group of actors is the property including how individuals interpret their well- owners (owner occupiers and landlords), who being and health status (Kahlmeier et al., have requirements for particular attributes 2001). This perspective has often been omitted of the housing stock. Their interpretation of from interpretations of residential mobility and housing demand leads to financial investments housing demand. in the housing stock, which can be related to the construction of new residential buildings, or the Context of the Case Study in Geneva renovation of existing ones. The second group of actors are the inhabitants, who comprise The author of this article is a representative home owners and tenants. The inhabitants of the University of Geneva in the Cantonal RODERICK J. LAWRENCE have specific requirements regarding the Housing Observatory, founded by the public housing unit, the residential building and its administration in 1998. This housing observatory site conditions as well as the neighbourhood, is defined by a partnership of representatives of its facilities, services and local environmental the private sector (property owners of residential conditions (Michelson, 1997). Management buildings including banks, insurance companies and maintenance are also important attributes and pension funds); the public sector (the of housing demand for tenants. cantonal housing office and statistics office); the city of Geneva; the association of tenants; The study of residential mobility has included building unions and the University of Geneva. By contributions that focus on the housing common consent these partners have decided preferences, values and life course trajectories to examine housing demand in the canton of of individuals and households. Residential Geneva in terms of both its quantitative and mobility not only involves social representations qualitative aspects. The author is responsible for about the location of a domicile and housing research on the latter. The University of Geneva costs, as well as the type and size of housing has formulated a programme of research units, quality and tenure (Clark and Dieleman, to identify and understand the qualitative 1996). Some recent studies of residential mobility aspects of housing in the Municipality of have not analysed trends in housing supply Meyrin which has a population of about 20’000 such as new construction, costs, or vacancy residents. The viewpoints of representatives of rates. Instead they consider these factors as the Municipality as well as the partners in the providing a context in which individuals and housing observatory have been used to define households make choices. These contributions the topics and methods of research. show that household size, composition and income, the age of the residents and their A survey of 205 households residing in the stage in the life course are crucial factors Municipality of Meyrin, in the Canton of Geneva involved in residential mobility. In this respect, was completed in 1999 in order to ascertain some studies by psychologists, sociologists how and why a representative sample of the and health care researchers have shown that population defined and ordered their stated housing preferences, choices and life-course preference to move or stay in their domicile. A trajectories are a complex bundle of attributes questionnaire with directed and open-ended

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questions was used in order to answer the The results of this unpublished survey will not following kinds of questions: What motivates a be presented in detail here. Instead, the resident of Meyrin to move and live elsewhere, remainder of this article will discuss some key or to continue living in the same housing unit ? Is issues stemming from the findings of this survey there sufficient diversity of the housing stock in related to diverse interpretations of housing Meyrin and does it correspond to the needs of demand and why people wish to move or stay the residents? in their current housing unit. In this study three interrelated units of analysis were considered: In order to reply to these questions, the the housing unit, the residential building and its survey has identified and evaluated housing site, the neighbourhood, its components and RODERICK J. LAWRENCE demand – both its quantitative and qualitative nuisances. In this way the case study has been characteristics – by studying residential used to formulate a new research agenda. satisfaction and the motives for residential mobility. The survey method considered precise questions in order to identify as many reasons Results of Household Survey in Meyrin, why people wish to move; for example: Geneva The household survey found that about 90% of To what extent is the wish to move related to the respondents were satisfied or very satisfied the quality of the housing environment, the with their housing unit, the residential building distance between home and work, rates of and their neighbourhood. Nonetheless, 27% taxation in the Cantons of Geneva and Vaud, expressed the wish to move. Amongst those or other factors ?» who wished to move, 75% preferred to remain in the Municipality of Meyrin but nobody wanted The questionnaire also includes specific to move elsewhere in the same building. This questions that the Municipality of Meyrin asked finding warrants careful consideration because the research team to investigate: residential mobility can have significant « What socio-demographic characteristics are economic and social impacts for public associated with those residents who wish to authorities, property owners and tenants. The move?» reasons leading to residential mobility can also be interpreted as a complex bundle of factors «What architectural and urban characteristics that are simultaneously implicated in the wish to of the Municipality are linked to the wish to move. move?» Why do people wish to move even though «What problems are mentioned by those they are satisfied with their housing unit ? It is residents who wish to move?» often argued that different tax rates between «What public facilities and services do the local the Canton of Geneva, the Canton of Vaud residents want?» and France is the main reason for people wishing to live outside Geneva while retaining their employment. This interpretation is not

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supported by the results of this study. The same neighbourhood rather than elsewhere. reasons associated with the wish to move are ranked as: The survey also identiﬁed the main reasons that the residents cited for remaining in the same + 57.4% - unsatisfactory characteristics of the housing unit, which are ranked in the following housing unit order: + 32.2% - poor quality/cost ratio of housing + 31.5% - unsatisfactory characteristics of + 70.5% - strong affective ties with the building neighbourhood + 29.6% - poor building management and + 67.8% - good location of housing unit

RODERICK J. LAWRENCE maintenance + 50% - good quality/cost ratio + 14.8% - unsatisfactory characteristics of the + 45.1% - strong personal ties with housing unit neighbourhood + 21.2% - members of the family living in the + 11.1% - health related reasons. neighbourhood + 10.3% - no other adequate housing available. In contrast, taxation or fiscal reasons (5.6%), end of housing allocations (3.7%), change These findings suggest that psychological and of building status and rent charges (1.9%) or social factors are more important than financial forced relocation (0.9%) are far less frequently and functional reasons in determining housing mentioned. demand and why people wish to remain in the same housing unit. This case study of residential These results contradict the claims of politicians mobility questions those interpretations of and public administrators who commonly state why people wish to move that ignore social that sets of financial reasons are the main representations and well-being. It also illustrates motive for residential mobility. In contrast, this the important role of trade-offs between case study suggests that the wish to move can utilitarian, economic and symbolic dimensions be (at least partly) understood if the age, length of everyday life. of tenure, past residential experience, housing availability and affordability, as well as effective The survey in Meyrin also found that only 2.9% of occupancy conditions are considered in the all respondents were very unsatisfied with their Canton of Geneva. Concurrently, the location housing unit, the residential building and the of the housing unit, its cost, and personal urban neighbourhood. This finding has been relations with neighbours were apparently analysed in terms of the age of the residential not significant in determining whether the building, the layout-type of the housing unit, respondents wished to move. It is suggested that effective occupancy conditions, and the social although fiscal reasons play a minor role there status of the neighbourhood. The survey found are other important factors related to the well- that those residential buildings constructed being of specific groups of the population (e.g. between 1960 and 1970 included a larger the elderly) that explain why they are satisfied than average proportion that the respondents but would still like to move elsewhere in the judged as unsatisfactory. In contrast, the survey

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did not ﬁnd a direct relationship between about land use planning and the daily affairs of housing quality and the rent per room or per local government. unit ﬂoor area. Nonetheless, those housing units above the average rental cost were considered 2. The relatively constant level of vacancies in by the respondents to include relatively more a few residential buildings has meant a lack of qualitative characteristics. Moreover, there income for both the property owners and the was no distinction between the appreciation Municipality. The housing market in Geneva of housing units that had or had not been has not dealt effectively with this problem, renovated. especially in a small number of residential buildings constructed between 1960 and 1970. It

RODERICK J. LAWRENCE These findings show that the respondents is recommended that the Municipality consider have the capacity to critically scrutinise and an innovative programme of marketing that evaluate (negatively) specific aspects of their will encourage young families to move into everyday surroundings while expressing an the area. The Municipality should note that overall (positive) assessment. It is noteworthy social representations provide a framework for that this kind of differentiation between developing a pertinent marketing strategy. a global, positive assessment and detailed, negative criticism can only be expressed if the 3. There are close links between types of survey questionnaire is formulated to enable residential buildings, their maintenance and multi-dimensional assessments. renovation, whether a caretaker lives in the building, and damage to property including graffiti on buildings. Damage to property Synthesis and Recommendations by vandals and the lack of maintenance This empirical study has identified some by property owners contribute to a sense of previously unknown facts that have led insecurity, a negative impact on local identity to the formulation of principles which are and social cohesion. It can also lead to higher presented to the Municipality of Meyrin and the repair costs and a loss of income for property cantonal authorities in Geneva as a set of four owners. In principle, housing projects should recommendations: be developed by public-private partnerships that encourage financial investments for 1. The quality of the housing environment the renovation and maintenance of existing (the housing unit, residential building and buildings and facilities. the neighbourhood) plays a crucial role in everyday life and is closely linked to residential 4. The housing allocations policy in the Canton mobility. In fact, the objective and subjective of Geneva during the 1990s has favoured characteristics of the local environment are the concentration of low-income households much more significant than taxes and other in a small number of residential buildings. fiscal measures. In principle, it is necessary to Consequently residents who depend on integrate social representations of the housing social security (e.g. long-term unemployed and local environment into public policies and immigrants) occupy these buildings.

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This trend has been noted in Meyrin and it is References criticised by the residents (who represent over 100 nationalities). Therefore, the Municipality Andrews. C.L. (1979). Tenants and Town Hall, Her Majesty’s Stationery Ofﬁce, London, United Kingdom. should adopt a policy of social and cultural diversity in order to maintain heterogeneity at Arias, E.G. (1993). The Meaning and Use of Housing: the micro-level, thus facilitating social cohesion International Perspectives, Approaches and their and a positive local identity. Applications, Avebury, Aldershot, United Kingdom. Barbey, G. (1990). L’évasion Domestique: Essai sur les Relations d’affectivité du Logis, Presses Conclusion Polytechniques et Universitaires Romandes, Lausanne,

RODERICK J. LAWRENCE Switzerland. This article has considered how a human ecology perspective can be applied to improve current Bender, A., Din, A., Favarger, P., Hoesli, M. and understanding of housing especially subjects Laakso, J. (1997). An Analysis of Perceptions including housing cultures, and identities which Concerning the Environmental Quality of Housing in Geneva, Urban Studies, Vol.34, pp.503-513. are linked to motives concerning why households move or stay in the same housing unit. These are Bernard, Y. (1992). La France au Logis: Etude complex subjects that inﬂuence housing markets Sociologique des Pratiques Domestiques, Pierre and domestic life especially in a period of rapid Mardaga, Liege. change. The case study in Meyrin shows why and Berglund, B. and Lindvall, T. (1995). Community how research on the lifestyles, preferences and Noise, Archives of the Center for Sensory Research, values of groups and individuals can be used Stockholm, Sweden. to better understand residential mobility. These Clark, W. and Dieleman, F. (1996). Households and concepts need to be studied in order to develop Housing: Choice and Outcomes in the Housing an interdisciplinary understanding of residential Market, Rutgers University Centre for Urban Policy mobility and housing demand in relation to Research Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA. the multiple characteristics of the residential Cooper, C.C. (1975). Easter Hill village: Some Social environment and housing markets. The case Implications of Design, The Free Press, New York, USA. study brieﬂy presented in this article can enable professionals, researchers and citizens to develop Cooper Marcus, C.C. and Sarkissian, W. (1986). a more comprehensive understanding of the Housing as if People Mattered, University of California qualitative aspects of residential environments, Press, Berkeley California, USA. housing demand and residential mobility. It is Danermark, B. and Elander, I. (eds.) (1994). Social hoped that this contribution will stimulate debate Rented Housing in Europe: Policy, Tenure and Design, and prompt more co-ordinated responses from Delft University Press, Delft, The Netherlands. professionals and policy decision-makers working Duncan, J.S. (ed.) (1981). Housing and Identity: Cross- in different sectors. Cultural Perspectives, Croom Helm, London, United Kingdom. Franck, K.A. and Ahrentzen, S. (eds.) (1989). New Households, New Housing, van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, USA.

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Galster, G. (2001). On the Nature of Neighbourhood, Prak, N. and Priemus, H. (eds.) (1985). Post-war Urban Studies, Vol.38, pp.2111-2124. Housing in Trouble, Delft University Press, Delft, The Netherlands. Halpern, D. (1995). Mental Health and the Built Environment: More than Bricks and Mortar. Taylor and Ravetz, A. (1974). Model Estate: Planned Housing Francis, London, United Kingdom. at Quarry Hill, Leeds. Croom Helm, London, United Kingdom. Kahlmeier, S., Schindler, C., Grize, L. and Braun- Fahrländer, C. (2001). Perceived Environmental Ravetz, A. (1980). Remaking Cities: Contradictions Housing Quality and Well-Being of Movers, Journal of the Recent Urban Environment, Croom Helm, of Epidemiology and Community Health, Vol.55, London, United Kingdom. pp.708-715. Rossi, P. (1955). Why Families Move? Free Press, RODERICK J. LAWRENCE Lawrence, R.J. (1987). Housing, Dwellings and Homes: Glencoe, Illinois, USA. Design Theory, Research and Practice, John Wiley, Chichester, United Kingdom. Saunders, P. (1990). A Nation of Home Owners, Unwin Hyman, London, United Kingdom. Lawrence, R.J. (2001). Human Ecology. In M. Tolba (ed.) Our Fragile World: Challenges and Opportunities Segaud, M,. Bonvalet, C., Brun, J. (eds.) (1998). for Sustainable Development, Volume 1. EOLSS Logement et Habitat: Etat des Savoirs. Editions La Publishers, Oxford, United Kingdom, pp.675-693. Decouverte, Paris, France. Lawrence, R.J. (2002). Healthy Residential Steiner, D. and Nauser, M. (eds.) (1993). Human Environments. In R. Bechtel and A. Churchman (eds.) Ecology: Fragments of Anti-fragmentary Views of the Handbook of Environmental Psychology, John Wiley, World, Routledge, London, United Kingdom. New York, USA. pp.394-412. Turner, J. (1976). Housing by people: Towards Low, S.M. and Chambers, E. (eds.) (1989). Housing, Autonomy in Building Environment, Pantheon Books, Culture and Design: A Comparative Perspective, New York, USA. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, USA. van Kempen, E. T. (1994). High-Rise Living: The Social Michelson, W. (1977). Environmental Choice, Human Limits of Design. In B. Danermark and I. Elander (eds.) Behavior and Residential Satisfaction, Oxford Social Rented Housing in Europe: Policy, Tenure and University Press, New York, USA. Design, Delft University Press, Delft, The Netherlands, pp.159-180. Moudon, A. (1986). Built for Change: Neighborhood Architecture in San Francisco, The MIT Press, van Vliet, W. (ed.) (1998). The Encyclopedia of Cambridge, MASS, USA. Housing. Sage Publications, Newbury CA, USA. Organization for Economic Co-operation and ------Development (OECD), (1996). Strategies for Housing Roderick J. Lawrence and Social Integration in Cities, Organization for Roderick J. Lawrence is a Professor, Faculty of Social Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, and Economic Sciences, University of Geneva. He France. graduated from the Faculty of Architecture and Putman, T. and Newton, C. (1990). Household Town Planning at the University of Adelaide (Australia) Choices, Futures Publications, London, United with First Class Honours. He also has a Masters Kingdom. Degree (Social and Political Sciences Committee) from the University of Cambridge (England) and a

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Doctorate of Science from the Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale, Lausanne, Switzerland. In 1994 he was nominated by the World Health Organization to the Scientiﬁc Advisory Board of the European Centre for Environment and Health, and in 1999 he was appointed Chairperson of the Evaluation Advisory Committee of the Healthy Cities Project in the WHO- European Region. In January 1997 he was nominated to the New York Academy of Science. In 1999 he was nominated Professor in the Faculty of Social and Economic Sciences at the University of Geneva. He

RODERICK J. LAWRENCE teaches undergraduate and graduate courses. He is the Director of a continuing education course on sustainable development and Agenda 21 at the University of Geneva which is addressed to elected ofﬁcials, public administrators and managers in the private sector. His biography has been included in Marquis Who’s Who in the World and Who’s Who in Science and Engineering. He can be contacted at [email protected]

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ASSESSING BUILDING PERFORMANCE: ITS EVOLUTION FROM POST-OCCUPANCY EVALUATION

Wolfgang F. E. Preiser and Jack L. Nasar

Abstract Keywords This article chronicles the evolution of the field of post- Building performance evaluation; environmental occupancy evaluation and visual quality (aesthetic) aesthetics; post-occupancy evaluation; programming and evaluation from their origins in the performance concept; visual quality programming; 1960s, and describes their transformation into current POE training workshop developments in systematic building performance and visual quality assessments. Major components of post-occupancy evaluations are highlighted, and Introduction: examples of outcomes presented. This consumer- About Interdisciplinary Collaboration oriented approach is part of a new democratic paradigm embodying autonomy, self-organization, Over the years, the authors, who are both ecology, sustainability, adaptation, and continuous graduates of the Ph.D. program in Man- improvement. Methods range from qualitative self- Environment Relations (MER) at the Pennsylvania reports of likes and dislikes to quantitative multivariate State University, have collaborated extensively analyses, from verbal scales to observations of use, on topics ranging from post-occupancy and last but not least, expert judgments. The paper evaluation to design review and aesthetic discusses questions about the future of this field, evaluations of buildings, as well as universal its viability, cost-effectiveness, and benefits for all design. Teaching at universities a two-hour stakeholders. It concludes with the examination of drive apart, they exchanged lectures with one a recent project, reported in the book Designing another in their classes on building and visual for Designers that used distributed technology to quality evaluation and programming; and they systematically evaluate the performance of 17 met regularly at conferences. In 1992, Preiser contemporary architecture school buildings from around the world. The approach is discussed, as well and Lightner hosted a conference on Design as methods, lessons learned, and ways in which the Review, which Nasar attended. Preiser and methodology and findings apply to other kinds of Lightner included his paper on urban design facilities and future developments in the field. aesthetics in the proceedings, and in revised form in a guest edited issue of Environment & Behavior in 1994. Nasar included a chapter

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by Preiser and Lightner in his 1988 book users’ point of view. A bibliography published Environmental Aesthetics: Theory, Research, by the Department of Housing and Urban and Application. Interactions between Nasar Development (HUD) (Bechtel and Srivastava, and Preiser led to two edited books. In 1999, 1978) claimed to list 700 POEs, starting in 1913. Nasar and Preiser published Directions in Person- But upon careful examination, there was only Environment Research and Practice (Ashgate), one entry that had the term “post-occupancy which covered person-environment theory evaluation” in its title. It dealt with military postal (John Archea, Harry Heft), sociological and facilities, and was commissioned by the AIA psychological findings (Romedi Passini, Jack Research Corporation (Connell & Ostrander, Nasar, William Rohe, and Richard Titus), and 1976). design and planning applications (Wolfgang Preiser, Fahriye Hazer Sancar). When Nasar Inspired by van der Rijn and Hsia, Preiser’s ran a conference on Universal Design and Master’s thesis also focused on evaluating Visitability (Nasar and Evans-Crowly, 2007), he dormitory performance, i.e., at Virginia Tech turned to Preiser, who had edited the Universal (the very dormitories where the horrendous Design Handbook (Preiser and Ostroff, 2001), for mass murder of students took place in 2006). advice on speakers and as a keynote speaker. It employed political science rating scales (the When, due to illness, Preiser could not travel Thurstone Scale of Equal Appearing Intervals), to the conference, he provided his notes and which have an error rate of no more than 3% to 5%. These rating scales were used to create WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER and JACK L. NASAR powerpoint to Nasar, who presented it for him, though with a somewhat different accent. In quality profiles, as perceived by the students 2007, a 15-year collaboration culminated in the living in three very different types of dormitories. book Designing for Designers: Lessons Learned The newest ones looked like high-rise prisons, from Schools of Architecture (Fairchild), which and the oldest looked like Oxford-style, two- evaluated the performance of new buildings story walk-up structures. Not surprisingly, they for schools of architecture and design. More on scored highest. The results of this study were it later. First consider some of its precedents. presented at the first conference of the Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA) at NC State (Preiser, 1969). Then in 1973, The Evolution of Post-Occupancy the author organized the EDRA 4 conference, Evaluation at which the movement of assessing building performance gained momentum. Preiser’s In the late 60s, evaluation case studies of Ph.D. dissertation at Penn State focused on the university dormitories were carried out by Sim evaluation of public spaces in the then new van der Rijn of the University of California, Columbia Mall in Maryland (Preiser, 1974). Berkeley, and Victor Hsia of the University of Utah. While not called post-occupancy By the mid-1970s, the first publications with term evaluations (POEs), these evaluations were “POE” in their title appeared: according to among the first systematic attempts at assessing Preiser’s extensive literature searches, the very building performance from the building first one was authored by Herb McLaughlin of

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KMD Architecture in San Francisco in the AIA Preiser, Rabinowitz & White (1988), wrote Journal issue of January 1975. He and a team of the first POE textbook, which has since been consultants had done POEs on hospitals in Utah translated (illicitly!) into Japanese, Korean, and and in San Francisco. most recently, Arabic. Interestingly, when the author visited major construction companies in Over the past 30 years, Herb has been an Japan, including Shimizu Corporation, for POE ardent supporter of POE as a tool for in-house presentations in 1993, someone came up and knowledge building in architecture and design proudly said, “Hi, we translated your book”. firms (McLaughlin, 1997). Thus, in all likelihood, Whereupon Preiser said, “How can one get his was the very first publica tion on POE, a copy?” He answered, “Well, I have to get although during the year prior, the Veterans permission from my company first.” So much Administration in San Diego had conducted for the protection and integrity of intellectual systematic POEs of their hospital facilities, but property rights. The appendix of that book is they were not published until later in 1975. perhaps the most interesting part, because it There was the first methodological review of presents measurement techniques for getting POE techniques that was, again, commissioned feedback on the quality of facilities. Considered by the AIA Corporation under John Eberhard’s to be a companion volume to Post-Occupancy directorship (Connell & Ostrander, 1976). In the Evaluation, the book Building Evaluation was 80s, lots of POE activity was going on in the UK, published a year after it (Preiser, 1989), with

WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER and JACK L. NASAR Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and the US case studies from around the world. on public works projects, government buildings, airports, etc., resulting in very sizeable and signiﬁcant POE studies. Evolution of Aesthetic Programming and Evaluation In 1986, John Eberhard was responsible for putting together committees on opportunities Although the earliest empirical research in for improvement in the practices of psychology examined aesthetic phenomena— programming, post-occupancy evaluation preference for the golden rectangle (Fechner, (Committee on Post-Occupancy Evaluation 1876), the ﬁeld stayed largely forgotten until Methodology, 1987), as well as the element the 1960s when Daniel E. Berlyne (1960) that links the two conceptually; i.e., database launched the new empirical aesthetics. He, as development. Preiser was asked to chair both did psychologists after him, operationalized the programming and POE committees, and aesthetics as favorable affect in response the reports came out in 1987, published by to stimuli, and he developed a motivational the National Academy of Sciences. What theory relating preferences to the curiosity and is really interesting to know is whether the uncertainty generated by collative variables recommendations of the reports have come (such as complexity, novelty, and ambiguity), true? Yes, indeed they have, especially in the which he and others tested (Berlyne, 1972). In information technology (IT) arena, which was in the 1970s, Wohlwill (1976) expanded Berlyne’s its infancy at that time. ideas to include structural properties of the

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stimulus array and applied them to the molar exposition led to a study of the perceived environment. The Kaplans (1972) also began to visual quality of the city (a visual quality post- investigate environmental preferences. From occupancy evaluation and program). Follow- the design direction, Oscar Newman (1972) saw up research in other contexts led to Nasar’s milieu (appearances) as one of four aspects 1998 book Evaluative Image of the City, in of crime prevention through environmental which he proposed procedures for conducting design. Though Newman focused on one post-occupancy evaluations or programs for dimension—crime, he took a post-occupancy aesthetics (visual quality) and meaning. Other approach, in evaluating the performance of research applied the idea of post-occupancy public housing from the occupant perspective. evaluation to assessing a jury’s design competition decision (Nasar, 1989a), which Inﬂuenced by his masters work with Newman he found tied to meanings they expected the and doctoral work with Wohlwill, Nasar building to convey to users. He also evaluated designed a dissertation to evaluate the user reactions to the site in terms of features perceived visual quality (environmental likely to evoke fear of crime (Nasar and Fisher, aesthetics) and fear of crime in relation to real 1993). Those studies led him to a series of studies neighborhoods. In a two-phase study, he ﬁrst evaluating the results of design competitions uncovered the salient dimensions of perception over time, differences in aesthetic responses in relation to 40 streets in Pittsburgh; and then to and meanings conveyed by buildings to

WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER and JACK L. NASAR related them to people’s ratings of preference architects and laypersons (Nasar, 1989b; Nasar and fear of crime, summarized in an article in and Devlin, 1989), and to a post-occupancy Environment and Behavior (Nasar, 1983). For evaluation of the competition winning building. the 1983 conference of the Environmental This research culminated in his book Design by Design Research Association (EDRA), he sent Competition: Making Design Competition Work out a request for people to participate in (Nasar, 1999), that evaluated the design for the a symposium on environmental aesthetics. Wexner Center i.e., “Eisenman’s deeply flawed The call for papers led to two symposia and design” and the design competition that two workshops. Preiser participated in those preceded it. Design by Competition expands sessions. (Nasar subsequently participated in a the procedures for conducting visual quality conference Preiser and Lightner organized on post-occupancy evaluations and programs, design review). The field of empirical aesthetics and in general, it is intended to derive better had indeed expanded to include theory, approaches for planning design competitions research, and design/planning applications. in architecture. Many of the papers from these sessions emerged in revised form along with other Both the Preiser and Nasar measurement new and classic papers in his edited book on techniques rely on verbal responses from environmental aesthetics (Nasar, 1988). relevant stakeholders, i.e., building users or occupants, with instruments that have been A call from the City of Knoxville asking for urban developed and refined over time. However, design guidelines for the planned international their approaches go beyond verbal scales

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to embrace multiple methods, including theoretical basis for post-occupancy evaluation/ observational and archival data. And they building performance and aesthetic evaluation, have extended their work to make it available it is necessary to briefly address some underlying to others and to help shape policy. issues. There is even a sub-field called “building pathology” in the U.K., which focuses primarily Over the years, Preiser has developed a 3-day on the physical diseases of buildings, especially POE Training Workshop format, which empowers historic structures. One has to have criteria for participants to carry out evaluations on their evaluation: since the term ‘evaluation’ includes own facilities without having to hire a POE the notion of ‘values’, one has to clearly consultant (Preiser, 1996). This format provides establish whose values are involved, and what for: Day 1: POE instruction on methodology one does to compare/benchmark findings in and case study examples; Day 2: Field data this field with. gathering using quick surveys (for larger facilities it is recommended to administer POE Research shows that architects and the public surveys and analyses ahead of the site visit), differ in their values or taste standards for the interviews, observation, plan annotation and way buildings should look. These differences photography; and, Day 3: Drafting of executive represent two sets of conflicting norms. So, summary report and presentation to senior whose values take priority, the designer or the management. Clients for these workshops have public? Ultimately, this becomes a question

WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER and JACK L. NASAR included: Carnegie Mellon University; Duke of audiences; and part of the problem in Medical Center; the University of Melbourne, answering the question involves treating Australia; the Building Management Agency architectural appearance as a question of and the University of Western Australia; Kaiser “aesthetics.” Doing so treats good architecture Permanente in California and the State of like a photograph framed in a gallery or Washington; Bar-Ilan University, Israel; and displayed in a magazine or book. It transforms Helsinki University of Technology, Finland. the architect and juror into a kind of priest, who delivers cultural knowledge to the uneducated Nasar’s consumer-based studies of the masses. The intimidated public often goes evaluative image of the city and on retail along, lacking conﬁdence in their “aesthetic” signscapes had direct effects on policy, shaping judgment and feeling uneasy challenging the city plans and controls for appearance. His expert. Treated as aesthetics, architecture books include tools to enable others to use need only appeal to an elite audience; it can and adapt his methods for their context. He function poorly, look ugly, or require the viewer has given invited addresses around the world to have a special knowledge to appreciate. on visual quality programming and evaluation; and in 2001 was hired by The New York Times The 21st century has seen a new paradigm to create a visual quality program for the new replacing the hierarchical, command and corporate facilities. control, top-down approach with a consumer- oriented democratic approach, one that To better understand the conceptual and is autonomous, self-organizing, ecological,

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to sustain adaptation and continuous A hallmark of science involves multiple testing improvement (Preiser, 2007). Nurturing and of hypotheses through different methods. Each empathy replaces obedience and authoritarian method may have unique biases, but if several solutions. It replaces design heroes with equality methods converge on the same finding, one and bottom up evaluation. It calls for fairness, can have more confidence in the accuracy open, two-way communication, community of the findings. Thus, Nasar (1999) employed building, cooperation, trust and honesty. For multiple-methods in a series of studies to places experienced by the public (building examine many buildings and masterpieces exteriors, and interiors used by many people), (buildings that have stood the test of time) over the values of the public (the consumer) take hundreds of years. Those studies consistently priority. showed that the taste standards of designers did not lead popular taste. Popular values (not When a design involves public money, public high-art values) led future standards of taste. property, or becomes visible to the public (as One study found that competitions juries of are most buildings from the street), it becomes experts seldom picked designs that became a societal concern. Unlike the “high” arts that masterpieces; two studies of historical design need appeal to only a narrow audience who awards programs and competitions found that chose to experience it (in a gallery or theater), both architects and non-architects more often architecture surrounds people and does not favored losing to winning entries; and other

WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER and JACK L. NASAR afford them the choice of avoiding it. For this research showed that people have strong audience, design appearance does not require consistencies in what they notice and prefer in a special “priestly” knowledge to interpret. As buildings, that popular taste has stability over adult humans in a culture, we have shared time; and is a better predictor of future popular meanings. Design should appeal to the way the taste than judgments of design experience. broader public who experience it feels about The public brings personal knowledge about it. Building performance evaluations need to their experience of places. In sum, the results replace the metaphor of aesthetics with that of highlight the value of integrating popular affective meanings conveyed to the public. values into designs and building evaluation procedures. To gauge popular values, one Some people claim that differences between must ask the public. architects and the public are irrelevant and that heeding popular meanings gets mediocre The early POE framework (Preiser, Rabinowitz solutions, the average of an inexperienced public. and White, 1988) provided for three levels of They give higher priority to designer standards of effort, degrees of sophistication and data- taste, arguing that designers lead popular taste gathering techniques, cost, manpower, etc.: (Punter, 1994). If designers lead popular taste such indicative, investigative and diagnostic POEs. that initial public scorn changes to appreciation, The 3 POE phases with 3 steps each were: why bother with popular preferences? The (1) Planning: reconnaissance and feasibility, argument raises an important empirical question. resource planning, research planning; (2) Do designers lead public taste? Conducting: initiating on-site data collection

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process, monitoring and managing data the building delivery cycle, as well as the life collection procedures, analyzing data; and, cycle of a building – a meta level approach to (3) Applying: reporting ﬁndings, recommending building evaluation, were investigated jointly, actions, reviewing outcomes. Finally, the and sub sequently, an integrative framework 3 categories of performance criteria were: for building performance evaluation was people, settings and relational concepts. Later, developed. In this framework, post-occupancy this framework was considered to be quite evaluation represents only one of six internal simplistic, and, in many ways, inadequate. review loops, and the framework focuses on the entire life of a building, as well as the notion of Toward Building Performance Evaluation feed-forward into the next building cycle (see Figure 1). In the mid-90s, the Preiser had the opportunity to collaborate with a German visiting scholar, The key concept was a gradually evolving Dr. Ulrich Schramm, who had received his Ph.D. knowledge base that is translated into building on the topic of cross-cultural POEs (public health performance criteria. They cover: issues like clinics in Egypt) from the Technical University health, safety, security; issues addressed by of Stuttgart in Germany. Issues pertaining to building codes; functionality and guideline WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER and JACK L. NASAR Effectiveness Review

Planning......

Program Market Review Needs Programming Analysis

Building Adaptive Re-Use Performance Design...... Recycling Criteria

Construction Feedforward into Next Post Design Building Cycle Occupancy Review Evaluation

Occupancy

Commissioning

Figure 1: Building Performance Evaluation (BPE) Process Model. (Source: Authors).

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materials; and last, but not least, the social, revisited the topic of POE in a day-long psychological, cultural aspects of building symposium, dealing primarily with POE in performance. A key component of the social, U.S. Government agencies. A book resulted, psychological and cultural aspects of building entitled Learning From Our Buildings: A State- performance. In fact, the overall performance, of-the-Practice Summary of Post-Occupancy includes the building’s appearance, it’s Evaluation (National Academies Press, 2001). evaluative quality, the meanings and evaluative It was interesting to note that government is responses it conveys to the users. Research has getting increasingly involved in this activity, consistently shown that vision dominates human and has gathered a lot of experience, such as experience, and that appearances, aesthetics the General Services Administration. Another or the invisible mental image places convey example is the State Department, which has takes first priority in human’s experiences commissioned many POEs on embassy facilities. of places (cf. Nasar, 1994). Contrary to Given the phenomenon of terrorism, it can be the conventional wisdom about individual assumed that they will continue to be carried differences, research shows widespread out, not just in government, but also in the agreement on evaluative appraisals and private sector. meanings. Understanding perceived visual quality and incorporating that understanding More recently, the National Council of in building performance evaluation can help Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB), commissioned Preiser to write a monograph WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER and JACK L. NASAR shape more humane surroundings for people. Meanings and aesthetics are not separate on ‘Improving Building Performance’ for their from function. Appearances can draw people Professional Development Series (Preiser, 2003). in or repel them. For example, Nasar’s (1999) They publish monographs on sustainability, post-occupancy evaluation of the Wexner ethics and other timely topics. Architects Center for the Arts, a facility intended to attract can get tested on that material, and earn students, found that many students never went recerti fication/continuing education credit. inside, because they believed the staff were This may be the most important publication uppity. They had not entered the facility, but the Preiser has ever written, because now every meaning conveyed by the exterior disrupted architect can learn about this topic and use its intended function. Successful designs must it in his/her practice. Included were four case convey the desired meaning, a meaning that studies from major firms who are engaged in is supportive of the function, and both to users building performance assessments, primarily and occupants. For example, a gambling for in-house learning and knowledge building: casino should probably look exciting to work NBBJ in Columbus is considered to be the in, while a dentist’s office should probably look world’s premier health-care facility design firm. calming. Research also indicates that designs They did a case study on a hospital in Iowa with that look good work better (Nasar, Preiser, and the idea of knowledge building, whereby some Fisher, 2007; Norman, 2004). key programming and research personnel were nurses turned programmers. They were In 2001, the National Academy of Sciences truly interested in establishing whether the

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operational performance of the hospital was who are availing themselves of techniques good. The second case study was by KMD that help them build their knowledge base (see Architecture in San Francisco. They had done Figure 2), then that can be considered progress. a project on transitional housing, and they Some firms are posting the evaluations on the went back and evaluated it. Then there was Web, but in so doing, they don’t reveal all the Jay Farbstein Associates in Los Angeles with information, in order not to give away their a POE project on post office facilities, a huge trade secrets. They just want to demonstrate project. And finally, there was the Cincinnati that they are conscientious about knowledge firm of Steed-Hammond-Paul (SHP), showcasing building, and that they work closely with their a high school evaluation. Case study examples clients to accomplish this goal. like these are very encouraging. If one can identify major architecture firms in the USA,

Decision to Build WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER and JACK L. NASAR

Conceptual Shifts Vision of Process and Product

Consecutive Image-Present-Test Cycles

Initial Image Formation

Domain of Acceptable Responses

Figure 2: Continuous Quality Improvement. (Source: J. Zeisel, 1981).

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Recent Developments measure the libraries’ productivity/efﬁ ciency regarding circulations per annum, plus 7 Starting in 1995, the efforts of the International other key performance indicators, including Building Performance Evaluation (IBPE) population demographics, service areas, consortium evolved into the Integrative and building capacity, to name just a few Framework for Building Performance Evaluation (Preiser and Wang, 2005). This new productivity (BPE) and was published in Time-Saver algorithm may well point the way to the Standards (Preiser & Schramm, 1997). Ten years future for BPE. As for visual quality, we need later, the group’s work culminated a publication better knowledge of the performance-related by Elsevier (Preiser & Vischer, 2005). It is a book outcomes associated with appearance. Do about the conceptual basis for building places that look good make workers or visitors performance evaluation, and it includes BPE feel better in them? Does that, in turn, improve case studies from around the world – from creative thinking, productivity, or the bottom Japan, Hong Kong, the Netherlands, Germany, line. Do aesthetic appearances affect property the UK, Canada, Brazil, etc. Here again, perhaps values? Research has tied aesthetics to health a very interesting feature is the appendix which outcomes. Nature, an aesthetic variable, has contains ‘tool kits’ of measurement techniques been shown to have restorative and healing and instruments, which readers can adapt for effects, leading among other things to shorter their own purposes. A second edition of that hospital stays. Other research has tied aesthetics

WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER and JACK L. NASAR book with new case studies is presently in the to health outcomes. People are more likely to planning stage. Readers can find a newer walk in areas that they see as pleasing to the tool kit in the appendix of a book evaluating eye (Ball, Bauman, Leslie, and Owen, 2001; 17 contemporary schools of architecture Cerin, Saelens, Sallis, and Frank, 2006; Humpel, around the world (Designing for Designers, Owen, Iverson, Leslie, and Bauman, 2004; Nasar, Preiser, and Fisher, 2007). This tool kit Saelens, Sallis, Black, Chen, 2003). As a physical includes recommendations for evaluating activity, walking reduces obesity, which has overall functional performance, meanings and well documented health benefits including visual quality of building interiors and exteriors, prevention of cardiovascular disease, some as well as entire facilities at the urban design cancers, Type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis, injury scale, such as a university campus. While case falls, premature mortality and mental disorders studies in the book offer alternative methods, (US Department of Health and Human Services, the tool kit in the appendix grew from an e- 1996), and recall the finding that designs that mail exchange initially among 40 scholars from look good also work better (Nasar, Preiser, and around the world to a smaller group of ten who Fisher, 2007). applied the evaluation methodology.

Finally, can cost beneﬁts of BPE be demonstrated? The answer is yes. In an evaluation of 42 libraries in Hamilton County, OH, BPE and GIS methods were combined to

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Performance Criteria

Performance Measures

Evaluation Outcomes

Short-Term Long-Term Feedback to Existing Feedforward to Building Client Database Clearinghouse for Immediate Planning for Improved Design Problem Solving Criteria WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER and JACK L. NASAR

Programming

Design

Construction

Occupancy

Recycling

Medium-Term Direct Input into the Next Building Cycle

Figure 3: The Performance Concept in the Building Process. (Source: Authors).

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What is Next? and praise from the critics, they often perform poorly for the occupants. The question has to be asked: What is next? Should one advocate more investment in Designs for schools of architecture receive knowledge and data base building? Is litigation special attention. Just as universities try to an unwanted but likely consequence of critical create world-class science labs, new buildings scrutiny of building performance? Should one for schools of design should reflect the state- move closer to facilities management? Is of-the-art in design for all stakeholders, i.e., the design-build the answer? Who is in control of students, faculty, alumni and the university, as the building delivery process? The architect well as the wider community. Oddly enough, in certainly appears not to be. the past, this significant building type—schools of architecture—has received little critical In 1992 we began discussing the need for discussion and no systematic evaluation to a better knowledge base to guide the design guide future designs. and design process for schools of architecture. Preiser was in a building undergoing renovation In 1999, we sent out queries on listservs asking for for a design by Peter Eisenman, designer participation in a project to do post-occupancy of the Wexner Center, the focus of Nasar’s evaluations of new buildings (or additions) for (1999) competition book. Nasar’s faculty was schools of architecture. To our pleasant surprise, planning a new building, and visited several more than 40 people responded. Each then WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER and JACK L. NASAR recent buildings to get ideas. Such visits, received a d a draft instrument (drawn from work while common, do not offer the systematic by Preiser et al., 1988 and Nasar, 1998) for them information, which is made possible through to review. After several revisions, we arrived at a a systematic and comprehensive building common instrument and set of procedures. The performance evaluation. We saw a need for shared method allowed for comparison across a knowledge base to guide such designs; the schools. Later additional participants joined and we decided to collaborate on a project the project, using different methods, which which obtained systematic evaluations of allowed us to identify convergent findings contemporary facilities to develop guidelines across methods and schools. for future designs for these buildings, and many others. We eventually gathered post occupancy evaluations of 17 schools of architecture. Architecture schools often seek designs by Ten post-occupancy evaluations used the “star”-chitects. Universities have become same instruments and coding procedures, patrons, seeking signature buildings and design allowing statistical comparisons across the competitions. An e-mail survey (reported in the evaluations. Looking in depth at many schools, book) of university architects at 25 campuses the book found out what makes a good found that most of them had built signature design for designers, and what lessons about buildings or held design competitions in the past design and process one can apply to other five years. While such buildings may win awards kinds of buildings and places to get better

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performance. Although we identiﬁed many Acknowledgments issues, the evaluations pointed to ﬁve concepts A shorter and earlier version of this article was leading to high performance designs. Better published in Architectural Science Review, Volume designs tended to have: 48, pp. 201-205

1. A well-managed process. 2. Compatible exteriors and warm interiors. References 3. A gathering space (Atrium) with lots of Ball, K., Bauman, A., Leslie, E., and Owen, N. natural light. (2001). Perceived Environmental Aesthetics and 4. Layouts and signs that made it easy for Convenience and Company Are Associated with people to ﬁnd their way around. Walking for Exercise Among Australian Adults, 5. Some focus on basics to ensure good Preventive Medicine, Vol. 33, pp. 434-440. acoustics and HVAC. Bechtel, R., and Srivastava, R. (1978). Post-Occupancy Evaluation of Housing, US Department of Housing and With the digital revolution and on-line Urban Development, Washington, D.C., USA. surveys, the prospect for low cost building Berlyne, D.E. (1960). Conﬂict, Arousal, and Curiosity, evaluation for continuous improvement in McGraw-Hill, New York, USA. architecture seems more and more feasible. And with the boomburgs (Lang and Lefurgy, Berlyne, D.E. (1972) Aesthetics and Psychobiology, 2007) in the southwest, globalization, the Appleton, New York, USA. WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER and JACK L. NASAR booming development in China, dwindling Cerin, E., Saelens, B.E., Sallis, J.F., and Frank, non-renewable energy resources, global L.D. (2006). Neighborhood Environment Walkability warming, and sustainable and smart growth Scale: Validity and Development of a Short Form, development, the need for such information Medicine Science Sports and Exercise, Vol. 38, pp. is growing more urgent. As with design 682-1691. awards, the independent eye of a BPE on the Committee on Post-Occupancy Evaluation design can uncover new ways of looking at a Methodology (1987). Post-Occupancy Evaluation design. More than that, a rigorous systematic Practices in the Building Process: Opportunities for assessment of past successes and failures can Improvement, National Academy Press, Washington, build knowledge, improve future designs, and DC, USA. (Wolfgang F.E. Preiser, Committee Chair). demonstrate the contributions of the design Connell, B.R., and Ostrander, E.R.(1976) Post- professions to the community. Professions, such Occupancy Evaluation of Mail Delivery and as medicine, law, and business, have advanced, Communications in Bachelor Enlisted Housing, AIA because of their rigorous use of evaluation and Research Corporation, Washington DC, USA. feedback in assessing past successes and Connell, B.R., and Ostrander, E.R. (1976). failures. We believe that advances in building Methodological Considerations in Post-Occupancy performance and aesthetic evaluation can Evaluation: An Appraisal of the State of the Art, AIA lead to continuous improvement in the quality Research Corporation, Washington, DC, USA. of designed environments. Fechner, G.T. (1876). Vorschule der Aesthetik

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[Introduction to aesthetics], Breitkopf & Hartel, Leipzig. Nasar, J.L. (1989b). Symbolic Meanings of House Styles, Environment and Behavior, Vol. 21, pp. 235-257. Federal Facilities Council (2001). Learning from Our Buildings: A State-of-the-Practice Summary of Post Nasar, J.L. (1994). Urban Design Aesthetics: The Occupancy Evaluation, National Academy Press, Evaluative Qualities of Building Exteriors, Environment Washington, DC, USA. and Behavior, Vol. 26, pp. 377-401. Humpel, N., Owen, N., Iverson, D., Leslie, E., and Nasar, J.L. (1998). The Evaluative Image of the City, Bauman, A. (2004). Perceived Environment Attributes, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, USA. Residential Location, and Walking for Particular Purposes, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Nasar, J.L. (1999). Design by Competition: Making Vol. 26, pp. 119-125. Design Competition Work, Cambridge, New York, USA. International Building Performance Evaluation (IBPE) Consortium. (1995). c/o Wolfgang F.E. Preiser, School Nasar, J.L., and Evans-Cowley, J. (2007). Universal of Architecture and Interior Design, University of Design and Visitability: From Accessibility to Zoning, Cincinnati. P.O.B. 210016, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0016, The John Glenn School of Public Affairs, Columbus, USA. Ohio, USA. Kaplan, S., Kaplan, R., and Wendt, J.S. (1972). Rated Nasar, J.L., and Devlin, K. (1989). Beauty and the Preference and Complexity for Natural and Urban Beast: Some Preliminary Comparisons of “Popular” Visual Material, Perception and Psychophysics, Vol. vs. “High” Architecture and Public vs. Architect 12, pp. 354-356. Judgments of Same, Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol. 9, pp. 333-344. WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER and JACK L. NASAR Lang, R.E., and Lafurgy, J.B. (2007). Boomburbs: The Rise of America’s Accidental Cities, Brookings, Nasar, J.L., and Fisher, B. (1993). “Hot Spots” of Fear Washington, DC, USA. of Crime: A Multiple-Method Investigation, Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol. 13, pp. 187-206. McLaughlin, H. (1975). Post-Occupancy Evaluations of Hospitals, AIA Journal, January. Nasar, J.L., Preiser, W.F.E., and Fisher, T. (2007). Designing for Designers: Lessons Learned from McLaughlin, H. (1997). Post-Occupancy Evaluations: Schools of Architecture, Fairchild, New York, USA. They Show us What Works, and What Doesn’t, Architectural Record, Vol. 185 (4). Newman, O. (1972). Defensible Space: Crime Prevention through Urban Design, MacMillan, New Nasar, J.L. (1983). Adult Viewer Preferences in York, USA. Residential Scenes, Environment and Behavior, Vol. 15, pp. 589-614. Norman, D.A. (2004). Emotional Design: Why We Love (or Hate) Everyday Things, Basic Books, New York, Nasar, J.L. (ed.) (1988). Environmental Aesthetics: USA. Theory, Research and Applications, Cambridge University Press, New York, USA. Preiser, W.F.E. (1969). Behavioral Design Criteria in Student Housing, In H. Sanoff and S. Cohn (eds.), Nasar, J.L. (1989a). A Post-Jury Evaluation: The Ohio Proceedings of the First Environmental Design State University Design Competition for a Center for Research Association Conference, North Carolina the Visual Arts, Environment and Behavior, Vol. 21, State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA. pp. 464-484. Preiser, W.F.E. (1974). Analysis of Unobtrusive

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Observations of Pedestrian Movement and Punter, J. (1994). Aesthetics in Planning, In H. Thomas Stationary Behavior in a Shopping Mall, In R. Kueller (ed.), Values and Planning, Avebury, Aldershot, (ed.), Architectural Psychology, Proceedings of London, United Kingdom, pp. 38-67. the Second International Conference, Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, USA. Saelens, B.E., Sallis, J.F. Black, J.B., and Chen, D. (2003). Neighborhood-Based Differences in Physical Preiser, W.F.E. (2007). Integrating the Seven Principles Activity: An Environment Scale Evaluation, American of Universal Design into Planning Practice, In J.L. Journal of Public Health, Vol. 93, pp. 1552-1558. Nasar, and J. Evans-Cowley (eds.), Universal Design and Visitability: From Accessibility to Zoning, The John U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Glenn School of Public Affairs, Columbus, Ohio, USA, (1996). A Report from the Surgeon General: Physical pp. 11 – 30. Activity and Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, President’s Preiser, W.F.E., and Ostroff, E. (eds.) (2001). Universal Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, Centers for Design Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York USA. Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA. Preiser, W.F.E., Rabinowitz, H.Z., and White, E.T. (1988). Post-Occupancy Evaluation, Van Nostrand Reinhold, Wohlwill, J.F. (1976). Environmental Aesthetics: The New York, USA. Environment as a Source of Affect, Human Behavior and Environment, Vol. 1, Plenum Press, New York, Preiser, W.F.E. (ed.) (1989). Building Evaluation, USA, pp. 37 – 85. Plenum, New York, USA.

WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER and JACK L. NASAR Preiser, W.F.E. (1996). POE Workshops and Prototype Testing at the Kaiser Permanente Medical Ofﬁce ------Building in Mission Viejo, California, In G. Baird et al., Wolfgang F.E. Preiser Building Evaluation Techniques, McGraw-Hill, New Wolfgang F.E. Preiser is a Professor Emeritus of York, USA. Architecture at the University of Cincinnati, USA. He holds a Ph.D. from the Pennsylvania State University Preiser, W.F.E., and Schramm, U. (1997). Building (1973), Masters degrees in architecture from Virginia Performance Evaluation, In D. Watson, M.J. Crosbie, Polytechnic Institute and State University and the and J.H Callender (eds.), Time-Saver Standards for th Technical University of Karlsruhe, Germany, as well Architectural Design Data, McGraw-Hill, 7 Edition, as the First State Exam from the Technical University New York, USA. in Vienna, Austria. On a global level, he has lectured Preiser, W.F.E. (2003). Improving Building at 109 universities and organizations, in addition to Performance, National Council of Architectural many conferences. As a researcher and international Registration Boards (NCARB), Washington, DC, USA. building consultant, he has worked on topics ranging from universal design, to facility programming, Preiser, W.F.E., and Vischer, J.C. (eds.) (2005). building performance assessments, health care Assessing Building Per formance, Elsevier, Oxford, facilities, and intercultural design in general. He is United Kingdom. widely published, with 16 books and 125 chapters, articles and papers in conference proceedings to his Preiser, W.F.E., and Wang, X. (2006). Assessing Library credit. Most recent books are Designing for Designers: Performance with GIS and Building Evaluation Learning from Schools of Architecture (2007, with Jack Methods, New Library World, Vol. 107 (1224/1225), Nasar and Tom Fisher), Assessing Building Performance pp.193-217. (2005, with Jacqueline Vischer), Improving Building

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Performance (2003) and, Universal Design Handbook (2001, with Elaine Ostroff), which was translated into Japanese. He serves on the editorial boards of major journals. Preiser has received many honors, awards and fellowships, including the Progressive Architecture Applied Research Award and Citation, Professional Fellowships from the National Endowment for the Arts, the EDRA Career and Lifetime Achievement Awards , and the Fulbright Fellowship. He can be contacted at [email protected]

------Jack L. Nasar Jack L. Nasar (FAICP), PhD 1979 Man-Environment Relations, Pennsylvania State University, Professor of City & Regional Planning, Graduate Professor of Landscape Architecture at The Ohio State University, and editor of the Journal of Planning Literature, has published more than 80 scholarly articles on meanings, cognition, fear, crime, and spatial behavior in relation to the environment. He served

WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER and JACK L. NASAR as architectural critic for The Columbus Dispatch and guest critic for Landscape Architecture. His books include Environmental Aesthetics: Theory, Research, & Applications; The Evaluative Image of the City; Design by Competition: Making Design Competitions Work; Universal Design and Visitability: From Accessibility to Zoning (with J. Evans-Cowley); Designing for Designers: Lessons Learned from Schools of Architecture (with W. F. E. Preiser, and T. Fisher). An invited lecturer around the world, he has received the EDRA Career Achievement Award, Lumley Award for Excellence in Research at The Ohio State University, Ethel Chattel Fellowship from the University of Sydney, and the Distinguished Alumni Award from the School of Architecture at Washington University, St. Louis. He can be contacted at [email protected]

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A THEORY FOR INTEGRATING KNOWLEDGE IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN EDUCATION

Ashraf M. Salama

Abstract Introduction: From Knowledge This paper argues for introducing a theory for Consumption to Knowledge Production knowledge integration in architectural design education. A contextual analysis of the reasons for The theory introduced in this paper is culled from developing a theory is introduced and reasons are a wide spectrum of issues I have explored over categorized. The milieu of the theory is constituted a period of two decades. Since architecture in several contextual elements. The theory is created in a ﬁeld of tension between encompasses a number of underlying theories reason, emotion and intuition, I suggest that and concepts derived from other ﬁelds that differ dramatically from architecture. It consists of three architectural design pedagogy should be major components: the disciplinary component; the viewed as training toward the manifestation cognitive-philosophical component; and the inquiry- of the ability to conceptualize, coordinate, epistemic component. Each of these components and execute the idea of building. This act must encompasses other smaller components integral to furthermore be rooted in humane tradition. the building of the theory itself. Notably, the three However, this mandates a comprehensive components address ways in which knowledge can understanding of the role of knowledge in be integrated, how the desired integration would architecture while comprehending how to meet the capacity of the human mind, how such integrate different modes of knowledge integration relates to the nature of knowledge and production. Recent years have witnessed how knowledge about it is acquired, conveyed, and assimilated. Possible mechanisms for knowledge a number of phenomenal and continuous acquisition are an indispensable component of changes in the structure of contemporary the theory, whose aim is to foster the development societies, the emergence of housing problems of responsive knowledge critical to the successful and squatter settlements, the deterioration of creation of built environments. the built heritage, the rising complexity of large structures and new building types, and the Keywords recent interest in environmental conservation Architectural education; knowledge integration; and protection. While these phenomena transdisciplinarity; design studio; systemic pedagogy. continue to exist, demands for multiple types of

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knowledge are clearly on the rise: knowledge from and responds to societal, cultural, and of how to create better environments for poor environmental needs. In order to contextualize societies; knowledge of how to involve people the overall environment in which the theory is affected by design and planning decisions developed, the reasons why it is introduced are in the process of making those decisions; discussed, followed by a number of aspects knowledge of how to protect the built heritage; that characterize its context. knowledge of how to design environments that do not compete with but complement nature; The theory is based on some alarming ﬁgures, the syndrome of viewing architecture as art

ASHRAF M. SALAMA knowledge and how to deal with problems associated with special populations that form and only art, and the syndrome of emphasizing major parcels of contemporary societies such the development of skills at the expense of as children, seniors, the disabled, and the poor; knowledge. Evidently, the reasons for and the knowledge that responds to socioeconomic context of a theory for knowledge integration and sociopolitical issues; and knowledge suggest a different form of thinking that goes that responds to advances in building and beyond typical discussions of modifying telecommunication technologies. architecture curricula or massaging studio pedagogy and the teaching/learning processes This paper conceives two distinct — yet related involved. The theory encompasses a number — types of knowledge in architecture. The first of underlying theories and concepts derived type is knowledge resulted from research that from other fields that differ dramatically from seeks to understand the future through a better architecture, including philosophy of science and understanding of the past — research that tests cognitive psychology. Metaphorically, the theory accepted ideas. The second is knowledge is conceived in terms of a triad consisting of three resulting from research that probes new ideas major components: the disciplinary component; and principles which will shape the future — the cognitive-philosophical component; and research that develops new visions and verifies the inquiry-epistemic component. Each of new hypotheses. Still, the typical debate these components encompasses other smaller about the role of knowledge and research components integral to the building of the in architecture as an academic discipline theory itself. Notably, the three components and a profession continues to exist. Within address ways in which knowledge can be the framework of these knowledge types, the integrated, how the desired integration would paper calls for a fresh look at architectural meet the capacity of the human mind, how design education, and proposes that it should such an integration relates to the nature of be centered on critical inquiry and knowledge knowledge and how knowledge about it is acquisition and production. acquired, conveyed, and assimilated. Possible mechanisms for knowledge acquisition are an A theory is conceptualized that argues for indispensable component of the theory, whose a more responsive architectural design aim is to foster the development of responsive pedagogy, enabling future architects to create knowledge critical to the successful creation livable environments. This theory emerges of built environments. It is believed that by

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adopting this theory, future architects will have as the main forum for exploration, interaction, the capacity to be active knowledge producers, and assimilation (Salama, 1995). Such similarity and not just consumers of knowledge developed enables signiﬁcant mobility of architects among by other specialists in other disciplines. ﬁrms, areas of expertise and locales, even where cultural differences are dominant.

Why Introduce A Theory for Knowledge A number of important issues are revealed Integration? by surveys conducted on admission policies in over 120 schools of architecture worldwide ASHRAF M. SALAMA Critical to the introduction of a theory for (Goldschmidt et al, 2000; Salama, 2005 a). knowledge integration in architectural design Results indicate that some admission criteria education is a discussion of the underlying are more dominant than others. Emphasis is reasons for developing it. Here, I build on some placed on high school records (93.2%). About of my earlier surveys and arguments developed 40 % of schools adopt a skill-based aptitude test over the past fifteen years in response to the and portfolio submission. While these numbers current situation of architectural education and cannot be generalized, the different admission studio pedagogy (Salama, 1995; Salama, 1999; policies that emerged from the analysis reflect Salama, 2005 a). While the reasons for introducing a sustained emphasis on the skills needed a theory are many and multifaceted, in order for enrolment, while knowledge and critical to place the discussion in focus, I categorize thinking abilities of applicants as they relate to and limit those reasons in terms of the following architecture and the overall built environment points: admission policies and the skills emphasis appear to take a back seat. This is manifested syndrome, idiosyncrasies in knowledge delivery in the results indicating that only 6.8% of the and acquisition in architectural education, schools surveyed adopt a written statement and some alarming figures on studio teaching approach as part of their admission criteria, and practices. only 9.3% require critical essays as an important admission criterion. By and large, admission Admission Policies and the Skills Emphasis policies reflect the tendencies of most schools of Syndrome architecture to emphasize skills in drawing and Discussing admission policies as a theme form manipulation, an aspect of architectural within the context of knowledge integration in education that continues to be emphasized architectural design education raises questions throughout the duration of study in schools at more than providing answers. Architects receive the expense of other pedagogical aspects and their education and training in hundreds of learning outcomes. schools of architecture around the world. Practice is typically locally regulated, but sometimes While the preceding figures shed light on licensed (Salama, 2005 a). The practice of some tendencies toward admission policies, architectural design education appears to be understanding the impact of those policies on remarkably similar in many parts of the world the performance of students in schools and after due to the overriding primacy given to the studio graduation, and on their skills and knowledge

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needed for creating liveable environments, (Salama, 1995, 1996, 2005 b, 2006). As a result, represent a challenging empirical question. Very students do not know what to see and what to little is known about the success or failure of look for in the built environment. The case would admission criteria and the way in which they may be worse when educators attempt to offer shape the attitudes of future architects. Clearly, students ready-made interpretations about the more in depth studies are urgently needed. physical world in lectures and seminar classes, leading to students’ inability to think critically or Idiosyncrasies on Knowledge Delivery and develop their intellectual skills. This handicaps Acquisition ASHRAF M. SALAMA their abilities to gather, analyze, synthesize, There has been — and still is — a continuous and process different types of information. debate among architectural educators Traditional teaching practices have contributed about the role of knowledge and research to the view of architecture as an art-based in architecture as a discipline and profession profession, oversimplifying other critical views (Salama, 1996; Sutton, 1984). Whether in of it as a knowledge-based or research-based developed or developing countries, many in educational discipline and profession (Salama, architecture still think of researchers as people 2007 a). In response, current discourses have in white smocks and thick glasses searching heavily emphasized the value of knowledge for the mystery and the unknown. In response, acquisition and of the introduction of research scholars and educators have emphasized that based pedagogy (Fisher, 2004; Groat, 2000). research should be viewed as part of everyday actions and experiences. They argue, and While architectural educators strive to impart rightly so, that traditional teaching practices the requisite knowledge necessary for successful have long encouraged students to develop practice, the way knowledge is transmitted has form manipulation skills by emphasizing intuition, significant professional and social implications reflective observation, and concept formation (Mazumdar 1993; Salama 1998). Concomitantly, (Juhasz, 1981; Salama, 1995; Sanoff, 2003; there is an urgent need to confront issues that Seidel, 1994). However, these practices are pertain to the nature of reality (“what”) and the hypothetical, largely unconcerned with real life way in which knowledge about that reality is situations, and neglect equally important skills conveyed to our budding professionals (“how”). that can be enhanced through experiential Traditional teaching practices suggest that gaps learning, research, or real interaction with the exist between “what” and “how”. Along this realities being studied. line of thinking, Amos Rapoport (1994) argues for the need for the discipline of architecture to In traditional teaching practices, architecture develop a quantifiable body of knowledge by students are typically encouraged to conduct calling for a dramatic departure from the art site visits and walkthrough the built environment paradigm that the profession and its education in order to observe different phenomena. are based upon, towards one based on science Unfortunately, research indicates that these visits and research. Rapoport introduced a number of and exercises are simply casual and are not questions underlying the heading of “knowledge structured in the form of investigation or inquiry about better environments”; these are: “what is

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better, better for whom and why is it better?” include how projects were created and in (Rapoport, 1994:35). A set of misconceptions can what context, what was the client nature and be envisaged in this context based on reviewing intentions, how the project was delivered, and the recent literature on architectural education how construction was undertaken. The story- (Salama, 1995; Salama and Wilkinson, 2007; telling teaching mode carried out by educators Seidel, Eley, and Symes, 1995). in lecture and theory courses tends to ignore these issues. Science as a body of knowledge versus science as a method of exploration The real versus the hypothetical ASHRAF M. SALAMA When teaching any body of knowledge, Educators tend to offer students hypothetical educators tend to present it as a body of facts experiments in the form of hypothetical design and theories and as a process of scientiﬁc projects, where many contextual variables criticism. The processes that led up to this are neglected. In this respect, learning from product are often hidden and internalized. the actual environment should be introduced. There should be a distinction between the Real-life experiences can provide students with types of knowledge resulting from research in opportunities to understand the practical realities architecture, and students should be made and different variables that affect real-life aware of them and experience them as well. situations. Typically, educators focus on offering First, we have knowledge that results from students ready-made interpretations about the research that seeks to understand the future built environment rather than developing their through a better understanding of the past, abilities to explore issues that are associated with research that tests accepted ideas. Second, we the relationship between culture and the built have knowledge that results from research that environment. If they do, they place emphasis on develops new hypotheses and visions, research one single culture, which is their own. that probes new ideas and principles which will shape the future. In the context of discussing the preceding idiosyncrasies, it should be noted that recent Learning theories about the phenomena years have witnessed intensive discussions on the versus getting the feel of the behavior of the value of introducing real-life issues in architectural phenomena teaching (Morrow, 2000; Morrow et al., 2004; Knowledge is usually presented to students in Morrow, 2007; Romice and Uzzell, 2005; Salama, a retrospective way. Nevertheless, abstract 2006; Sanoff, 2003, and Sara, 2000). However, and symbolic generalizations used to describe while published experiences have debated research results do not convey the feel of the innovative practices exempliﬁed by exposing behavior of the phenomena they describe students to primary source materials in studio (Schon, 1988). The term retrospective here means processes, little emphasis has been placed upon extensive exhibition of the performance of the how real life issues could be introduced in theory work of an architect over time. In essence, the and lecture courses. analysis of precedents as part of the curriculum should be introduced. Integral parts of learning

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Some Alarming Figures on Studio Teaching architectural programming process is referred to Practices as a procedure for developing a set of design In 1994, I conducted a survey study of imperative that relate to user population. approximately 100 studio instructors from different Moreover, 44.7% of instructors tend to focus on parts of the world, representing 28 schools of the “how” of design, which represents that act architecture in 13 developed and developing of designing after all the major decisions have countries. The results were less than appealing, been made. In essence, this reﬂects the fact and indicate a number of alarming shortcomings. that design instructors tend to be inconsistent

ASHRAF M. SALAMA While discussing all of them might go beyond the regarding their ideologies and what they do to scope of this paper, certain negative tendencies achieve their beliefs. indicating the lack of a responsive knowledge base should be highlighted. While 75.7% of design instructors believe that focusing on the design process is more important A considerable number of design instructors view than focusing on the product, only 32.4% believe architecture as an art of making, not as an act of that identifying design problems is more important making. Therefore, developing communication than developing concepts toward solutions. and form manipulation skills represents 29.5% Such inconsistency supports the argument that of the total objectives they have stated. This design studio teaching continues to place supports the argument that creativity is defined emphasis on the design product rather than on in terms of creating, inventing, and manipulating exploring responsive methods and techniques formal configurations. Creativity in this sense is for designing. Thus, students have insufficient limited to only intuition and talent. opportunities to attain the ability of exploring the nature of knowledge and its role in design, On the one hand, drawing skills appear to be where design experience is limited to concept the most important ability that determines a formation and schematic design. student’s performance as ranked by majority of instructors surveyed. This supports my earlier Strikingly, the non-response rate to some of the hypothesis that many architectural educators issues was high, and this reflects a typical negative focus on issues important to an audience attitude among design instructors that can be of fellow architects (Salama, 1995) and to traced to several factors. One factor is that this audience only (Cuff, 1991), rather than some might believe that their way of teaching focusing on issues important to their clients and is unquestionable; their attitude tends to go like responsive to users’ needs. On the other hand, this “We have been doing this for many years although 48.6% of design instructors state that and we produced high quality professionals.” they introduce social issues, and the majority Another factor pertains to the tendency to mention they introduce aspects related to user consider teaching practice to be an intuitive needs, special populations, and accessibility, process (based on some form of improvisation), only half of them believe that allowing students and based on subjective viewpoints and personal to develop the architectural program should be feelings. Another pessimistic factor relates to the the most important approach. In this context, fact that some instructors did not have any idea

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about some of the issues discussed in the survey, documented discussion in the literature on or they do not feel comfortable stating or citing architectural education one can comprehend their preferences and teaching styles. a reference to one or more of these impacts. In my earlier work (Salama, 1995; Salama, 1999), While the preceding figures are drawn from I have identified those impacts in terms of a) results of a 10 year old survey, my current research architectural education culture; b) its impact (Salama and Wilkinson, 2007) and surveys (and on students and practitioners; and c) its impact also recent literature) corroborate that the on the profession’s context. results are still valid and represents a continuous ASHRAF M. SALAMA concern for improving the status of design studio The current culture of architectural education is teaching and integrating the missing knowledge characterized by high advocacy and low inquiry components in architectural education. while most criteria for students’ performance and success are ambiguous. It adopts a research strategy shaped by low emphasis on developing The Milieu of the Theory or even critically examining current theories of Any theory is conceived, developed and may precedents. It socializes its members through be implemented in a specific context. Such high emphasis on form and abstract aesthetics a context may encompass contradicting while superficially adopting fragmented pieces elements while at the same time may act as of knowledge on technology, ecology, social a driving force for validating and testing the sciences, sociopolitical and socioeconomic theory. The context of a theory for knowledge aspects (Salama, 1995). integration in architectural design education can be exemplified by three general aspects: The impact of this culture on students and a) Derived from the reasons for introducing practitioners is envisioned in terms of the a theory there are negative impacts, difficulty they encounter in explaining their work produced by traditional teaching practices, to others, and the inadequate language they which characterize the context, b) certain use when communicating with non-architects. paradigm shifts do exist reflecting new ways of Moreover, such a culture leads students to learn understanding and approaching the design of to develop hypothetical solutions but not to test built environment in education and in practice, them; and learning to defend their final product c) the negative impacts and paradigm shifts (project) but not to explain the process that led lead to a number of contextual questions that to it (Salama, 1998, Salama, 2005 a). Experience the theory attempts to address. indicates that if this culture continues to exist without true honest intervention, practitioners Negative Impacts of the Current Culture of would continue to have limited understanding Architectural Education of construction technology (traditional and Clearly, the reasons for introducing a theory modern), limited knowledge of the impact of produce negative impacts on the professional buildings on the environment; and limited ability environment within which education and to predict the impact of buildings on users. practice takes place. Looking at any

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What one would expect of the impact of the previously presented to the examined. They are current culture on the overall profession’s designed to serve the system’s purposes rather environment is that architects will continue to than the students’ needs. In the mechanistic be seen as people with some special talents paradigm, educators make little or almost no and regarded as expensive luxury — and effort to relate the pieces of information they in essence, society will continue to place dispense. A course in one subject does not low value on architects. By default, this is refer to the content of another. This reinforces leading to buildings that are functionally and the concept that knowledge is made up of

ASHRAF M. SALAMA economically inefficient, users’ dissatisfaction many unrelated parts, and thereby emphasis is with what architects do, while the general placed on hypothetical design assignments (or discouragement for seeking architectal services paper architecture) rather than real-life issues. takes place. Inversely, the systemic paradigm focuses on grasping the relationships between different The Shift from Mechanistic Pedagogy to parts of bodies of knowledge. Systemic Pedagogy There is strong evidence that a shift in education In the context of relating the systemic paradigm and practice does exist (Schon, 1973, 1988; to the need for knowledge in architectural Ackoff, 1974; Salama, 1995, Salama, 2002). Such education, one should relate to two important a shift is best expressed from “mechanistic” statements made by Alexander (1966) and to “systemic” pedagogy. Following the Habraken (2003). According to Alexander mechanistic paradigm, the educational process (1966) three basic abilities for investigating and of architecture is reduced to a large number understanding the physical environment are of disconnected components. Education is critical. These are: a) the holistic behavior of decomposed into schools, curricula, grades, the phenomenon which we are focusing on, subjects, courses, lectures, lessons, and b) the parts within the thing and the interaction exercises. In this respect, I argue that formal among those parts which causes the holistic education has never been treated as a whole, behavior we have defined, and c) the way in nor is it appropriately conceptualized as which this interaction among these parts causes part of a process much of which takes place the holistic behavior defined. While Alexander within society; a characteristic of the systemic introduced these abilities in abstract terms, paradigm. Habraken’s recent statement — arguably while appearing to assert what Alexander called The mechanistic orientation of pedagogy for 40 years ago — addresses architectural results in the treatment of students as if they educators specifically “We need to teach were machines with the combined properties knowledge about everyday environment. How and characteristics of tape recorders, cameras, it is structured, what we can learn from historic and computers. The student is evaluated with and contemporary evidence, how different respect to his/her ability to reproduce what he/ examples compare, how it behaves over time she has been told or shown. In turn, examinations and responds to change of inhabitation or are tests of the ability to reproduce material other circumstances… Teaching architecture

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without teaching how everyday environment areas are emerging to reflect continuous shifts works is like teaching medical students the art in knowledge content. These are: environment- of healing without telling them how the human behavior studies (EBS), sustainability and body functions. You would not trust a medical environmental consciousness, and digital doctor who does not know the human body. technologies or virtual practices (Salama, 2007 a). Knowledge of everyday environment must legitimize our profession… (Habraken 2003: 32). For example, environment-behavior studies (EBS) is a knowledge component integral to The systemic paradigm introduced some creating better environments, which can be ASHRAF M. SALAMA alternative concepts. These are exemplified by: seen as a response to the shift in thinking from 1) some subjects are best learned by teaching emphasis on things to emphasis on relations them to oneself, 2) some subjects are best between things. It adopts the vision that the learned by teaching them to others, 3) some properties of the parts can be understood only skills are best learned through demonstration from the dynamics of the whole. Taking housing and instruction, and 4) some fundamentals as an example, such a shift becomes clearer. are attained in seminar discussions guided by The value of housing is assumed to be in the one specialized in the relevant area. While the quantifiable attributes of dwellings, sometimes mechanistic paradigm in design pedagogy including their immediate environments. This is based for the most part upon showing- view is already transformed where housing telling modes of communication, the systemic values lie in the relationships between the paradigm places emphasis on learning by process, the product, the users, and the social experience, learning by exploring and doing, and environmental contexts. After housing has while adopting the hidden curriculum concept been conceived for decades in terms of what it — a concept that expresses the interactional is, now it is regarded in terms of what it does for process and the everyday experiences local populations and the way in which people manifested by the daily routines of students and interact with their home environment. teaching staff. As one form of knowledge content All in all, I argue that while the mechanistic transformation, the field of environment- paradigm still prevails in most schools of behavior studies (EBS) has emerged in the architecture, current discussions on architectural late 1960s and flourished in the 1970s onward education and its underlying culture reveal that (Altman, 1975; Bechtel, 1997; Moore, 1979; there are some hopes toward adopting the Rapoport, 1969; Sanoff, 1992; Sommer, 1969). systemic paradigm (Boyer and Mitgang, 1996; Recent literature indicates that it was a reaction Koch et al., 2002; Salama and Wilkinson, 2007). to the failure of modernists in addressing contemporary crises such as housing problems, Knowledge Content Transformations squatter settlements, and the deterioration Several transformations are being witnessed of historic cities. Many critics called for the as a reaction to a number of transformations reconsideration of the social and behavioral or paradigm shifts. Three knowledge content aspects of architecture (Proshansky, 1974).

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The disastrous consequences of the Pruitt Igoe conferences, symposia, and colloquia have project in St. Louis, Missouri in the United States addressed environmental issues on the policy- (dynamited by city authorities in 1972 after making levels. Law-, policy-, and decision becoming a social ghetto) are often cited in makers have tailored lengthy regulations and the environment-behavior literature as a prime guidelines in order to maintain a sense of example leading to the growth of the field. responsibility toward the environment (Duggan and Mitchell, 1997; Mokhtar, 1999; Salama et Environment-behavior paradigm can be al. 2002; Salama and Adams, 2004). The old defined as the systematic examination of ASHRAF M. SALAMA paradigm has been characterized by three relationships between human behavior, basic assumptions: man is more valuable cultural values, and the physical environment than nature, man has the right to subdue and (Moore, 1979). The primary reason of why an conquer nature, and man has no responsibility explicit emphasis on this field has become an for nature. The new paradigm, however, is essential part of architecture is simply because conceived to value the environment alongside the common sense of the architect is not economic development, and to value social the common sense of the user (Prak, 1977). equity alongside material growth. Considerable research corroborates this view and indicates that the attitudes and values Eco-development, ecosystem planning, of professionals differ dramatically from those bioregional planning, and green and sustainable users they are to serve (Groat, 1982; Nasar, 1988; design are all new ideologies and concepts Sanoff 1991; Seidel, 1981 & 1994). This difference that place emphasis on resolving environmental was addressed by the international academic problems caused by human activities. They community of architecture by implementing address the kind of development that meets several underlying concepts that include pre- the needs of the present generation, without design research, architectural and project compromising the ability of future generations programming, post occupancy evaluation, user to meet their own needs (ECE, 1996). Within the participation, and community design. Recent realm of sustainability, I argue that it relies on a literature on education shows that these areas change in culture, supported by an adapted occupy a considerable position in architectural economic system and fed by appropriately curricula world wide (Boyer & Mitgang, 1996; used technology. The same technology that Salama, 1995 & 1998; Sanoff, 2003). has been employed to subdue and conquer nature needs to be employed for the benefits Another form of knowledge content of nature. It is believed that this characteristic of transformation is sustainability and the new paradigm creates the need for mature environmental consciousness. In the last two and competent professionals. Accordingly, the decades, the concept of sustainability has new sustainable society will need to identify emerged in response to several environmental non-material means for non-material needs. In problems. Ecological consciousness was raised response, professional development will need as a reaction to the overall overwhelming to include the practice of interdisciplinarity global environmental degradation. Many and transdisciplinarity, and to develop lifelong

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learning skills. However, it remains to be seen if and telecommunication technologies with architectural design education would be able participants reaching across geography, to accommodate such knowledge content in cultures, and regions. Although this trend has an effective manner. started in the mid 1990s, it is believed that its impact on architectural education will be Digital technology or virtual practice is the third dramatic in the near future. form of knowledge content transformations. Recent years have witnessed advances in The preceding discussion of these the development of telecommunication transformations corroborates my conviction ASHRAF M. SALAMA technologies. Digital technologies and that a new way of thinking about architecture design in virtual environments are re-shaping and its education is taking place. They pose architectural education and practice (Beamish, themselves on the map of interests of both 2002; Maher et al 2000; Schon et al., 1998; Yee academics and practitioners, and thus are et al., 1998). Advances in electronic design and contributing to the restructuring of architectural communication are reconﬁguring the primary education. educational setting — the design studio, which is the backbone of architectural education. Early Pressing Questions – Urgent Answers experiments that represent this paradigmatic We are living in a complex world, a world in trend have been conducted in the early 1990s which no one discipline will have the upper by prominent academics: William Mitchell at hand in solving environmental and societal MIT, and John Gero and Mary Lou Maher at problems as they relate to architecture and the University of Sidney. Their attempts went the creation of livable environments. Evidently, beyond the introduction of computer aided the reasons for developing a theory and the design (CAD) courses in architectural curricula context within which such a theory is envisioned to incorporate virtual design practices in studio —including knowledge content transformations teaching. — reveal some critical questions that require urgent answers. They act as a contextualizing Developments in CAD, visualization, and mechanism for calling for the need of a new digital modelling coupled with the advanced theory. These questions can be stated as technology to communicate data, images, and follows: life action design experiences, have enabled virtual dimensions in studio instruction. Students • Does the current system of architectural no longer need to gather at the same physical education introduce and integrate different space and at the same time to solve the same types of knowledge needed for the successful design problem. In virtual environments, critics creation of built environments? can comment over the World Wide Web or by • Does the current system of architectural electronic mail, and jury members can make education place high value on research and virtual visits to architectural students without knowledge acquisition? being in the same room. Thus, the traditional • Has it responded to the dramatic changes studio setting is changing by utilizing computers the profession is witnessing?

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• Has it reacted effectively to the demands meet the capacity of the human mind, how placed in the profession by society? such an integration relates to the nature of • Has it responded to the knowledge content knowledge, and how knowledge about it is transformations? acquired, conveyed, and assimilated. Possible mechanisms for knowledge acquisition are Based on the current context of the profession an indispensable component of the theory, and its underlying ills, one can answer that the fostering the development of responsive current system of architectural education still knowledge critical to the successful creation of socializes its members into predominantly artistic ASHRAF M. SALAMA built environments (Figure 1). terms. It still focuses on social, technological, or economic terms, still focuses on skill development, The Disciplinary Component: Beyond Mono- still adopts pedagogical methods and design Disciplinarity approaches s not equipped to efficiently and “…. Architects who have aimed at acquiring manual effectively address contemporary problems. skills without scholarship have never been able to reach a position to correspond with their pains…” The value of introducing a theory becomes Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, Ten Books on Architecture, evident when sustaining our thinking of these 100 B.C. questions and their answers. Theorists and practitioners have been discussing The Theory Apparatus the issue of architectural knowledge for several decades. Recent years, however, have witnessed A theory for knowledge integration suggests intensive debates in built environment literature. a different form of thinking that goes beyond Donald Watson attempted to define a demand typical discussions of modifying architecture for knowledge in architecture and the built curricula, or massaging studio pedagogy and environment. He argues that: “The discipline of the teaching/learning processes involved. architecture needs a rigorous knowledge base Here, I argue for a comprehensive theory that by which to support its premises and principles encompasses a number of underlying theories that define the relationship between human and concepts derived from other fields, and and community health, and between building these differ dramatically from architecture by and urban design,” (Quote from Boyer and including the philosophy of science and cognitive Mitgang, 1996). Henry Sanoff confirms this view psychology. The theory is metaphorically when he argues that architecture should be conceived in terms of a triad consisting of three based on knowledge of people needs; it should major components: the disciplinary component; not be based just on the creative impulses of the cognitive-philosophical component, and architects (Sanoff, 2003). the inquiry-epistemic component. Each of these components encompasses other smaller Planning and architecture, like other fields components integral to the building of the of vocational expertise, can be classified as theory itself. Notably, the three components professional disciplines, especially when we address ways in which knowledge can be regard them as fields of inquiry (Becher, 1989). integrated, how the desired integration would Ulf Sandström has followed the development in

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profession-related studies since he identified two “…each is characterized by its own body of trends in research and knowledge production concepts, methods and fundamental aims” in the field of professional expertise: one which (Becher, 1989). is oriented towards the production of mono- disciplinary academic knowledge, and the other The work of Klein, 1998; Ramadier, 2004; which is directed towards subjects derived from and Lawrence and Depres, 2004 suggest concrete life situations, these being solution- that transdisciplinarity is envisioned to tackle oriented (Dunin-Woyseth, 2002). King and Burnell complexity while challenging fragmentation. As a mode of knowledge production, it is ASHRAF M. SALAMA offer a broad and convincing representation of what constitutes an academic discipline. characterized by its hybrid nature and non- They propose several aspects that include a linearity — transcending any academic community, a network of communications, a disciplinary structure. Transdisciplinary tradition, a particular set of values and beliefs, a knowledge is a result of inter-subjectivity — domain, a mode of inquiry, and a conceptual a process that includes practical reasoning structure (Becher, 1989). Another definition, of individuals within the constraints of social, by Toulmin, focuses more on epistemological organizational, and material context, requiring considerations, presenting disciplines like this continuous collaboration between different

The Disciplinary Component Knowledge integration by crossing the boundaries of different disciplines

The Theory Apparatus

The Cognitive-Philosophical The Cognitive-Philosophical Component Component Integrating knowledge types amenable to Integrating knowledge acquisition and human cognitive functions while employing assimilation strategies that involve ethnography, positivistic and anti-positivistic thinking appreciative inquiry and experiential learning

Figure 1: Components and mechanisms of a theory for knowledge integration in architectural design education. (Source: A. Salama).

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disciplines (by crossing their boundaries) (Dunin- departments where knowledge is produced. Woyseth and Nielsen, 2004). Transdisciplinarity Through mutual learning, the knowledge of entails making linkages not only across all participants (from different disciplines) is disciplinary boundaries but also between enhanced, including local knowledge, scientiﬁc theoretical development and professional knowledge and the knowledge of concerned practice, addressing real world problems and industries, businesses, and non-governmental contributing to their solution. As a practice- organizations (Nowotny, 2004). The sum of this oriented approach, transdisciplinarity is knowledge is greater than the knowledge of

ASHRAF M. SALAMA not conﬁned to a closed circle of scientiﬁc any single partner. In the process, the bias of experts, professional journals and academic each perspective is also minimized (Figure 2).

Ecology Economy Culture Technology

Environmental Economic Issues Social, Cultural Construction Issues and and Life Cycle and Behavioral and IT - Digital Sustainability Costing Issues Practices

Bodies of knowledge derived from different disciplines --needed for successful creation of built environments

Disciplinary Multidisciplinary Knowledge Knowledge

Interdisciplinary Disciplinary Knowledge Knowledge (Boundaries are crossed) (Boundaries are still visible)

Figure 2: Transdisciplinarity and its challenging to disciplinary boundaries and knowledge fragmentation. (Source: A. Salama).

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To date, the development of rigorous theory/ understanding that we possess two different but knowledge building has been at the edge of complementary ways of processing information. the profession and frequently marginalized A linear step-by-step process analyzes the parts as something separate from the profession of that make up a pattern, working on the left side architecture, that is: environment-behavior of the brain; and a spatial relational style seeks studies, building sciences, environment- and constructs patterns, working on the right technology studies, etc. As a result, most side of the brain (Williams, 1983, Salama, 1995; practitioners are not well equipped or even Salama, 2005, b; Salama, 2007 b).

ASHRAF M. SALAMA interested in understanding the value of their professional services. Concomitantly, the Both sides of the human brain perform cognitive standing of the profession is marginalized operations, but each is developed or trained for in the eyes of the public. I argue here that a different mode of thinking. On the one hand, without research, scholarship and a rigorous the left side is usually described as analytical, knowledge base, the profession cannot take linear, and sequential, moving from one step to stands on signiﬁcant health, economic, social, the next in a step-by-step manner. This way, it political or ethical issues. In essence, this produces knowledge through inferential logic. component calls for a more stable basis for For example, it deals with number, words, and knowledge in architecture and in the creation parts. On the other hand, the right side of the of built environments. Such a basis would be brain is usually described as synthetic and in the form of more balanced and integrated wholistic, constructing parts while recognizing types of knowledge. The accommodation of their underlying relationships. It does not transdisciplinarity toward knowledge integration function linearly, but simultaneously, dealing in architectural education is discussed later. with images, patterns and wholes. It produces knowledge through intuitive and imaginative The Cognitive Philosophical Component understanding (Figure 3). Integral to the cognitive philosophical component is the way in which we approach Linking the split brain theory to knowledge designing built environment based on our integration in architectural pedagogy, I argue capacity as humans, and based on the nature that architectural education is unique since it of knowledge about the realities we encounter. requires the full activation of the two sides. It Therefore, this component is structured in three encompasses courses that address bodies of sub-theories or body of concepts: the split knowledge that are rational, analytical and brain theory, Jungian psychological types abstract in nature while implementing them (epistemological balance), and the two widely into intuitive and imaginative design activities. held concepts about the nature of reality and they way in which knowledge about that reality Psychological Types and Epistemological is conveyed. Balance I refer in the context of this subcomponent to The Split Brain Theory Carl Gustav Jung whose work had a strong Mind research provides insights into the impact on analytical psychology (Jungian

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Psychology) and also (but with lesser impact) on processes and procedures adopted in studio understanding human thinking and behavior. pedagogy (Figure 3). Jung emphasized the importance of balance and harmony. He cautioned that modern Philosophical Positions humans rely too heavily on science and logic There are two basic philosophies that can be and would benefit from integrating spirituality conceived as the basis for understanding and an appreciation of the unconscious realm architecture and its education: positivism and (Jung, 1987). anti-positivism. Derived from these philosophies, two positions are conceived based on ASHRAF M. SALAMA The psychological types or the epistemological ontology and epistemology. As defined by balance that Jung called for matches the most dictionaries, ontology is the branch of concept underlying the split brain theory (Jung, metaphysics that deals with the nature of being 1976). Within such a balance, it is postulated that or reality, while epistemology is the branch people can feel, think, perceive, and imagine of philosophy that examines the nature of both as individuals and in groupings. However, knowledge, its foundation, extent, and validity. it is conceived that some human functions tend It examines the way in which knowledge to inhibit other functions. Thinking and feeling, about a phenomenon can be acquired and perception and intuition, and introversion and conveyed. extroversion block each other. Each function in this balance has its own particular area in which How these two positions are translated to it performs better than in others. According to a practical understanding in architectural Stamp (1994), feeling excels at well-being and education is a conceptual challenge. Positivism belonging, thinking excels at distinguishing relating to ontology adopts the premise that one’s physical surroundings, intuition excels objects of sense perception exist independent at generating options, introversion produces of the observer’s mind. This means that reality personal view points, and extroversion enables is believed to be objective and available people to share thoughts and ideas with for observation by every one. Relating to others. epistemology, positivism views knowledge as being independent of the observer and as Arguably, and for the purpose of classification, objectively verifiable. Mazumdar (1993) made if architecture as an educational and a perceptive understanding and argued that professional discipline is composed of art and positivists believe that the best way to learn science, then one could assert that the art about a phenomenon is by the discovery of component is addressed by human functions universal laws and principles. In positivism, a such as feeling, intuition, and introversion, building is seen by educators and students while the science component is addressed as an objective reality with components and by thinking, perception, and extroversion. This parts that every one can observe, perceive understanding would have strong implication and agree upon. Therefore, adopting the on the way in which architectural curricula and positivistic understanding results in an emphasis their contents are structured, and also on the on the common properties of buildings or

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Left Side Right Side

CAT Words Images 6 Numbers Patterns ASHRAF M. SALAMA

Parts Wholes

Sequentiality Simultaneity

Processing Processing Information Logical / Rational Intuitive / Imaginative Information

Knowledge Inferential Logic Intuitive Understanding Knowledge Production Production The Science Paradigm

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN The Science Paradigm in Profession & Education The Art Paradigm

Epistemological Balance

Thinking Feeling Perception Intuition Extroversion Introversion

TRANSDISCIPLINARY Architectural Design Knowledge

Figure 3: Linking the Split Brain Theory and Jungian Epistemological Balance to architectural pedagogy and learning. (Source: A. Salama).

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built environment leading to the suppression methods and tools by which knowledge is of multiple view points, thoughts and voices acquired. Integral to this component are three (Salama, 1999). mechanisms or kinds of studies indispensable to knowledge acquisition and assimilation for Reversibly, anti-positivism relating to ontology understanding the relationships between people involves the conception that universal laws and their environments, and for developing and principles do not exist of the observer’s responsive architecture and planning schemes. mind. This means that reality is believed to be Similar and complementary in nature as perceived by people as individuals and as ASHRAF M. SALAMA immersing knowledge acquisition strategies, the groups. In epistemological terms, anti-positivism mechanisms are ethnography, appreciative adopts the understanding that individuals and inquiry, and experiential and active learning. groups acquire different types of knowledge about the same phenomenon. This leads to Ethnography the conception that individual and group Ethnography refers to the genre of writing differences are regarded as valid and important that presents varying degrees of qualitative mechanisms. Concomitantly, adopting the and quantitative description of social and anti-positivistic view would result in an emphasis behavioral phenomena as they relate to the upon values, preferences, lifestyles of people — built environment. The work of Hemmensely who use, perceive, and comprehend the built and Atkinson (1995) and Johnson (2000) reveals environment — while leading to the presence that ethnographic methodologies vary from the of multiple understandings, perceptions, and use of structured observations, to coding and viewpoints. statistical analysis. In essence, Ethnographic studies are based on the premise that any The implications of these two philosophical phenomenon and it underlying properties positions are critical for a pedagogy that aims cannot be well understood independently of its at integrating different types of knowledge context exempliﬁed by other phenomena. as they relate to people. While it is inevitable that certain aspects of knowledge about In architectural design education, ethnographic architecture and designing built environments studies can be utilized in various forms, from are conveyed based on positivistic approaches, the macro level (macro-ethnography) to it is important to think of other aspects that the micro level (micro-ethnography). These accommodate anti-positivistic thinking. Those address broadly or narrowly deﬁned cultural have the capacity to instill in future architects groupings according to the scale of design or the values and convents that their work is planning projects. Relating to the philosophical basically produced for people to use, see, and positions discussed in the preceding section, perceive, and that therefore understanding ethnographic studies may involve -emic or -etic them is critical to successful designing. perspectives. The Emic perspective represents the way the member of a given culture The Inquiry-Epistemic Component perceives the environment around them, while The inquiry-epistemic component addresses the Etic perspective represents the way non-

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members (outsiders) perceive and interpret thinking;” it can be applied in either classroom behaviors and phenomena associated with a or studio settings. In classroom settings, students given culture. These perspectives are important can be involved in a process of identifying components that students need to understand, positive aspects in speciﬁc environments or and their resulting knowledge needs to be building types, and they can also perform various incorporated in their design assignments. research assignments and Post Occupancy Evaluation (POE) studies. These represent a Appreciative Inquiry radical shift in the way in which POE evaluation Over the past decade Appreciative Inquiry (AI) ASHRAF M. SALAMA studies typically aim at revealing problems. emerged as a practice for approaching change In studio settings, Appreciative Inquiry can be from a holistic framework (Hammond, 1998; introduced in various pre-design assignments. White, 1996; Cooperrider, 2000, 2001; Watkins That will involve participatory design activities and Mohr, 2000). Based on the belief that human ranging from identifying design and project systems are made and imagined by those imperatives involving users’ representatives, to who live and work within them, Appreciative precedent studies that aim at unveiling positive Inquiry leads systems to move toward the aspects found in environments similar to the one generative and creative images that reside in they are designing. their most positive core — their values, visions, achievements, and best practices (Watkins and Active and Experiential Learning Mohr, 2000). In theory, AI is a perspective, a set of Over the past decade several studies have principles and beliefs about how human systems emerged to challenge university faculty to function, a departure from the past metaphor develop teaching approaches that represent of human systems as machines. In practice, AI transformative pedagogies, simply moving away can be used to co-create the transformative from thinking of students as passive listeners processes and practices appropriate to the to active learners. However, this would seem culture of a particular organization. In essence, “easier said than done.” According to Bonwell a culture of an organization represents the (1999), in recent years the incorporation of practices involved and the environment that active learning strategies into the daily routine of accommodates them. Contrary to problem classroom instruction became a necessity. While solving where the primary focus is on what is there is a surge in the development knowledge wrong or broken, AI focuses attention on what on active learning (Judith S. Liebman, http:// works in an organization and on its physical education.forum.informs.org/active.htm), one environment (Hammond, 1998). The tangible would limit this discourse to the characteristics result of the inquiry process could be developed of and the need for active learning. in the form of a series of statements that describe where the organization wants to be, based on The major characteristic of active learning the high moments of where it has been. is that students are engaged in individual or group activities during the class session Adopting the Appreciative Inquiry paradigm in including reading, discussing, commenting, architectural design pedagogy is not “wishful and exploring. While these activities are carried

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out by the students, they are facilitated by the and Tate 1978). professor, and students can receive immediate feedback (Bonwell, 1996). Notably, in active Experiential learning is contrasted with learning learning students are involved in higher-order in which the learner only reads about, hears thinking that simultaneously involves analysis, about, talks about, writes about these realities synthesis, and evaluation of a wide spectrum but never comes in contact with them as of issues and phenomena. In the context of the part of the learning process. Mistakenly, university classroom, active learning involves some educators equate experiential learning only with “off campus” or “non-classroom” ASHRAF M. SALAMA students in doing things and thinking about what they are doing. learning. However, in architectural pedagogy a class in history or theory of architecture might The value of active learning becomes evident incorporate periods of student practice on when looking at the literature and research theory exercises and critical thinking problems ﬁndings that were developed over the past rather than consisting entirely of lectures about several decades. The amount of information theories of architecture and the work of famous retained by students typically declines architects (O’Reilly, 1999; Salama et al., 2002). substantially after ten minutes (Bonwell, 1996). Similarly, a class in ‘principles of architectural The results of research comparing lecturing design’ or in ‘human-environment interactions’ versus active discussion techniques indicate might involve critical analysis exercises on how that students favour discussion methods over people perceive and comprehend the built lecture and the one-way mode of knowledge. environment. Both classes might involve ﬁeld Dean (1996), Bonwell (1999), and Liebman visits to buildings and spaces where students (1996) all accentuate that students do not learn are in close contact with the environment, much by sitting in class, listening to faculty, exploring culture, diversity, people behaviour, memorizing pre-packaged and ready-made and be part of that environment. All of these interpretations; they all agree that students must mechanisms involve an experiential learning talk about what they are learning, write about component. it, and relate it to past experiences. Learning through experience involves not merely Several education theorists including Benjamin observing the phenomenon being studied but Bloom; David Kolb; Jean Piaget; John Dewey; also doing something with it, such as testing its and Paulo Freire voiced the opinion that dynamics to learn more about it, or applying a experience should be an integral component theory learned about it to achieve some desired of any teaching/learning process. Their work results. Evaluation as a valuable research can be traced back to the famous dictum of vehicle needs to be introduced both in lecture Confucius around 450 BC “Tell me and I will courses, establishing a knowledge base about forget. Show me and I may remember. Involve the built environment that has the capability of me and I will understand.” Experiential learning endowing students with more control over their refers to learning in which the learner is directly learning, knowledge acquisition, assimilation, in touch with the realities being studied (Keeton and utilization in future experiences (Salama,

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1999; Salama , 2007 c). imagination, and innate gifts and talents.

Active and experiential learning as concepts and instructional strategies appear to be Conclusion: two sides of the same coin. While they differ Strategic Accommodation of the Theory in terminology, they share similar aims and In this paper, I argued for the introduction of qualities. They both aim at increasing students’ a new theory for knowledge integration in motivation, placing emphasis on the exploration architectural design education. A contextual of attitudes and values. In both of them, less ASHRAF M. SALAMA analysis of the reasons for developing a new emphasis is placed on knowledge transmission theory was introduced and reasons were but greater emphasis is placed on developing categorized in terms of admission policies and students’ critical thinking abilities. the skills emphasis syndrome, idiosyncrasies on knowledge delivery and acquisition, and It is evident that three components are the alarming figures on studio teaching practices core of a theory for knowledge integration based on survey results. Based on the belief that in architectural design education (Figure 3). any theory is conceived, developed and perhaps They represent the theory apparatus and implemented in a specific context, I outlined have the capacity to integrate fragmented the milieu of the theory. A number of contextual pieces of knowledge required for the “whole- elements were exemplified by the negative Architect.” While the disciplinary component impacts of the current culture of architectural aims at knowledge integration by crossing the education on students, practitioners and the boundaries of different disciplines involved in way in which architects are seen by those they the successful creation of built environments, the serve. Other contextual elements included the cognitive-philosophical component endeavors shift from mechanistic to systemic pedagogy, to integrate knowledge types amenable to and knowledge content transformations. These human cognitive function and the overall human contextual elements fostered the identification capacity in thinking about or creating built of a number of questions that need urgent environments. However, through ontological answers. Discussing these elements was and epistemological thinking it attempts to centered on how architectural education address the nature of knowledge and the needs to respond. way in which knowledge about it is conveyed, acquired, and assimilated. The inquiry epistemic While certain aspects of any theory remain component targets the issue of knowledge conceptual, most components of the theory integration by introducing knowledge and apparatus can be implemented in various forms acquisition and assimilation strategies that and at different levels through sound practices. involve ethnography, appreciative inquiry, and Here, I address some scenarios on the way in active and experiential learning. It is believed which such components can be implemented that these components go beyond the in architectural design education. conventional practices that look at the creation of the built environment only in terms of intuition, The disciplinary component can be

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accommodated at different levels that range the preceding two scenarios need to address from the knowledge delivery level, to studio level, the cognitive-philosophical component: the to degree level (Figure 4). At the knowledge integration of the logical/rational and the delivery level, the typical approach is to offer intuitive/imaginative capacities of students. As students different bodies of knowledge in well, they should strike the balance required lectures while it is assumed that they will be able between different psychological types or to implement them in studios. In this context, cognitive functions introduced by Jung. In there is a clear separation between knowledge this regard, a studio process can be looked

ASHRAF M. SALAMA acquisition and knowledge application. at in terms of two major phases: analytical Adopting the Transdisciplinary approach may understanding and creative decision making. offer a panacea to this typical practice. This Each of these phases is constituted in a number occurs by reconciling lectures and studios of sub phases and procedures that range through the introduction of a “new setting” — from exploration and definition of key issues, to an alternative to classroom and studio settings precedent studies, information gathering and where bodies of knowledge are delivered by analysis, to the development of concepts and different teaching staff, while at the same time schematics (Salama, 2007 b). students apply what is delivered to them in specific design assignments facilitated by the At the degree level, crossing the boundaries same staff. Here, the content of knowledge is between different disciplines can be derived from different areas (history-theory, accommodated in a transdisciplinary master urban issues, climatic controls, socio-economic degree in designing built environments. This aspects, structures and building technology, would target graduate students and teaching etc.), and is tailored to address the design tasks staff from different disciplinary backgrounds. students are performing. Such a setting would Sustainable planning, design, and development enable the integration of different types of could be the major driver of a degree of this knowledge into specific design activities. type. Still, the challenge would be to create transdiscplinary knowledge content that can At the studio level, the Transdisciplinary be taught and implemented. approach can be partially accommodated by introducing graduation thesis projects through The inquiry-epistemic component can be Transdisciplinary design studios, where students strategically accommodated in a studio of different disciplines (planning/urban design, setting when integrating three different types of landscape architecture, architecture, industrial/ knowledge that Rapoport called for: knowledge product design, engineering, etc) work in team about setting objectives, knowledge about projects. In this context, the challenge would be better environments, and knowledge about to identify projects and processes that can be achieving socio-behavioral goals in design. controlled to meet such a specific pedagogic For these knowledge types to be integrated it orientation. is essential to employ the three mechanisms of inquiry, i.e, ethnography, appreciative inquiry, It should be noted that studio processes in and experiential and active learning. It is

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Design Studios Knowledge delivered in Classrooms

ASHRAF M. SALAMA Fragmentation Separation between knowledge acquistion and knowledge application knowledge delivered in classroom settings are isolated from the context in which it is applied in studio settings

Accommodating transdisciplinarity at the Accommodating transdisciplinarity at the knowledge delivery level studio or degree levels

Economic Issues / Planning Life Cycle Costing Construction / IT - Engineering Digital Practices Disciplines

Environmental AlternativeAlternative Urban Design Issues / LearningLearning Historical / TDSTDS Architecture Sustainability SettingSetting Theoretical Issues

Social, Cultural / Landscape Behavioral Issues Architecture

Reconciliation Integration Bodies of knowledge are delivered in parallel Students from different disciplines work in team to application into speciﬁc design assignments/ real life projects either in graduation theses or a projects Master degree using the TDS-transdisciplinary design studio concept (sustainable planning, desing, and development can be utilized as a major driver for knowledge integration)

Figure 4: Strategic accommodation of transdisciplinarity at the knowledge delivery, studio, and degree levels. (Source: A. Salama).

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important to relate these types of knowledge involving students in proposing human activities and the mechanisms of inquiry to the studio level, and are appropriate for certain types of spaces the scale of the project, and the issues involved. and buildings, how is the act of design itself This is envisaged when a studio process involves that is characterized by manipulating forms three major components “what” and “who, how, in response to well articulated and deﬁned and why”. What and who are characterized by spatial needs, and why represents students’ ASHRAF M. SALAMA

What and Who Proposing human activities that are appropriate for certain type of spaces

Setting Objectives

p gra hy no th A E p p r e Integrated c

g i

Knowledge in t

n v

a the Studio

I e

i i

E e

x Better p Achieving Environments Design Goals Why How Epistemological Balance Manipulating forms in response to well Exploration of why certain types of space articulated needs and form are appropriate for certain user population Thinking Feeling Perception Intuition Extroversion Introversion

Figure 5: Strategic accommodation of the inquiry-epistemic component in a studio setting. Linking the Split Brain Theory and Jungian Epistemological Balance into different types of knowledge and the studio processes involved. (Source: A. Salama).

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involvement in exploring why a certain type Crowding, Brooks/Cole, California, USA. of space and form is appropriate for a certain Beamish, A. (2002). Strategies for International type of user population. Again, the act of design Design Studios: Using Information Technology for in this process should address the cognitive- Collaborative Learning and Design, In A. M. Salama, philosophical component; by integrating the W. Oreilly, and K. Noschis (eds.), Architectural logical/rational and the intuitive/imaginative Education Today: Cross Cultural Perspectives, capacities of students, while at the same time Comportments, Lausanne, Switzerland. pp. 133-142. striking the required balance between different Becher, T. (1989). Academic Tribes and Territories:

ASHRAF M. SALAMA psychological types or cognitive functions. Intellectual Inquiry and the Culture of Disciplines, the Society of Research in Higher Education, Milton By adopting the proposed theory for knowledge Keynes, United Kingdom. integration in architectural design education, I believe that several desired aspects can be Bechtel, R. (1997). Environment and Behavior: An Introduction, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, part of the future of architecture education. California, USA. Opportunities for reconciling lectures and studios are available, while literature on different bodies Bonwell, C. (1996). Building a Supportive Climate for of knowledge is incorporated through both Active Learning, The National Teaching and Learning simulated and real life experiences into design Forum, Vol 6 (1), pp.4-7. teaching practices. Students will be in a better Bonwell, C. (1999). Active Learning: Creating position to understand and appreciate the Excitement in the Classroom, Active Learning value of knowledge types derived from other Workshop, Great Mountain fall, Colorado, USA. disciplines that are dramatically different from http://www.active-learning-site.com accessed: architecture, but are critical to the creation of March 2007. meaningful environments. The abilities to think Boyer, E. & Mitgang, L. (1996). Building Community- A globally and act locally, and to search and New Future for Architectural Education and Practice. think critically, will be major components of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of formation of future architects. Future architects Teaching, New Jersey, USA. will have the capacity not just to consume Cooperrider, D. (2000). Al, Appreciative Inquiry: knowledge but to produce it. Rethinking Human Organization, Toward a Positive Theory of Change, Stipes Publishing, Champaign, Illinois, USA. . References Cooperrider, D. et. al. (eds.) (2001). Lessons from the Ackoff, R., L. (1974). Redesigning the Future: A Field: Applying Appreciative Inquiry, The Thin Book Systems Approach to Societal Problems, John Wiley, Publishing, Bend, Oregon, USA. New York, USA. Cuff, D. (1991). Architecture: The Story of Practice, Alexander, C. (1966). Systems Generating Systems, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, USA. Systemat (1), San Francisco, California, USA. Dean, E. (1996). Teaching the Proof Process: A Model Altman, I. (1975). The Environment and Social for Discovery Learning, College Teaching, Vol. 44 (2), Behavior: Privacy, Personal Space, Territory, and pp.139-144.

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Duggan, T. & Mitchell, C., (eds.) (1997). Inquiry, The Thin Book Publishing, Bend, Oregon, USA. Environmental Engineering Education, Habraken,J. (2003). Questions that will not Go Computational Mechanics Publications, South- Away: Some Remarks on Long Term Trends in Hampton, United Kingdom, pp. ii-v. Architecture and their Impact on Architectural Dunin-Woyseth, H. and Nielsen, M. (2004). Discussing Education, Keynote Speech: Proceedings of the Transdisciplinarity: Making Professions and the New Annual Conference of the European Association of Mode of Knowledge Production, the Nordic Reader, Architectural Education-EAAE, Hania, Crete, Greece. Oslo School of Architecture, Oslo, Norway. pp. 32-42.

ASHRAF M. SALAMA Dunin-Woyseth, H. (2002). Making Based Knowledge: Hammersley, M. & Atkinson, P. (1995). Ethnography: Between Identity and Change In A. M. Salama, W. Principles in practice, Second Ed, Routledge, Oreilly, and K. Noschis (eds.), Architectural Education London, United Kingdom. Today: Cross Cultural Perspectives, Comportments, Johnson, A.G. (2000). The Blackwell Dictionary of Lausanne, Switzerland. pp. 17-23. Sociology, Second ed. Blackwell, Oxford, United, ECE (1996). Economic Commission for Europe, Kingdom. Guidelines on Sustainable Human Settlements Jung, C. G. (1976). Psychological Types, Bollingen, Planning and Management, United Nations Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Publications, New York and Geneva, Switzerland. Jung, C. G. (1987). Dictionary of Analytical Fisher, T. (2004). Architects Behaving Badly: Ignoring Psychology, Ark Paperbacks, London, United Environmental Behavior Research, Harvard Design Kingdom. Magazine. 21, http://www.gsd.harvard.edu/ research/publications/hdm/current/21_ﬁsher.html Klein, J. T. (1999). Notes toward a Social Epistemology accessed September 2005 of Trans-disciplinarity. Paris, France: International Center of Research on Trans-disciplinarity http:// Goldschmidt, G. et al (2000). Who Should Be a nicol.club.fr/ciret/bulletin/b12/b12c2.htm accessed Designer? Controlling Admission into Schools of in May 2003, an earlier version found online (1998). Architecture, Unpublished Research, University of Delft, Delft, Netherlands. Keeton, M. and Tate, P. (eds.) (1978). Learning by Experience, Jossey Bass Publishers, San Francisco, Gerlenter, M. (1988). Reconciling Lectures and California, USA. Studios, Journal of Architectural Education, Vol. 41 (2), pp. 46-52. Koch, A., Schwennsen, K., Dutton, T. & Smith, D. (2002). The Redesign of Studio Culture, Studio Culture Groat, L. (1982). Meaning in Post Modern Task Force, The American Institute of Architecture Architecture: An Examination Using the Multiple Students-AIAS, Washington, DC, USA. Sorting Task, Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol. (82) 2, pp. 3-22. Lawrence, R. and Depres, C. (2004). Futures of Transdisciplinarity, Futures, Vol. 36 (4), pp. 397-405. Groat, L. (2000). The Architect as Artist or Scientist? A modest proposal for the Architect-as-Cultivator, Liebman, J. (1997). Promote Active Learning During In K. D. Moore (ed.) Culture-Meaning-Architecture: Lectures, Lionheart Publishing Inc, Atlants, GA, USA. Critical Reﬂections on the work of Amos Rapoport, Maher, M. Simoff, S., & Cicognani, A. (2000). The pp. 127-150. Ashgrate, London, United Kingdom. Potential and Current Limitations in a Virtual Design Hammond, S. (1998). The Thin Book of Appreciative Studio, Key Center of Design Computing, the

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University of Sidney, Sidney, Australia. Knowledge and Cultural Diversity, Comportments, Lausanne, Switzerland. Mazumdar, S. (1993). Cultural Values in Architectural Education, Journal of Architectural Education. Vol. Prak, N. (1977). The Visual Perception of the Built 46 (4), pp. 230-237. Environment, Delft University Press, Delft, The Netherlands. Mokhtar, A. (1999). Architectural Engineering Education: An Avenue for an Efﬁcient and Proshansky, H. (1974). Environmental Psychology and Sustainable Environment, Proceedings of the Second the Design Profession. In J. T. Lang, C. Burnette, W. International Conference on Sustainability in Desert Moleski & D. Vachon (eds.), Designing for Human

ASHRAF M. SALAMA Regions, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, UAE. Behavior: Architecture and Behavioral Sciences, pp. 318-326. Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, USA. pp. 72-80. Moore, G. (1979). Environment-Behavior Studies, In J. Snyder and A. Catanese (eds.), Introduction to Ramadier, T (2004). Transdisciplinarity and its Architecture, McGraw Hill, New York, USA. Challenges: The Case of Urban Studies, Futures, Vol. 36 (4), pp. 423-439. Morrow, R. (2000). Architectural Assumptions and Environmental Discrimination: The Case for More Rapoport, A. (1969). House Form and Culture, Inclusive Design in Schools of Architecture, In D. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA. Nicol and S. Pilling (eds.), Changing Architectural Education: Towards a New Professionalism, Spon Rapoport, A. (1994). The Need for What Knowledge, Press, London, United Kingdom. pp. 43-48. Plenary Speech: Proceedings of the 25th Annual International Conference of the Environmental Morrow, R., Parnell, R. & Torrington, J. (2004). Reality Design Research Association-EDRA, St. Antonio, versus Creativity, CEBE-Transactions: Journal of the Texas, USA. pp. 35-39. Centre for Education in the Built Environment, Vol. 1 (2), pp. 91-99. References for Active Learning, (Prepared by Judith S. Liebman last updated January, 1997) Morrow, R. (2007). Creative Transformations: The http://education.forum.informs.org/active.htm), Extent and Potential of a Pedagogical Event, In accessed December 2006. A. Salama and W. Wilkinson (eds.), Design Studio Pedagogy: Horizons for the Future, The Urban Romice, O. & Uzzell, D. (2005). Community International Press, Gateshead, United Kingdom, pp. Design Studio: a Collaboration of Architects and 269-284. Psychologists, CEBE-Transactions: Journal of the Centre for Education in the Built Environment, Vol. 2 Nasar, J., ed. (1988). Environmental Aesthetics: (2), pp. 73-88. Theory, Research and Applications, Cambridge University Press. New York, USA. pp. 3-6. Salama, A. (1995). New Trends in Architectural Education: Designing the Design Studio, Tailored Text Nowotny, H. (2004). The Potential of and Unlimited Potential Publishing, Raleigh, North Transdisciplinarity, In H. Dunin-Woyseth, H. and Carolina, USA. M. Nielsen, Discussing Transdisciplinarity: Making Professions and the New Mode of Knowledge Salama, A. (1996). Environmental Evaluation: A New Production, the Nordic Reader, Oslo School of Voice for Integrating Research into Architectural Architecture, Oslo, Norway. pp. 10-19. Pedagogy, Journal of Architectural Research, November, Al Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt. pp. 7-23. O’Reilly, William (ed.) (1999). Architectural

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Salama, A. (1998). A New Paradigm in Architectural into the Impact of International Paradigmatic Trends Pedagogy, In J. Teklenburg et al. (eds.) Shifting on Arab Architectural Education, GBER-Global Built Balances: Changing Roles in Policy, Research, Environment Review, Vol. 6 (1), pp. 31-43. and Design, EIRSS Publishers, Eindhoven, The Salama, A. (2007 b) A Rigorous Process and a Netherlands. pp. 128-139. Structured Content Meet in Studio Pedagogy, In Salama, A. (1999) Incorporating Knowledge about A. Salama and W. Wilkinson (eds.), Design Studio Cultural Diversity into Architectural Pedagogy. In W. Pedagogy: Horizons for the Future, The Urban O’Reilly (ed.), Architectural Knowledge and Cultural International Press, Gateshead, United Kingdom, pp. Diversity, Comportments, Lausanne, Switzerland. pp. 153-165. ASHRAF M. SALAMA 135-144. Salama, A. (2007 c). Contemporary Qatari Salama, A., O’Reilly, W. & Noschis, K.(eds.) (2002). Architecture as an Open Textbook, Archnet-IJAR: Architectural Education Today: Cross Cultural International Journal of Architectural Research, Perspectives. Comportments, Lausanne, Switzerland. Vol. 1 (3), pp. 101-114 http://archnet.org/library/ documents/one-document.jsp?document_id=10270 Salama, A. (2002). Environmental Knowledge and Paradigm Shifts: Sustainability and Architectural Salama, A. and Wilkinson, N. (eds.) (2007). Design Pedagogy in Africa and the Middle East. In Studio Pedagogy: Horizons for the Future, The Urban A. Salama, W. O’Reilly & K. Noschis l. (eds.), International Press, Gateshead, United Kingdom. Architectural Education Today: Cross Cultural Sanoff, H. (1991). Visual Research Methods in Design, Perspectives. Comportments, Lausanne, Switzerland. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, USA. pp. 51-63 Sanoff, H. (1992). Integrating Programming, Salama, A. and Adams W. G. (2004). Programming Evaluation, and Participation in Design, Avebury, for Sustainable Building Design: Addressing London, United Kingdom. Sustainability in a Project Delivery Process, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 6, Special Issue on IAPS Sanoff, H. (2003). Three Decades of Design and 18th. Conference. ISSN 1454 8062, PP. 81-90 Community, College of Design, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA. Salama, A. (2005 a). Skill-Based/Knowledge-Based Architectural Pedagogies: Toward an Alternative for Sara, R. (2000). Introducing Clients and Users to the Creating Humane Environments, Keynote Speech: Studio Project: A Case Study of a Live Project, In D. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference of Nicol and S. Pilling (eds.), Changing Architectural the International Association for Humane Habitat- Education: Towards a New Professionalism, Spon IAHH, Mumbai, India. Press, London, United Kingdom. pp. 77-83. Salama, A. (2005 b). A Process Oriented Design Schon, D. (1973). Beyond the Stable, W.W. Norton & Pedagogy: KFUPM Sophomore Studio, CEBE- Company, New York, USA. Transactions: Journal of the Center for Education in the Built Environment, Vol. 2 (2), pp. 61-31. Schon, D. (1988). Toward a Marriage of Artistry and Applied Science in the Architectural Design Studio, Salama, A. (2006). Committed Educators are Journal of Architectural Education, Vol. 41 (4), pp.16- Reshaping Studio Pedagogy, Open House 24. International, Vol. 31 (4), pp. 4-9. Schon, D., Sanyal B., and Mitchell, W. (eds.) (1998). Salama, A. (2007 a). An Exploratory Investigation High Technology and Low Income Community:

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Prospects for the Positive Use of Advanced ------Information Technology, MIT Press Cambridge, MASS, Ashraf M. Salama USA. pp. ii-iii. Ashraf Salama holds B.Sc., M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Seidel, A. (1981). Teaching Environment and Architecture. He is Professor of Architecture currently Behavior: Have We Reached the Design Studio? teaching at Qatar University, was Associate Professor at Journal of Architectural Education, Vol. 33 (3). pp. KFUPM (2004-06), and was the Director of Consulting at 8-14. Adams Group Architects in Charlotte, North Carolina, USA (2001-04). He is licensed architect in Egypt received Seidel, A. (1994). Knowledge Needs the Request his training at Al Azhar University in Egypt and North

ASHRAF M. SALAMA of Architects, Proceedings of the 25th Annual Carolina State University, Raleigh, USA. Salama chaired International Conference of the Environmental the Department of Architecture, Misr International Design Research Association-EDRA, St. Antonio, University in Cairo (1996-01). He has published numerous Texas, USA. pp. 18-24. papers and authored and co-edited ﬁve books on Architectural Education: Designing the Design Seidel, A., Eley, J., and Symes, M. (1995). Architects Studio (USA), Human Factors in Environmental Design and their Practices: A Changing Profession, (Egypt), Architectural Education Today: Cross Cultural Architectural Press – Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Perspectives (Switzerland), Architecture as Language Netherlands. of Peace (Italy), and recently, Design Studio Pedagogy: Sommer, R. (1969). Personal Space: The Behavioral Horizons for the Future (United Kingdom). He is member Basis of Design, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New of the scientiﬁc boards of several intl. journals including Jersey, USA. Open House International, Time Based Architecture International, and the Chief Editor of “Archnet-IJAR.” Stamp, A. E. (1994). Jungian Epistemological He can be reached by email at [email protected] Balance: A Framework for Conceptualizing or [email protected]. Architectural Education, Journal of Architectural Education, Vol. 48 (2), pp.105-112. Watkins, J.M. & Mohr, B. J. (2001). Appreciative Inquiry: Change at the Speed of Imagination, Jossey Bass Publishers, San Francisco, California, USA. White, T.H. (1996). Working in Interesting Times: Employee Morale and Business Success in the Information Age, Vital Speeches of the Day, May 15, 1996, Vol XLII, No. 15. Williams, L. (1983). Teaching for the Two Sided Mind, Simon and Schuster, New York, New York, USA. Yee, S., Mitchell, W. & Yamaguchi, S. (1998). A Case Study of the Design Studio of the Future, Proceedings of the First International Workshop of Co-Build’98: Integrating Information, Organization, and Architecture, Springer Publishers, Berlin, Germany. pp. 80-93.

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INTELLIGENCE-BASED DESIGN: A SUSTAINABLE FOUNDATION FOR

WORLDWIDE ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION

Nikos A. Salingaros & Kenneth G. Masden II

Abstract Architectural theory as currently taught in modern human existence, human perception, and the universities throughout the world no longer provides human values and beliefs that have for millennia a plausible basis for the discipline and practice of served to establish culture and identity. A new model architecture. Students studying within this model are of learning is developed here for students wanting left to their own inventions if they hope to gain an to make real architecture, and for educators and architectural degree. Forced to formulate a body of practitioners that seek the same. The following work constrained by the paradigm of contemporary proposal is predicated on the knowledge of human design, students learn to copy fashionable images interaction with the physical world and the necessity without understanding their geometry; or simply invent of corporeal engagement with the built environment. forms that look as if they possess a contemporary sense Furthermore, our model re-institutes values in the of architecture. By their very nature, such forms are practice and education of architects, values that irrelevant to human needs and sensibilities. Contrary once sprang forth naturally from local cultures and to what students are led to believe, this practice does traditions throughout the world, but which have in not provide a broader base for creativity, but instead recent decades been usurped by the inﬂuence of effectively restricts choices to a very narrow design global capital. vocabulary. Most architectural institutions continue to propagate a curricular model that has sustained Keywords their particular ideals and ideologies for decades. Architectural education; architectural practice; While many innovative didactic materials and ideas architectural theory; biophilia, biophilic design; for revising the architectural curriculum are available design studio; human quality; new teaching model; today, they are often overlooked or ignored. If pedagogy; sustainable architecture. implemented, these new ideas could drastically improve the educational model, allowing students the world over to participate in a learning experience speciﬁc to their immediate and local context. By re-situating the education of an architect in more practical and contextual terms, we emphasize components of building design that relate directly to

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Index PART 3. PRIMARILY FOR ADMINISTRATORS: OBJECTIVE LACK OF RELEVANCE FOR THE Outline of This Paper WORLD WE BUILD RESULTING FROM VESTED PART 1. PRIMARILY FOR STUDENTS: OUR INTERESTS. PROPOSALS, AND HOW THEY CONTRAST WITH - The Looming Threat of Irrelevance PRESENT CONTENT. - Program Accreditation - Introduction - Politics, Philosophy, Critical Theory, and Human - Student Questions Perception - Deﬁciencies of Present-day Studio and Curriculum - Intellectual (dis)Honesty - Intelligence-Based Design - Biophilia Conclusion - List of Goals and Objectives Appendix I: - Recommended Texts Detailed Curriculum for Intelligence-Based Design - The New Curricular Model System of Architectural Education. (A) BIOPHILIC DESIGN STUDIO. (B) PATTERN LANGUAGE STUDIO. Appendix II: (C) SUSTAINABILITY. A New Mathematics Curriculum for Students of (D) ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY MADE Architecture RELEVANT TODAY. (E) NEW MATHEMATICS REQUIREMENTS. Acknowledgements (F) THE MERITS OF REVIVALIST ARCHITECTURE. References (G) WESTERN CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE.

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II (H) TEACHING ADAPTIVE MODERNISM. (I) LIVING STRUCTURE. Outline (J) ARCHITECTURAL SPACE. This paper proposes a radical new direction (K) USEFUL TYPOLOGICAL ELEMENTS. for architectural education. We introduce two (L) MATERIALITY AND TECTONICS. new theoretical concepts that arise out of (M) MODEL MAKING: SCALE AND COLOR. recent scientiﬁc developments: Intelligence- (N) INTENSIVE STUDY OF A FEW CANONICAL Based Design, and Biophilia. Intelligence- TEXTS. (O) TRAVEL AND SEMESTER ABROAD. based design re-establishes architecture as - Learning Creativity and Inspiration a knowledge-based discipline, by rebuilding - Architectural Education and Human Intelligence its knowledge base. Intelligence-based design combines design thinking and techniques that PART 2. PRIMARILY FOR TEACHERS: ATTITUDES use human intelligence to create adaptive THAT GAVE RISE TO THE PRESENT SYSTEM. environments. The key here is adaptation - Curriculum Re-Alignment through human cognition to external - Educating and De-Programming the Teachers information that neurologically engages our - The Information Generation human sense of wellbeing, as opposed to - Heuristic Models - Worldwide Architectural Education the twentieth-century industrial aesthetic so - Stop Teaching Ecophobia: the Hatred of Culture prevalent today. The industrial aesthetic is an and Nature abstraction of artiﬁcial geometries foreign to - Architecture and Science the human need for adaptivity. We argue

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that adaptive design thinking is itself intimately are labeled “objective lack of relevance for the connected with human intelligence, whereas world we build resulting from vested interests”. current design approaches ultimately subvert A wholesale revision of architectural education our intelligence through the imposition of requires the cooperation and participation of ideology and the commodification of image- all three parties. based design. We are promoting a new architectural Biophilia is the notion that human beings require curriculum based on a new concept: intimate exposure to the structure of biological Intelligence-Based Design. The model is forms, as essential for human health, both offered to students throughout the world. Our physiological and psychological. Biophilia is arguments in Part 3 are directed at convincing grounded in human evolutionary development administrators in the West: academic leaders occurring in a natural environment, and who are dissatisfied with low employment rates disproves the notion that “modern” human for their recent graduates; and practitioners beings can ignore their own genetic make-up who are disappointed by the inadequate and detach themselves from natural settings preparation of recent architecture school without consequences. Biophilia helps to graduates (leading to a hesitation to employ explain why human beings gain improved them in an architectural office). Our revised mental and physical health by being close to program provides a direct means to design nature. The greatest of traditional architectures adaptive environments, in response to growing were achieved by instinctively following the needs of the marketplace (client demand). NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II operating mechanisms of both intelligence- Our suggested educational system is totally based design and biophilia, even though those unlike the current image-based method. We terms were not then known. have assembled here a complete curriculum, textbooks, and course description, plus fairly This paper is divided into three parts, an detailed suggestions for implementation. organization meant to facilitate readers who are STUDENTS, TEACHERS, and ADMINISTRATORS, and who will doubtlessly have different interests PART 1. PRIMARILY FOR STUDENTS: OUR and come from a different perspective. The PROPOSALS, AND HOW THEY CONTRAST beginning sections for students are labeled “our WITH PRESENT CONTENT. proposals, and how they contrast with present content”; whereas the sections for teachers are Introduction labeled “attitudes that gave rise to the present system”. The third category lumps together Architectural education is currently mediated all decision-makers: it includes university through open-ended speculation. Intellectualizing administrators, both of the architecture towards unlimited creativity, without an program and the university as a whole, as well experimental basis either to support or to negate as directors of architecture firms who hire young the process or the results, leaves the door open to graduates. The later sections for administrators endless theoretical conjecture and idiosyncratic

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propositions. This non-falsiﬁable approach does not real engagement with the world. For example, appear to provide any measurable contribution natural materials work through construction to the quality of human existence. Architecture and patterns of assembly to establish our sense operates as a genuine human endeavor only of wellbeing in the places we live. Why, then, through the process of human intelligence. should students learn to copy an international Through intelligence-based design students can form of architecture that has been shown learn to practice an effective architecture, one to be indifferent, even adversarial, towards that reconnects humans in a tangible way to the human beings and non-Western cultures? world in which we live. Academic institutions should begin to support a local and immediate view of design. They If we are to establish a new direction in should provide students with the necessary and architecture it will be necessary to turn effective tools to access architectural design in architectural education on its head, working terms of its direct human qualities. Professors of from the concrete (objective) toward the architecture should be encouraged to once abstract (subjective). This reform would reverse again present the built world from within their the existing trend, wherein students are taught immediate context. unconditional abstraction (subjectivity) and work toward an ineffectual concreteness As the architects of tomorrow, today’s students (objectivity). Our diagnosis reveals not only the must come to understand the role and weaknesses of the current system, but equally, responsibility of their profession as something its philosophical and political bias. intrinsically tied to human existence and the NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II lived experience. We are aware that decades Those who have taken on this issue before us of promotion and advertising have created a (Bothwell et. al., 2004; Boyer & Mitgang, 1996; market and client demand for glossy magazine Salama, 1995; Salama & Wilkinson, 2007) offer style architecture — through promises of useful suggestions and criticisms through their quality lifestyle — that embraces globalization writings, and we hope that our critique might while rejecting local traditions. In spite of this, provide the impetus to overcome the resistance intelligence-based design is an expression of of the status quo. We are sponsoring a new form and geometry that enables human beings model of education; a model situated within to live a more meaningful, healthy, and full life the immediate context of the individual’s place (Salingaros & Masden, 2006; 2007). in the world. Intelligence-based design directly stems from principles of human engagement with the built environment, principles that Student Questions precede all ideological models. When students enter an architecture program, Students seeking to become architects they normally bring with them expectations of must ﬁrst be made aware of the negative what they hope to learn. These are some of effects of current architectural education, the questions that dwell in the minds of many juxtaposing this awareness with the values of incoming students:

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1. What is architecture? Does architecture play own culture? Why are the only architectural an inherent role in human engagement with examples I see today limited to what is the world or is architecture simply defined as featured in the glossy magazines for and by whatever today’s star architects do? professional western architects? 2. What is the accumulated knowledge 8. What methods, materials and systems are base, i.e. books, articles, oral tradition, and required to construct a building adapted built examples that defines the discipline of to human needs and sensibilities? Is the architecture? Which individual teacher or industrial material palette — preferred by course of instruction is more likely to teach most famous contemporary architects me what is most relevant to becoming an — mandated by modern design, and does its architect? prevalence suggest that it is somehow best for architecture? Are there any moral or historical 3. Which parts of this body of knowledge do reasons for this preference? Should what is best I need to master to prepare myself to be a for architects not also reflect what is best for good architect? What indeed are the qualities human beings? of a good architect? 9. What is the long-term role and responsibility 4. What are the characteristics of a good of an architect, as seen in terms of a building’s space? How is it created? How far can effects on its immediate and global an architect go in exploring design and environment, its inhabitants, and their social innovation, without losing the positive

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II organization? properties of good space? 10. If I can learn to draw well, does that mean 5. Who are the real architectural champions that I also design well? Is there an essential and leaders of today and the recent past? relationship between drawing and design, or Whom should I seek to emulate as representing has computer-aided design entirely replaced the highest ideals in our discipline? Who has drawing by hand? brought signiﬁcance to architecture among all other human endeavors, and thus serves as What is disconcerting is that these questions, true inspiration to students? for the most part, go unanswered and remain with many architecture students beyond 6. How do I choose from among differing points their university experience. What is worse of view? Are there any established criteria for is that, when answers are given, they are judging what is good or bad architecture? often given in a less than honest manner, Why is it that many buildings that are praised as principally to promote certain styles, ideologies, being great architecture don’t instantly appeal or individuals. This misleads students into to me? Is contemporary architecture meant to adopting a set of false principles and values. be an acquired taste or an exclusive pretense? Current pedagogical models seldom concern 7. Can I learn from the architecture of the past themselves with educational imperatives that and the architecture I have experienced in my speak to the nature of the above questions.

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Given these circumstances, we believe that a serious misunderstanding and a lack of real drastic measures are needed for reforming scientific data. It is illogical to expect students to architectural education (Salingaros & Masden, design before they possess any understanding 2006; 2007). Extensive questioning of students, of the built environment, human perception, faculty, and the review of curricula throughout and social patterns. Creative thinking in and architectural academia reveal the manifold of itself does not lead to good architecture. issues that exist in today’s educational system. Only after students have a firm grasp of the We present our assessment of what those cause and effect of material structures can issues are, in terms of curriculum and teaching they begin to effectively test and apply their methodologies. By offering suggestions and knowledge in hands-on design. In the study plausible solutions, we hope to catalyze of other professional and/or scientific-based a movement toward reforming the present disciplines — medicine, law, engineering, institutionalized architectural curriculum across mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology the broader spectrum of a multi-cultural world. — an operating knowledge of that discipline’s processes, principles, and procedures is taught Deficiencies of Present-day Studio and first before any theoretical enquiry takes place. Serious learning begins when students Curriculum have acquired a solid understanding of the Since the early twentieth century, the design evidence-based knowledge for their discipline. studio as re-defined by the Bauhaus has The corpus of real knowledge attained through

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II become the Western standard for imparting their respective educational systems serves to architectural design knowledge in an academic sustain theoretical investigation, not to limit it. setting. Given its role and the importance of its Students entering any of the above-mentioned task, however, the current model is deemed by programs typically bring with them a very many practitioners and academics as extremely limited understanding of the discipline they are deﬁcient (Bothwell et. al., 2004; Salama, 1995; pursuing. For architecture students, this limitation Salama & Wilkinson, 2007). In today’s design presents itself as an inadequate understanding studio students seldom learn how to design and of the built environment. For most of them, even construct real, adaptive architecture. More their personal experience with architecture is often than not they operate at a distance from limited to some general awareness. With some any substantive criteria — simply competing notable exceptions where students are more for recognition through the manufacture and involved in construction technologies and manipulation of eye-catching forms. The studio practices, few have ever picked up a brick component of the architectural curriculum and even fewer have ever built anything. Yet, does not address practical issues (such as students are confronted with an educational clients’ concerns and needs, costs, safety, system that seeks to dismantle (instead of regulations, etc.). strengthening and reinforcing) any pre-existing Contemporary educational imperatives for thoughts or beliefs that they might have about unencumbered creativity are based upon architecture.

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Divorced from history, and from any evidence- attempt to reconcile what their material based knowledge or practical applications, classes are teaching them with what they are beginning students are typically given a series designing. The gulf between what is real and of unnatural design exercises. Presented for what is imagined is so great by now that few the ostensive purpose of extending three- ever attempt to bridge the distance. dimensional spatial thinking, these exercises are predicated on abstract notions of form It is only when they graduate and step out and space but exclude any real understanding into the real world that architecture students of material logic or patterned assembly. Such begin to emerge from their fantasy-based exercises are supposed to support creative educational conditioning. For many this proves thinking; nevertheless, the underlying thought to be difficult if not impossible, and what follows process is more often than not structured for them is a career of frustration and misgivings. through architectural ideologies. If students ask Architectural offices are full of such persons. what any of this has to do with architecture, Recent graduates find that after their formal they are told that the process of education is training, they are unable to draw upon their meant to break any paradigms of practical artificial habits of abstract creative thinking measure they might already have, allowing to solve problems of everyday design. Their them to explore freely the supposed “boundless education has effectively removed, negated, intellectualized expression of contemporary and confused knowledge about the physical academic architecture…” world: knowledge that is essential to establish a foundation for architecture authentic to its NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II Free to imagine anything at will, with no purpose. If they wish to succeed as everyday obligation to address the responsive dimensions architects, they have to learn the practical of design, students are thus drawn toward measure of architecture — how materials work endless speculation. Without any evidence- together, traditional/regional construction based criterion to guide their explorations, techniques, budget constraints, legal and many give in to the temptation and henceforth safety regulations, clients’ expectations — from work to conceive the most unnatural structures scratch after graduation. Firms hiring young imaginable. After students have been graduates expecting them to know something mesmerized by this new abstract world, they about real office concerns are continually begin their studies in materials, methods, and disappointed. structures. At this point, students who have not successfully adapted to the forced abstract Undoubtedly, creative endeavor represents a design method have typically withdrawn from basic conveyance of human culture. But design the school. Those who remain have managed that operates artificially or abstractly provides to develop a skill-set of artificial creative little more than the appearance of culture. expressions, and have begun to internalize their Design can offer a substantive product that intellectual pretext. Seduced by this abstract operates through human awareness to sponsor a process, and no longer concerned about real greater sense of wellbeing and a more positive architecture, the remaining students seldom engagement with the world. In the course of

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the twentieth century much of the traditional biological intelligence has evolved to adapt our knowledge that served to structure this truer bodies and actions to the natural environment, expression of architecture was either forgotten enabling our survival through appropriate or else categorically abolished. New scientific responses. This deep notion of INTELLIGENCE AS knowledge, which could provide a sustainable ADAPTIVITY extends to adaptive design (and foundation of human interaction with the includes the rapidly-growing movement of natural world, has either been excluded from sustainable design). Design in nature is driven architectural texts, or misappropriated in the by adaptation, but not all human design is service of contemporary architects seeking to adaptive. We argue further that architects propagate their personal ideologies. Training and urbanists throughout history sought and students to look beyond what is right in front achieved adaptivity through their intuition. of them is both a disservice to them and to the Traditional architectural training was aimed world of architecture. primarily at developing this intuition. It is only recently that we have been able to use Intelligence-Based Design scientific knowledge to explain processes that were until now somewhat mysterious, and thus We set forth here the principles, processes, vulnerable to subversion. and systems that work through Intelligence- Based Design to make architecture once Given the recent development of this more a tangible, meaningful, and significant knowledge there exist few teaching models human endeavor. The term Intelligence-Based that could be used as examples, and texts NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II Design refers to a model established by the are only now beginning to be written about authors through extensive research into the Intelligence-Based Design. This paper is the phenomenon of external information processing first attempt by anyone to prescribe clearly and retrieval, presented in part in two recent the sequence and substance of coursework publications (Salingaros & Masden, 2006; 2007). for teaching this new learning experience. It is Intelligence-Based Design, by nature of its expected that faculty and academic programs principles of real knowledge, embraces modern throughout the world — those that choose to scientific thinking. It explains why emotionally- implement this new curricular model — will nourishing art has that effect. It combines participate in the further development of new mathematical and neurological aspects intelligence-based design exercises and new with the practical measure of architecture, methods of intelligence-based education. The material logic, observable structure, the human guidelines presented in this paper are intended dimensions of perception and thought, and an to underpin and structure a developing underlying respect for the great architectures of corpus of architectural knowledge that is our multicultural world. authentic to human life, sponsoring sustained research toward continued advancements in Intelligence-Based Design refers to the Intelligence-Based Design. operating processes of design that engage human intelligence mechanisms. In particular,

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Biophilia natural structures, but not in any superficial manner. The design method involves a variety Biophilia is defined as the emotional and sensory of natural processes such as: using natural attraction that people have toward things in materials and surfaces, allowing natural light, the natural world: habitats, activities, and living and incorporating plants inside a building. objects in their immediate surroundings (Wilson, (Honest use of natural materials as structural 2008). It is now believed that human preferences components is best; veneers are only better toward things or conditions in nature, while than having nothing natural at all). It also refined through experience and culture, are means more fully incorporating a building within the hard-wired product of biological evolution a natural environment instead of purposefully and thus inextricably human. Biophilia presents erasing nature beforehand, as too often the real science behind a phenomenon that is seen in the reigning authority of the tabula critical to the natural human sense of wellbeing. rasa. Research has uncovered undisputed Biophilia explains, for the first time in a scientific clinical advantages (pain relief, faster hospital manner, how the mathematical structure of the healing) of natural environments, and artificial environment influences us as human beings environments mimicking geometrical qualities on the most basic biological level. Since the of natural environments. Our neurological relevant information is mathematical, many of mechanism reacts positively to the information our innate responses to our environment can field generated by the specific geometry of now be more effectively described and more natural forms, detail, hierarchical subdivisions, readily understood. color, etc. The mechanism relies on a NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II Appreciating biophilia requires us to recognize connection established via external information: our basic sense of wellbeing. The combined visual, aural, tactile, olfactory, etc. We engage physiological and psychological state of our emotionally with the built environment when own body can either be sick/anxious/oppressed we encounter architectural forms and surfaces, or healthy/comfortable/elevated. A person’s relating to details, surfaces, and architectural wellbeing is negative or positive according spaces. Engagement induces a physiological to multiple factors. One of those factors is reaction in the state of our body. Thus, we feedback from our environment (others include experience our built surroundings no differently internal health, influence from external events, than we experience natural environments, etc.). The important point of biophilia is that other living creatures, our pets, or other human our internal state of health is positively affected beings. by the external natural environment, and not only by the absence of invading pathogens. List of Goals and Objectives The inner world is connected to the external world more than our modern society is willing to As a summary of our goals and objectives, we admit, although this relationship is a basic focus recommend that students be taught to: of traditional philosophies. 1. Design to improve the quality of human Biophilic design merges artificial structures with life, as judged from physiological and

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psychological effects. Learn to experience 9. Understand and respect the built and architecture ﬁrst-hand with their own senses, natural environments in terms of their intrinsic and not from pictures. complexity, observed in the full range of

2. See architecture as a necessary expression small-scale to large-scale patterns. Mistrust of the human dimension, which is at once any supposed simpliﬁcation or abstraction of physical, perceptual, and emotional. natural complexity. Architecture is an externalization of human 10. Engage and harness all means of biology, not an imposition of technology or production and technologies, both ideology on living beings. traditional and contemporary, whenever 3. Separate their preconceptions and their appropriate. Don’t be fooled into accepting egos from the process of design, and use their any preference based upon ideology or bodies honestly as feedback monitors. commercial interests. 4. Sponsor a sustainable condition for humanity Students will inevitably come across a vast body through design within the realities of explosive of literature, textbooks, images, and teaching global population growth. Learn that most habits based upon the machine aesthetic, which buildings today and in the past were self- dominated architectural education throughout built and naturally adaptive, not contrived or the twentieth century up to the present day. This abstracted through an esoteric design process. material, often cloaked under the misnomer 5. Recognize that universal scaling is in our of “cultural discourse”, is for the most part

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II biological makeup, and work to re-establish irrelevant to intelligence-based design. Since the entire gamut of human scales in structures it will take several decades before entrenched within the built environment. attitudes and an obsolete curriculum can be re-aligned, the dominant culture will continue 6. Use design to provide a positive sensory to permeate architecture schools. Students connection for human beings to their must be taught how to recognize its presence, environment in their everyday lives. This is and be prepared to deal with an overwhelming an inalienable right that should never be abundance of information and inﬂuence. They subverted by the agency of architectural should be prepared to face this “culture of fashion. images” without being diverted from the goal of 7. Build enduring buildings and cities that learning adaptive architecture. It is the student’s contribute to the continuity and coherence of ultimate responsibility to become conscious place, seeking connections instead of ruptures of, to question, and to reject ideological and or fractures with humanity. image-based thinking. 8. Learn from past successes and failures, documenting them for historical review and for Recommended Texts use in current methodologies. Learn ﬁrst from To help facilitate the adoption of the their immediate culture, and then learn how to intelligence-based educational model, the embrace other cultures. required coursework re-directs and carefully

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re-defines existing curricular components — and The Viseu Declaration is one such that most closely relate to these goals and document. It gives us a set of principles. What objectives. An overarching pedagogical are our principles today? framework serves to establish the appropriate and immediately available, texts for the new A truer understanding of the actual phenomena curriculum. What follows is a brief explanation of that constitute architecture can best be gained each recommended text, along with the order through a more intimate knowledge of the in which the different texts should be studied, physical building blocks of the natural world. and an explanation of their function in the No other architectural theorist has been able to development of an intelligence-based model express the true nature of physical order with the of design thinking. depth of perception of Christopher Alexander. Alexander’s early writings were politicized for First Year. As a starting point, we highly having developed a genuine design process recommend printing the short article entitled predicated on the recognition, understanding, “If I Were a Young Architect” by architect and application of human patterns in the and urbanist Stefanos Polyzoides (2007) and absence of formal design. Alexander’s recent distributing copies to every incoming student work The Nature of Order (consisting of four on the first day of every class given in the books) (Alexander, 2001-2005) transcends architecture school. Polyzoides summarizes the political constructs of contemporary the malaise of current architectural education, architecture to reveal the first truly substantive and offers practical advice for breaking manner of conceiving architecture. In the NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II through the circular reasoning that acts as a intelligence-based design curriculum, First mental roadblock. Although this text has been Year studies begin by utilizing Book One of available for several years, it has immediate this series, entitled The Phenomenon of Life relevance through Intelligence-Based Design, (Alexander, 2001), as a principal text. Book One as does the work of other architects and of The Nature of Order teaches the geometry theorists whose life’s work has sought to defend of life, and instills an awareness of its power to the human dimension of architecture against affect our wellbeing. From this text, students will the aesthetization of form and existence. develop a greater appreciation for the role of architecture as a mediator between human At the same time, we recommend printing The beings and the world, as well as a greater Viseu Declaration on Architectural Education in understanding of intelligence-based design the 21st Century (CEU, 2004) and posting it in a as an innate expression derived through the prominent place in the architecture school. This human necessity for engagement with the real/ document should set the tone for what is taught natural world. there, why it is taught, and how it is taught. As discussed in the last sections of this paper, The second principal text comes from new academic architecture desperately needs a scientific knowledge in human biology, set of documents that establish its moral and where a multi-disciplinary effort is beginning philosophical foundations in an honest manner to establish the natural processes underlying

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human existence. The only text that currently With a thorough understanding of these three addresss the application of biophilic principles texts, students will be well equipped to begin to in architecture is Biophilic Design: The Theory, deal with basic design issues, from visual structure Science and Practice of Bringing Buildings to to physical engagement. Architecture is a highly Life (Kellert, Heerwagen & Mador, 2008). This text complex system of overlapping geometries and constitutes one of the greatest leaps forward in phenomena that extend human consciousness re-situating architectural design outside the outside our bodies in response to the needs and dominant architectural lexicon of elite Western desires of life. Architecture is thus predicated on institutions. A broad range of cross-disciplinary the multiplicity of human patterns: how humans authors, from scientists to architectural theorists collect, how they live, how they prepare their and practitioners, convey here the operating meals, and what they seek in terms of comfort structures of human engagement and the from the world. Christopher Alexander set necessity for establishing these extended about documenting and deﬁning human relationships. Biophilia should be introduced patterns of inhabitance. In his ground-breaking to students immediately following Book One book A Pattern Language (Alexander et. al., of The Nature of Order. It is important that 1977) Alexander presents the geometries that students learn the processes found in biophilic work to delineate the space that humans engagement, so that their designs might occupy in their everyday events and over their begin to work to achieve the healthy affects lifetime. From the patterns set forth in this, our attributed to such human interactions. fourth text, students will begin to understand

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II how architecture operates as an extension Second Year. Architecture is by its very nature of human spatio-temporal negotiations with an object of practical measure; as such IT MUST the outside world. Coupled with A Theory of NOT BE LEFT TO THE OPEN-ENDED PURSUIT OF Architecture (Salingaros, 2006) (which explains PURE ARTISTIC EXPRESSION under the guise of their combinatoric language) human patterns a false intellectual premise. Architecture should are revealed as fundamental. Having that be sound in its materials, sound in its structure, knowledge prevents patterns from being and sound in its assembly and construction. dismissed as nostalgic and romantic by those Beyond this, it should operate as the foundation who do not fully understand their importance. for human adaptation to the physical world. The book A Theory of Architecture by one of Third Year. When considering human patterns the authors (Salingaros, 2006) provides design as a template for architectural design, it is principles for a more human architecture. apparent that such patterns extend beyond Each chapter speaks to the various dimensions the limits of any single structure. Historically, of architecture as a human interface with architecture has been contextually urban the earth. Presented as the third text in our due to the nature of human patterns. The curriculum, A Theory of Architecture establishes human instinct to collect in groups sponsored the fundamental necessity of patterns, giving the evolution of urban forms that traditionally explicit directions for design students to begin to worked in a direct dialogue between humans, engage intelligence-based design in their work. architecture, and the built environment. As

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modern human beings distanced themselves architecture itself, and with how it links to the from the effects of nature, isolating and insulating larger urban scale, Krier helps to connect design themselves through the misappropriation of to tradition without looking backwards. While his technology, the meaning and purpose of urban perspective may be somewhat Eurocentric, his structure was lost. Given an overabundance of lessons apply throughout world architecture, books on contemporary urban design, some because they instill a profound respect for might argue that nothing went missing as far tradition and the human scale. This sixth text as having instructional manuals. However, most should be introduced when students begin to of these texts operate within the paradigm of address the broader issues of architecture’s role aesthetic form and ignore or misunderstand the within the urban context. genuine principles of urban structure, which are intelligence-based. The preceding six texts represent the core knowledge required to restructure architectural In the book Principles of Urban Structure curricula within the objectives of Intelligence- (Salingaros, 2005) one of the authors addresses Based Design. If administered through design the urban dimension of the built environment, studios and theory courses, students will take with calling on science, not fiction or fancy, to them a body of knowledge that is not subject structure a cohesive theory of urban design for to change with every new fashion and every students of architecture worldwide. As our fifth contemporary design whim. These texts provide text, it clearly demonstrates that if architecture is a more substantive foundation for architectural to sustain humanity, it must be negotiated within design than has ever been available in the NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II the operational complexity of urban systems. world. Academic entities that incorporate The opposite, which is to teach architecture as a this body of knowledge in their teaching will stand-alone edifice or urbanism as an aesthetic see firsthand the cognitive response of their exercise, only reinforces the contemporary students, now driven toward the true creativity pursuit of autonomous and insular forms. While of architectural design. It is expected that the there are occasions when architecture might process of learning Intelligence-Based Design seek to stand alone, it is still a product of human will awaken in students a desire to know even necessity and must carefully address how it fits more: more about the world around them and into a larger coherent whole. more about their own existence. It will also eliminate the constant doubt that comes from The great Classical architect Léon Krier has long subjective design and the immature search for championed a contemporary architecture pretense. and urbanism based upon an appreciation of the best typologies from the past. His book Fourth Year. For students who seek an even Architecture, Choice or Fate (Krier, 1998) is an greater understanding of the effects the built essential text for the new curriculum. Krier is environment has on people, we would offer yet credited (along with Christopher Alexander) another dimension to the study of architecture. with providing credence for the New Urbanist Book Four of The Nature of Order, entitled movement. Offering a prophetic look at The Luminous Ground, by Alexander (2004)

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addresses the inexplicable dimension of the an adaptive architecture is established, built environment that transcends practical instructors will know better what to choose application. In this book, Alexander speaks to reinforce learning adaptive design. What to the animating effect of articulated forms we have focused on so far are general texts: and materials. He opens the door again to an these must be complemented with attention architecture that serves to connect humans not to local conditions. We do not wish to see only with the world around them, but equally to a continuation of today’s uniformization. what lies beyond this world. It is at this juncture Indeed, every different location will need to that architecture is free once more to serve find instructional material that is relevant to its the higher aspirations of humankind. Rather regional and specific cultural needs. But let us than glorifying the individual ego or cognitive not confuse this necessary human adaptivity awareness alone, architecture can put us in with what is know as “Critical Regionalism”, touch with the deeper ground which human which sought to aestheticize the regionally- beings share with each other. Students will specific nature of place. discover or rediscover just how crucial adaptive architecture is for understanding our place Summary of Recommended Texts. We have in the universe. We choose this text so as to presented seven books — The Phenomenon solidify a young architect’s grasp of the higher of Life (Alexander, 2001); The Luminous meaning of architecture. While Books 2 and 3 of Ground (Alexander, 2004); A Pattern The Nature of Order (Alexander, 2002; 2005) are Language (Alexander et. al., 1977); Biophilic Design (Kellert, Heerwagen & Mador, 2008);

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II not presented until senior and graduate level studies, we recommend Book 4 as an essential Architecture, Choice or Fate (Krier, 1998); undergraduate text because of its fundamental Principles of Urban Structure (Salingaros, 2005); A engagement with the transcendental dimension Theory of Architecture (Salingaros, 2006) — four of design — we believe that phenomenon to journal articles — “If I Were a Young Architect” be a function of neurological predispositions. (Polyzoides, 2007); “Architecture: Biological Form and Artiﬁcial Intelligence” (Salingaros Completing the recommended texts for the & Masden, 2006); “Restructuring 21st-Century fourth year of the new curriculum will be Architecture Through Human Intelligence” a collection of individual research articles, (Salingaros & Masden, 2007), “Harmony-Seeking until they are available in book form. These Computations” (Alexander, 2008) — and one include the article entitled “Harmony-Seeking document — The Viseu Declaration (CEU, 2004) Computations” by Alexander (2008), the two — as essential instructional material for a new deﬁning articles of Intelligence-Based Design architectural curriculum. This list is certainly not (Salingaros & Masden, 2006; 2007), and the meant to be exhaustive, and will be expanded present article. Other material, as mentioned further, below. later in this paper, serves to further bolster the curriculum. We will also recommend We do offer a caution, however. These texts a reading list of supplementary texts. Once should be read in exclusion of what is now the proper direction for education towards misleadingly called “architectural theory”. The

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current practice of architectural textbooks to a mutually-reinforcing curriculum. The whole is present, for the sake of appearing pluralist, much greater than the sum of its parts. multiple texts by self-proclaimed “theorists” whose ideas most often run contrary to each The New Curricular Model other, leaves students confused about what information is relevant to design (see the later We have noted the inclusion and placement of section entitled Intellectual (dis)Honesty). We the theoretical texts within the course work. It is believe, furthermore, that reading those texts important that the students’ knowledge base re-wires cortical neuronal circuits in a way that be structured according to how this information diminishes reasoning ability (Salingaros, 2007). is processed and layered into the next of a series Relying upon contemporary architectural of larger ideas. What follows is an overview readings dilutes our efforts towards establishing of the new curricular model. The framework a body of knowledge from which students is necessarily tentative, intended to offer can draw genuine inspiration. Continuing to guidelines for the introduction of Intelligence- regurgitate discredited material will prevent Based Design. Educators from around the students from acquiring a set of values and world will begin to draw associations from beliefs that empowers them to operate in their their immediate context, sponsoring a greater immediate world and to sustain their inherited awareness of architecture as an intrinsically culture. human endeavor. We give in Appendix I a script for a four-year curriculum structured to

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II Another point to answer in advance is the provide the knowledge, skills, and abilities for inevitable reaction claiming that the books by practicing architecture in the 21st century. It Alexander et. al. (1977) and Krier (1998) have rests on a system of values predicated on local been around, but are not used in courses vernaculars. Within the new curricular model because they are not relevant to what is we seek several individual innovations and/or happening in architecture. Firstly, the new redirections: concerns with sustainability and vernacular regionalism make our curriculum vitally (A) BIOPHILIC DESIGN STUDIO. important for client needs in contemporary At the earliest possible stage, a one-year society. Secondly, these two books were course on biophilic design and environmental indeed isolated from architectural fashion, psychology should be instituted. This is a studio/ but that occurred before the enormous lecture course. Students need knowledge commercial success of New Urbanism coupled skills about biophilia to design responsive with the revival of traditional typologies, and a environments. Textbooks in this area of theory are re-awakening to the value of regional adaptive very limited: in the initial stages, the coursework techniques. Thirdly, these two texts could not by will consist of a compendium of research articles themselves undo the deeply-ingrained practice on biophilic design, including the book edited of teaching non-adaptive architecture. Taken by Kellert et. al. (2008), and individual articles together, however, the other recommended by Yannick Joye (2006; 2007a; 2007b) and by texts not only ﬁll in previous gaps, but also deﬁne the authors (Salingaros & Masden, 2006; 2007).

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The studio part will resemble an experimental (Salingaros, 2005). The studio will follow the laboratory more than the traditional studio, existing process of design, design review, with because its purpose will be to build models a final critique of plans, sections, elevations, (with some details at full scale) used to measure and models at the completion of each project. physiological and psychological responses. It is Modifications from the customary studio consist anticipated that the architecture school should of the addition of full-scale renderings of details, establish cross-disciplinary investigations with colors, textures, surfaces, and spaces. Whenever other departments such as the psychology possible, at least one portion of each project department and the medical school. should be constructed at full scale showing all Collaboration will enable students to borrow levels of detail, in order to be able to ascertain physiological sensors such as skin conductivity the psychological feedback. gauges and blood pressure monitors to measure the level of stress in an observer. Cross- Human activities follow certain patterns, and disciplinary investigations will also facilitate those patterns generate the forms of traditional discussions about the influence of the physical architectural and urban elements. Patterns environment on human wellbeing. Students will lie at the basis of the complexity of traditional measure their own reactions to their models to architecture and urbanism. WHEREAS SOME determine whether those reactions are negative DESIGNS ARE SPECIFIC TO CULTURE AND or positive. The aim of this course is to bring LOCATION, MANY ARE INDEED UNIVERSAL. For a greater awareness of human engagement this reason, documenting evolved patterns found in the traditional built environment is

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II with the physical and perceptual world while working to establish evidence-based criteria. a primary step towards achieving adaptive The course’s immediate goal is to classify which design. Patterns improve the quality of human volumes and surfaces give either a negative life, and are not simply someone’s individual (oppressive, hostile, overly-exciting) or positive preference. They are unrelated to formal (elating, peaceful, nourishing) physiological architecture (which has shown little interest in response. this information), and are closely tied to biophilic design. Patterns constrain design, but do not (B) PATTERN LANGUAGE STUDIO. dictate form. A building that satisfies human We introduce a one-year course based on patterns is more flexible and adaptable to other socio-geometric human patterns. This studio will uses later. If students are concerned that using establish several projects of increasing scale, patterns might restrict design creativity, this to be done using a pattern-based method of suggests that they may not yet fully understand design: for example, a children’s playground; a the process of combining them, creatively and residence for a small family; a restaurant; and accurately, according to a set of combinatorial an airport. The recommended text is Alexander rules. et. al. (1977), which reflects the best if not the only example of this method. Practicalities (C) SUSTAINABILITY. for implementing the pattern-based method In the current design paradigm where of design are given in the co-author’s book architecture arises out of an artificially-

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generated worldview, notions of sustainability in achieving sustainability, adaptive solutions have to be imported from outside the have already been developed in vernacular discipline. There exists a basic incompatibility architecture. None of that is “trendy”, because between formal abstract geometry and our fashionable architects prefer to implement high- recent understanding of the earth as made tech and high-cost solutions to sustainability (or of interdependent biological and physical to aestheticize and commodify regional forms systems. A great deal of effort is now being to carry their own signature design). We are made to join two incompatible approaches, going to study vernacular architecture for use inventing technological ﬁxes for non-adaptive today, as an affordable solution to the world’s architecture in order to make it less damaging building and housing crisis (Asquith & Vellinga, to the natural environment. Our curricular model 2006). More contemporary methods can help bypasses this conceptual mismatch altogether, local traditional construction systems to evolve, and offers principles that fundamentally align without replacing them. A culture of sustainable architecture and sustainability. Intelligence- building can form only if patterns loved by their based design arises out of ARCHITECTURE AS users can be built easily with relatively low-skilled AN EXTENSION OF BIOLOGY. This is the main labor. Lest we forget, THIS IS HOW TRADITIONS idea of biophilia (Kellert et. al., 2008) — the ARE FORMED. built environment is much healthier for human beings when it is compatible with biological (D) ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY MADE RELEVANT structures in a fundamental sense. From the TODAY. A new, hands-on approach to architectural

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II very beginning, buildings and cities are to be understood and studied as essential parts of history will replace the usual screening of living systems. If a split between design and slides of various famous buildings in courses natural processes is never created — as was on architectural history, where purely visual artificially done during the twentieth century — information is passively presented. This now well- then the new standards of architecture will be established method was a byproduct of Walter inherently sustainable. For this reason, we hardly Gropius’s influence on architectural education, ever mention “sustainability” — the newly- when the history of architecture was relegated appropriated buzzword of western architects — to art history. But the history of architecture is the in our discussion, since it is intrinsically contained history of the knowledge that actual buildings in the revised foundations of the discipline itself. embody and contain. We have developed The notion of sustainability has always resided in a new studio/lecture model that examines in living systems for over two millennia, prior to the great detail a representative number of the industrial revolution and the alienating influence world’s greatest buildings. Only one or two of technology as an idol. examples of each period or style need be utilized, and they should be carefully chosen for Regional construction assemblies, using load- their high intelligence quotient of biophilic and bearing walls and local materials, are typically adaptive qualities. (For example, the Kimbell the most sustainable buildings possible. While Art Museum by Louis Kahn might be a good we look to science and technology to help candidate for western Modernism). Ultimately,

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the list of buildings to be studied depends on room for endless interpretation of what these the cultural knowledge, values, and beliefs of buildings represent). Buildings featured in the the instructor and the local school. “historical” course seldom carry this fabricated dimension of meaning, and are thus presented Regional vernacular architecture, and not the simply as images of general culture and art faceless industrial style, is the product of basic history not meant to serve as sources for future human ingenuity. Students will be required design ideas (the opposite of our conclusion!). to draw representative regional buildings in The faceless and sterile international modernist plan, section, and elevation, and build an style, which today’s students are expected to appropriate scale model. The aim is to learn assimilate thoroughly, tends to have very low how the buildings’ construction was achieved, biophilic and adaptive qualities. Modernist forms enough to be able to reproduce them. Since consequently have very little educational value adaptive design arises from culture, students in the Intelligence-Based Design curriculum. need to understand both HOW and WHY each Below, we mention those early modernist form building was built. Just as in design studios, languages we turn to for worthwhile examples students must present in a jury format plans, we can use in today’s designs. sections, elevations and models of the buildings they have chosen to study. At the end of the (E) NEW MATHEMATICS REQUIREMENTS. year, the students should have an intimate The new curriculum requires more scientiﬁc and knowledge of these great buildings and their mathematical background than architecture inherent patterns. This knowledge can provide students are accustomed to getting. The notion NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II a reservoir of forms and geometries essential for that architecture is essentially an art, inaccessible future inspiration. to the uninitiated, has banished courses in engineering and science. Even though the In addition, the Intelligence-Based Design majority of architecture students are no longer curriculum mandates, through principles required to take physics and biology courses, and objectives, that the current practice of they usually have a general mathematics teaching separate courses on strictly modernist requirement. Mathematical training can better buildings and architects be abandoned. These serve the needs of architects if it contains courses served only to privilege the modernist certain topics that are not currently covered. style by lumping all other architectural traditions We have listed those topics in Appendix II. The and well-developed form languages together department of architecture should negotiate into a separate course, which is customarily with the department of mathematics to create treated with less importance than buildings in a new service course, or series of courses, the modernist style. Whether explicit or not, aimed speciﬁcally at architecture majors. the message is that the modernist buildings Already, innovative architects are turning to are the most useful models for current design. precisely those topics we wish to include in the (This conviction we believe is due in part new curriculum, such as fractals, information to the imposition of ideological meaning theory, and complexity, in their explorations of in modernist architecture, giving historians form. At this time, however, interested students

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have to learn them on their own, which can be CONDITIONS. Surprisingly, this realization in itself a very difﬁcult and laborious process for non- is a revolution in thinking about architecture, mathematicians. and is a necessary component of the new intelligence-based history of architecture There is another, and rather serious concern. course. Ever since the Bauhaus, apologists Unfortunately, the “architecture as art” have condemned non-modernist buildings as movement removes most if not all of the supposedly “not of their time”. Looking around mathematical understanding of form that the world, we see the absurdity of this assertion. generations of older architects relied upon. It Examples to be discussed include the Palace of denies analytical tools for understanding the Westminster and the Houses of Parliament, built world. It also condemns creative architects in London in Gothic style in the 19th century, as to the same insecurity that abstract visual well as twentieth-century railroad stations such artists suffer from. We are convinced that as the Milan Terminus and the demolished New architects and students, unequipped as they York Pennsylvania Station, both modeled upon are to understand the geometrical structure the Roman Baths of Caracalla. The inadequate of forms, eventually develop a basic insecurity term “revivalist style” describes a vast range of about their profession. Intuition alone can only successful applications of older form languages go so far, and it can certainly lead to dead in a modern setting (built considerably later than ends and frustration. If architects are unable the language’s original period of introduction). to comprehend and interpret the geometry Classical architecture around the world is in fact of what they are constantly creating, how can

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II revivalist — it was not built in Greece during the they maintain a stable worldview? Our ability to Classical era! understand the world around us contributes to our mental health and psychological wellbeing. (G) WESTERN CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE. Such a cognitive detachment is very unhealthy, One of the most successful form languages in if not dangerous, in the design of architecture, Western civilization, with an enormous number which is (or should be) a practice grounded of subsequent adaptations to local conditions, in both materiality and the science of human is the Greco-Roman architecture that we have perception. This insecurity is also at the root of come to call classical. It has unfortunately been the variety of problems we address later in this viciously attacked by architectural academics paper, since all of them arise from the lack of a ever since the 1920s, despite the vast number secure connection to reality. of successful classical buildings built throughout several millennia. So many successful buildings (F) THE MERITS OF REVIVALIST ARCHITECTURE. have been built throughout several millennia of Many of the world’s most beloved and human existence by applying the strict classical successful buildings have been built in what form language. Separately, older buildings have come to be called revivalist styles. built throughout the world in a hybrid classical- Our students will be taught that ANY FORM vernacular idiom adapted to the local culture, LANGUAGE CAN BE USED ANYWHERE, AND AT lifestyle, climatic conditions, materials, etc. are ANY TIME, AS LONG AS IT ADAPTS TO LOCAL now seen as inﬁnitely more relevant to society

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than the modernist intrusions of the past several faceless industrial minimalism. The richer form decades. Such buildings are hardly ever studied languages did not survive precisely because today for their successful adaptive qualities. The they were adaptive, whereas the modernist classical form language is to be prominently ideology wished to eliminate adaptivity so that featured in our courses, not as an exclusive the same de-contextualized building could be vocabulary for design, but as a form language built all over the world. The early, more creative containing a very high informational quotient, modernist expressions were marginalized, and which is crucial to, and evident in a timeless consigned to the historical niche of organic architecture. The seminal books by the great architecture. There is also a great deal of classical architect Léon Krier (1984; 1998) will useful knowledge to learn from local adaptive be used. An intensive classical design course form languages based on modernism, which will also be taught at the upper level, drawing broke with dogma to develop many regional on the educational structure already followed adaptations. Through the appropriation of by such schools as the University of Notre Dame. these other modernist examples perhaps we We will teach an adaptive Classicism that can ﬁnally implement — after one century — employs the latest materials and technology to the unrealized promise of early modernism (not create buildings appropriate for today’s society the Bauhaus). A subversive symptom (see the and construction methods. Contrary to what later section entitled Intellectual (dis)Honesty) is Western architectural media and architectural to see architectural historians showing Bauhaus academics might lead students to believe, buildings but mislabeling them as Art Deco. The

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II there is a tremendous client demand today for former have none of the exuberance and life classically-trained architects. And unless you are of the latter! a starchitect, there seem to be fewer and fewer commissions available for the self-indulgence of (I) LIVING STRUCTURE. costly contemporary designs. Our goal is to give students the tools to imagine “how can I generate a space in which I feel (H) TEACHING ADAPTIVE MODERNISM. most alive?” — the deﬁnition of wellbeing Stripped from its dangerous ideology, — and to be able to generate living structure modernism is simply a celebration of industrial that nourishes human beings. Virtual models materials and technology. Individual modernist have their uses, but the danger is that they form languages do indeed give us useful tools cannot show living structure. The architectural for design today. As such, the best, and more experience is real and emotion-based, and its adaptive examples are to be found in the essential qualities — as opposed to its formal works of Otto Wagner, Erich Mendelssohn and ones — are almost impossible to judge on a the other expressionist architects, Art Deco, computer screen. In advanced studios students and the relatively short-lived Art Nouveau. will delve more deeply into the living geometry These were transient movements; yet contain of matter. Both the Pattern Language and a wealth of useful design precedents. Their Biophilic Design studios are established as pre- richly-developed form languages were requisites. Students will learn techniques for displaced by the commercially successful but generating living form, and will apply them to

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one extensive project. Having mastered the ignored, now determine the entire building. This technique of documenting “how do I respond process will then be extrapolated to include the emotionally to this design?” they will move vertical spatial dimension of human beings. on to its more challenging corollary: “what space and texture will produce this particular (J) ARCHITECTURAL SPACE. emotional response?” Different techniques will Architectural space is arguably the key apply to the same project, in order to develop concept in all of architecture, yet it is woefully different aspects of it. Final critique will be via misunderstood. It is certainly not taught in any the usual pin-ups of drawings and presentation satisfactory manner today, probably because of models, but the criteria for judgment will it is still not fully understood how to produce it be those according to how closely the result successfully, or by what criterion it would be follows pattern logics like Alexander’s theories considered successful. We (the authors) are (whether a particular design satisfies certain involved in researching how to form architectural positive qualities). After learning experimental space that is experienced with positive techniques of objective judgment in the emotions, judged by the criteria appropriate to Biophilic Design studio, teachers and students Intelligence-Based Design. Architectural space can apply them to the final analysis of the — the space we make when we build buildings projects. — is formed as a material volume containing human beings and their perceptive fields. Advanced and graduate courses will use the The inhabited, perceived volume itself should other two volumes of Alexander’s The Nature determine the material structures, and not the NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II of Order (Books 2 & 3) (Alexander, 2002; 2005). other way around. Unfortunately, we have to do From Alexander comes the notion of laying battle with the decades-old misrepresentation out the building’s plan in an organic manner. A of treating architecture as a strictly two- revolutionary teaching studio will take students dimensional design problem, teaching at best out to an existing lot or open field and have two dimensions plus one. Since the beginning them stake out a building, just as squatters build of the twentieth century teachers have either a house in a favela or any informal settlement. emphasized the building’s external elevation, The building’s exact location, orientation, size, ignoring both the interior volumes and the and shape are determined by the brief but exterior urban space, or have concentrated on equally by everything existing on the site and in the plan, relying upon the absurd dogma that the surroundings. The students will use materials the plan is the generator of the entire design. (sticks, cloth, panels, boards, string) as props to The volume is then simply the vertical extension mark out the building as much as possible. The of the plan — a method that denies design empirical design process using markers is 100% in the vertical dimensions altogether! Neither adaptive! Then, and only then, will the students approach teaches a student how to generate draw a ground plan. This drawing serves not intelligent and connective space. We will teach as the conception for the building, but as the our students to create genuine architectural humble record of a building already designed space, by experiencing it on the real scale. on the ground. Real-world details, normally

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(K) USEFUL TYPOLOGICAL ELEMENTS. something almost metaphysical. We believe The usual elements of a building — windows, that the animating force permitting both doors, exposed beams, ceilings, walls, stairs, forms and materials to transcend their physical and roofs — can be categorized according limits is a dimension of informational content to a particular region and era of a speciﬁc wherein the building actually speaks to users traditional architecture. Altogether, we have on a neurological level. This hypothesis is of recourse to a vast collection of typologies that great importance to the understanding and have proven useful in constructing adaptive manufacture of architecture: it should therefore buildings. Those typological elements have be paramount in the education of our students. for the most part evolved according to basic As with other courses in the new curriculum a human needs and circumstances, and thus HANDS-ON FULL-SCALE enquiry is expected. Just represent the most sustainable and efﬁcient as in engineering labs, students in an architecture solution overall. Typological elements combine school need to participate in assembling into a “form language”, which is a broader and working with real materials. Architecture concept explained in our recommended texts. schools should begin to develop real modeling Incredibly, all of this rich variety of typological in their own material labs. Materials are going elements is ignored today, and only an to be tested for how they relate to structural extremely narrow set of Western industrial or integrity, and also equally how these materials high-tech elements is to be seen employed in and their patterns of assembly work to provide buildings throughout the world. In the majority the informational content necessary to the

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II of cases, those elements are either inefﬁcient human sense of wellbeing and the dimension of or inappropriate climatically, structurally, and transcendence. culturally. We plan to introduce a detailed course on typological elements, which will lay (M) MODEL MAKING: SCALE AND COLOR. the foundational memory for young architects At the present time, design studios typically to draw upon in their practice (Bothwell et. al., train students by asking them to make models 2004). Knowledge of typological elements is an at a scale that is too small. The scale is too adaptive design storehouse. Students should small to reveal the structure of the design be encouraged to learn to express themselves across a wide perceivable range of scales, using a rich vocabulary of elements; otherwise or the problems present in that structure. The they will remain architecturally speech- model teaches students to regard a building impaired. as an object, as a thing with a particular form on the largest scale. It reveals little about how (L) MATERIALITY AND TECTONICS. the construction has generated the building. As The material component of architecture a result, models are now judged by misleading provides one the most tangible aspects of criteria such as: unnatural form, conformity to the built environment: its physical presence. the latest architectural fashion, conformity to People throughout history who have come in the machine aesthetic (represented today contact with truly great architecture speak by technological appearance), or dissimilarity of their connection to this architecture as to traditional buildings. These criteria are

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irrelevant to how actual structures will perform meant to shock rather than to enhance the as buildings. Students are indoctrinated into geometry and achieve coherence. Few people a false world of visual representations that know that the primary colors used by modernist substitutes for reality. There is a very tenuous architects came out of a fanatical religious sect connection between a model and a building, (Salingaros, 2007). Interior designers eventually yet students are trained exclusively to create have to learn about color on their own. There the former, while remaining ignorant of the is a wealth of data obtained by experimental latter. It is therefore necessary to train students psychologists on color, and we are going to use in experiencing effects on a larger, near REAL that material in our studio. The best reference or ACTUAL scale. We are going to build mock- on achieving architectural color is Alexander ups using Styrofoam, cardboard panels, wire, (2004). As in the above discussion, it is impossible sticks, cloth, etc. We will adjust those structures to judge the effects of color unless experiments to optimize perceived feedback, then go back are undertaken at full scale. The experience and revise our drawings and miniature model to cannot be reproduced on a play model or on a capture the observed physical effect. As with computer screen. all exercises that utilize full-scale models, these should be accomplished through group effort. (N) INTENSIVE STUDY OF A FEW CANONICAL Architecture is not the exclusive domain of one TEXTS. person’s ideas, so to students must learn to work Insight is oftentimes achieved by eliminating together on design: holding their egos in check distracting clutter. Contrary to the current habit followed in architecture schools, where

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II while trying to realize the universality of human physiological perception. students are given a different (and equally long) reading list of peripherally-relevant texts The current situation is even more inadequate for each course, we will focus primarily on our for understanding the architectural use (and recommended texts. (Teachers try to rectify misuse) of color. Minimalism eschews color, a lack of content speciﬁc to adaptive design leading to drab and depressing surfaces and by giving vast amounts of reading material: interiors. With few exceptions, the minimalist beware of courses with a long reading list!). Our design ideology creates inhuman environments. few recommended texts, being repositories of The proscription of color goes back to extreme architectural information, are densely packed political and pseudo-philosophical tenets of the with information that pertains directly to design. early twentieth century (see the later section We believe that these books have the power entitled Politics, Philosophy, Critical Theory, and to forever change the perspective of design Human Perception), yet those unfounded ideas students, giving them the insight and direction continue to be taught in architecture schools needed to make the greatest buildings of their today. When color is used within the industrial times. The texts deserve to be studied in great model, it is most often as an arbitrary artistic detail and digested thoroughly over several gesture, without any understanding of human years’ exposure. Every subsequent course will emotional response to the color experienced depend and build upon every one of these in a real building. Colors are harsh, arbitrary, books. As such, they are not meant to be

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skimmed superficially as architecture students and how it is synthesized through human are now encouraged to do with books. Rather, intelligence to provide both information and these texts are to be studied exactly like science meaning. and engineering texts — the more time one spends with them re-reading the arguments, In the current architectural paradigm that the more understanding one accumulates. seeks to employ what is irrelevant, it is hard to These recommended texts should become establish for the students the relevance of truly the students’ constant companions throughout meaningful work. Thus, they cannot understand their education, and to continue to serve as WHY what they see in traditional forms functions invaluable design aids when the student enters so well. Certainly, they will perceive in front professional practice. of them a wonderful example of human architecture and urbanism that affects them (O) TRAVEL AND SEMESTER ABROAD. deeply and viscerally. But can they ever Nowadays, when students see an example figure out WHY it has such an incredible and of great architecture or urbanism in person, positive effect on them? More important, the best they can do is to copy its superficial can they learn from those experiences how appearance because they have never been to duplicate the positive effects in a building taught to understand how and why it works they will themselves eventually design? They on so many levels. They cannot reproduce its are not going to duplicate the building, but hidden dimensions and mechanisms. The end should learn how to mimic its influence and underlying qualities. Without proper theoretical

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II result of copying does not have the essential qualities that are experienced in the original. and practical principles, they will never be Students then abandon those excellent able to apply those experiences to design a learning models, drawing the false conclusion contemporary environment. The way to assure that they do not apply to our times. We hear learning success is to teach them the genuine this negative assessment repeatedly: that, languages of architecture and urbanism before supposedly, the life-enhancing qualities of they ever go abroad, so they can then “read” historical buildings are impossible to reproduce the mechanisms through which historical cities today, with today’s materials, under today’s work. conditions, within today’s society — a truly monstrous misunderstanding. Unfortunately, Learning Creativity and Inspiration even architecture faculty that appreciates the qualities of traditional environments comes An open approach to design depends upon to believe this. It is an admission of a failure to learning previously-developed techniques learn (and teach) design that captures human that work. We are promoting the heretofore qualities in the animating potential of form, unthinkable and now forbidden topic: learning patterns, and materials. The blame is thrown traditional design techniques hand-in-hand with on the traditional environments themselves, whatever new and innovative ideas develop. instead of being accepted by those incapable Learning from the successful architecture of understanding the basis of humanistic design, of the past requires a new application of

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academic openness to enable free-flowing they are fooling themselves. The actual situation communication. Self-discipline is needed to may be described more accurately as a rigid overcome the almost universal ignorance and narrowing into an approved design aesthetic condemnation of evidence-based design and vocabulary. This “official” design style techniques. Unfortunately, the rejection of conforms to and supports the latest fashions, evidence-based precedents is an attitude while anything else is vigorously condemned. that now permeates much of architectural Sometimes the condemnation is explicit; at academia. other times it is very subtle but no less powerful in its influence on students. During the second part of the twentieth century, creativity has been the principal criterion As today’s architectural practice becomes more for teaching design. Students challenged and more dependent upon the commodity of to be original have been led to believe images, architectural education has begun to that pure creativity depends upon having focus exclusively on the manufacture of such no preconceptions. That idea is false. What image-based designs. The criterion is that they students haven’t been told is that CREATIVITY appear particularly “creative”, “original”, or IS POSSIBLE ONLY WHEN ONE HAS GENERAL “innovative”. However, image-based design WORKING KNOWLEDGE AND RULES TO APPLY and education have subverted architecture TO NEW SITUATIONS. Problem solving occurs by away from its substantive nature to become developing alternative solutions and knowing an expendable product — an imaged-based how to choose from among them (see the later commodity. When students are asked to NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II section entitled Heuristic Models). When students design a building their reaction is to try to are given no definite principles, but are told to create something that looks “architectural”. “create” without precedents, consequence, or Image-based design is what happens when understanding they can only turn to copying the designer is primarily concerned about that which appears to be original — what they their work’s “look”. In this way, architects have see as “originality” in the work of the designated actually limited the application of their services, fashionable architects. But since it is magazines thus severely curtailing architectural creativity. and critics that select from what the elite and An infinite variety of excellent, adaptive design powerful vested interests choose to promote choices are now avoided because they break on society, the quest for originality has become this conditioned expectation of client and little more than mindless conformity. designer, professor and student.

It is the moral and ethical obligation of schools of Today, most professors are unable to critique architecture neither to promote any particular design outside the current philosophical and tenets, nor to exclude valuable sources of image-based paradigm. Given the paradigm’s design inspiration, but instead to free a student’s carefully constructed (but utterly false) illusion mind to develop its maximum creativity. We of open interpretation, instructors are free to believe that all schools proclaim that is what impose the full gamut of their own thoughts, they do, but either they are not being honest or establishing for students what is good or bad in

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architecture without having to provide anything How did the design attitudes and their more than an invented intellectual defense. socialization become so entrenched? Obscure Since professors are more experienced at twentieth-century Western philosophical texts this intellectual posturing than their students that hardly anyone can comprehend are not are, they have little trouble making their point natural candidates for helping students learn appear credible. What happens to true critical how to design buildings and cities worldwide. thinking? Why, then, turn to those texts for inspiration? And why did our most prestigious architecture We believe that teachers do not recognize schools embrace them so enthusiastically? The the damage this process has done and is reason is that adopting formalistic philosophers doing both to students’ creativity and to the — who are far removed from human qualities practice of architecture. Teachers themselves and human interaction with the environment encourage the situation of historical and — is a way of preventing an “architecture of cultural amnesia by presenting and valuing the appearance” from being judged deficient. work of fashionable architects, regardless if that A dependence upon meaningless philosophy work is non-adaptive and ill suited to human drives architecture even further towards needs. Newly famous architects, idolized by unnatural forms that are purely self-referential, their academic followers, provide the worst and valid only within the designer’s mind. possible model for students in the intellectual vacuum created when Intelligence-Based By rejecting natural and human mechanisms, Design is absent, yet they still seem to exert the people have oriented architecture and NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II greatest influence (see the later section entitled the teaching of architecture away from Intellectual (dis)Honesty). fundamental principles of structure — from visual and physical coherence. The motivation Even in departments that attempt to offer for this ultimately goes back to an ideological pluralistic views of design, it simply doesn’t work insistence that a “machine aesthetic” replace to bring in one guest speaker. Listening to a real- what is human and natural. This Machine- world designer — someone who understands the Age Design (MAD) is best described as intimate workings of structure, space, surface, the misapplication of an agenda (a set of and form — does not register; as soon as he or goals) through the institution of image-based she finishes talking, the student is pushed back criteria. These have little or nothing to do by the prevailing design culture into imitating with architecture, and everything to do with the latest architectural fashions. The design appearances. Whoever originally proposed culture is stuck with a narrow focus, and the this as a guiding principle totally misunderstood reigning architectural paradigm is so polarizing how machines actually work; they were only that it excludes most genuine sources of design attracted by the superficial appearance of inspiration. Socialization of design attitudes unnatural-looking forms as a “sign of the times”. appears far too strong to change from within, because it is supported by every component of In the last 100 years humankind has seen an the present establishment (Salingaros, 2007). incredible advance in the understanding of

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machine complexity. We now understand far of “novelty”, “form-follows-function”, and more about technology than the architectural “conformance to the spirit of the age” are gurus of the 1920s did when they promoted simply buzzwords for bad mistakes. By studying their primitive machine aesthetic. Extraordinarily the geometry of nature, future architects can complex machines such as computers, software achieve the same level of inspiration in their systems, electrical grids, etc. obey structural work as did the great architects of the past. But laws similar to biological organisms, traditional architecture is far more than copying natural cities, human artifacts, and buildings. Those forms. You also need to study applications of results support our own views and sustain an this natural geometry to what has been built adaptive and intelligent form of architectural over the last 5,000 years. Today’s architectural design (Salingaros, 2005; 2006; Salingaros & education has neglected geometry found Masden, 2006; 2007). in nature and in actual buildings, focusing instead on a narrow group of philosophers and Machine beauty is undeniably a phenomenon philosophical texts (Salingaros, 2007). that attracts human perception when it works on the human range of scales: the We must take care to recognize the current fine-tuned scientific instrument; professional condition wherein architectural theorists work racecar; sailing yacht; interplanetary explorer to aestheticize every form of information that vehicle, etc. Technology has talked to us comes into their self-defined purview. This since we manufactured the first stone axes. practice of aesthetization is as dangerous as it But all those products are beautiful because is arrogant, but the architectural media rewards NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II they are exquisitely tuned to their materials such theorists by publishing them extensively and functions; nothing is “style” or superficial and therefore reduces architecture to a mere application. Indeed, “style” comes out of commodity of appearance, or spectacle. The the ruthless adaptation of those creations to greater dimension of architecture — its power their purpose, not the other way around. Our to affect us and our world — is overlooked and own age is confused on this point because not ever fully realized. we are inundated by stylistic copies based upon mistaken analogies (see the next section Architectural Education and Human entitled Architectural Education and Human Intelligence Intelligence). A house is not a machine. The sleek machines of the 1920s that inspired the It is true that our new curriculum may be Bauhaus in fact hid their beauty — their working challenging to many undergraduate students articulations — with a superficial finish. — certainly much more so than what they are taught today. Most students attracted to Great architectural works of the past derive from architecture possess a relatively high visual an understanding of some aspect of nature. intelligence, compared to their rankings in verbal Rejecting those sources of inspiration, as is done and mathematical intelligences (D’Souza, in architecture schools today, impoverishes 2007). Nevertheless, we firmly believe that the both students and practitioners. Justifications new curriculum, if correctly implemented, will

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increase the students’ effective intelligence. of a mind that lacks sufficient connective This expectation contrasts with our assessment abilities. By inhibiting connections, students of current architectural education. The mental are deliberately isolated from any explanatory training found in contemporary architectural elements of architectural learning. Logical, education appears to limit neural connections, content-based connections between ideas since the process of reading self-referential are avoided, whereas spurious connections are texts re-wires neuronal circuits in a way that encouraged, based on illogical assumptions diminishes reasoning ability (Salingaros, 2007). such as superficial resemblance. Both theory Even in the best circumstances, the present-day and studio courses address intentionally isolated curriculum certainly does not prepare students abstractions with oversimplified yet meaningless to cope with the complexities of the built world. exercises. What little knowledge base is even One of the co-authors has suggested corollaries acknowledged is then turned inwards (i.e. between the lack of mathematical information disconnected from evidence), due to a fear of content in a minimalist built environment, and diminishing innovation. A learning process that students’ declining mathematics scores overall discourages external connections intentionally (Salingaros, 2006). limits the students’ field of enquiry to a select ideological body of opinion. Human intelligence depends upon establishing multiple neural connections in the brain. Neural This process of limiting connections is an connections create a “mental computer”, operation found in mistaken analogies. We see which helps human beings to deal with and this phenomenon in individuals and cultures that NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II solve real-world problems. Improving our have a restricted base of scientific knowledge, or ability to establish connections, either through are cut off from it. Mistaken analogies could be problem-solving practice or via specific learning due to lack of a technological advancement, techniques, increases our mental power, hence a lack of education, or a choice for ignorance our effective intelligence. The connections have and superstition in the midst of a knowledge- to be of the right type to enable computing. For a based society. In extreme cases, human beings long time, intelligence was believed to be fixed, raised in isolation do not develop the necessary but recent clinical studies on learning exercises connections to fully assess systems outside those disprove this assumption (Olesen, Westerberg they have generated. Pre-modern cultures & Klingberg, 2004). Specific challenging tasks, that tried to reconstruct objects of the modern such as the mental effort of exploring the space world — airplanes and guns, strictly through of solutions to a design problem, could possibly appearance — lacked an understanding of modify adult intelligence. Unfortunately, we how these devices operated, and thus failed see no indication of this in current architectural to replicate their function/utility. This is not to education — quite the opposite. say those people could not understand the process involved in the design and fabrication The predominant theme guiding intellectual of airplanes and guns; they simply were not development in architecture seems to be taught how. Once exposed to the applicable conceptual isolation, which is symptomatic knowledge base, people from those cultures

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were able to make the connections necessary of physiological states and processes. Far from to fully replicate technology. being recognized as a shortcoming, however, a concept’s proponents try to make it look Mistaken analogy is an established way of more determinate than it really is. Idealizations thought celebrated by famous contemporary are concepts that cannot be anchored on architects, who declare that their buildings observable phenomena. are on the point of “flying off” just because the edge resembles a wing. But, like primitive Mistaken analogies are manifested through sculptures of airplanes in the jungle, the trivial associations that make no sense, except buildings refuse to take off. Architects embrace on the most superficial level. Such associations mistaken analogies as a way of thinking and employ our most evolutionary primitive neural talking about their designs, and are ironically circuits, bypassing analytical reasoning awarded prestigious prizes (via the celebrity entirely, and have been used to manipulate factor more than the value of their designs). and condition people. Contemporary This success through rewards keeps the entire western culture disconnects its members discipline — the media, critics, clients, and from knowledge in order to manipulate academia — fixated on the mistaken analogy them into a consumerist mind-set, while cults of surface appearances. Modern psychology and governments indoctrinate persons and tells us that whenever the human mind is sponsor directed atrocities such as terrorism confronted with an insufficient knowledge base or genocide (Salingaros, 2007). Both science for constructing logical connections, it invents and genuine religions provide connections that NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II or manufactures a nonsensical explanation argue against such irrational interpretations of for phenomena. Inventing untenable models the world. follows an essentially anti-scientific (and also anti-religious) practice. Yet, still, this strategy Not only is contemporary architectural persists. Mistaken analogy is also behind one education cut off from other disciplines of of the major misunderstandings that derailed learning, but also it is geared towards isolating architectural education (see the later section the student from the real world. Architecture entitled Heuristic Models). has generated its own artificial, abstruse, and illogical language. Training in schools that In making a comparison between a conceptual depend on such texts generates an artificial construct and actual objects, one needs to pay worldview for the student, which is based on close attention to the nature of the metaphor. unnatural images and is supported by a near It is crucial to rely upon empirical verification cult-like ideological structure. Too often, the in drawing an analogy. Psychologically first years of architectural education today indeterminate concepts tempt architects into have come to resemble a children’s daycare a false model. Meaning becomes a mental center, in which four-year-olds are kept busy construct, something hidden behind overt with mindless play. More often than not, behavior. Assertions about reality survive undirected play is not a learning initiative, because their truth cannot be assessed in terms but an expediency of not having effective

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or knowledgeable educators to provide the deeply to make sure they are logical ones, and guidance and structure necessary for students are not based strictly on surface appearances. to assimilate their experiences. Undirected play We make efforts to connect ideas laterally simply keeps children busy until time has come (among topics on the same level) as well as to go home. Surely, this is not what is intended vertically (depth of understanding), in analogy for architecture students today! In architectural with neural connectivity. In this manner, we can academia, “undirected play” is the undying build an intelligent framework into the discipline legacy of the Bauhaus, wherein students are itself. supposed to learn architecture through this activity. This is as unrealistic as expecting a child For an example of connective reasoning, playing with a computer keyboard to come up reading Christopher Alexander often makes with a Shakespearean play. a reader react with an exclamation of sudden realization, almost on every page of text. A little bend here, a little crumple there, mixed Alexander establishes connections among with some creative dialogue and presto: you phenomena in the universe, elements of the have got yourself a ﬁne piece of architecture, built environment, effects that are intrinsically or so architecture students are led to believe. human, etc. Over the course of his life Alexander The truth is that you have only a piece of has been building these connections, seeking construction paper that may at best support an them out, and thus his message often resonates allusion to architecture, but only at the smallest with the reader on that level. We believe that scale. So complex are the geometries at work reading Alexander’s texts trains the reader’s NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II here that the professor is unable to explain them mind towards establishing connections, so in any way but as a celebration of abstract form that the reading experience creates a positive or its superﬁcial appearance. But all this model development for a person’s perceptual skills. building occurs at the expense of adapting the Enhanced connectivity occurs separately, in design to human needs; indeed, this sculptural addition to the information content acquired process can take place only if adaptation is from his books. A great number of readers willfully ignored. Glossing over the real issues report that reading Alexander has “changed of materials and structures necessary to even their lives”; that they are henceforth able to begin to conceive of such a form, professors perceive the world, including familiar everyday encourage (perhaps unwittingly) this type of things and events, with a new light that makes expression from their students. better sense of its complexity (Davis, 2006). Critics report a sort of philosophical awakening, We are rather alarmed at the pervasiveness discovering that Alexander connects them of this disconnecting way of thinking in more to the world they see than anyone else architecture. Our own conception of has. architecture is founded upon the mechanism underlying human intelligence that connects One of the key messages of this paper, thoughts and ideas. We strive to establish therefore, is that DESIGN ADAPTIVE TO HUMAN connections while at the same time digging BEINGS IS INTIMATELY LINKED WITH HUMAN

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INTELLIGENCE. This interrelation is true for criterion for selection is a simple one. If existing fundamental biological reasons. Experiencing courses reinforce the newly-defined program for adaptive design establishes mental connections architectural education, they may be retained that aid intelligence, and conversely, engaging as they are, or modified as needed to support in adaptive design is an exercise in problem the re-aligned objectives. If they do not support solving. We have every reason to believe that it, then they are redundant and ineffective, adaptive design increases the conceptual and and thus have no place in the new curriculum. reasoning abilities of the designer — that it can Opting for compromise, a superficial revision actually raise the designer’s overall intelligence. or minor adjustment may dilute our ideas too An analogous reasoning lies behind parents’ much — such a step cannot lead to genuine conviction that exposure to complex structures reform towards teaching a truly sustainable and such as mathematics, other languages, and adaptive form of architecture. music at an early age increases their child’s intelligence. Currently, the most senior teachers in architecture schools aspire to teach primarily PART 2. PRIMARILY FOR TEACHERS: upper level or graduate level courses, leaving ATTITUDES THAT GAVE RISE TO THE PRESENT the formative years mostly to less permanent junior faculty: assistant and adjunct professors, SYSTEM. and guest lecturers. The more dynamic nature of employment at these levels creates an Curriculum Re-Alignment inconsistency in administering the curriculum at NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II Architectural education today has evolved its its most crucial juncture. While adjuncts often particular structure and lexicon to address an provide a critical element to the education of untenably broad set of ideas from a very narrow student as practitioners, the new curriculum and select viewpoint. It is improbable that any cannot succeed unless sufficient teacher meaningful reconstruction of institutionalized resources are delegated to the first two years. elements in architectural academia would We recommend that permanent senior faculty take place automatically. Who wants to shed with a full knowledge of Intelligence-Based familiar teaching habits? An immense effort is Design spearhead the efforts of all faculty required to make the transition into conceptual teaching at this level. territory that feels counterintuitive to those unused to it. Given the urgency in what needs Our recommended texts, while written to occur, the situation requires us to frame a for a general audience, are not the usual new architectural education on top of existing oversimplified textbooks specially written for and familiar academic structures. freshmen. Students will need to be guided through the deep concepts of Christopher It goes without saying that some courses Alexander’s The Phenomenon of Life (2002), presently taught in architecture schools will and Kellert et. al.’s Biophilic Design (2008). have to be eliminated or completely altered to Otherwise, beginning students, unaccustomed make room for the new proposed courses. The to such intellectual challenges, may fail to

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absorb sufﬁcient material necessary for their architecture was rendered irrelevant (Masden, subsequent courses in architecture. Many 2006). Architecture was stripped of most of its will, of course, be excited and energized by functions, down to a bare visual minimalism, the content of these books, but the school while falsely claiming that this was “functional”. must guarantee the courses’ effectiveness by The majority of schools around the world, providing a teaching structure that supports unfortunately, are now copying this model the educational objectives. Therefore, our of the world presented exclusively through a proposal includes as an additional feature the western minimalist industrial perspective. If left re-organization of curriculum emphasis, placing unchallenged, the world’s architecture, once the knowledge base of the program at the a rich collection of multi-cultural expressions, bottom of the hierarchical coursework pyramid, will be forced to represent a single ideology: rather than primarily at the top. an ideology of capital consumption. Here, architecture operates strictly as image-based Educating and De-Programming the commodity. The pursuit of material prosperity, and its collateral forces, have set into motion a Teachers system of unnatural values and beliefs that are Anticipating that most of today’s architecture more evident than ever in today’s youth. The instructors trained in the contemporary extended reach of this inﬂuence continues to educational model might not possess a full appear in the skylines of many of the great cities understanding of the knowledge base needed of the world. As an expression of the global

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II to teach these essential courses, we envision capitalist venture, Western iconic structures special faculty training sessions. These sessions will now hover over the intimate ground plane of be held to coalesce and direct the knowledge older cultural entities throughout the world. and methodologies of theorists, educators, Architectural educators must stop acting, and academic institutions throughout the consciously or unconsciously, as agents of what world. A separate program could be arranged is nothing less that cultural hegemony. as special continuing education lectures for architectural licensing requirements. Teachers Like employees anywhere, architectural will need to read essential background studies educators have a vested interest in preserving (Bothwell et. al., 2004; Salama, 1995; Salama their job. Given the right conditions, the & Wilkinson, 2007), in addition to mastering the transition to teaching intelligence-based design recommended course textbooks. could actually be quite smooth. Instead of a radical discontinuity, we could witness a smooth Academics trained in the prevalent Western evolution. This process would all but alleviate model have inherited a peculiar way of the ideological posturing that so often occurs in teaching architecture that encourages the absence of any applied knowledge base. abstractness while shying away from materiality. It would also enhance the present academic It stems directly from the pursuit of “architecture and professional working environments, since for architecture’s sake”, an attitude of late a new generation of students will be taught modernism wherein the practical function of something far more worthwhile, which is

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more likely to help them in their careers and their training. Instead, they grow even more personal development. Students will eventually dependent on the superficial manipulation of realize this as a change for the better, and be images. In addition, the software system itself thankful to their teachers for offering it. So much has its own logic, which imposes its own peculiar depends on the administration, however, which form of intuition, totally distinct from the human must embrace and implement the process with intuition about massing in three dimensions. integrity. We recognize these concerns, and solve the problem by grounding a student in feedback The Information Generation techniques from real, physical structures. While we would not go so far as to eliminate computer In recent years, the “information generation” modeling from the undergraduate curriculum has become more and more reliant on image- (or even from the first three years), we warn based learning, moving students into a near against creating a dependence on artificial co-dependent relationship with visual forms techniques at this phase. Digital modeling is a of information. Exposing students to obscure wonderful tool when used to express intuitions philosophical writings, dialogue, and discourse solidly developed by physiological means. only creates in them a greater dependency on images. This practice has allowed architectural Nothing replaces the neurological training academia to de-contextualize architecture and cognitive development that occurs when even further through the conveyance of the human visual system is tied to immediate images and rhetoric, where endless forms of feedback from physical activities such as NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II visual speculation replace what is real. If we drawing. Many firms practicing traditional are to maintain our humanity, architecture must design first draw all their projects by hand, once again be grounded in an information-rich and only transfer them to a Computer-Aided reality. Physical structures provide our evolved Design program after they are finished. They mind with the information content needed to have discovered that, otherwise, they lose navigate our surroundings, and to manufacture essential qualities of the design. Alexander beliefs and values that sustain human existence (2002) goes further and explains WHY a rough through culture and community. pencil sketch can capture details and essential human qualities. Those qualities are found in Many professional and academic architects the roughness itself, which actually represents believe that the computer modeling which has an informational complexity that connects with become so prevalent today, if introduced too our deeper perceptual and cognitive systems. early, can effectively ruin a student’s ability to A rough sketch can show multiple dimensions conceive genuine architectural space. Working of a design — most important, its feeling and with small digital images on an abstract digital immediate effect on the user — that should interface does not allow the brain and hand to be the goal and essence of the completed learn to synchronize, or couple, in generating a building. Such qualities make a user wish to design. As a result, the student never develops be in such a building. It is very difficult to make the neurological connections so essential to more exact working drawings from such a

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rough sketch without losing the sketch’s positive professors’ value system. This unbalanced state qualities, yet this skill must be developed. creates an anxiety in the study and practice Representing a building’s morphological of architecture, which manifests itself in design “warmth” is impossible via computer modeling arrogance, an arrogance based on insecurity. using existing Computer-Aided Design systems. Having forgotten how to perceive and judge for themselves what good space is, what good Science has demonstrated how the abstract light is, what good materials are, students are forms of modernist architecture lack the left to contend with the designs of the strongest structured information that buildings throughout egos. Forgetting how to recognize our innate history have embodied and conveyed. perceptions — those that instinctively guide us Today, scientists understand more clearly the through information content towards what is neurologically-dependent geometries behind nourishing to our body and our psyche — allows structures possessing emergent properties us to be controlled by the people in power and and animate forces. We ﬁnd that these same the dominant paradigm. general structures are embedded in traditional architectures, but are largely absent from Today more than ever, useless information most twentieth-century buildings and cities. — images, slogans, and memes — saturates This absence of animate forces (architectural our conscious mind. Like white noise, an life) can be traced to the lack of very precise unintelligible veil disrupts our ability to engage mathematical qualities in modernist buildings genuinely with useful information when it is as a whole (Alexander, 2001; Salingaros, presented. Abstract forms in our surroundings NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II 2006). Architectural life is clearly found in the (modernist buildings devoid of organized ornamentation and ordered detail of traditional information content) further exacerbate this (including early twentieth-century) form condition by intensifying or concentrating the languages, which minimalism and brutalism barrage of useless information. This experience erased. is unhealthy. An architectural education adequate to our psychological needs The emphasis of architectural education on teaches students about the levels and types of contemporary images tied to electronic media information that buildings can present. trains students through cognitive feedback processes to produce speciﬁcally non-adaptive structures. Students have all but lost their ability to Heuristic Models make corporeal value judgments on their own, Students struggle to make sense of design or to understand how to decipher perceptual problems and instructions that purposefully lead and physical stimuli. Architectural training thus, them away from reality. Their assignments are in effect, psychologically conditions future couched in the notion that such exploration architects to work against their own basic removes limits or preconceptions that students impulses and physiology (Kellert et. al., 2008). might place on their design. Students are given Students become co-dependent on image abstract paintings, poems, literature, or digital making, which leaves them at the mercy of their metaphors to guide their work, none of which

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is related to genuine architectural solutions. In defined solution space. People make decisions, an open-ended question, students are told to come to judgments, and solve problems, proceed without any direct instruction about typically when facing complex problems with architecture from their professors. Operating incomplete information. The discovery process under a mistaken analogy with the heuristic occurs because the student finds pieces of method, professors believe that students must information along the way — pieces that the simply begin to produce with as little influence instructor already knows to be there. By contrast, as possible, in the hopes that they might discover the so-called heuristic method in architecture is something — the so-called “eureka moment” little more than the appearance thereof, which — beyond themselves and their understanding presents itself as a case of the blind leading the of architecture! This practice goes back to blind. a misunderstanding about similarities between the process of design and heuristic scientific Heuristic design directs a search through the models. Ironically enough, this design process is space of solutions to a problem. A heuristic not directly heuristic in structure or observance: method is an exploration based on experience, the method presents false positives, triggering which can be used as an aid (but not as the the desire for the fashionable image. only means) to solve design problems. This method uses successive evaluations of trial and Each new supposition, in a series of invented error to arrive at a final result. Each intermediate ways to conceive of a new architecture, is result is tested empirically against reality, thus supposed to develop from the position of not each attempt at a solution is assessed and used NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II knowing what that new architecture would be. to improve subsequent attempts. The search The initial problem given is most often biased in method follows an iterative process in which such a way as to skew the outcome towards information gathered at each step is used to an architectural expression that is anything decide on the next step. Solutions are assumed but architecture. Given the unreal nature of to exist, and the method is supposed to locate these models, real knowledge is cast off, and an adequate (but not optimal) solution under in its absence, ideology is substituted. Used a given set of conditions. Any heuristic design properly, heuristics requires constraints such as method therefore takes place within a solution pattern languages. Much can be learned from a space that is already defined. process led by evidence-based knowledge; but equally, everything can go wrong if heuristics For example, in architectural design, a designer are misused as the means to a pre-determined explores the solution space by varying the forms end. The consistent suppression of pattern and materials, which can lead to unexpected languages in Western architectural education solutions. This is what happens in the best cases: set the stage for failure. variation of the parameters expands the loop in solution space so as to catch a solution that Genuinely heuristic exploration is in fact had previously escaped. This exploration is a directed inquiry guided by known principles made possible by an injection of randomness — freedom is given to explore within a well- (corresponding to genetic mutations in

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Darwinian processes) that generates variants U.S. Nevertheless, our arguments try to be away from the original position in solution space. universal without being another attempt at Of course, deviations from a known solution will globalization. We hope that our model will work most often not lead to any solution at all, and for different contexts and will be useful for the this is where feedback and evaluation become reader in any culture. Wellbeing is universal for critical. A single, optimal solution usually does all cultures, with local factors important but not not exist in complex problems such as can be predominant. Taking into account different solved using heuristic methods. realities in different parts of the world, we offer students everywhere a validation of their Genetic algorithms based on Darwinian own culture, even as architectural education processes try to mimic evolution and natural has probably turned them against it. We do selection. These are an application of heuristic not suggest a new globalism in the service of design, with selection based upon well- localism, but instead a universal understanding defined fitness and survival criteria. One of of human values, and how they are expressed the co-authors has written about Darwinian in different but equally valid architectural processes in architectural design (Salingaros, traditions. 2006). Pattern languages (Alexander et. al., 1977) provide constraints for locating general Central to intelligence-based design is the solutions. Nowadays, the architectural solution theory of evolved form languages. Form space is frequently narrowed by a specific style, languages have been developed by different and thus the designer is not free to find any people at different times, and encompass NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II adaptive form. This conformity is the opposite the most important components of a region’s of the process of natural selection, where architectural and artistic heritage. A particular organisms adapt to optimize their chances form language is infinitely applicable to for survival in a given environment. Despite generate an enormous variety of buildings, the expectation of design freedom, selection each of which embodies particular and unique criteria are not based on fitness, but are cultural characteristics. Every form language instead used to match pre-determined iconic is also constantly evolving. Intelligence- prototypes. Unsurprisingly, therefore, heuristic based design teaches students how to use design in architecture schools leads to the same documented vernacular and historical form image-based results. languages, not as a dead academic exercise, but to extend their creativity and the space of Worldwide Architectural Education solutions for designing contemporary buildings. A form language discourages the superficial We are promoting an educational system that “quotation” of design elements outside their respects and learns from local traditions, and grammatical context. Modernist architects does not blindly copy global styles shown in the never accepted the concept of a form glossy magazines. Since the authors are Western- language, and only used isolated words from trained, our practical recommendations are the language without understanding how meant for teachers and administrators in the every language works according to a deep

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combinatorial structure. is the latest and the greatest, then they can continue to control the market. In addition, the Our proposals for world architecture are free political machine promises to elevate those from any stylistic prejudices. The texts we that subscribe to its tenets with the same power use respect all architectural traditions that and influence. Given this reward system, it is connect human beings with their environment easy to find individuals who are willing to copy in a positive manner. Many twentieth-century the latest Western fashions at the expense of buildings fail in this crucial requirement, and genuine culture and heritage. These agents are thus poor models to study. Nevertheless, promote the propaganda that adopting architecture schools teach the international fashionable architectural and urban typologies modernist style and/or its derivatives almost will overcome problems of economic or exclusively, proclaiming it the only valid technological development in any country. expression for architecture today. This narrow People fail to see that the West can offer worldview is highly intolerant, disdaining the rich positive examples of science, technology, and architectural traditions of the world as being economic models, but fails almost totally in “primitive” and “backward” and not worth preserving culture and religion. preserving. In place of those traditions, schools and the media now promote the bizarre work We are witnessing today what can only be of a handful of Western architects, who are described as a type of cultural imperialism supported by politically powerful commercial (aesthetic hegemony) in world architecture and academic interests. and urbanism. And while there is a very strong NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II backlash against it, those who recognize the Architectural institutions the world over have problem are most often unable to do anything unfortunately fallen victim to this indoctrination about it. One way to stop the damage would (promoting a select group of practitioners and be to adopt the principles of architectural a fashionable style), and have turned against education offered by Intelligence-Based their own heritage (Salingaros, 2007; Salingaros Design. This adoption would re-institute an & Masden, 2007). Architects and academics immediate respect of local traditions, culture, who respect traditional typologies and call and a country’s historical achievements. for their continued use as viable models are Most important, the proposals of intelligence- consequently condemned by their colleagues. based design are backed by science, and They are overcome by the academic and not by any nostalgia for the past or for any economic influence of Western-looking fashion particular typology. We believe this to be the seekers, who have continued to buy into strongest argument yet for saving the world’s the myth of a superior Western ideology. The architectural heritage, and those processes and problem is that the West doesn’t completely traditions that create truly great architecture. To subscribe to this idea either; it is as much date, appeals to the value of this knowledge a case of supply-and-demand as purpose. have not been strong enough to overcome the If the power brokers can convince others massive capital consumption and annihilation around the world that what they are selling of cultural entities throughout the world.

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Stop Teaching Ecophobia: the Hatred of promising liberation from society’s problems Culture and Nature through embracing universal (yet abstract) utopias. The term “ecophobia” refers to an unreasonable but deeply conditioned reaction against Governments of radically distinct political natural forms. It has also been used in clinical orientations nevertheless fall prey to an psychology to denote a phobia against one’s infatuation with foreign goods and ideas, and dwelling, but that specific use now appears to this dependence is manipulated for the benefit be antiquated. The philosopher Roger Scruton of multinational corporations. It is easy to be (2006) coined the related term “oikophobia” helped along by advertising, now reaching into to denote an unreasonable hatred of one’s even the most remote places on this planet, native culture. We believe that these two terms which promotes foreign products loudly in the “ecophobia” and “oikophobia” may in many local market. At the same time, local traditions cases be used interchangeably. (Linguistically, are erased, along with what held that society the common Greek root for “house” can be together. The underlying phenomenon is a written either as ecos or oikos). disregard or even loathing of one’s own culture, and its artifacts and practices. This hatred drives Regarding the social domain, our age is people to reject what is traditionally theirs, and experiencing deep philosophical and social to embrace new foreign symbols of capital tensions. These are as serious as the concerns progress as somehow better. with our detachment from nature. The 21st NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II century has begun with a continuation, and Architecture as image, operating in the service perhaps intensification, of the worst prejudices of global capital, is now present in everyone’s seen in the twentieth. Those prejudices include backyard. To sacrifice identity for globalization a disdain of traditional cultures, and all that corrupts the values and beliefs that people of links a human being to his/her local history. traditional cultures have sustained for millennia. Scruton (2006) reminds us that: “the oikophobe Today’s fashionable architecture instead repudiates national loyalties and defines his serves a culture of “capital and consumption”. goals and ideals against the nation, promoting That culture’s values and beliefs underlie and transnational institutions over national structure architectural practice in the U.S.A. governments … defining his political vision in and increasingly throughout the world. Fueled terms of universal values that have been purified by billions of dollars in capital, this process of of all reference to the particular attachments promoting new foreign symbols is sustained by of a real historical community.” Here we have influencing the rest of the world to buy what the “modern man”, who embraces all forms the West is selling. As universities and cultural of technological toys while he rejects evolved institutions from the West seek greater access to solutions that have held society together for the untapped resources of other industrializing millennia. As Scruton points out, there is a deep countries, they present, under the guise of political component in ecophobia, since Western prosperity, a set of circumstances many political parties promote themselves by that serve only to destroy culture. Those values

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effectively destabilize traditional civilization. education of developing countries. The press announces these as “progressive” moves, Strong commercial interests are aligned with little realizing what danger that poses to that economic exploitation via the imposition of country’s tradition. hyped-up contemporary architects on the rest of the world. Governments mistakenly believe that they are doing good for their Architecture and Science people by erecting “showcase” buildings A great deal is gained from utilizing scientiﬁcally- such as museums by internationally famous based knowledge as a new paradigm of how architects. Instead, they are letting in agents of to teach architecture. The way to re-establish intolerance, paving the way for an extinction of architecture as a knowledge-based discipline the local architectural heritage. Young persons is simply to rebuild its knowledge base. Without are exposed to promotional images of design a knowledge base grounded in the reality of in schools and the media, and are told that this human perception and science, architecture is what they must value from now on. They are remains open to corruption and is prey to the indoctrinated to hate and destroy traditional whims of ideology, fashion, and the cult of the architectural expressions — as something noble individual. Making allowances for the inherent to pursue. Many people correctly blame the differences between architecture and science West and powerful local interests for turning as disciplines, there are many lessons to be the country’s young against their own culture. learned through the immediate juxtaposition of For the wealthy Western nations, teaching

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II their intellectual structures. nihilism is just another silliness of contemporary society, along with pseudo-art that intentionally Science and scientific enquiry operate through profanes God. But developing countries stand the application of an accumulated knowledge to risk all they have — their traditional art and base. Scientists undertake research desiring to architecture — in imitating the West on this extend their discipline’s corpus of knowledge. point. They meticulously document successful results of their investigations for inclusion into the greater Our proposals for education reform would body of knowledge. To this end, scientific immediately stop teaching hatred of one’s own disciplines develop languages for this explicit architectural heritage and culture. No crime purpose over time, to enable transcribing and is more unpardonable than parricide — killing saving discovered knowledge for posterity. one’s own parents. But how do we judge an Knowledge itself rests upon having efficient architecture school that teaches students to information storage systems. This process of despise their own heritage, and instills in them an documentation allows scientists to build upon eagerness to destroy it? The target is the society previous discoveries. It saves having to reinvent that brought forth those individuals, in a shared the wheel every time one needs to perform a responsibility with their biological parents. We basic application. read with alarm about Bauhaus images and practices introduced into the architectural Science also has a mechanism that allows one

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to sift useless or outdated information from the Architects failed to develop or implement an working corpus of knowledge. A theory that is ordering system even for architectural styles that superseded or proven wrong is immediately they deal with and refer to daily. Champions of discarded or consigned to having strictly each distinct style fight against the other styles, historical interest. This replacement occurs declaring them to be useless, outdated, or because a better method than the old one is morally indefensible. This irresolvable dispute is found THAT EXPLAINS THE PHENOMENA. Science the source of tremendous systemic conflict and is therefore constantly expanding its information instability (which hinders instead of encouraging base, while maintaining its order and relevance development). Styles are validated only if in a compact corpus of knowledge. This process approved by the discipline’s self-appointed exists through an ordering and compacting of “taste makers”, a defensive gesture to make scientific information, much as libraries develop architecture more mysterious and unavailable a coherent ordering system to handle enormous to those who are not tutored in its multifarious and steadily increasing amounts of information. “theories”. Knowledge can only be useful if it is easily retrievable, and that depends upon having an Scientific debate, on the other hand, while efficient systematization. it can become quite contentious, has strict guidelines for resolution. The scientific criterion By contrast, architecture has yet to develop for validity is whether any knowledge works to an effective system of ordering its inherited explain phenomena adequately, and whether information. In fact, what happened in in the process it creates or establishes something NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II architecture is unthinkable in the sciences: of value to humanity. Scientists abandon an old sometime in the 1920s, in their quest for design belief even though it may be supported by innovation, a group of ideologues arbitrarily threw a large number of followers, if it fails to explain out architecture’s informational basis. The excuse observed structures. Conflicts can be intense, for this elimination was to help the discipline to but are usually brief. Eventually, scientists reach a venture off into new territories. Those wanting to consensus on an experimental basis. do this in the name of innovation felt no obligation to conserve the knowledge previously developed If we adopt the scientific approach, we or discovered. Obviously, since those individuals drop nothing arbitrarily from a discipline’s felt no need to document inherited information, informational store. Most architects don’t yet they also considered it unnecessary to develop treat architecture as a scientist would, since an ordering system for current knowledge. Ever they refrain from looking for its evidence base. since, architectural innovation has been judged The catastrophic loss of urban and architectural to be successful strictly by how completely it information that occurred following World War disregards previous knowledge. II, implemented by modernist-trained teachers taking over architectural schools, would never Paradoxically, this devastating practice has have been allowed to occur if we had followed a led to the accumulation of both rigid dogma scientific model in determining our architecture. and a plethora of mutually contradictory styles. Derived knowledge is far too valuable to throw

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away capriciously. Older knowledge can be developed in the past. Some of these styles superseded only by an updated explanatory are judged inadequate because they do not framework — not by unproven ideas or opinions. serve human needs, and the faculty of existing Again and again, we return to the need for a architectural programs must be prepared for set of evidence-based criteria for judging what this. If one looks carefully, one discovers that is valuable in architecture. many of the unstated principles in use today are not founded on anything architectural, but rest In typical courses of architectural theory, strictly on ideological arguments. Architecture a collection of mutually contradictory and can never go forward if it continues to blindly oftentimes obscure readings leave a student support design dogmas. bewildered about what is relevant or irrelevant. Yet, all are presented as being equally valid, since they are included in some authoritative PART 3. PRIMARILY FOR ADMINISTRATORS: anthology (see the later section entitled OBJECTIVE LACK OF RELEVANCE FOR THE Intellectual (dis)Honesty). Students are not WORLD WE BUILD RESULTING FROM VESTED given any criteria for judgment: indeed, neither INTERESTS. their professor, nor the author of the anthology would dare adopt any measure that makes The Looming Threat of Irrelevance such a judgment possible. Doing so would be perceived as preferring one point of view over Architectural academia has taken on a life another, hence undemocratic. Nevertheless, of its own. In trying to teach architecture, it NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II this flawed notion of plurality unravels what any is propagating a certain set of beliefs and intellectually-developed discipline has found practices. Many of these are antithetical necessary to evolve. Outdated or discredited to good architecture. Builders realize notions that keep reappearing in architectural that architecture schools no longer train readings should finally be allowed to fade into graduates to function as architects. As long obscurity. Without a criterion of what is valid or as the universities themselves see no need for not, architects cannot really allow anything to change, however, they will continue to harbor drop if it is associated with a reigning ideology. academic architecture because it attracts This means that they endlessly perpetuate paying students. It doesn’t matter what those useless intellectual bric-a-brac. students actually learn… It is therefore only a matter of time before independent institutions Diverse styles can indeed be tied together take over the training of young architects. Those by the commonality among positive solutions graduates will eventually replace the graduates that each has to offer (Salingaros, 2006). of established architecture schools that follow Introducing a theoretical classification of the present system of training. Two generations architectural typologies is an essential part of of academic architects will become redundant, the new curriculum. Such an explanation ties since their training precludes their ability to together diverse styles from among competing teach adaptive architecture. contemporary movements, and from those

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The emphasis in architectural education on and environments. Those firms are simply contemporary images, supposed innovation responding to overwhelming client demand. In at the expense of inherited knowledge and addition, we are seeing a surge in expectations prototypes, unlimited personal expression from the parents of university students that (but only as long as it fits within the approved their children be provided a more practical models), nihilistic philosophy, and contemporary body of knowledge, which will allow them to relevance as defined by fashion seems to be be more competitive upon graduation. This destined towards one goal: to train students to pressure is already being felt at most universities produce structures in a specific style. Models throughout the world as they compete for new produced in studios therefore tend to be students, and for the revenue those students generated within a severely restricted design bring. vocabulary. The students learn subconsciously how to produce models and projects that lack Prominent architectural offices now prefer to the identifiable characteristics of life, humor, invite lecturers, rather than send their staff to or joy seen in both natural structures and in the local architecture school. This measure is a traditional architectures and artifacts. Already, response to the desperate situation in getting it is the first employer of an architectural useful real-world training. The current faculty in graduate who is the source of practical architecture schools simply does not offer (and architectural training. It is common knowledge in many cases does not know) the information in the profession that fresh graduates have their that the firm needs in its practice. Those firms

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II heads filled with useless images and are totally are setting up in-house continuing architectural ignorant of basic techniques. education programs, so far informal, but many larger offices have plans to expand these as We (the authors) are in contact with several an integral part of training their staff. Such groups of educators around the world educational programs within an architecture readying alternatives to established university office could become the seeds for replacing architectural training. Those alternatives include the current dependence upon schools of establishing schools outside existing universities, architecture for all training. and transforming existing architecture schools. Such efforts in the past were chiefly directed at The future opens up exciting possibilities for teaching more traditional design skills, and the training a new generation of architecture architectural establishment sabotaged them students to be better architects and urbanists (Salingaros, 2007). The time has finally come for than their predecessors in the late twentieth massive change, however, and this new effort century. The most optimistic expectation for by those who are planning innovative programs substantial change from within the system in is positioned to bypass “academic architecture” the institutions that train architects is 20 years. altogether. This is not an ideological movement Schools outside established training programs so much as a market-driven one: architecture will, given the need for architects well-versed firms are begging for well-trained graduates in their craft, eventually supercede existing who know how to design traditional buildings institutes — perhaps in as short a time as

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ﬁve years. Universities so far appear blind to The accreditation of the professional degree the institutional factors responsible for these of architecture at a Master’s level is meant to problems. Most discourage constructive place architecture as a profession on a par with change out of a desire for things just to run law and medicine. This leads to a requirement smoothly according to an established model. of a Master’s degree in order to become The higher university administration keeps its registered. Nevertheless, the current education hands off internal affairs in the architecture system confuses and frustrates students, schools, thus allowing inertia to rule. Department given the reverse order of how it sequences chairs hire supporters who work in the standard the study of architecture. After having been areas but are afraid to hire someone who taught for four years to challenge any and does truly innovative work, someone who all conventions of architecture and the built might challenge established opinions. Faculty environment, the current Master’s program, committees select new faculty members, as a capstone, teaches just enough about choosing people most like themselves. The result the practical dimensions of architecture to is uniformity of thought, an insular mentality, and satisfy accreditation criteria, but not enough an impregnable defense. to reconcile the early conditioning of students carried out within the existing undergraduate Program Accreditation curriculum. Our proposals resolve this inherent contradiction. They lead to an undergraduate In U.S. programs, the Master’s of Architecture education that supports professional has become, for the most part, the accredited

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II knowledge skills. Students who can only afford degree for professional licensing. One expects the four-year degree will graduate with an therefore that criteria for curricular models effective knowledge of architecture that can at this level would be practical in nature, be immediately applied in their employment as and geared to teaching the practice of junior architects. Students who undertake further architecture as a profession. An examination study follow a program that teaches them of existing programs, however, reveals a dearth how buildings actually work to engage and of practical knowledge in recent graduates. inform humans through their physical form and The practical measure of what is taught in the construction. Students’ creative explorations at current Master’s degree is more than surpassed the Master’s level thus rest on the knowledge by the undergraduate curriculum of the new that their designs are something that can intelligence-based architecture. By contrast, actually be built, and which will provide the we consider philosophical enquiry and abstract requisite information content humans need in theory, which play a weighty role in the existing order to establish a sense of wellbeing. Bachelor’s curriculum, as more appropriate for the study of architecture at a Master’s level. For The National Architectural Accrediting Board such courses to be of any value, we believe the (NAAB, 2004) has set forth educational criteria student has to be more mature and actively that reﬂect upon many of the issues we prepared so as not to be misled or confused by have identiﬁed. In addition, NAAB maintains a ideology. continuing dialogue with the American Institute

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of Architects (AIA) about the knowledge, discourage educational innovation and reform. skills and abilities of architectural graduates. University administrators correctly view program Nevertheless, the academic institutes, whether accreditation as their most important priority. through influence, power, or arrogance, more Nevertheless, nervous academics fearful of often than not continue to teach an ineffective risking their school’s accreditation become creativity. When the time comes for a review of ever more reluctant to try out new ideas, even their degree program, much effort is needed if they personally see their merit in fixing the to frame their pet classes and ideologies into flaws of the current system. Needed reforms are an argument for having met the established postponed indefinitely because they do not registration criteria. fit into the explicit NAAB guidelines. Innovators from outside the status quo are seldom, if ever, NAAB is beginning to see trends in the business hired to teach; instead available positions are of architecture wherein architects are being offered to candidates who simply fit the mold relegated to the limited capacity of designing even if their work brings nothing meaningful to or decorating building façades for engineering the education process. The result is inertia. firms or developers. The balance of the design process is left to those individuals who NAAB maintains its position by certifying possess the best practical knowledge of floor programs that ostensibly meet their systems, wall systems, curtain-wall systems, requirements, even though many of those store-front systems, and the like. This situation programs fail to produce architects who (professional marginalization) stems directly can enter the professional world effectively. NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II from the education architects are currently But students hoping to become practicing receiving. American architectural firms have architects have no choice but to attend a come to expect that they will have to teach NAAB-accredited school. Equally disconcerting the practical application of their profession is a trend we have begun to see in non-Western to all new graduates, since most simply do architectural programs that embrace the not know enough about materials, structures, structure provided by NAAB as a model to and systems of assembly to direct the design copy. If Western architectural programs are and construction of real-world projects. Thus, demonstrably ineffective, why should they the building industry is rightfully beginning to be copied? And even if the programs were relegate architects to a secondary role. While effective in the West, why should we assume there are attempts within the curricula of most they would be adequate for other cultures and architecture schools to meet some national circumstances? While we applaud the efforts of accreditation based upon what they believe to both the NAAB and the AIA, we must recognize be real knowledge, it is the descendants of the the shortfalls of the existing system if we hope to existing model of teaching that are policing the overcome its limitations. educational efficacy of these schools.

An additional concern is the entirely unintended role that NAAB may be playing to

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Politics, Philosophy, Critical Theory, and The informational ﬁelds that surround us are Human Perception more important today than ever, given the dependency of students on image-based Evolutionary compulsion forces human beings to learning. Supplanting natural information by establish a system of relationships between the intellectual abstraction effectively removes physical body and the human mind’s mental the essential informational content needed perceptions, which enable us to experience for human engagement with the outside the world and our existence. These relationships world, replacing it with blank walls. Throughout provide us with our sense of wellbeing, our sense the twentieth century, one of the important of belonging, and our deeper sense of who we situational constructs that enabled architects are. Through the physical and the visual aspects to substitute images for what is real was their of human perception, the body managed ability to use the written word to subsidize their humankind’s earliest interactions with the world. informationally-poor structures. So began a long Evolution developed a neurological structure history of political and polemical texts operating in humans by which they could negotiate the as the philosophical surrogate for embedded immediate conditions of their lives. Through the knowledge, which was henceforth lost from the surrounding informational ﬁelds — physical and built world. visual information embedded in the natural structure of the world — humans successfully Architecture schools now rely heavily, if not evolved to construct artifacts for living. These exclusively, on loosely-construed philosophical creations range from jewelry, to furniture, to postulates for educating their students. Schools NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II buildings, and ultimately to cities. proffer philosophical doctrines (we cannot call them theories) in the absence of intelligence- As the human mind continued to develop based design and direct human experience. through the impulse of emotion, there came a The way philosophy is currently taught to point where humans were able to manufacture architects tends to mix political ideology abstract ideas and thoughts, outside the with idiosyncratic and subjective insights into physical reality that confronted them on a daily society, and this muddled mess is presented as basis. The schism between the subject/object a theoretical basis for architectural and urban natures of perception permits the manufacture design. This practice is a terribly dangerous mix, of an alternative reality. This mental capacity as it gives students a perverted and erroneous, if has been the protagonist of human thought not fraudulent basis for their profession. Students and enquiry for millennia — leading to some of are normally unable to separate what is useful the greatest achievements of the human mind analysis from what is political rhetoric and so — at other times it led humankind towards the learn little or nothing about buildings and cities. greatest atrocities imaginable. During the last century, architecture — as the formation of a Certain authors on the political left provide world outside our bodies — has been consigned a picture of what is wrong with aspects of by contemporary doctrine to the intellectual contemporary society, offering useful critiques creations of a purely subjective mind. from outside the capitalist economic system.

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Nevertheless, their proposed solutions are the that is transmitted to architecture students same unworkable utopian dreams that have in today through Pavlovian conditioning. the past led to totalitarian states. One stream of philosophy running throughout contemporary Even though the majority of architecture architectural education goes back to the professors are not overtly political, and even Frankfurt School, which introduced “Critical less declared Marxists, architecture schools Theory” into philosophy. The essence of this have been dominated by a philosophy that 1930’s movement was to apply extreme anti- arose from the radical political left. Critical traditional prejudices to the new industrial theory and its architectural derivatives (which society of the post World-War-I era. The original represent ideology rather than theory) continue Marxist authors proposed radical social change to dictate architectural texts. Students lack through revolution, technology, and the sufﬁcient knowledge to recognize when subjection of the individual to collective class fourth-generation derivative authors talk about structure. They declared tradition to be the architecture using hidden agendas about enemy of progress, a position that of course the supremacy of technology, class struggle, included all architectural traditions. Historical and abolishing traditional society. While this notions of beauty were condemned, while art ideological objective is never made explicit, it was to be produced henceforth though the colors supposedly theoretical expositions and negation of universal truths, inspired instead by situates itself in the values of students. After all contradiction, despair, and the shock of human these years, few people have caught onto the original deceit: while pretending to censure

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II suffering. Schools inherited this prejudiced approach to analyzing built form, in many the aristocracy, this rhetoric in fact reviled all writings that bear the epithet “critical”. Such of popular vernacular architecture, to boost texts are not helpful in designing buildings but the personal careers of the Bauhaus members. only in the formation of ideological tenets. Now the very same system is used to prop up an architectural elite. Independent of the written legacy of Critical Theory and the Frankfurt school, the post- Critical Theory has had its most insidious effect war tradition in architecture and the arts on architecture with the spread of the doctrine has inherited the misdirected anger and known as “Critical Regionalism”. Proponents desperation of 1930’s European intellectuals. of this self-contradictory ideology assert that Those individuals were reacting against earlier vernacular tradition and culture are dead, class oppression while being threatened by and that henceforth, regional architecture the rise of Nazism. After the Second World must adapt to modernist uniformization. They War, those same intellectuals reacted to the proclaim that the patterns and practices from horrors that had just been perpetrated by which a region’s identity is derived are mere casting the blame onto traditional society and “nostalgia”, and instead recommend the its humanistic architecture. These extremely abstract aesthetics of international modernism powerful emotions survive in a visceral hatred of (Cassidy, 2007). Any architectural expression, traditional architectural forms — an indignation other than those possible within the restricted

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modernist aesthetic, is rejected. Those writers’ critical faculties. Such disorientation could in avowed intention is to create forms that do fact be deliberate: a necessary psychological not belong to the vernacular form language. preparation for imprinting stylistic preferences What results from this schizophrenic approach in their minds (Salingaros, 2007). Throwing the is not regional architecture in any sense, but burden of teaching architects onto obscure a set of self-referential objects detached from philosophical texts enables architecture schools their cultural roots, created and manipulated to endorse a very narrow set of design styles, without regard to their regional context. (One embracing those currently in fashion. occasionally sees an attempt at site-speciﬁc climatic adaptation, but nothing more). The common justiﬁcation given for studying philosophy is that architecture and urbanism Teachers thus use purely ideological arguments are intimately tied to social phenomena, so to validate a narrow set of design styles for that philosophy prepares a student to confront students. That is as wrong as it is unsupported. It architectural problems. This explanation is is only a means to further sustain a cult ideology a subterfuge, however, operating more as that has dominated architectural education for a means to avoid teaching architecture to the past several decades. The point is that good students directly. The modernist teaching architecture and urbanism have nothing to do method, wherein all useful derived knowledge with political beliefs. Worst of all, teachers apply is thrown out in the tabula rasa approach, techniques learned from political ideologues cannot openly admit that architectural and to coerce students and other academics into urban knowledge ever existed. If it did, then NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II intellectual submission. Such forms of censorship someone would have to explain how over are typical of a system that considers itself 2,000 years of knowledge was lost, discarded, above all others. It gives itself the authority to or ignored during the modernists’ 70-year reign. re-frame every member’s worldview. Whenever By diverting architecture students towards evidence is ignored, and is substituted by the carefully selected philosophical authors, this irrational, that creates dogma. This erroneous action conveniently covers up the deliberate style of teaching has become solidly established avoidance of any genuine, newly-derived or in today’s system. historically-relevant architectural theory.

One way to maintain the mystique of So much of what now passes for “architectural “architecture as an art” was to embrace ever theory” is therefore little more than doctrine. It more abstruse and incomprehensible texts, so conditions students to have absolute faith in as to shield the discipline’s shaky intellectual a body of beliefs established in the absence core from outside scrutiny. This obsession of real-world criteria. Those beliefs set up the (or defensive tactic) has led architecture to student’s worldview as shaped by the dynamics embrace the nihilistic and deconstructive of in-group affiliation: a cognitive filter that philosophers. Having architecture students bends information to fit, and rejects information read Derridean and Deleuzean philosophical that does not fit. Architectural education must texts disorients them, breaking down their in the future clearly separate architecture from

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politics, and also separate architecture from religious texts are founded upon morality self-referential philosophy. Only teachers can stories that help humanity to see beyond the train their students to do this. Both teachers limitations of human beings existing as animals and students can achieve this clarity of or purely subjective beings. But none of this is thought only after they understand the genuine ever incorporated into architectural teaching theoretical basis of architecture, expressed today — which still turns to the same peculiar in strictly architectural terms. Schools have a handful of (Western) philosophers, relying upon responsibility to teach a genuinely architectural them to justify “architecture for architecture’s basis for design. sake”. Judging by how inhuman its forms are, the driving ideology is purely nihilistic, even as it Architecture students should ultimately study serves global capital. philosophy, but that is productive once they have formed a basis of what is really going The separation between nihilism and humanism on in architecture. And the philosophy they is total and uncompromising, however. We have study has to be positive and humanistic. Many to choose very carefully which philosophers, philosophers throughout history emphasize and which texts to offer students for their reading the necessity for human beings to connect to assignments. A school cannot abrogate its the universe, but architects hardly ever study responsibility by teaching architecture as a set those authors. Intelligence-Based Design has of self-serving beliefs. In the twentieth century, deep philosophical foundations. Humanly- architecture became a mass movement adaptive architecture and urbanism arise out under the influence of leading architects NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II of a respect for humanity’s higher meaning in who exploited specific philosophical texts to an infinite universe. There exists a vast body of support their ideals and to promote themselves philosophical work connecting humanity both (Salingaros, 2007). Architecture detached itself with nature and with the sublime. One of our from any higher order in human existence, recommended texts, The Luminous Ground turning away from both nature and from the (Alexander, 2004) establishes a genuine sacred. It was the first time in human history philosophical foundation for an adaptive that humans began to intentionally create architecture. unnatural structures that are uncomfortable to inhabit and to experience. Philosophers whose writings are essential for the sustainability of humankind try to understand otherwise puzzling human actions Intellectual (dis)Honesty outside a strictly scientific framework. They help us to delineate good from bad in human The discipline of architecture has garnered a activities. This historical notion of “morality” dubious reputation among other disciplines as an recurs throughout the traditional treatises arena where self-validating criteria perpetuate on philosophy of the entire world. Numerous arguments of self-importance. Reified in contemporary philosophers celebrate life the ideological premise of “architecture for and the sacredness of humanity. Traditional architecture’s sake”, perpetrators of a pure

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architectural expression denounce program, content. Nowadays, strong students tend to function, purpose, and site — all practical go into the sciences and engineering, whereas measures. The expressions of its unconventional today’s architecture schools attract the weaker and unnatural forms are sacrosanct, so much or somewhat dysfunctional student by ostensibly so that architectural academia, the design promising four years of arts and crafts. True, at industry, and Western media are compelled some point students are given impossible tasks to consecrate its images through the institutes that require they stay up working all night: this of capital and commodity. So unusual are satisﬁes them psychologically, making them the aberrations of fashionable architecture think they really did something. Through this that many are fooled into thinking they are experience, erroneously termed “design rigor”, seeing genuine advancement in architectural students can easily become convinced that thinking. Unnatural in appearance, images of they are gifted designers. The lack of sleep such fashionable architecture circulate the globe, exercises require only enables the deception. establishing, legitimizing, and forging an esoteric language of design. As a result, the It is time to explain to students some of the ideas that accompany these forms realized facts, as we see them, about the architectural through ideology have become institutionalized establishment’s support for the current crop in the modern education of an architect. To of illustrious architects. These prize-winning that end, architectural education has spent architects appear to be principally seeking the past several decades insulating itself by fame and proﬁts, and are apparently willing to do just about anything to achieve their goal.

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II way of its own internalized valuing system. This isolation has bred an exclusive community of This includes writing nonsensical texts and talking like-minded persons who would rather, it seems, prattle to justify their otherwise absurd buildings. pursue a purely aesthetic expression of the built If those buildings were ﬁne for human use, then world in place of any practical measure the it wouldn’t matter what the architect utters, but universe might hold. many contemporary “showcase” buildings are in fact dysfunctional (Silber, 2007). We blame By removing genuine architectural knowledge those architects for their work — but even more from the architecture curriculum, academics the clients who actually commissioned it. There is are better able to perpetuate their empty something morally wrong with selling a defective theories, indoctrinating defenseless students product, even if that is permitted in the amoral into their peculiar ideologies. Architecture view of how capital markets work. Users might schools that originally were part of the College eventually outgrow their dependency on of Engineering had to distance themselves from image-based designs, realize the deception, the scrutiny of more practically-minded people. and stop commissioning non-adaptive buildings They thus joined the College of Art, or became (it just hasn’t happened yet). administratively independent altogether. Since their course structure was no longer that of We are alarmed that intellectual dishonesty engineering schools, it became very easy to begins at the top of the profession — with water down the intellectual level and course some of today’s most famous architects — and

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permeates down into architectural academia. minds. They publish collections labeled as Lacking a solid intellectual basis as a discipline, “Essential Readings in Architectural Theory”, architecture is exposed to the personal whims which are then used to teach entire generations and political ambitions of its key players. These of architecture students. The deception consists power games define the system’s intellectual of two tactics: (i) proclaiming ideology as structure, a condition we refer to as “the politics “theory”; and (ii) presenting the views of trendy of architectural discourse”. There is purposefully contemporary architects and ideologues, no system of checks and balances, such as with just one or two honest authors thrown occurs in disciplines with a solid knowledge in. This token gesture of inclusion is essential base like the sciences. Politics may play out in for misrepresenting the book as an unbiased academic scientific departments, but the core selection, meant to educate students through body of knowledge survives these conflicts, broad exposure to different viewpoints. and is transmitted to the younger generation. Teachers and schools fall for that trick. Architecture removed this guarantee when the The preponderance of text in such books, Bauhaus scrapped the discipline’s inherited however, is self-serving and irrelevant. The early, knowledge. The Bauhaus teachers then took “historical” section is oftentimes limited to the over both architectural education and practice Bauhaus authors — nothing before that; little worldwide, resulting in a resounding personal or nothing outside the closed confines of the success at the expense of the entire discipline. Western industrial aesthetic; little or nothing about the vast building heritage of humankind. Overturning architecture’s prior dependence NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II on the natural aspects of materials and Turning to an analogy from history and methods, formalistic arguments were substituted politics helps us understand this phenomenon in place of direct observation. The Bauhaus better. The removal of inherited architectural studiously developed design techniques that knowledge also removes the conditions for REMOVED natural geometrical qualities from loyalty to the discipline. There is nothing left built structures. While Bauhaus readings might to be loyal to — other than individuals or an suggest that their design philosophy stemmed ideology — and thus the door opens wide for directly from nature as a source of design opportunism and systemic corruption. Abusing inspiration, the unnatural quality of their designs the democratic process, a small elite gained belies any such claims. Within the paradigm of power, confined rewards and privileges to its Machine-Age Design (MAD) instituted by the own members, and set up a framework (or Bauhaus teachers, new ways of teaching and commandeered an existing one) to protect evaluating the work of architecture students its power base. Mechanisms for accountability and practitioners created the basis for what was were diligently abolished. Loyalty is no to come — a descent into self-congratulatory longer towards the discipline, but only to the sycophancy. controlling elite. A larger entity to which people owe loyalty is always defined by some solidly- Architectural academics have long utilized established historical ideals. Those foundations clever propaganda ploys in shaping students’ lend systemic stability, which in turn permits

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disagreements, innovation, and debate while in covering up the ugly deeds of its famous preserving the sanctity of the discipline itself. names. By presenting these individuals as models, architectural academics have been We are now witnessing a devious effort to co- offering a great lie to their students and to the opt our own work and the results of our friends. rest of the world. Clever members of the current establishment realize that a major new market is developing, Conclusion and wish to “ride the wave” and establish a monopoly (which continues the old modernist Contemporary architecture has become monopoly). Those individuals are beginning an esoteric language, framed within a self- to embrace our vocabulary and ideas, but perpetuating argument rolled into an ideology, only to subvert them so as to bolster their own which sits above reason and rational purpose. cult heroes and ideology. Others shamelessly At the heart of its argument is the appropriation appropriate our ideas as their own, and use of all ideas and information through an them in self-promotion. Architectural academics aesthetic paradigm. But we know — and lecture on mathematics and the new sciences soon the rest of the world will know — that if applied to architecture; algorithmic design; architecture is to sustain humanity, it has to be adaptivity and sustainability; nature and the fundamentally based on structural principles human dimension; the sacred aspects of built found in the physical universe, supplemented form, etc. Such efforts are dishonest when with a deep understanding of the human judged by their concluding line: they promote psyche: of human needs, activities, and NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II the same set of nihilistic architectural heroes. perceptive mechanisms. Contemporary Appropriating the ideas of intelligence-based architects fool themselves into believing that design in order to twist them to opposite ends is philosophy or ideology can substitute for these. simply an exercise in deception. Engineers and other construction professions are beginning to bypass the ineffectual dimension Even allowing for temperamental differences of architectural philosophy; capitalizing on its between artists and scientists (and treating inability to work through realistic problems and architects as artists, which is the way they leaving architects with less and less work to do. prefer it), the behavior of many of the West’s key architectural ﬁgures tends to be rather As we structure a new educational model sordid. Their lives and actions are marked by for the future it is important that we set forth dishonesty and a lack of personal morality. No on the work-to-be-done with a newfound (or comparable behavior is to be found among, rediscovered) paradigm. This paradigm reveals say, famous doctors throughout recent history. a greater concern in the workings of the human Famous architects court unsavory powers and mind than the formal ordering systems of the regimes in search for commissions, apparently twentieth century allowed. Beyond the party not bothered by any moral conscience. Worse line of the tabula rasa, this new approach of all, such historical facts are suppressed by seeks to leave in place those elements and architectural academia, which is complicit structures that imbue the built environment

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with a morphology that respects both time Appendix I: and space, both history and phenomenology. Detailed Curriculum for Intelligence-Based If indeed Intelligence-Based Design develops Design System for Architectural Education. into a new tradition, it will sponsor forms of design that spring from existing conditions and BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE traditions to render ever-greater expressions in the work of multi-cultural world architects and Freshman Year urbanists. Basic Design 1 & 2 The future opens up exciting possibilities for Texts: Biophilic Design: The Theory, Science training a new generation of architecture and Practice of Bringing Buildings to Life students beyond the conditioning of modernist (Kellert, Heerwagen & Mador, 2008), “If I Were a architectural educational systems. We are Young Architect” (Polyzoides, 2007), “The Viseu calling for nothing less than a fundamental Declaration on Architectural Education in the change to the discipline’s basis. We do not 21st Century” (CEU, 2004). expect that the changes we are suggesting Content: The study and application of Biophilic will be immediately embraced and applied principles in architectural design. Students will unilaterally throughout the academic and learn to discern degrees of human engagement professional institutions of architecture around with the natural world and how to make good the world. But we hope that those among us choices towards positive human responses. who have the passion, courage, and vision They will work through full-scale models and NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II to see a better way will begin to reconstruct physiological testing using their own bodies as architectural academia through Intelligence- feedback monitors. Projects will be established Based Design. We strongly believe that in increasing scales, and designs will consider Intelligence-Based Design represents a new pattern-based methods of design. This course model for the world. The reason is that its will establish a pedagogical model of designing, principles and governing sciences inherently building, and testing that will serve students validate all other cultural forms, traditions, and well in their continued studies. The readings sensibilities. The dominating iconic forms of the will establish the moral and philosophical reigning Western model, by contrast, effectively foundations of architecture in an honest and disrespect all architectures and cultures of the ethical manner. (studio/lecture format). world except for their own. Architectural Theory 1 Texts: The Nature of Order, Book One: The Phenomenon of Life (Alexander, 2001), Biophilic Design: The Theory, Science and Practice of Bringing Buildings to Life (Kellert, Heerwagen & Mador, 2008). Content: The study of Biophilic principles and the recognition of the animating forces of material

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and form that proffer a sense of life within a patterns in design. Deals with the highly structure, and a sense of human wellbeing in complex systems of overlapping geometries the built environment. Alexander’s principles of and phenomena found in architecture and connection will applied to architectural form, urbanism, which serve to extend human using his 15 fundamental properties and the consciousness outside our bodies in response “Mirror of the Self” test. Students will learn to see to the needs and desires of life. Design is architecture as a necessary expression of the predicated on the multiplicity of human human dimension, which is at once physical, patterns: how humans collect, how they live, perceptual, and emotional. Architecture will be how they prepare their meals, and what taught as an externalization of human biology, they seek in terms of comfort from the world. not an imposition of technology or ideology on Students will work to develop patterns for living beings. This course will teach the geometry projects that include Biophilic concepts, of life while instilling in students an awareness of through full-scale renderings of details, colors, its power to affect wellbeing. textures, and surfaces. This course will also identify the necessity of universal scaling as part Materials & Methods of our biological makeup, and teach students Content: This course will provide students to re-establish the full gamut of human scales in direct contact with construction materials structures within the built environment. (studio/ and methods. Exercises in material logic and lecture format). patterns of assembly will be introduced in conjunction with design projects. Students will Architectural Theory II NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II study the properties and characteristics of Texts: A Pattern Language (Alexander, Ishikawa, materials speciﬁc to a region, and the physical Silverstein, Jacobson, Fiksdahl-King & Angel, and physiological cause-and-effect of material 1977), A Theory of Architecture (Salingaros, assemblies that develop out of material logic. 2006). The course will teach the effectual dimension of Content: This course establishes the fundamental architecture through its immediate presence. necessity of spatial organization based on Students will experience architecture ﬁrst-hand patterns and gives explicit directions for design with their own senses, and not from pictures. students to begin to engage intelligence-based (requires extensive site visits). design in their work. Teaches patterns in design as an extension of human neuro-physiological Sophomore Year needs and connectivity. Provides an intimate knowledge of the physical building blocks of Basic Design 3 & 4 the natural world. At the same time, we will gain Texts: A Pattern Language (Alexander, Ishikawa, a greater understanding of other geometries Silverstein, Jacobson, Fiksdahl-King & Angel, and the role they play, when incorporated 1977), “Restructuring 21st-Century Architecture correctly, in effective form generation. Through Human Intelligence” (Salingaros & Masden, 2007). History of Architecture Content: The study and application of human Content: This is not a survey course about the

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history of architectural styles and ideologies. within the operational complexities of urban This course will utilize historic models to teach systems. This leads students away from the idea how these building were first built through of architecture as a stand-alone edifice or the materials and methods of the time, and urbanism as an aesthetic exercise, by revealing ask students to consider what it might take to the negation of place that occurs through build these buildings today with the tools and the contemporary pursuit of autonomous and technologies we now possess. For example, insular forms. Students utilizing physiological would we be better able to build the Pantheon sensors such as skin conductivity gauges, blood in Rome or the Duomo in Florence with pressure monitors, etc. to measure the level of new materials and methods that were then stress in an observer when exposed to good and unavailable? And what effect would this have bad examples of architecture, will see firsthand on the building’s engagement with humans? the immediate implications of the physical The course will be taught through greater environment on human wellbeing. Physical and detail of select examples. Students will learn virtual modeling, as well as image-sequenced how materials and patterns worked together processes will be tested to determine their in the past to create the emergent properties effectiveness on large-scale investigations. that human beings sense as life in a building. Students will be required to develop methods of Students will be asked to prepare actual documenting and evaluating the experiential drawings of historic structures, i.e. plans, sections dimension of architecture in an urban and elevations, as well as large-scale models of context. (Cross-disciplinary investigations with

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II details. This process will provide students with an other departments such as the Psychology intimate knowledge of these great buildings, Department or the Medical School are highly and an understanding of genuinely human recommended, as are multiple visits to urban forms and geometries essential for future sites within the immediate area) (studio/lecture inspiration. format).

Junior Year Architectural Theory III Texts: Architecture: Choice or Fate (Krier, 1998), Advanced Design 1 & 2 Principles of Urban Structure (Salingaros, 2005). Content: Students will establish evidence-based Content: The course work establishes a design criteria and a classiﬁcation system for cohesive theory of urban design for students forms and surfaces that give either a negative of architecture worldwide, based upon an or positive physiological response. By way of appreciation of the best typologies from the intelligence-based design projects, students will past. Students will be asked to study historic and develop a detailed knowledge of physiological contemporary precedence-seeking design processes through which evidence-based solutions that reﬂect the human necessity of results can be interpreted and later applied. place, and the effectual dimension of the This course will teach a sustainable form of built environment. From this, students will learn intelligence-based design wherein students how enduring buildings and cities develop to learn to more effectively situate their buildings contribute to the continuity and coherence

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of place, by providing greater connectivity Computations” (Alexander, 2008), “Architecture: instead of ruptures or fractures with humanity. Biological Form and Artiﬁcial Intelligence” (Salingaros & Masden, 2006), “Restructuring Tectonics and Structure 21st-Century Architecture Through Human Content: Students will be taught the tectonics Intelligence” (Salingaros & Masden, 2007). and structures of architecture through hands- Content: Students will learn the broader on construction projects. They will be required implications of Intelligence-Based Design to identify and critique systems of construction and the processes of human emotional and their inherent detailed forms of assembly health that frame the experiential dimensions and structural geometries. By way of imaginary of the everyday. From this vantage point, disassembly, students with consider the an array of contemporary issues will be implications of such connective devices on addressed, i.e., emergent urban patterns the human perceptual and physiological and building types, democratic planning sense of rightness. This course will require the and community participation, social life and assembly of full-scale detailed models showing healthy communities, and the role of heritage. the operation and performance of physical Twentieth-century architectural typologies, and connections. their associated ideologies, will be reviewed using the criterion of adaptability to human Senior Year emotional needs.

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II Advanced Design 3 & 4 Text: The Nature of Order, Book Four: The MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE Luminous Ground (Alexander, 2004). Content: Students will learn to recognize and This is a two-year graduate curriculum, to be cultivate emergent properties in their designs. determined by each school according to the Given design problems that operate at the school’s immediate needs. We list only tentative highest level of culture and identity, students titles of topics to be covered, along with some will seek to re-establish architecture on the recommended textbooks. deeper ground that human beings share with each other and with the inﬁnite. This course will Origins of Living Structure. teach experimental techniques of objective Texts: The Timeless Way of Building (Alexander, judgment, operating methods for engaging 1979), The Nature of Order, Book 2: The Process animate forces, and strategies for transcendent of Creating Life (Alexander, 2002), The Nature design that work at all scales, for example on of Order, Book 3: A Vision of a Living World ornamental detail up to the scale of an entire (Alexander, 2005). city. (studio/lecture format) Content: Patterns of being alive. Life in traditional artifacts, architecture, and urbanism. Architectural Theory IV Alexander’s “Mirror of the Self” test. Wholeness- Texts: Nature of Order, Book 4: The Luminous extending transformations. The sequence of Ground (Alexander, 2004), “Harmony Seeking unfolding. Belonging to the world. The process

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of building uniqueness. Ornament as an (Alexander, 2001; 2002; 2005). essential part of the unfolding process. Form Content: Recursion and the Fibonacci language and formal geometry. sequence. Universal scaling. Fractals and the Sierpinski gasket. Perforation, bending, Practical Urban Design and City Planning. and folding: the “push-pull” model. Universal Texts: A New Theory of Urban Design (Alexander distribution of sizes. Alexander’s theory of et. al., 1987), Suburban Nation (Duany et. al., centers. Cellular automata. Generating a 2001), Smart Code (Duany et. al., 2007), New Sierpinski carpet with a 1-D cellular automaton. Urbanism and Beyond (Haas, 2008), Principles of Harmony-seeking computations. Alexander’s Urban Structure (Salingaros, 2005). 15 Fundamental Properties. Biologically- Content: Code-based urbanism and Neo- inspired computation and genetic algorithms. traditional development. Network city planning. Emergent systems. Examples from Artiﬁcial Life. Sustainable development. Interventions to Symmetry production and symmetry breaking. combat sprawl. Retroﬁtting the suburbs in an Generative codes and their application to era of scarce oil. Commercial architecture in building and urban morphology. Duany-Plater- today’s world. Informal housing and favelas. Zyberk New Urbanist codes and the Transect. Self-organizing urban systems. Minimal Implementation of generative codes in design. interventions in social housing.

Classical Architecture for Today. Appendix II: A New Mathematics Curriculum for

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II Content: Foundations of Classical design. Origins of the Classical form language in wooden Students of Architecture: Directives for the construction. Theory of proportions. Neo- Intelligence-Based Studio classical typological evolution. Adaptations for different climates and societies. Colonial A new service course put together by the architecture. Department of Mathematics will include all the mathematical tools relevant to Intelligence- Hands-on Islamic Architecture. Based Design. These include mathematical Content: Principal typologies and archetypes topics that are not very advanced in themselves, based on tradition and religious practice. but which are not all taught in lower-level Variation and adaptation of regional form mathematics courses, even to mathematics languages. Techniques and methods using majors. Some topics do come from advanced contemporary construction methods and mathematics, but we only need the most materials. Islamic models for today’s building elementary description of them, largely typologies. qualitative, to serve architecture students. It is convenient to bring them all together into a Algorithmic Sustainable Design. basic topics course lasting anywhere from two Texts: “Harmony-seeking computations” (Alexander, to four semesters. Here is a list of recommended 2008), The Nature of Order: Books 1, 2, and 3 topics.

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Functions. Logarithmic and exponential content. Comparison of random versus ordered functions. Logarithm as the inverse of the information. exponential function. Graphing functions. Log- log graphs. Polar coordinates. Transformation Symmetries. Reﬂectional, rotational, and between Polar and Cartesian coordinates. translational symmetries. Glide reﬂections. Archimedean and logarithmic spirals. Animal Scaling symmetry. Counting the number of horns, snails, and seashells. symmetries in simple arrays. Visual connectivity and the Harmony measure H . Power laws. Allometric growth and scaling. Inverse power-law distributions. The slope of the log-log graph. Acknowledgements Sequences. Arithmetic, geometric, and The authors thank their friends and colleagues Jaap Dawson, José Eduardo de la Garza, Christopher exponential sequences. Rules and recursion Derrington, Anna Grasso-Gay, and Ela Tekkaya- relations. The Fibonacci sequence and the Poursani for constructive comments on earlier versions n Golden Mean. The exponential sequence {e } of this paper. Those helpful individuals, however, do and its approximate relation to the Fibonacci not necessarily endorse all the controversial opinions sequence. voiced herein. Fractals. The Sierpinski and von Koch fractals. Cellular automata that generate the Sierpinski References

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II carpet. Cantor sets and space-ﬁlling curves. Alexander, C. (1979). The Timeless Way of Building, Sponges. Self-similarity on different scales. Oxford University Press, New York, USA. Fractal dimension. Inverse-power laws and fractals. Natural fractals, patterns on seashells, Alexander, C. (2001-2005). The Nature of Order, Books fern leaves, rivers, and the formation of cracks 1-4, Center for Environmental Structure, Berkeley, in materials. The box-counting method. California, USA. Book 1: The Phenomenon of Life, Fractal properties of Classical and Gothic 2001; Book 2: The Process of Creating Life, 2002; architectures. Book 3: A Vision of a Living World, 2005; Book 4: The Luminous Ground, 2004. Elementary graph theory. Nodes and connections. Topological equivalence among Alexander, C. (2008). Harmony-Seeking graphs. The simplest graphs of small order. Computations, International Journal of Notion of a fully connected graph. ‘Small- Unconventional Computing, Volume 4 (in press). world’ networks. The distribution of nerve cells Alexander, C., Ishikawa, S., Silverstein, M., Jacobson, in invertebrate animals. Random graphs. The M., Fiksdahl-King I. & Angel, S. (1977). A Pattern Erdös-Renyi theorem on the sudden transition Language, Oxford University Press, New York, USA. from an unconnected to a connected graph. Alexander, C., Neis, H., Anninou, A. & King, I. (1978). A Information theory. Compression of information New Theory of Urban Design, Oxford University Press, through redundancy. Irreducibility of information New York, USA.

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Asquith, L. & Vellinga, M., Editors (2006). Vernacular Rizzoli, New York. Architecture in the Twenty-First Century, Taylor & Joye, Y. (2006). An Interdisciplinary Argument for Francis, London, United Kingdom. Natural Morphologies in Architectural Design, Bothwell, S., Duany, A., Hetzel, P., Hurtt, S. & Thadani, Environment and Planning B, Volume 33, pp. 239-252. D. (2004). Windsor Forum on Design Education, New Joye, Y. (2007a). Fractal Architecture Could be Good Urban Press, Miami, Florida, USA. for You, Nexus Network Journal, Volume 9, No. 2, pp. Boyer E. & Mitgang, L. (1996). Building Community: A 311-320. New Forum for Architecture Education and Practice, Joye, Y. (2007b). Architectural Lessons From Carnegie Foundation, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Environmental Psychology: The Case of Biophilic Cassidy, T. J. (2007). Becoming Regional Over Time: Architecture, Review of General Psychology, Volume Toward a Reﬂexive Regionalism, in: V. B. Canizaro, 11, No. 4, pp. 305–328. Editor, Architectural Regionalism, Princeton Kellert, S. R., Heerwagen, J. & Mador, M., Editors Architectural Press, New York, USA, pp. 411-419. (2008). Biophilic Design: The Theory, Science and CEU (2004). The Viseu Declaration on Architectural Practice of Bringing Buildings to Life, John Wiley, New Education in the 21st Century, Council for European York, USA. Urbanism . Krier, L. (1984). Houses, Palaces, Cities, Edited by Reprinted as an Appendix in Bothwell et. al. (2004). Demetri Porphyrios, Academy Publications, London, Davis, H. (2006). Review of Christopher Alexander’s United Kingdom.

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II The Nature of Order, Book 1: The Phenomenon of Krier, L. (1998) Architecture: Choice or Fate, Andreas Life, The Structurist, No. 45/46, pp. 22-28. Papadakis Publisher, Windsor, UK. The student D’Souza, N. (2007). Design Intelligences: edition, published in 2007, is available from the UK A Case for Multiple Intelligences in Architectural . A new American edition is Design, Archnet-IJAR: International Journal of expected in 2008. Architectural Research, Volume 1, Issue 2, pp. Masden, K. G. II (2006). The Education of an Urbanist: 15-34. http://archnet.org/library/documents/one- a Real Point of View, in José Baganha, Editor, The document.jsp?document_id=10102 Teaching of Architecture and Urbanism in the Age Duany, A., Plater-Zyberk, E. & Speck, J. (2001). of Globalization (The 2004 Viseu Conference), Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline Caleidoscopio Ediçao e Artes Graﬁcas, Casal de of the American Dream, North Point Press, New York, Cambra, Portugal: pp. 173-179. USA. NAAB (2004). NAAB Conditions for Accreditation Duany, A., Wright, W. & Sorlien, S. (2007). Smart for Professional Degree Programs in Architecture, Code, Version 9.0, New Urban Publications, Ithaca, The National Architectural Accrediting Board, New York, USA. < http://www.smartcodecentral.org/ Washington, DC, USA. index.html> Olesen, P. J., Westerberg, H. & Klingberg, T. (2004). Haas, T., Editor (2008). New Urbanism & Beyond: “Increased Prefrontal and Parietal Activity After Contemporary and Future Trends in Urban Design, Training of Working Memory”, Nature Neuroscience,

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Volume 7, Number 1, pp. 75-79. Quantuck Lane Press, New York, USA. Polyzoides, S. (2007). If I Were a Young Architect, Wilson, E. O. (2008). The Nature of Human Nature, Archnet-IJAR: International Journal of Architectural Chapter 2 of: Biophilic Design: The Theory, Science, Research, Volume 1, Issue 3, pp. 183-188. and Practice of Bringing Buildings to Life, edited Mador, John Wiley, New York, USA. Salama, A. (1995). New Trends in Architectural ------Education: Designing the Design Studio, Nikos A. Salingaros Tailored Text and Unlimited Potential Publishing, Nikos A. Salingaros M.A., Ph.D., ICTP, ICoH is the Raleigh, North Carolina, USA. Available online author of “Anti-Architecture and Deconstruction” from . A second Theory of Architecture” (2006), as well as numerous edition is expected in 2008. scientific papers. Both an artist and scientist, he is Professor of Mathematics at the University of Texas Salama A. & Wilkinson, N. (eds.) (2007). Design at San Antonio, and is also on the architecture Studio Pedagogy: Horizons for the Future, The Urban faculties of universities in Holland, Italy, and Mexico. International Press, Gateshead, United Kingdom. His work underpins and helps to link new movements in architecture and urbanism, such as New Urbanism, Salingaros, N. A. (2005). Principles of Urban Structure, the Network City, Biophilic Design, Self-built Housing, Techne Press, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. and Sustainable Architecture. Dr. Salingaros collaborated with Christopher Alexander, helping to NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II Salingaros, N. A. (2006). A Theory of Architecture, edit the four-volume “The Nature of Order” during its Umbau-Verlag, Solingen, Germany. twenty-five-year gestation. In recognition of his efforts Salingaros, N. A. (2007). Anti-Architecture and to understand architecture using scientific thinking, Deconstruction, Second Edition, Umbau-Verlag, he was awarded the first grant ever for research Solingen, Germany. on architecture by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, in 1997. Dr. Salingaros is a member of the INTBAU Salingaros, N. A. & Masden, K. G. II (2006). College of Traditional Practitioners, and is on the Architecture: Biological Form and Artificial INTBAU Committee of Honor. He can be reached at Intelligence, The Structurist, No. 45/46, pages 54-61. [email protected] Salingaros, N. A. & Masden, K. G. II (2007). ------Restructuring 21st-Century Architecture Through Kenneth G. Masden II Human Intelligence, Archnet-IJAR: International Kenneth G. Masden II received his B.Arch. from the Journal of Architectural Research, Volume 1, Issue 1, University of Kentucky in 1982 and his M.Arch. from pp. 36-52. Duany, and Vincent Scully. Also during this time he Scruton, R. (2006). England & the Need for Nations, worked for Peter Eisenman as the project architect 2nd Edition, Civitas, London, United Kingdom. on the Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe in Berlin, and as a project consultant on the Cidade da Silber, J. (2007). Architecture of the Absurd, Cultura de Galicia (Center of Culture) in Santiago,

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Spain. His work spans from the design-build of custom homes, to Community Design work on Federal HUD Urban Renewal and Housing Projects, to large-scale base relocation and land reclamation projects for the U.S. Military, totaling nearly $4 billion in projects, which he has designed or managed in Japan, Germany, Spain, Italy, and America. Now an Associate Professor of Architecture at the University of Texas at San Antonio, his research is inﬂuenced by his international experience underpinning his investigations into urban form. His writings and work look speciﬁcally at the adaptive and culturally-driven urban systems that imbue the built environment with life. He can be contacted at [email protected]

NIKOS A. SALINGAROS & KENNETH G. MASDEN II

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AN ARCHITECTURE FOR AUTISM: CONCEPTS OF DESIGN INTERVENTION FOR THE AUTISTIC USER

Magda Mostafa

Abstract One in every 150 children is estimated to fall within This study concludes in outlining the findings of both the autistic spectrum, regardless of socio-cultural phases of the study, the first being the determination and economic aspects, with a 4:1 prevalence of of the most influential architectural design elements males over females (ADDM, 2007). Architecture, as on autistic behaviour, according to the sample a profession, is responsible for creating environments surveyed. The second group of findings outlines that accommodate the needs of all types of users. design strategies for autism in three points. The first is Special needs individuals should not be exempt from the presentation of a “sensory design matrix” which such accommodation. Despite this high incidence of matches architectural elements with autistic sensory autism, there are yet to be developed architectural issues and is used to generate suggested design design guidelines catering specifically to the scope guidelines. The second is the presentation of these of autistic needs. hypothetical guidelines, two of which are tested in the presented study. These guidelines are presented The primary goal of this research is to correct this as possible interventions for further testing. The third is a exclusion by developing a preliminary framework group of specific design guidelines resultant from the of architectural design guidelines for autism. This intervention study. It is hoped that these will provide will be done through a two phase study. The first a basis for the further development of autistic specific phase will determine, through a questionnaire design standards, and take us one step further of first hand caregivers of autistic children, the towards more conducive environments for autistic impact of architectural design elements on autistic individuals. behaviour, to determine the most influential. The second phase, based on the findings of the first, will test the conclusive highest ranking architectural Keywords Autism; design; architecture; special needs; sensory elements in an intervention study on autistic children environment. in their school environment. Specific behavioural indicators, namely attention span, response time and behavioural temperament, will be tracked Introduction to determine each child’s progress pre and post intervention, for a control and study group. The person-environment relationship has long been an integral part of architectural research.

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The careful examination of the dynamic enhance way-finding. Such guidelines, being between the built environment- with its attributes based on the “sensory design” concept put of acoustics, visual character, spatial quality, forth in this paper, and after further research, color, texture, geometry etc- and human may be universally applied to any building type behavior can lead to the development of more for autistic users, from educational to residential specific and sensitive design guidelines. With to medical and recreational. these more attuned guidelines, designs become more conducive of productivity, efficiency and MAGDA MOSTAFA Architecture and Autism comfort for all users. Special needs individuals have been given particularly close attention in Recent research has indicated that autism is this type design guideline development. Autism, a growing at almost epidemic proportions (Hill developmental disorder which is characterized & Frith, 2003) and (Fombonne, 2005). Despite by delayed communication skills, challenged its overwhelming incidence, autism is by and social interaction, and repetitive behavior, has large ignored by the architectural community, long been excluded from various architectural excluded from building codes and guidelines, guidelines and codes of practice for special even those developed specifically for special needs. needs individuals. In reference to this exclusion Brown of the International Code Council It is the primary objective of this study to stated remedy this exclusion and take the first step towards developing autistic specific design “I know of no building or accessibility code that incorporates requirements specifically to address guidelines. Using an intervention study of a children with autism. However, accessibility in group of autistic students, the impact of the general is addressed in the codes developed by the architectural environment on their behavior International Code Council.” Brown, L.,(2003), CBO and development is analyzed. The conclusive Codes & Standards Development, Technical Staff1 analysis of the data collected from this case study provides the catalyst for the development The United Nations mandate on the Global of a framework, or “sensory design matrix”, Program on Disability also fails to outline which organizes the complex and dynamic specific building standards for autism. Although relationship between sensory characteristics of not legally binding, the Standard Rules on the built environment and the variant spectrum the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons of sensory issues found in autistic users. The with Disabilities, resolution 48/96 annex of 20/ conclusive guidelines include specific design 12/1993, presents governments with a moral criteria which may be used to customize a space commitment to provide equal opportunities for an individual user or a group of autistic users for persons with disabilities. This covers many with similar sensory profiles. Less case specific, issues, including employment, recreation, broader guidelines are also outlined and religion, education and accessibility to public include concepts such as sensory zoning, use services. The issue of accessibility is of primary of transition spaces between zones, adoption concern to architects. No specific references of escape spaces and the use of visual cues to are made in the mandate regarding individuals

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with developmental disorders or even autism, have been set forth in the past regarding the but the term “consideration” is applied with mechanisms of autism. This paper bases its regards to “other communication disorders” hypothesis on the sensory definition of autism, (UN Global Program on Disability, 1993). This has put forth by researchers such as Rimland since been reviewed and it has been pointed (1964), Delacato (1974) and Anderson (1998). out that individuals with developmental and In such theories, autistic behavior is credited to psycho-social disorders, of which autism is one, a form of sensory malfunction when assimilating have been overlooked (Al Thani, 2004). Various stimulatory information from the surrounding MAGDA MOSTAFA building codes of practice have also excluded physical environment. It is the conceptual pivot specific requirements for designing for autism. of this research that the architect, through Among these are three documents published by design of this physical sensory environment, has the Department of Education and Employment control over the nature of this critical sensory in the UK (Architects and Building Branch, input. By understanding the mechanisms of Department of Education and Employment this disorder and consequent needs of the (1), (2), (3)). The first two documents “Access autistic user, this environment may be designed for Disabled People to School Buildings” and favorably to alter the sensory input, and perhaps “Designing for Pupils with Special Educational modify the autistic behavior, or at least create Needs- Special Schools”, make no reference an environment conducive of skill development to specific guidelines when designing for and learning. autistic users, while “Inclusive School Design- Accommodating Pupils with Special Educational The key to such modification is the process of Needs and Disabilities in Mainstream Schools” perception. If we look at typical perception as mentions autism in a very limited sense with the understanding of, and relevant response generic reference to acoustics for special to, the sensory input from the surrounding needs. These documents do, however, provide environment, i.e. the architectural design, we comprehensive guidelines for dealing with other can better understand the role of architecture special needs and learning difficulties. in autistic behavior. Most interventions for autistic individuals, predominantly medical, This general exclusion may be a result, in part, of therapeutic and educational, deal with the the non-standardized nature of challenges and, sensory malfunction itself and the development respectively, needs along the autistic spectrum. of strategies and skills for the autistic individual It is the contention of this paper however, that to use when coping with these malfunctions. It a design strategy to deal with these varying is the contention of this research that autistic challenges may be put in place allowing a behavior can be influenced favorably by form of customization for groups of users. This altering the sensory environment, i.e. the strategy will also facilitate the generation of stimulatory input, resulting from the physical broad design guidelines and policies. architectural surroundings (color, texture, ventilation, sense of closure, orientation, In order to have a better understanding of acoustics etc.) before, rather than after this disorder, many definitions and theories the sensory malfunction occurs. Perhaps by

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altering this sensory input in a manner designed Methodology to accommodate specific autistic needs, behavior may be improved, or at least a more Study Design- Phase 1 conducive environment created, for more To reach this goal of developing a framework efficient skill development. for architectural guidelines for autism, a two phase study was carried out. The first phase of Previous architectural research has supported this was a cross-sectional descriptive study of theories regarding the influence of the

MAGDA MOSTAFA the primary caregivers and teachers of autistic architectural environment upon user behavior children. The objective of this first phase was to in typical non-autistic users. Deasy and Laswell rank the impact of specific architectural factors discuss architect’s use of common patterns or spatial characteristics - acoustics, visual of cognition to guide and manipulate user (colors and patterns), visual (lighting), texture, behaviour in a space (Deasey & Laswell, olfactory and spatial sequencing of functions. 1990). If we look at meaning, or the cognitive The results from this ranking would indicate value given to an experience, we can the most influential architectural factors on understand how a user typically interprets his autistic behavior, which would become the architectural environment. Lang discusses intervention variables to be studied in Phase 2. various mechanisms through which meaning is obtained from the architectural environment Study Tools- Phase 1 (Lang, 1987). Architects utilize this concept in The primary tool used for this phase of the designing space, by giving certain meanings study was an online questionnaire posted through form, to influence user behaviour. on the Families for Early Autism Treatment, Mostafa discusses the means by which cognitive FEAT, a website dedicated to families and issues generate architectural patterns in various educators of children with autism. This same cultures (Mostafa, 1998). Just as architectural questionnaire was also distributed to the practices adjust themselves to accommodate caregivers and teachers of the Advance socio-cultural cognitive patterns this paper Society for Developing Skills of Special Needs proposes similar sensitivity to the very different Children, Cairo1. Participants were asked to cognitive patterns of autistic individuals. These rank 5 architectural factors - acoustics, visual patterns are formed through multi-sensory (colors & patterns), visual (lighting), texture, perception and hence deviate from the typical olfactory and spatial sequencing of functions, in autism. It is the objective of this paper to from the most influential to the least. understand these patterns through the eyes of autism and develop them into design Study Sample- Phase 1 guidelines, approaches and concepts. A purposeful sample of a total of 83 individuals, with a distribution of 25 teachers and 58 primary caregivers, responded to this questionnaire. Their participation was voluntary. The respondents were both local (Egyptian) and western (Americans). All participants were

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from the middle to upper strata of the socio- in such a way that promoted routine. This was economic middle class. achieved through the organization of the functional spaces of the classroom, within which Study Design- Phase 2 a single activity is carried out, into “stations” or This second phase is comprised of two separate defined zones, including an “escape interventions, both implemented at the space” which acted as a haven for times of Advance Society for Developing Skills of sensory imbalance in the children (fig. 1). This Special Needs Children in Cairo. Each of these scenario was based on the long-standing MAGDA MOSTAFA interventions studies an architectural variable, hypothesis that autistic children adhere to chosen based on the results of the phase routine (Kanner, L. 1943), (Medical World 1 survey. These variables are acoustics and News, 1966), a compulsion which is an integral spatial sequencing. Both interventions compare diagnostic indicator of autism (Schopler et al, the performance of a control and study group. 1988). This resistance to change is commonly viewed as a problem in autism, but it is hoped The first test analyzes the impact of acoustics that by capitalizing on this otherwise negative on autistic behavior in speech and language characteristic, positive changes can be made. acquisition. This intervention involved the By creating a predictable environment in the acoustical modification of a speech and learning space and catering to the child’s need language therapy room through soundproofing for routine, he or she may be more open to of floor, wall and ceiling surfaces with the learning essential skills that can be generalized objective of reducing both echo and external outside this controlled space, making him or her noise penetration. The detailing used for this ultimately less dependant on the routine. soundproofing used inexpensive materials requiring minimal installation in order to be This design approach of compartmentalization cost-effective and reduce the disturbance to also confines the limits of the sensory the school’s operation during such installation. environment with which the child interacts The average background noise level was during any given activity or ‘station’. The reduced from 65.5 decibels to 52.5 decibels. physical compartmentalization of activities also The echo ratio was reduced from 96% to 57%. helps decrease visual distractions, and limits These readings were taken using a standard fields of peripheral vision. These issues normally sound level meter and a 90 decibel sound add to the distractibility of the child and limit source. Noise levels were recorded on a grid his attention span. It is theorized that by limiting throughout the room and a numeric average these visual and other sensory issues, the child was taken. Echoes were measured against all will learn to focus on the educational task at four walls and again a numeric average ratio hand. Ultimately the visual and auditory cues of was taken (Kuttriff, H., 1991). the activity will condition the child and help him generalize his responses outside the controlled The second intervention dealt with spatial environment. sequencing. This involved reorganizing the spatial layout of one of the school’s classrooms, Some may argue that the real world is not setup

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in clearly deﬁned “stations” and very frequently such a conﬁguration within the classroom will ‘routine’ is disrupted. This is a very realistic help develop skills to deal with such chaos, and relevant observation, but it is hoped that disorganization and unpredictability. MAGDA MOSTAFA

Figure 1: Plan of compartmentalized study classroom showing simultaneous use of various stations. (Source: Author).

Study Tools- Phase 2 rationale behind the choice of these indicators The study technique used for both interventions, is their inherent role in skill development for all acoustical modiﬁcation and spatial sequence individuals, but particularly autism, where they compartmentalization, was the progress play a fundamental role in skill acquisition and observation of speciﬁc behavioral indicators. development. Since it is the ultimate goal of These indicators were attention span, response this research to outline strategies to create time and behavioral temperament. The environments more conducive of learning,

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these behavioral indicators must be addressed. scenarios on the study group and control group. It is hoped that by creating an environment For each of these indicators, during this second where the autistic child is more focused and less semester, readings were taken at specific prone to behavioral outbursts, an educational milestones during a total span of 12 weeks, from window of opportunity will be generated, February to June 2003, at week 0, week 4, week and more efficient skill development will be 8 and week12. Each reading was taken during achieved in a shorter period of time. This sort one 45 minute class period. In the case of of approach is fundamental in outweighing the attention span and response time, an average MAGDA MOSTAFA developmental delay of the autistic child. time was calculated for the week. In the case of behavioral temperament an average Direct observations, by the researcher and occurrence rate of self-stimulatory behavior teachers, as well as video, were the tools during one class period was calculated for used to measure and record the indicators. each week. In the case of attention span, defined as the amount of time in seconds the child remains Behavioral mapping was also used as an on task without distraction, a longer attention additional qualitative tool, to internally validate span indicates a positive result. With regards to the findings. This tool outlined behavioral response time, defined as the amount of time patterns and their relationship to use of in seconds it takes for the child to respond to space (Sanoff, H., 1991). Such patterns were a command or question, a shorter response documented at milestones parallel to the other time indicates a positive result. Behavioral readings: week 0, week 4, week 8 and week12. temperament was indicated by measuring The observational data collected from this tool the occurrence of self-stimulatory behavior. helped translate the abstract data recorded This behavior is a habitual, compulsive action into workable architectural guidelines. To exhibited by the autistic child, indicative of produce the behavioral map, each child was discomfort and sensory imbalance. Unique to observed for a five minute interval, or vignette, each child, this may range from head banging in the altered space. His responses, movements to hand-biting to rocking etc. It has been shown and activities were documented as an that such behavior, when decreased, indicates a annotated diagram on the layout as well as in successful outcome of the intervention (Kaplan a time-line chart (fig. 2). This technique was only et al, 2006). used for the spatial reorganization test scenario as the acoustical modification scenario did not The total time period of these tests was one have a spatial sequence element. academic year, the first semester being used for baseline documentation to benchmark each individual child’s progress, as well as to allow the children to familiarize themselves with the presence of the researcher on the premises during observations. The second semester was used to document the impact of the test

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Figure 2: Behavioral map of study classroom showing annotated diagramming and time chart. (Source: Author)

Study Sample- Phase 2 Both interventions use a comparative study The classes chosen for intervention were from group vs. control group format. Special needs the primary level classes, given that their early classes, particularly those for autistic children age makes them most impressionable and are small, with a teacher to child ratio reaching indicative of intervention impact. These classes 1:1 in some cases. One study class and one are grouped based mainly on skill and ability control class, out of a total of 8 classes in the rather than age alone. The ages of the students center, participated in the study, with 6 students participating in the study therefore ranged from in each class, making a total sample size of 12 6-10 years, with a mean age of 8.33 years and students, representing 25% of the student body. standard deviation of 1.63 and median of 8.5 in

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the study group, and a mean age of 7.5 years Results and Discussion with a standard deviation of 1.643 and median of 7 in the control group. Given the natural The overall results of this study show promising tendency of higher occurrence of autism in indications of the possible improvement of boys over girls the ratio of males to females in autistic behaviour, as indicated by increased the study was 9:3. attention span, reduced response time and improved behavioural temperament, Due to the heterogeneity of the sample and using an altered architectural environment. MAGDA MOSTAFA the fact that skills vary from child to child, results These indicators, when combined, create were analyzed relatively, with regards to each a behavioural environment more conducive child’s respective performance, rather than of learning and may increase the autistic absolutely, across the entire sample. Friedman child’s opportunity for skill acquisition testing was used for the multiple progress and development. This also indicates the readings of attention span and response time preliminary success of acoustical control and while Wilcoxon Signed Rank Testing was used spatial sequencing as architectural guidelines for the pre and post progress readings of conducive of positive autistic behaviour. behavioral temperament. Despite the heterogeneity of the sample population, as well as the small sample size, Ethical Considerations statistically significant results, as calculated using the Mann-Whitney test, support these Given the sensitive nature of this study, and preliminary findings in most cases, as indicated the confidentiality issues involved, particularly by a significance lower than 0.05. with respect to the young age of the children and the adopted tools of video, consent from This study should hence be considered a first the primary caregivers of the children was stage exploratory study, intended to judge essential. A written consent form, outlining the preliminary influence of the test variables on goal, structure and projected outcomes of the autistic behaviour as measured by the test study, was distributed to all the parents and indicators. It is therefore recommended that legal guardians of the children participating in further studies, using randomized testing with the study, requesting their permission for three a larger sample size and standardized possible aspects. The first aspect was the inclusion of the confounder factors, be conducted to verify its child in the study, the second was access to the preliminary findings. child’s clinical and academic file, and the third was permission to record the child’s progress throughout the study. Separate consent was Phase 1- Architectural Influence on requested for videotaping and photography. Autistic Behavior The wishes of all parents regarding the degree The results of this phase show that, according and type of involvement of their children were to the sample surveyed, acoustics are the unequivocally respected. most influential architectural factor on autistic

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behavior, followed by spatial sequencing. seconds over the 12 week period. The mean of According to the results of the questionnaire 64% the group moved from 38.67 to 27.33 to 27.83 of teachers and 79.3% of parents rank acoustics, to 27.33 with standard deviations of 17.69, 17.1, and 20% of teachers and 13.79% of parents 22.09 and 8.26 respectively. rank spatial sequencing as the most influential architectural factor on autistic behavior. Other The statistical significance of these results factors such as visual (lighting), visual (colors were verified using the Mann-Whitney test and and patterns), texture and olfactory issues were ranged in exact significance from 0.818, 0.026, MAGDA MOSTAFA given less influential importance by the sample 0.009 and 0.002 respectively over the 12 week surveyed. Percentage of teachers ranking period. these factors as highest were 8%, 4%, 4% and The Friedman rank testing results of this data 0% respectively, while percentage of parents also shows significant relative progress of each were 3.45%, 0%, 1.72% and 0% respectively. individual student over time in the study group, These results formed the basis for choice with a gradual increase in mean ranking from variables for the experimental testing of Phase 1.33 to 2.17 to 2.50 to 4.0 through weeks 0- 2, concluding acoustics and spatial sequencing 12, with an asymptotic significance of 0.004. as appropriate interventions for experimental Friedman rank testing of the control group shows testing. little relative improvement of each individual student with mean ranks of 3, 2.17, 2.33 and Phase 2- Acoustical Modification Test 2.5 through weeks 0-12, with an asymptotic significance of 0.7060. Attention Span: The results of this intervention indicate positive Response Time: improvement in attention span of the study With regards to response time, promising group students. The children were better able indications were also observed. The students to identify, recognize, imitate and verbalize in of the study group were seen to respond faster the soundproofed speech room. On average and were able to sustain that quick response the study group exhibited an increase of more more frequently and for longer periods of time. than 3 times their original attention spans. They During the span of the trial, students from the exhibited a gradual increase in their attention study group illustrated a gradual decrease in span median from 44 to 58 to 72 to 142.50 their response times, indicating a positive result. seconds over the 12 week period. The mean of Their median response times decreased from the group progressed gradually from 45 to 130.5 25.50 to 16 to 10.50 to 7.00 seconds through seconds with standard deviations of 27.07 and weeks 0, 4, 8 and 12 respectively. Their mean 34.61 respectively. responses decreased gradually from 24.83 to 6.83 seconds with standard deviations of 12.92 The control group did not exhibit similar gradual and 5.08 over the same period of time. progress. There was no distinct pattern of improvement in their attention spans whose Again the control group did not exhibit such median progressed from 38 to28 to 22 to 27 uniform progress. Their median response time

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progressed from 9 to 8 to 9.5 to 12 seconds rank test was used to determine individual case through weeks 0-12, showing no distinct pattern performance over time. 5 out of 6 of the study of improvement, but rather general consistency. students showed negative ranks, indicating a Their mean response times were 10.3, 7.17, 9.67 post-intervention occurrence of self-stimulatory and 11.66 seconds with standard deviations of behaviour less than the pre-intervention 3.14, 3.54, 3.83 and 4.23 respectively through occurrence, i.e. an improvement in behavioural weeks 0-12. temperament. One tie rank was also observed. These results had an asymptotic significance of MAGDA MOSTAFA The Mann-Whitney exact significance scores of 0.041. With regards to the control group, only 2 these results were 0.065, 0.132, 0.818 and 0.093 out of the 6 displayed a decrease in occurrence respectively over the 12 week period. or negative ranking, with 3 exhibiting positive Regarding individual relative progress of cases ranking, or increase in occurrence of self- Friedman rank testing of response time progress stimulatory behaviour, and 1 tie. The asymptotic for the study group is also promising, showing significance of this reading was 0.480. a gradual decrease in mean rank from 3.83 to 2.5 to 1.92 to 1.75 during the study period, with Phase 2- Spatial Sequence Intervention an asymptotic significance of 0.02. Again the Similarly promising results were observed in control group did not display similar regularity the second intervention which involved the in progress. The control group’s response time study of the impact of spatial sequencing, or mean ranks were 3.08, 1.25, 2.25 and 3.42 with compartmentalization, on the test indicators. an asymptotic significance of 0.009. Attention Span: Behavioural Temperament: In tracking the progress of attention span in the The behavioural temperament of the study study group after implementation of the spatial group students was also seen to improve, with sequence intervention, a general pattern the median occurrence of self-stimulatory of improvement was observed. The median behaviour in the study group decreasing from 2.5 attention span dipped at first and then gradually to 1 occurrence, compared to a stable median increased from 13.5 to 12.5 to 22 to 30 seconds of 2 occurrences in the control group, pre and from week 0 through12. The mean attention post intervention at weeks 0 and 12. The mean span was 18, 17.83, 34 and 44 seconds with occurrence in the study group was decreased standard deviations of 12.7, 13.11, 26.01 and from 3.33 to 1.17 with a standard deviation of 2.66 28.85 over the same period. A similar pattern and 1.17 respectively, pre and post intervention. of gradual improvement was not observed in The control group showed little change with a the control group. Median attention span in mean of 2.17 and 2.5 occurrences, pre and post the control group went from 39.5 to 25 to 28 to intervention, with standard deviations of 1.17 25.5 seconds from week 0-12. These results had and 2.17 respectively. an exact significance of 0.093, 0.132, 0.818 and Given the pre and post reading format of 0.485 through week 0-12. behavioural temperament the Wilcoxon signed

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In tracking individual case relative progress, the group pattern, or lack thereof, there seems this intervention’s Friedman rank testing results to be no distinct pattern of improvement or showed a preliminary plateau, then gradual regression in the control group. Their mean increase throughout the study period, in mean rank progresses from 2.33 to 1.5 to 3.42 to ranking of the study group from 1.5, to 1.5 to 2.75 through weeks 0-12 with and asymptotic 3.33 to 3.67 with an asymptotic significance of significance of 0.07. 0.002. A similar pattern was not found in the control group which had a mean ranking of 3.5 Behavioral Temperament: MAGDA MOSTAFA to 2.33 to 1.83 to 2.33 from week 0-12, with an Again, behavioral temperament of the study asymptotic significance of 0.145. group was seen to improve, although not as significantly as the other indicators. The median Response Time: occurrence of self-stimulatory behavior in Response time was also seen to be improved the study group decreased from 1.5 to 0.5 as a result of the compartmentalization and occurrences, with a mean of 2.83 and 1.33 spatial sequencing of the classroom. The study with corresponding standard deviations of group exhibited a decrease, i.e. improvement, 3.54 and 1.75, all pre and post intervention at in median response time from 11 to 8.5 to 6.5 week 0 and week 12. The control group didn’t to 3.5 seconds during week 0, 4, 8 and 12 show similar significant improvement, with a respectively. Their mean response times over median occurrence of 1 and 1.5, pre and post the same period were 18.33, 8.67, 8.5 and 4.17 intervention, and mean occurrence of 0.83 and seconds with standard deviations of 21.21, 4.32, 1.50 with corresponding standard deviations of 6.92 and 3.19. 0.76 and 1.05. The exact significance of these results was 0.485 and 0.699 at week 0 and week The control group again showed no regular 12 respectively. pattern of increase of decrease. Their median response times were 11, 7.5, 17 and 12.5 Individual progress of cases parallels the results seconds from weeks 0-12. Their mean response of the groups. Again using Wilcoxon signed time was 12.33, 8.5, 23 and 12.17 seconds with a rank testing 4 out of 6 students from the study standard deviation of 8.59, 3.39, 20.02 and 4.02, group showed negative ranks, or a decrease over the same period of time. The asymptotic in self-stimulatory behavior, with 0 positive ranks significance of these results was 0.937, 0.937, and 2 ties. The control group did not exhibit 0.093 and 0.009 from weeks 0-12 respectively. similar progress with only 1 student out of 6 showing negative ranking, or a decrease in self- The individual relative progress of students stimulatory behavior, and 3 students showing in the study group exhibit similar patterns of positive ranking, or an increase, with 2 ties. The improvement. The Friedman rank testing results asymptotic significance of this is 0.194. of the study group show a gradual decrease in mean rank from 3.67 to 2.58 to 2.67 to 1.08 Observational Results of Behavioral Mapping: with an asymptotic significance of 0.006. Again, Many interesting observations were recorded although the individual performance reflects regarding the behavioural use of space

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throughout the duration of the spatial sequence In the control class, with the absence of a test. One of the very first observations made formal and partitioned escape space, similar early on in the test was the effect of the effects were not observed. Those children “escape space” upon the behaviour of the who did need time-out used a cushion in the children, particularly the hyperactive and corner but were constantly either disturbed by severely autistic ones. Prior to the modifications, their curious peers, or joined by them. Either one such child with complex auditory, tactile way, both the individual child’s escape time, and proprioceptive issues, was constantly as well as the session, was disrupted. Although MAGDA MOSTAFA removing herself from the group to sit on the there was a partitioned area in the class, it floor against a wall with legs stretched in front, was arranged for one to one instruction, with banging her head against them. This would distractions and sensory stimulus incongruent usually last for about 10 minutes, after which she with a true ‘escape’. would sit quietly alone for a few minutes and Another apparent positive influence observed then rejoin the group. The child was apparently was the effect of the compartmentalization escaping the maladjusted sensory stimulation upon the visual distraction of the children. Many of the session at hand and re-calibrating her of the hyper-visual and even hyper-auditory inner sensory mechanism. She first removed children would look up, becoming distracted herself from the situation and then provided from their work, if anyone moved around or herself with the sensory input required: auditory entered the room. Since regaining the attention reduction by distancing herself, tactile by of an autistic child, once distracted, can be inflicting pain, and proprioceptive through the difficult, this was a major problem. The design rhythmic movement and physical boundary of modification, however, with its physical and the wall. visual compartments, influenced this positively. Once an escape space was made available, In the new layout, the children were always where no other activity was conducted, both situated so that visual accessibility would be teachers and the researcher expected this minimized, particularly during their one to one child to spend the majority of her time within sessions where focus was a priority, and, unlike it. At the very beginning, that was the case, group sessions, outside interaction was to be but eventually the child used the space less minimized (fig. 1). When the child heard a sound and less. It was observed, however that she or saw something move in his peripheral vision, constantly looked over her shoulder, checking he would look up, as before, but in this case be to make sure it was still available. She became unable to see above and around the partitions. slightly more focused, if anything only because Eventually the child became conditioned not of the diminished number of “escapes”. It was to look up. He became more attentive and almost as if the mere presence of the option to focused with this decrease in distraction. With escape was sufficient, and her need to escape the repetition of this exercise he may learn to decreased, now that she was comfortable transfer the sense of focus and associate it with with the fact that there was constancy in that the activity at hand. Hopefully such a skill can escape opportunity. eventually be generalized to other spaces,

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where such visual accessibility is not controlled. This observation was, perhaps, the most clearly Again the control group, with the absence of absent in the control group. Despite having the physical and visual boundaries, did not a small number of children, it was observed develop this conditioning. that on many occasions it became impossible to work as a group with even a single one to Spatial efficiency was a further positive one session in parallel. The one to one children observation made in the study class. Due to were constantly being removed from the class the segmented and compartmentalized nature to use another empty class or even office for MAGDA MOSTAFA of the new classroom layout, the available their sessions. space was used much more efficiently. The level of activity achieved in the new layout The concept of generalizing behaviour learnt was not possible prior to the modifications. in the classroom is an important one in autistic Previously, the teachers found it far too education. The altered spatial organization of distracting for the children to conduct merely the test classroom was observed to facilitate three one to one sessions concurrently. After the first stage of this process. As the child enters the spatial reorganization, three one to one’s, the partitioned area, the equipment, furniture a group table session, a floor play session and and teacher are always arranged in a certain a napping student in the escape space were fashion for each activity, triggering a sort of all comfortably and attentively using the space predictability. Prior to the test modifications, at once. similar arrangements were used. The new spatial organization, however, seems to have amplified During such a session it was noted that the the “predictability” factor. When a child sees general attentiveness of the children, as well the arrangement, coupled with the physical as their temperament, was above average, and visual boundaries of the compartment, despite the fact that each child was involved in he can predict what activity will take place. It a different activity. Apparently the physical and is such predictability that autistic children seek visual boundaries of the various compartments through their adherence to routines. When the help provide limits, and with these a certain child is able to expect what will come from his level of control. In an autistic child the smallest otherwise highly unpredictable environment, of environments may seem vast as his senses, he settles. Capitalizing on this is a helpful tool to with their various sensitivities, are being help calm them and allow them to focus. This constantly over or under-stimulated. It was new arrangement apparently created just this observed that by limiting the extents of this opportunity. environment, both physically and visually, and adjusting its sensory components, for a certain In the case of the control group there was no period of time, it allowed the child to remain spatial compartmentalization to amplify this focused on the activity at hand. This created predictability, even with the use of familiar the ever-important window of opportunity for arrangements. Children were observed to take a skill development. few minutes from the beginning of each session to orient themselves to the arrangement and

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task at hand. This wasted precious time that was the hyper, hypo to white noise interference available to those children of the study group manifestations. Although impossible to who had this spatial facilitation. customize a public environment, like a school, to each user, grouping of students with similar Recommendations and Conclusions needs is possible. An organizational tool matching the various autistic sensory needs As outlined in the above discussion, represented in the horizontal axis of the matrix, both interventions seem to have positive with their appropriate architectural treatment MAGDA MOSTAFA implications on the test indicators measured represented by the vertical axis of the matrix, in this study. These preliminary findings can has been developed by the researcher for this now be translated into architectural tools purpose. In this sensory design matrix, each and guidelines. Much testing is still required architectural attribute, such as proportion, before the interventions tested here may be scale, symmetry, color, lighting and texture, generalized to all environments designed for is analyzed with respect to its capacity to autism. This study, however, will present a tool to respond to the various autistic sensory needs. organize the generation of guidelines for further This generates a number of architectural testing, as well as present a group of suggested treatments or guidelines, like the acoustical guidelines, resultant from the study. modification and spatial sequencing tested here, which are shaded in the matrix. This matrix The conclusions of this research are outlined in also generates a further group of treatments to a series of findings and recommendations. The be considered for use in autistic design, and first finding is the result of the preliminary cross- which can be the basis for further research and sectional descriptive study which determines intervention tests similar to the ones presented in the highest ranking of architectural factors this paper, in the future. influencing autistic behaviour as acoustics and spatial sequence, according to the sample This design tool acts as an architectural guideline surveyed. generator, where the users needs are input as a sensory profile and a group of architectural The second group involves the outline for a guidelines are matched for each individual user design tool and its resultant guidelines. This tool, in customized environments such as homes, or a “sensory design matrix”, helps organize the groups of users in public buildings such as schools dynamic relationship between the architectural and academic centers. (see appendix B). environment and the complex range of autistic sensory issues. (see appendix A). Additionally, design recommendations generated from the results and observations of this research Since autism presents a large scope of may be summarized as follows. These are symptoms, each autistic individual has their recommended guidelines to be used by architects own group of needs. According to Delecato’s designing environments for autistic users. (1974) original theories, these needs are derived from each different sensory issue, from The application of noise and echo treatment

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in areas such as speech rooms, although its it is easier to add stimulation from an external application may be beneficial in almost all temporary source, like a piece of sandpaper spaces used for autistic instruction and particularly for the hypo-tactile, or a moving mobile for the in those where long attention spans, quick hypo-visual, or music for the hypo-auditory, than responses and high levels of focus are required. to remove stimulation from the environment, Such spaces could include computer rooms, one like soundproofing for the hyper-auditory, or to one instruction rooms, sensory integration and changing textures for the hyper-tactile. neurological organization rooms. MAGDA MOSTAFA Just as escape spaces need to be conducive The creation of a graduated series of of the activity of ‘escape’ all other areas in acoustically modified rooms for speech therapy the classroom should be designed with each as well as other activities requiring similar activity to be conducted in them in mind. acoustical environments. This is to avoid the A group of facilitative furniture arrangements ‘greenhouse’ effect, where a child becomes for various educational activities was dependant upon the optimum acoustical developed during the course of this research. quality of the room and is unable to function As observed previously, the consistency of and generalize his skills outside of it. This these arrangements also provides visual cues to graduated series would allow the child to use condition the child to expect and settle easily to the fully soundproofed room during the critical the task at hand. stage of his autism, when such an intervention may be the only way to initiate communication. Such conducive arrangements, and the creation Having mastered a fundamental group of of visual cues, could have particular impact communications skills the child should then be when coupled with compartmentalization. moved to a moderately sound-proofed room Such compartmentalization capitalizes upon where he will begin to develop background the autistic adherence to, and preference of, noise filtration skills. This should continue through routine. This routine theory was shown to be the series of available rooms with the ultimate successful in the “a place for everything and objective of functioning in as acoustically everything in its place” concept applied through normal an environment as possible. the compartmentalization of the study group classroom. As seen such compartmentalization The creation of an ‘escape space’ in learning limits the sensory environment which the child spaces. The sensory make-up of the space has to assimilate. It has been shown to promote should also be well designed. In general it focus and concentration. seems best to design a baseline neutral sensory environment, as if designing for the hyper- This theory may be extended to encompass sensitive across the entire spectrum. Elements the sequencing of activities and functions of sensory stimulus can then be added to from inside the classroom to the building as a compensate for those hypo-sensitive individuals, whole. This would involve developing designs by being made available to those who need emphasizing order, sequence and routine. them. This concept is based on the idea that Activities could be arranged to follow a sort of

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‘one-way’ circulation arrangement, according space to another. Through the preliminary to the daily schedule. Different activities could structured interviews conducted during this be clearly visually and spatially defined. Universal research, it seemed that when the autistic or multifunctional spaces, such as ‘open-plan’ child veers off course when moving from one classrooms, should be avoided to reduce space to another it is not a question of getting sensory confusion. This sensory coherence could lost but rather a question of being distracted help student temperament, improving overall along the way. Some parents and teachers performance and economizing on precious even found the visual recollection skills of their MAGDA MOSTAFA time while getting to and from classes, as well as children to provide them with an excellent reducing the need to allow calming down time basis for navigation. It was their distractibility and effort at the beginning of each session. by the surrounding sensory environment that prevented them from reaching their destination. This discussion brings us to conclude that Sensory atmospheric coherence through design the autistic user identifies the architectural may help to reduce this distraction. environment around him or her in accordance to sensory zoning rather than conventional When moving to or from an area of high sensory functional zoning. Spatial groupings could stimulus, the use of sensory “transition zones”, follow autistic logic and involve sensorial in the form of gardens or sensory curriculum compatible functions. These groupings can areas, may help to prepare the child for such a be accessed through a one-way circulation move with minimal distraction. It is hoped that system, emphasizing, as well as capitalizing on, such an arrangement would allow the child routine, as discussed previously. For example a form of sensory calibration, in order to make high-stimulus functions like music, art, crafts and the transition from these varying sensory zones psychomotor therapy, requiring a high level more fluid hence allowing improvement of of alertness can be grouped together, while navigational skills. low-stimulus functions like speech therapy, one to one instruction and general classrooms, These concepts of zoning and circulation requiring a high level of focus, can be grouped may be enforced and enhanced using visual together. Services, which are usually high- cues. As Peeters (1997, p. 63) has shown, stimulus, including bathrooms, kitchens, staff- such cues have a powerful associative and rooms and administration, should be separated. communicative effect on autistic perception. Only those requiring student accesses should be Even from a first-hand perspective, Grandin grouped near the high-stimulus zones and as far (1996) based her explanation of autism on the as possible from the low-stimulus zones. concept of ‘thinking in pictures’. Patterns, colors or abstractions may be used to communicate The application of the concept of sensory zoning to the children the character of various zones could also reduce the problems of distraction and spaces. Visually distinctive landmarks may and diversion. Keeping the sensory atmosphere be used at the hub of each zone, indicative of of each area as coherent as possible, could its character. A similar visual concept may be allow a more continuous circulation from one used for signage throughout any autistic facility.

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This would serve two purposes, ﬁrst, comfort to Anderson, J.M. (1998). Sensory Motor Issues in Autism, the child allowing him a commonly lacking Therapy Skill Builders, The Psychological Corporation sense of orientation, and second ultimately Texas, USA. allowing him ability to navigate these spaces Architects and Building Branch, Department of independently. Education and Employment (1) (1999). Access for Disabled People to School Buildings, Building Bulletin In closing it is this idea of independence that 77, United Kingdom. is the pivotal concept of facilitating and

MAGDA MOSTAFA Architects and Building Branch, Department of improving quality of life for all special needs Education and Employment (2) (1999). Inclusive individuals, but for autism particularly. As the School Design- Accommodating Pupils with Special first step towards inclusion and acceptance, Educational Needs and Disabilities in Mainstream independence represents an important goal Schools, Building Bulletin 94, United Kingdom. in all autistic interventions. With further research Architects and Building Branch, Department of and testing of the guidelines outlined in this study Education and Employment (2) (1997). Designing it is hoped that this paper will take us one more for Pupils with Special Educational Needs, Special step towards achieving that goal. Environments Schools’ Building Bulletin 77, United Kingdom. based on careful scientific analysis will benefit not only those with special needs, but all user Autism and Development Disabilities Monitoring Network (ADDM) (2007). Prevalence of the Autism types, making our architecture more genuinely Spectrum Disorders in Multiple Areas of the United responsive to all our range of needs. States, Surveillance Years 2000 and 2002, National Centre on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, Online http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/dd/ Acknowledgements addmprevalence.htm, Accessed on June 16, 2007. Acknowledgement should go to Dr. Zakia Shafie and Dr. Hammam Serag El Din, both of Cairo University’s Deasy, C.M., and Laswell, T. (1990). Designing Places Department of Architectural Engineering, for their for People- A Handbook on Human Behaviour for supervision of the original thesis upon which this paper Architects, Designers and Facility Managers’, Watson is based. Mrs. Maha El Helali and all of the ADVANCE Guptill Publications, New York, USA. school administration and staff provided the generous Delacato, C.H. (1974). The Ultimate Stranger- The cooperation required to make testing of this study in Autistic Child, Academic Therapy Publications, an autistic environment possible. This study would not Novato, California, USA. have been possible without the consent and support of all the parents of the children involved in the study. Fombonne, E. et al (2005). The Epidemiology of This work was primarily developed to help people with Autism Spectrum Disorders, In proceedings of: autism. The children of this study have been patient, AWARES Autism 2005, Online www.awares.org/ cooperative and at many times an inspiration. conferences . Grandin, T. (1996). Thinking in Pictures; and Other References Reports from my Life with Autism, Random House, USA. Al-Thani, H. (2004). Updating the Standard Rules, International Federation of Hard of Hearing People, Hill, E., and Frith, U. (2003). Understanding Autism: 7th World Congress, Helsinki, Finland. Insights from Mind and Brain, Philosophical

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Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol. 358 (1430), pp. ------281 – 289. Magda Mostafa Magda Mostafa is an Assistant Professor at the Kanner, L (1943). Autistic Disturbances of Affective Department of Architectural Engineering, Cairo Contact, Nervous Child, Vol. 2, pp. 217 – 250. University where she has taught various design courses since 1996. She is also an adjunct Assistant Kaplan, H. et al (2006) Snoezelen Multi-Sensory Professor at the Performing and Visual Arts, as well Environments, Task Engagements and Generalization, as the Construction and Architectural Engineering, Research in Developmental Disabilities, Vol. 27, pp.

MAGDA MOSTAFA Departments at the American University in Cairo. 443 – 455. She was born and raised in Canada, and later came Kuttruff, H. (1991). Room Acoustics, Elsevier Applied to Egypt to reside where she received her B.Sc in Science, New York, USA. architecture from Cairo University. She recently received her Ph.D. from Cairo University, where her Lang, J. (1987). Creating Architectural Theory; The doctoral dissertation studied architectural design for Role of Behavioural Sciences in Environmental children with special needs and sensory dysfunctions, Design, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, with a focus on autism. She is currently working as a USA. special needs design consultant for government and Medical World News (1966). Breaking through to the private sector projects in Egypt, the Gulf and Europe, Autistic Child, Vol. October, p. 62. as an associate at the Cairo based architectural ﬁrm Progressive Architects. She recently completed Mostafa, M. (1998). Culturally Responsive designing the Advance school for children with Architecture: Its Existence, Objectivity And autism in Qattemeya, Cairo, which was presented Mechanisms, M.Sc. dissertation, Department of at the World Congress on Autism in 2006, and is the Architecture, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt. ﬁrst building to be designed based on her “sensory design” theory. She was recently nominated for the Peeters, T. (1997). Autism: From Theoretical 2005 UNESCO Prize for research and training in special Understanding to Educational Intervention, Whurr needs education for children. She can be contacted Publishing, London, United Kingdom. at [email protected] Rimland, B. (1964). Infantile Autism, Appleton Century Crofts, New York, USA. Sanoff, H. (1991). Visual Research Methods in Design, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, USA. Schopler, E., et al (1988). The Childhood Autism Rating Scale, Western Psychological Services WPS, USA. UN Global Program on Disability (1993). Mandates of the UN Global Program on Disability: Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities, Target Areas for Equal Participation: Accessibility, United Nations General Assembly resolution 48/96, annex, 20/12/1993.

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Appendix A: Sensory Design Matrix

Sensory Issues Auditory Visual Tactile Olfactory Proprioceptive

abcabcabca bcabc A 12 12121 1 2 211 e

r B 34334 43 u MAGDA MOSTAFA t

c C 56556565 655 u r t D 777 S

E E 88 88 T

U 9 10 9 10 9 9 10 9 e F B I c R n

T G 11 11 11 a T l a A H 12 13 13 12 13 13 B L

A I 14 15 14 14 14 R U

T J 17 16 18 C y t E i K 19 19 20 l T I a u H L 21 21 21 Q C

R M 22 22 23 A N 24 25 24 c

i O 26 26 26 26 26 26 m

a P 27 27 27 27 n y Q 28 28 28 28 28 D

Sensory Issues a. Hyper b. Hypo c. Interference Architectural Attributes A. Closure J. Color B. Proportion K. Lighting C. Scale L. Acoustics D. Orientation M. Texture E. Focus N. Ventilation F. Symmetry O. Sequence G. Rhythm P. Proximity H. Harmony Q. Routine I. Balance

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Appendix B: Architectural Design Guidelines generated by the Sensory Design Matrix

# Design Guideline Suggested Objective and User 1. High enclosure and 1) to reduce external visual and acoustical distraction for the hyper- containment auditory and hyper-visual 2) to provide tactile stimulation via tight spaces and containment for the hypo-tactile 3) to create visual focus in cases of visual interference 4) to reduce olfactory intrusion via ventilation for the hyper-olfactory

MAGDA MOSTAFA 2. Low enclosure and openess 1) to increase opportunities for acoustical stimulation for the hypo- auditory 2) to provide visual stimulation for the hypo-visual 3) to reduce sense of containment for the hyper-tactile 3. Low ceilings and moderate 1) to reduce echoes for the hyper-auditory proportions 2) to reduce visual distortion and illusions of space for the hyper- visual 3) to promote balance for the hypo and interference-proprioceptive 4) to create a more acoustically controllable environment for the interference 4. High ceilings and 1) to increase echoes and auditory stimulation for the hypo-auditory exaggerated proportions 2) to create visual illusionary stimulation for the hypo-visual 3) to stimulate the proprioceptive sense of space for the hyper- proprioceptive auditory 5. Use of intimate scale 1) to reduce echoes for the hyper-auditory 2) to create a controllable auditory environment for the interference auditory 3) to create a controllable and manageable space for the hyper and interference visual 4) to increase tactile stimulation from boundary proximity for the hypo-tactile 5) to increase proprioceptive stimulation from boundary proximity for the hypo-proprioceptive 6) to create a controllable environment for the interference auditory and proprioceptive 6. Use of open scale 1) to create auditory stimulation through echoes for the hypo-auditory 2) to create visual stimulation through spatial exapnse for the hypo- visual 3) to relieve over stimulation from spatial boundaries for the hyper- tactile and hyper-proprioceptive 7. Orientation towards external 1) to create focus and attraction for the hypo-visual views and elements of 2) to instill balance and direction for the hypo-proprioceptive interest

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Appendix B: Architectural Design Guidelines generated by the Sensory Design Matrix

8. Use of activity focus to 1) to increase attention span and reduce distractibility for the hyper- organize space auditory and visual 2) to create a behavioural and geometric point of reference for the hypo and interference proprioceptive 9. Symmetrical organization 1) creates predictability for the hyper-visual 2) creates acoustical balance for the hyper-auditory 3) increases sense of centre and balance for the hypo and

MAGDA MOSTAFA interference proprioceptive 4) creates a controllable environment for the interference visual 10. Asymmetrical organization 1) creates auditory and visual stimulation for the hypo-auditory and visual 2) creates proprioceptive stimulation for the hypo- proprioceptiveTables 11. Use of visual or spatial 1) to create visual stimulation and tracking opportunities for the rhythm hypo-visual 2) to create predictability and coherence to the spatial environment for the hypo and interference 12. Visually harmonious space 1) to create a visually neutral space for the hyper-visual with no contrast or discord 2) to create a neutral tactile space for the hyper-tactile 13. Visually unharmonious 1) to create visual stimulation for the hypo and interference visual space using accents and 2) to create proprioceptive stimulation for the interference and contrasts hypo-proprioceptive 14. Use of dynamic and 1) to create orientation and stability for the hyper-proprioceptive statically balanced spaces and visual as well as the interference proprioceptive and visual 15. Use of unbalanced spaces 1) to create visual stimulation for the hypo-visual 16. Use of bright colours 1) to create visual stimulation for the hypo-visual 17. Use of nuetral colours 1) to create serenity for the hyper-visual 18. Use of warm colours 1) to create psychological warmth for the hypo-tactile 19. Indirect natural lighting 1) minimize glare and distracting views for the hyper-visual 2) less distracting than buzzing artiﬁcial light for the hyper-auditory 20. Direct natural lighting and 1) creates visual stimulation for the hypo-visual views 21. Noise and echo-prooﬁng 1) creates a conducive environment for the hyper-auditory 2) removes the distracting opportunity of self-stimulation through echoes for the hypo-auditory 3) creates a neutral auditory background for the interference auditory

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Appendix B: Architectural Design Guidelines generated by the Sensory Design Matrix

22. Use of smooth textures 1) calms the hypo-tactile 2) creates echo and reverberation stimulation for the hypo-auditory 23. Use of rough textures 1) stimulates the hypo-tactile 24. Cross-ventilation 1) redues smells and odours for the hyper-olfactory 25. Enclosed ventilation 1) may help contain scents during aromatherapy for the hypo- olfactory

MAGDA MOSTAFA 26. Organized 1) helps orient and adjust the hyper-visual compartmentalization using 2) helps stimulate to action the hypo-visual visual cues 3) helps organize the interference visual 4) creates necessary boundaries for the hypo-tactile 5) helps orient the hypo and interference proprioceptive 27. Spatial organization 1) helps orient and adjust the hyper-visual according to sensory 2) helps organize the interference visual characteristics 3) helps orient the hypo and interference proprioceptive 28. Use of one-way circulation 1) helps orient and adjust the hyper-visual patterns to capitalize on 2) helps organize the interference visual routine 3) helps orient the hypo and interference proprioceptive 4) helps create predictability in general across the spectrum, particularly the hyper-auditory

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QUANTITATIVE (GIS) AND QUALITATIVE (BPE) ASSESSMENTS OF LIBRARY PERFORMANCE

Wolfgang F.E. Preiser and Xinhao Wang

Abstract Introduction This article accounts for the methodological approach used in the creation of the Facilities Master Plan for the Libraries are “the very souls of their countries, Public Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton County in rendered in glass, wood and brick” (Adler, the United States. Libraries are undergoing signiﬁcant 1997). On a national scale, The American changes with regards to their advancing functions. Library Association (http://www.ala.org/) They have become community centers for learning, publishes topics related to the trends of modern whether for children, teens, adults, or seniors. This libraries. On a smaller scale, The National study uses an approach combining GIS- Geographic Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities (http: Information System with BPE-Building Performance //www.edfacilities.org/rl/LibrariesHE.cfm) has Evaluation to score and categorize branch libraries based on their level of performance. A number of all the resources on library facilities design for recommended strategies are derived to achieve higher education on record. Since 1995, there greater cost-effectiveness and improved service. have been several changing trends in library usage and facility improvements. “A common Keywords thread in these buildings has been the infusion Facilities master planning; library performance; of technology throughout the facility” (Shill & Geographic Information System (GIS); Building Tonner, 2003). For instance, there have been Performance Evaluation (BPE); benchmarking. a myriad of innovations within the 400 library improvement projects completed since 1995; among them is providing wireless internet access to over 75% of laptop users.

This article recognizes the signiﬁcant changes that libraries have gone through, locally as well as regionally (Perlman, 2004). Libraries have become more than just book reservoirs; they have evolved into a learning center

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where knowledge is exchanged. Hardcopy as well as places where weddings, receptions knowledge can be gained through books and and other events take place, have been electronic knowledge can be gained through incorporated in the Salt Lake City Public Library. computer terminals that benefit those who Another example is the Chicago Public Library’s do not have computers or internet access (http://www.chipublib.org/) Harold Washington at home. Other forms of knowledge can be Library Center. The “Winter Garden” has gained through meeting places and library been incorporated within the library, where outreach programs. Like in Multnomah County community events and receptions are hosted. in Oregon (http://www.multcolib.org/), libraries have facilitated community redevelopment. In collaboration with the metro City/County The Hollywood branch is positioned such that a government, the Indianapolis Marion County few floors of apartments are above the library, Public Library (http://www.imcpl.org/) has while shops and a café are incorporated with strategically located its branches. For instance, the library at street level. This makes it a mixed- a large branch library has been located in a use property where residential and commercial mall, while a neighborhood branch library has uses are integrated. In a community currently been replaced with a much larger library, as renovating itself, these elements have positively part of the renovation of an intersection where a new fire station and a police station are

WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG inﬂuenced the area economically. accommodated. The Seattle Pubic Library (http://www.spl.org/) designed by Rem Kolhaas, the Salt Lake City Public libraries in the United States have Public Library (http://www.slcpl.org/) designed become centers for their communities. People by Moshe Sadﬁe, and the Cerritos Millennium are attracted to interact through the varieties Library in Cerritos, California designed by Jim of events and activities that are included in Nardini (http://www.ci.cerritos.ca.us/library/) the library. Such activities increase the pride are among the main libraries that incorporate of residents regarding their communities, the mixed-use approach. As seen in mega- while fostering a strong sense of belonging. bookstores like Borders, Barnes & Noble, and However, the changing functions of libraries Joseph and Beth Booksellers, libraries have stand as a challenge to assessing public become public destinations because of this libraries nowadays. In this respect, this article mixed-use approach, where not only cafes presents the development and application of and shops are included, but perhaps museums, an assessment method that integrates building art galleries, and even a radio station are performance and service area. integrated with libraries. Project Design and Methodology Among the more novel uses of a library is that Overview it has become a center of education, public forums, public participation and empowerment, The main objective of this project is to establish and occasionally entertainment. For example, a a Facilities Master Plan (the Plan) for one of festival plaza, where concerts are performed, the major library systems in the United States,

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the Public Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton in the life cycle of a building are investigated. County. The present library system is evaluated Such aspects range from visioning and early and recommendations are provided for strategic planning, programming, design, and existing and new branches of the library construction to occupancy, and eventually, to system. This project utilizes a ground-breaking the recycling or adaptive reuse of redundant methodology where building performance facilities. Over several decades, POEs of evaluation (BPE, Preiser & Vischer, 2005) is individual case studies evolved into more employed in combination with the service area general system-wide assessment BPEs, such and population analysis using Geographic as US Postal Service facilities (Farbstein, 2003). Information Systems (GIS) to evaluate the library BPE of an entire library system is reported in this system. Recent advances in GIS make it feasible article. for analysis and presentation of spatial data in a variety of ﬁelds (Seder, Weinkauf and Neumann The main purpose of developing the Plan 2000). GIS applications generally enable a user is to provide a sustainble long-term system to produce a wide range of end products from of facilities and high-quality services. Such simple maps and charts to complex tables and a process is broad because it begins with 3-dimensional visualization. GIS analysis supports comparing the system being evaluated with other similar systems in the US and Canada.

WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG and improves the effectiveness of the decision process (Badard & Richard, 2001; Dangermond, Subsequently, the individual branches are 1989; Lee, 1990; Worrall, 1990; Singh, 1999; examined separately and in detail, while being Shamsi, 1996; Grossman & Eberhardt, 1993; contrasted to other branches within the system. Wang, 2005; Gahegan & Lee, 2000). This study surveys library staff members, analyzes library usage, capacity, demographic features, Building Performance Evaluation (BPE) and the spatial distribution of library branches, originated from Post-Occupancy Evaluation while benchmarking against professional trends (POE) of buildings that have been occupied in other national libraries (PLDS Statistical Report for some period of time (Preiser, Rabinowitz 2002 and 2004). To achieve this, the study and White, 1988; Federal Construction Council, utilizes the experience of library consultants as 2001; NCARB, 2003). Direct observation, well as critically evaluating the state-of-the-art still photography, interviews and survey literature on the topic (Himmel & Wilson, 2005). questionnaires of building users are common data collection methods for rating facility Staff Surveys and Facility Evaluations features and qualities. Feedback is typically The performance of a library branch is evaluated received based on the levels of performance based on results from library staff surveys and in the building, which includes health, safety, objective facility evaluation measures. The and security; functionality; efﬁciency and work combination of qualitative and quantitative processes; and, social, psychological, and measures of library performance evaluation into cultural. In BPE, the entire building delivery and a single scoring classiﬁcation system represents life cycle is considered. BPE adopts the 'cradle a unique feature in this evaluation method, and to grave' approach where aspects involved puts it under the spotlight.

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Two written survey questionnaires are also rates items on a four-point scale, while distributed to and collected from a stratified comments are recorded as well. Clearly sample of 178 staff members at 41 branches defined performance criteria are created and 68 staff members at the Main Library. This and evaluation training is conducted so that article only reports the results from the branch different teams would produce comparable library survey. The questionnaire is grouped evaluation results. As illustrated in Figures 1 and into building, site, and community. There are 2, the facility evaluation teams have expressed 14 questions specifically addressing space some of the problems/issues through digital categories: entrance/lobby; circulation desk; photography. A data process similar to the periodicals area; reference area; adult area; staff survey produces scores for building, site, teen area; children’s area; computer stations; and community, which are averaged to derive program room; public restrooms; staff work the overall facility evaluation score for each area; staff break area; collection storage; and, branch library. the manager’s office. The common elements of the space category questions include Service Area Delineation adequacy of space, lighting, noise level, For administrative and management purposes, temperature, odor, attractiveness, security, a branch library’s service area must be clearly

WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG accessibility to the disabled, and furnishings. outlined. A library can potentially serve The site questions cover the access, safety, and a village, a school district, a county, a city, or amenities such as parking, landscaping and a metropolitan area. In this study, Hamilton personal or property safety of customers and County is the Library’s service area although, staff. The question assessing the library from for instance, a resident in a neighboring county the community’s perspective include elements may be a customer of the Library. regarding to enhancement and support of community activities. Inside the library service area, a branch library may be visited for viewing its book collection, The feedback received is then converted to attending meetings, and partaking in any a four-point score, ranging from poor (0) to fair of its programs. Branch libraries within close (1), good (2), and excellent (4), with the ﬁfth vicinity may attract same customers. Yet, the column indicating ‘not applicable’. The mean area from which a branch library draws the scores for each question are averaged into the majority of its patrons may vary depending mean scores for building, site, and community. on its collection, building, site, and community Finally, the overall staff survey score for each characteristics. Therefore, delineating each branch library is derived from the average of branch’s service area eases the process of the three mean scores. evaluating its facility performance as well as the spatial distribution of branches with regards To assuage the compatibility with the staff to the spatial distribution of potential customers. survey, the facility evaluation by the project As a result, the project team delineates branch team uses the same variables reﬂected the library service areas based on the proportion staff survey questionnaire. This evaluation of library users. To assess branch libraries, these

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areas are then divided into two categories. The overlap service area which lacks a dominating ﬁrst category is the primary service area which branch and may be shared by more than one includes the residents expected to use this branch library. branch library, while the second category is the WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG

Confusing approach to desk. Outdated restroom facilities.

Entry with hiding places. Meeting room lacks privacy.

Figure 1: Facility visit photos showing a historic branch library (Source: Authors).

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Circulation desk area can be congested. Outdated restroom facilities. WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG

Staff area lacks daylight. Lighting at stacks is dim.

Figure 2: Facility visit photos showing a recently-built branch library (Source: Authors).

Circulation records, buffer distance, travel circulation records reflect customer distribution time and distance are all important aspects most evidently and reliably even though there one should note when defining a service area. are other activities that people may travel to The criterion used is the number of circulation libraries for. These activities are reflected in other by census block group. It is believed that variables to be discussed later. In the context of

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the preceding aspects, this analysis is based on of the population with ages of 25 years and circulation records from March to April in both older (less than high school; high school; some 2003 and 2004 provided by the Library. college; Bachelor; and above); population percentage living below the poverty line; and The computation of the active library users in population percentage owning vehicles and a census block group using the same branch the number of vehicles owned, if any. follows the GIS geocoding process whereby the home address of the customers is traced. The digital spatial data acquired from CAGIS The geographic data of census block group include: census block groups; streets; property boundaries and streets are from the Cincinnati parcels; and building footprints. Those data Area Geographic Information System (CAGIS), are used to derive physical dimensions such as a consortium of local government agencies building and site size. and utility companies. Each branch library then has an effective service area, which is A considerable amount of information regarding further divided into primary and secondary service and management is provided by each service areas. On one hand, the primary area library’s staff members. The records obtained is defined as the census block groups where from the staff constitute circulation records, more than 65% of expected customers use the number of staff, and the library’s working hours. WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG branch library. This gives room for other branch More information, like the circulation per capita, libraries to have a maximum of one-third of can be inferred from the aforementioned data. active customers from the census block group. It is determined by dividing the circulation On the other hand, the overlap area is defined of a branch by the population residing in its as the census block groups where branch users effective service area. do not exceed 65% percent and do not go below 17%. The quantitative variables are categorized into six indicators: the service area; the usage; Quantitative Data Variables the building; the site; the staffing output; and the The Library operation, building and physical capacity. The first indicator, the service area, as condition of the site, operation costs, capacity, mentioned earlier, is determined based on the and demographic characteristics of a service size of effective service area and population area is mirrored in the quantitative data that within the effective service area. Second, the has been gathered. The evaluation of each usage indicator is made up of four variables: branch library involves the analysis of over 50 circulation, visit counts, number of programs, variables. and working hours. Third, the building indicator points out the buildings age how sufficient the The following data are obtained from the 2000 building and parking spaces are. Fourth, the US census data: population percentage by five site indicator exemplifies the physical features age groups (children - 13 and younger; teens and qualities of the library’s location. Fifth, - 14 to 18; adult #1 - 19 to 34; adult #2 - 35 to 65; the staffing output indicator is made up of and adult #3 - 65 and older); education levels two variables: staff cost per circulation, and

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circulation per full time staff equivalent (FTE). The ﬁnal indicator is the Capacity of the building and to what extent it could house programs and activities un-related to the common circulation. The Capacity indicator is made up of six variables: seats per 10,000 population; meeting room capacity; program attendance in 2004; number of rooms for programs and activities; internet station shortage; and items owned per capita.

Composite Scoring and Branch Ranking To measure branch library performance, the qualitative and quantitative variables are then compiled into a matrix with a standardized ﬁve- point scoring system. The criteria for scoring are Figure 3: Weighting of performance indicators. based on a combination of variable distribution, library consultants’ experience, and national WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG benchmarking. For instance, “library visits per System Performance Evaluation/National hour open” are scored such that 0 implies that Benchmarking there is no visits, 1 implies that between 1 and 11 people visited the library, 2 implies that between The library system under investigation consists 12 and 14 people visited the library, 3 implies that of the main library and 41 branch libraries and 15 to 18 people visited the library, while 4 implies is considered one of the largest in the United 19 to 24 visitors. States and Canada. If Hawaii’s statewide library Moreover, the relative importance of each system is not considered, the studied library indicator in the branch performance evaluation and its branches would be ranked ninth with is allocated a weight as judged collectively by regards to their number of facilities, and ranked the project team. For example, the project eighth with regards to their annual circulation. team sees that the staff survey indicator is 3 Over time, the Library’s system evolved from times less important as the capacity indicator. the desire of municipalities and neighborhoods Figure 3 illustrates this weighting. within the county to have their own library.

High performers are indicated by branches Quantitative data (salaries, output measure, with a composite score of more than 2.5. library ﬁnances and other annual data) is Any branch whose total score is less than 2.5 obtained through the Public Library Data is viewed as one that needs improvement in Service (PLDS). The majority of U.S. and any of its indicators, in order to excel, when Canadian libraries participates as volunteer contrasted to widely accepted standards. members of the PLDS.

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Statistical information provided by the PLDS is below the average in reference transactions usually described through the population that completed in the branches. This is, at least in the library serves. Service population is divided part, due to the fact that many of the branches into two categories: ones serving over one are too small to have anything more than very million residents; and the other, which includes basic reference collections. the Library, serving between 500,000 and 999,999 people. A comparison between the Most of the branch libraries serve an area Library and other participating libraries in the inside the average 2.7 miles distance between U.S. and Canada is then carried out to assess branch libraries. Overall, 44 percent of the the differences and similarities in each library’s library service area and 39 percent of the performance. Such comparison relies on data population lay inside a branch library’s primary from the 2004 PLDS Statistical Report (FY 2003 service area. Some branches clearly compete data) and from the 2002 PLDS Statistical Report with other nearby branches, since there is a 55 (FY 2001 data). percent overlap area of library service area and 59 percent overlap area of the population Subsequently, the project team finds that the being served. Library serves the thirtieth largest population among the sixty three U.S. and Canadian According to branch distribution, it is evident WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG libraries that serve over 500,000 people with that large branch libraries are situated in a main library and at least one branch library. suburban areas, whereas small branch libraries The Library has branches above the average are located in the more inner urban regions. number of branches. On average, the Library Figure 4 illustrates how branch libraries are serves 20,375 people per branch, more than registered by their building size and by staff FTE just one library system - the Buffalo and Erie (Full Time Equivalent). library system which serves an average of From the preceding comparison with other 18,633 people per branch, with a total of urban library systems, it can be concluded that fifty one branches. In contrast, the Columbus while the Library has twice as many branch Metropolitan Library serves 40,384 people per facilities, taking its population into consideration. branch, with a total of twenty branches, which Having separate branch facilities within each makes it one of the most efficient systems in the neighborhood is an unsustainable goal from country, along with Marion County Library in a medium/long-term perspective. This may Indianapolis. significantly constraint the services provided by The Library performs well on measures relating the individual branch library. Staff resources are to circulation per capita (both overall and limited and a large number of users’ resources circulation to children). However, given the must be bought in order to have an adequate large number of branches, the Library does not collection for all branches. fare well on the total number of branch visits, or on the number of reference transactions completed in the branches. The Library is

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Figure 4: The library service area patterns.

Overall Scores for Branch Libraries indicators, as described in the three tiers in table 1. The overall branch performance ranges from Branches are ranked according to the total 1.29 (worst performer) to 3.24 (best performer). scores compiled. Suggestions for the Plan are A few of the indicators are inconsistent. For derived from the individual indicators’ scores. instance, the lowest service area score is 0, The following discussion analytically looks at while the highest is 4. It can be clearly inferred the overall scores and the eight performance from the data gathered that the top fourteen

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branches consistently perform better than the eight indicators show that the higher performing bottom ten, with differences between the two libraries’ service areas are the geographically occasionally being strikingly signiﬁcant. The larger ones. WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG

Figure 5: Composite library scores.

Table 1: Summary of branch libraries Factor Staff Facility Service Usage Building Site Staffing Capacity Overall Survey Evaluation Area Output Highest Score 3.46 3.67 4.00 4.00 3.50 3.75 4.00 3.67 3.24 Lowest Score 1.86 1.36 0.00 0.75 0.75 1.00 1.00 0.67 1.29 Average Score 2.73 2.86 2.05 2.37 1.98 2.69 2.41 2.20 2.30 Median Score 2.74 2.92 2.00 2.25 2.00 2.75 2.50 2.30 2.30

Top 14 Average 2.79 2.98 3.25 3.46 2.16 3.18 3.07 2.81 2.88 Middle 17 Average 2.82 2.86 2.03 2.09 1.88 2.72 2.50 2.05 2.20 Bottom 10 Average 2.47 2.67 0.40 1.33 1.88 1.95 1.35 1.77 1.58

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The fourteen highest performers lie in the sixty availability and quality of internet access, seven percent suburban part of the county. hosting community activities, community The remaining seventeen moderate performers development, and unconventional uses and cover more urban areas and twenty eight resources of the library. percent of the county. Those moderate performers are characterized by having a limited As illustrated in Table 2, staff evaluations in the service area, and a small building and site size. form of a survey is based on the responses’ fixed They are also younger than the other suburban frequencies and relative collective percentages libraries. To demonstrate the limitation of the from the responding libraries, such that the service area, the collected data delineate that frequency of comments is divided by fortyone, the bottom ten performers serve just 5 percent since all the branch libraries have responded. of the county. Fifty percent of county residents Some staff members reported a number of serious are served by the fourteen top branch libraries, problems, some of which are the occasional lack whereas only thirteen percent of total residents of a sufficient number of computer terminals, are supported by the bottom ten branches. poor maintenance, inadequate staff work spaces, as well the occasional incompatibility with the Americans with Disabilities Act-ADA Individual Indicator Scores for Branch (Preiser, 2001; Salmen, 2001). WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG Libraries Facility Evaluation Staff Survey Synopsis Like the categories used in the staff survey, The staff survey indicator constitutes three facility evaluation also includes three variables: building, site, and community. The categories: building, site, and community. The ‘building’ variable is analyzed according ‘building’ category focuses on its design as a to its overall design quality which includes whole, including the entrance/lobby and other convenience for the disabled, signage, security, spaces in the building. More specifically, ample maintainability, pleasant appearance, amount room, comfortable lighting, acoustics and of space, connection between spaces/layout, temperature are also used in the evaluation. flexibility to changing uses, quality of building Program rooms, among others, are spaces materials, and environmental quality. The assessed and found to have an average score ‘site’ variable is analyzed according to how of 2.8 on the five-point scale explained earlier. the building can possibly be traveled to and Another space that is assessed similar to the accessed. The site may be accessed in the assessment in the staff survey is the branch following ways: on foot; bicycle; vehicle; the manager’s office. Twenty two out of the forty disabled; public transport; and, from businesses, one branches do not have separate offices for community centers and schools in close vicinity. branch managers. Finally, the ‘community’ variable constitutes how the community views the branch’s The second category is the ‘site’ which location, usage convenience, compatibility constitutes the assessment of the accessibility, with surroundings, quality of collection, safety, and amenities as a whole, while also

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scrutinizing more specific criteria (i.e. all types of Positive Comments 4 9.8% user groups). The third and final category is the ‘community’ whereby the general community’s Site perspective is taken into consideration. Criteria under this category include convenience of Accessibility (Vehicular, 9 22.0% usage, high quality of collection, dependable Pedestrian, bicycle) internet access, community outreach programs, Entry from site to building 6 14.6% advocating non-library programs and activities, Visibility and signage 8 19.5% as well as fulfilling community needs. Parking 13 31.7% Security issues 12 29.3% Table 2: Staff survey comments: Cumulative Building ADA issues Spaces inadequate (size): Building 18 43.9% Program Room 8 19.5% Site 8 19.5% Reading Areas 14 34.1% WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG Support Spaces 21 51.2% Service Area Spaces missing: The service area indicator reveals the number Program Room 13 31.7% of customers as well as how much space the library’s services and facilities occupy. Two Reading Areas 3 7.3% variables constitute the service area indicator: Support Spaces 13 31.7% the total population of the effective service Adjacencies/ space 11 26.8% area, and the size of the effective service arrangements area. Higher scores are given to the branch Maintenance issues 17 41.5% libraries that have a larger population to serve and a larger service area. It is important Security issues 13 31.7% to note the discrepancies in the population Noise issues 4 9.8% density in each service area. As observed, Air quality 7 17.1% low performing branch libraries serve areas with high population densities; moderately Lighting 13 31.7% performing branch libraries serve areas near Thermal Comfort Issues 13 31.7% inner urban regions with a fairly high population Furniture 22 53.7% density; and, the highest performing branch Computers inadequate (Staff 30 73.2% libraries border areas with the lowest population and Public) density. Differences in population features are explored in the following section. Signage/ Way finding 11 26.8%

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Library Usage Building Library usage constitutes four variables that Unlike the ‘building’ variable used in the staff evaluate the efficiency of the services in each survey and facility evaluation, where the branch library. The four variables are: annual assessment is based on the qualitative views of circulation per piece owned; circulation per staff and experts on the building as a physical working hour; library visits per working hour; and entity, this ‘building’ indicator uses quantitative number of programs in 2004. data acquired from library records. The ‘building’ indicator constitutes four variables: The fourteen lowest performing branches circulation per square foot; building age since have an average circulation per working last renovation; facility size per capita; and cost hour of fifty one, as illustrated in Figure 6. The of maintenance per square foot. moderate branches have an average of ninety six circulations per working hour, while the The forty one branch libraries exhibit inequities fourteen highest performing library branches in the diversity of facilities, as shown by the have an average of one hundred sixty five analysis. The ratio of the entire building size circulations per working hour. When compared measured in square feet to the population to other library systems, the Library is generally density in the effective service area is used to a high performer with regards to circulation derive the facility size per capita. The lowest WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG issues, including the ‘turnover rate’ which is value found was 0.15 square feet, which implies the term often used for the average annual that the branch library’s facility is too small to circulation per piece owned. The number of occupy all the potential customers. The largest programs provided also makes the Library value found was 1.48 square feet per capita. a high performer. Moreover, the number of Regardless of additions or renovations, the forty visits to the branch libraries lowers the Library’s one branch libraries’ age was found to range overall performance score. from nearly new to ninety nine years.

The circulation per square foot lies between twenty ﬁve and forty. The collected data reveals that circulation per square foot hints that the facilities in the Library are efﬁciently used. Occasionally, a rate larger than forty circulations per square foot indicates that the branch library’s building is working beyond capacity, and has the potential of being overcrowded.

The majority of values of maintenance cost per square foot are tolerable. The Library must be aware of the building with a maintenance cost Figure 6: Circulation per hour open. per square foot of $4.00. Any higher costs are

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usually caused by problems that rarely occur. It is important for the Library to closely keep track of all costs, including those rare high costs, to fairly judge whether or not the maintenance costs need to be lowered. Notably, the analysis reveals that the Library is capable of carefully tracking and controlling maintenance costs by keeping record of all data.

Site The ‘site’ indicator mirrors the overall features of the property as a whole. This category constitutes four variables: distance to closest bus stop; availability of parking space for the disabled; availability of off-street parking space; Figure 7: Proportion of parking deﬁcit. and potential for expansion.

According to Waters and Wilson (2005), ofﬁce

WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG Staffing Output parking space should be about one parking Like the retail world, this evaluation process uses space per 250 square feet of facility size. To an approach aimed at assessing the effects find the off-street parking space deficit, the of staff employment on the library system as available parking spaces are subtracted a whole. Variables such as the general staffing from the recommended number of parking costs, number of staff members assigned, spaces. The ratio of off-street parking space and the usage with regards to circulation is deficit number to the recommended parking analyzed in contrast to the two main variables space number is used to find the proportion of that constitute the ‘staffing output’ indicator, parking space deficit. As shown in Figure 7, the which is measured by calculating staff cost per moderately ranked library branches have ratios circulation, and circulation per FTE (Full-Time between 20% and 80%. The parking deficit for Equivalent) staff member. the remaining low ranked library branches, excluding one branch, is a ratio exceeding As indicated by the staff cost per circulation, 50%, including five branches with no available the highest ranked library branches when parking spaces at all. Thus, one can infer that compared to lower ranked ones have lower the shortage or lack of parking space does not unit costs. Increasing cost-effectiveness can be motivate customers to travel to and use the predicted if the higher cost branches are further library. developed.

As illustrated in Figure 8, cost per transaction in the high ranking branch libraries varies greatly in comparison to the low ranking branch libraries.

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For instance, the fourteen highest performing of computer/internet terminals, while all the branch libraries have a $0.90 average branch remaining branch libraries perform highly in this staff cost per circulation, while the ten lowest regard. Most low performing branch libraries performing branch libraries have a $1.41 lack a meeting room, whereas most of the high average branch staff cost per circulation performing branch libraries have a large and and a $1.50 average branch staff cost per sufﬁcient capacity. transaction. Staff cost per transaction in the four lowest performing branch libraries is nearly Recommendations twice the cost per transaction in the four highest performing branch libraries. The project team proposes a Facility Plan that is important for fulﬁlling the library’s sustainable goals by establishing a system that could supply high quality services and facilities that are economically sustainable on a long-term basis.

An examination of more than forty recent instances (Wilson, 2005) in which small, inefficient branches or several small branches WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG are replaced by considerably larger facilities serving a larger population base, showed increases in usage (measured by circulation) of between 40% and 107%. This information has been used to project the levels of use that might be experienced by the Library if the below four strategies to achieve greater Figure 8: Staff cost per circulation. cost-effectiveness and improved service are implemented. This will result in fewer, but larger Capacity branch libraries. However, implementation will The ‘capacity’ indicator’ shows the extent also result in usage by a larger percentage of to which a branch library can carry out the the population and in higher total circulation conventional library activities, like library per capita. An overall increase in circulation material collections and seats available, as well in the Library’s branches is projected to be as emerging functions. The ‘capacity’ indicator approximately 30%. The four strategies to be constitutes six variables: holdings owned per applied to specific branches include: capita; seats per 10,000 potential customers; 1. No major changes. ratio of computer/internet terminals shortage; 2. Upgrade and/or expand existing program attendance in 2004; meeting room facilities. capacity; and the number of program rooms. 3. Replace existing facilities. 4. Consolidate branches with Only five branch libraries have a shortage overlapping service areas

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This recommendation aims to serve more of the benefit from the Plan. Branch libraries will be population in the Library’s entire service area, capable of providing better collections for particularly populations near urban areas, while users, as well as longer hours of operation. aiming to increase the Library’s efficiency. Library expansions with larger and renovated Occasionally, some branch libraries used a meeting facilities will result in an increase in combination of the four proposed strategies. community meetings and events. The improved For instance, two significantly efficient branch computer technology terminals will also greatly libraries that serve three previously overlapping benefit new library users. service areas can come into being if a library is completely reconstructed and a new facility Conclusions is built to replace two other inadequate branches. The Library’s Board of Directors is now more capable of leading the development of the The ratio of one branch library per 27,267 Library’s system and facilities, with the Plan as residents, which resulted from the recommended the channel through which unbiased decisions changes, is still higher than that of top libraries in can be made. The services will then be more the nation. With the adoption of the Plan, more balanced. people would use the libraries, and the extent WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG to which the use of libraries would rise. The Overall, the approach of research and following data compares the population served analysis in this project is a promising method by branch libraries of the Multnomah County of evaluating library performance through Library and Columbus County Library: the integration of quantitative and qualitative techniques. Summary scores for specific Columbus Metropolitan Library ( obtained by analyzing different types of primary 1 branch library for every 40,384 in and secondary data. Recommendations population and future action strategies in the Facilities Multnomah County Library (Portland, Master Plan are based on these scores. OR) The integration of performance evaluation and 1 branch library for every 41,891 in analysis with planning and decision-making is population. very important from the viewpoints of politicians, If the Plan is completely executed, the overall policy makers, as well as the general public. This Library circulation is expected to increase by article aims at reaching a compromise with approximately 3.5 million, or about 30%, based regards to the future of a public library system on the experience of other libraries that have through joint efforts among major stakeholders. consolidated smaller branches into larger The analytic capabilities of the performance branches. evaluation of the library will improve through the emerging use of GIS and BPE. GIS can In sum, residents in Hamilton County will greatly assess a building’s performance by analyzing

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the service area characteristics whereas BPE References can assess a building’s performance by utilizing Adler, J. (1997). Where the Books Are, Newsweek, systematic ‘consumer feedback’ and expert July 14, pp.72-73. observation. Badard, T. And Richard, D. (2001). Using Xml For Social interaction within a service area The Exchange Of Updating Information Between is promoted through the library system Geographical Information Systems, Computers, recommendations. The assessment of the Environment And Urban Systems, Vol. 25, No.1, pp.17- Library’s overall performance suggests the 31. need for adjustment of branch libraries. The Dangermond, J. (1989). Trends in GIS and assessment of the branch libraries provides Comments, Computers, Environment and Urban the speciﬁc recommendations for such Systems, Vol. 12, No.3, pp.137-159. adjustments. The results illustrate the importance Farbstein, J. (2003). Diagnostic Post-Occupancy of comprehending spatial distribution of branch Evaluation: USPS Retail Space Design, In: National libraries, their interaction, and their conditions. Council of Architectural Registration Boards (2003, Finally, one can conclude that the results help Wolfgang F.E. Preiser, author), Improving Building reach a compromise between stakeholders Performance, NCARB, Washington, DC., USA. and the creation of recommendations and

WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG Federal Construction Council, (2001). Learning from practical measures. our Buildings: A State-of-the-Practice Summary of Post-Occupancy Evaluation, National Academy Press, Washington, DC., USA. Acknowledgments The excellent contributions by Himmel and Wilson, Gahegan, M., and Lee, I. (2000). Data Structures and Library Consultants, are gratefully acknowledged. Algorithms to Support Interactive Spatial Analysis For their outstanding collaboration in this project, we Using Dynamic Voronoi Diagrams, Computers, thank The Public Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton Environment and Urban Systems, Vol. 24, No.6, pp. County: Kim Fender, Executive Director; Raymond 509-537. Hils, Facilities and Security Director; Library staff, Grossmann, W. D., and Eberhardt, S. (1993). Branch managers, as well as facilities staff. Thanks are Geographical Information Systems and Dynamic owed to research assistants Eric Anspach, Gordon Modelling, In M. M. Fischer and P. Nijkamp (Eds.) Bennett, Megan Conover, Sean Harry, Scott Hines, Geographic Information Systems, Spatial Modelling, Hexiang Huang, Duygu Karadeniz, Chandrima Pal and Policy, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. and Heather Sturgill. An earlier version of this article “Assessing library performance with GIS and building Himmel, E. and Wilson, W. (2005). Library Consultants. evaluation methods” was published in the journal 417 E. High Street, Milton, WI 53563. Consultants (wilso New Library World, Vol 107, No. 1224/1225, 2006, PP. [email protected]), Personal Communication. 193-217. We thank Ashraf Salama for his editorial work in condensing the manuscript for purposes of IJAR. Lee, Y C. (1990). Geographic Information Systems For Urban Applications: Problems and Solutions, Environment And Planning B: Planning and Design, Vol. 17, No.4, pp. 463-473. National Council of Architectural Registration Boards

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(2003, Wolfgang F.E. Preiser, author). Improving Singh, R. R. (1999). Sketching the City: A GIS-Based Building Performance, NCARB, Washington, DC., USA. Approach. Environment and Planning B: Planning And Design, 26, pp. 455-468. Nethaway, R. (2005). Get More Use From Libraries, The Cincinnati Enquirer, April 3. Wang, X. (2005). Integrating GIS, Simulation Models, and Visualization in Trafﬁc Impact Analysis, Perlman, E. (2004). Library Living.Governing, Computers, Environment, and Urban Systems, 29(4), November, 51-54. pp. 4871-496. Public Library Data Service (PLDS) Statistical Report Waters, R.L. and Wilson, W. (2005). Based on (2002 & 2004). Chicago, IL: Public Library Association a formula developed by Providence Associates, ( Consultants. Personal Communication.

Preiser, W.F.E., and Vischer, J.C. (Eds.)(2005). Worrall, L. (Ed). (1990). Geographic Information Assessing Building Performance, Elsevier, Oxford, Systems: Developments and Applications, Belhaven United Kingdom. Press, London, United Kingdom. Preiser, W.F.E. (2001). Toward Universal Design Evaluation, In: Preiser, W.F.E. and Ostroff, ------E.(Eds.)Universal Design Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Wolfgang F.E. Preiser

WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG New York, USA. Wolfgang F.E. Preiser is a Professor Emeritus of Architecture at the University of Cincinnati, USA. He Preiser, W.F.E., Rabinowitz, H.Z., and White, E.T. (1988). holds a Ph.D. from the Pennsylvania State University Post-Occupancy Evaluation, Van Nostrand Reinhold, (1973), Masters degrees in architecture from Virginia New York, USA. Polytechnic Institute and State University and the Technical University of Karlsruhe, Germany, as well Salmen, J.P. (2001). U.S. Accessibilirty Codes and as the First State Exam from the Technical University Standards: Challenges for Universal Design, In: in Vienna, Austria. On a global level, he has lectured Preiser, W.F.E. and Ostroff, E. (Eds.) Universal Design at 109 universities and organizations, in addition to Handbook, McGraw-Hill, . New York, USA. many conferences. As a researcher and international Seder, I., Weinkauf, R., and Neumann, T. (2000). building consultant, he has worked on topics ranging Knowledge-based Databases and Intelligent from universal design, to facility programming, Decision Support for Environmental Management in building performance assessments, health care Urban Systems, Computers, Environment and Urban facilities, and intercultural design in general. He is Systems, 24: pp. 233-250. widely published, with 16 books and 125 chapters, articles and papers in conference proceedings to his Shamsi, U.M. (1996). Storm-Water Management credit. Most recent books are Designing for Designers: Implementation Through Modeling and GIS. Journal Learning from Schools of Architecture (2007, with Jack of Water Resources and Management, Vol 122, No.2, Nasar and Tom Fisher), Assessing Building Performance pp.114-127. (2005, with Jacqueline Vischer), Improving Building Performance (2003) and, Universal Design Handbook Shill, H.B. and Tonner, S. (2003). Does the Building (2001, with Elaine Ostroff), which was translated into Really Matter? Facility Improvements and Library Japanese. He serves on the editorial boards of major Usage, ACRL Eleventh National Conference, April journals. Preiser has received many honors, awards 10-13, Charlotte, N.C., USA. and fellowships, including the Progressive Architecture

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Applied Research Award and Citation, Professional Fellowships from the National Endowment for the Arts, the EDRA Career and Lifetime Achievement Awards , and the Fulbright Fellowship. He can be contacted at [email protected]

------Xinhao Wang Dr. Xinhao Wang is a professor of Planning in the University of Cincinnati. He holds a Ph.D. in City and Regional Planning from the University of Pennsylvania. He teaches courses in Geographic Information System (GIS), environmental planning, statistics, and planning research methods. His research interests are in the areas of environmental planning, and integrated applications of GIS, visualization, modeling, and other information technologies in planning. Examples of his work are analysis of the spatial pattern of public housing recipients; the relationship between land

WOLFGANG F. E. PREISER & XINHAO WANG use and water quality; and GIS-based modeling. Dr. Wang’s publications and presentations can be found in various GIS, planning and environmental journals. Dr. Wang is the Director of the Ph.D. program in Regional Development Planning and the Co-Director of the Joint Center of Geographic Information Sciences and Spatial Analysis at the University of Cincinnati.

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THE IMAPCT OF WAR ON THE MEANING OF ARCHITECTURE IN KUWAIT

Yasser Mahgoub

Abstract Keywords The city-state of Kuwait’s oil wealth and strategic War; architecture; people; Kuwait; meaning. location at the cross roads of political conflicts and global interests made it always influenced, directly and indirectly, by wars and armed conflicts in the region. While Kuwait benefited from the sharp increase Introduction of oil prices that followed the 1973 Middle East War to War and architecture have a long and often finance its modernization and construction plans, its parasitical relationship; the building and unbuilding architectural landmarks, governmental and private of urban centres, the making of enclaves, walls and buildings were targets of destruction and vandalism segregated residential and city zones has been during the Second Gulf War in 1991. The aim of this fundamental to urban form and human experience. paper is to investigate the impact of the war on The destruction of buildings and cities has therefore architecture in Kuwait as a literal and figurative target always been an integral part of winning and loosing of the warfare. It attempts to understand the change wars. of Kuwaitis attitudes towards architecture as an (Esther Charlesworth) outcome of the war aggressions. The paper illustrates that while the war had a physical impact on buildings The aim of this paper is to investigate the and structures; it also had a perceptual impact on impact of the war on architecture in Kuwait their meaning as architecture and places. It polarized as a literal and figurative target of the attitudes towards architecture and its significance; warfare. The case of Kuwait is significant while traditional architecture gained importance because it illustrates a unique condition of and admiration, global styles of architecture became sudden attack, resulting in the occupation more trendy and fashionable. The paper illustrates the impact of war on the physical as well as the of Kuwait by its neighbor Iraq, followed by a symbolic aspects of architecture. Another significant quick formation of allied forces that liberated impact of the war in Kuwait is the interruption of urban Kuwait within few months. This rapid swift of development plans progress that Kuwait enjoyed conditions affected people’s attitudes towards during the Seventies. architecture as a representative of social and cultural meanings. This paper is an attempt to

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understand the change of people’s attitudes architectural connotations of war — the need towards architecture as an outcome of the war for defensive shelter, the status of architecture aggression and its impact of the formation of as a target — there is a breadth of associative contemporary architecture in Kuwait. meaning between the two enterprises: both are about the exercise of control over a territory; War and Architecture both involve strategic considerations of the The relationship between war and architecture most apt site-specific solutions; both involve the is a perplexing one. Defense and protection use of symbol, rhetoric, and cultural context.” YASSER MAHGOUB against enemy attacks were strong motivations (Vanderbilt, 1983:1). to build and protect old cities and towns, meanwhile, war was always a major source of The impact of war on architecture transcends destruction of buildings and cities. During the its physical presence and impacts its symbolic 20th century, cities in Europe, Asia and Africa meaning as a representation of cultural identity. were affected by wars aggressions. While The destruction of the NY World Trade Center medieval cities were protected by defensive towers on the 9th of September 2001 illustrated walls to protect them from external attacks, the significance of architecture’s symbolic “more recently, the re-erection of yet another meaning as a target for war aggressions. They wall in Jerusalem, 25 feet high and part of a 21- were viewed by the attackers as a symbol mile barricade, is being built to separate Israelis of imperialism domination that needs to be and Palestinians.” (Charlesworth, 2006:26) destroyed. Architecture was always a target of war aggressions since the destruction of Yet, what is destroyed is not only buildings the Library of Alexandria on the hands of the and structures but architecture and places Romans, because of its materialization of that carry meaning and significance for its civilizational and cultural achievements that inhabitants and people. As Bevan put it, are envied and hated by the opposite regime. “there has always been another war against Paradoxically, wars pave the way for new architecture going on – the destruction of the construction. The destruction of European cities cultural artefacts of an enemy people or nation during the Second World War was followed as a means of dominating, terrorizing, dividing by massive construction efforts to rebuild the or eradicating it altogether.” (Bevan, 2006:8) devastated cities. Chalesworth investigated He considers the 1990s torture, mass murders the ways in which design professionals since and concentration camps of Bosnia in the 1945 have contributed to social stability after former Yugoslavia, and the razing of mosques, conflicts as illustrated through historical and the burning of libraries and the sundering of contemporary reconstruction case studies bridges as equally shocking. This “cultural from France, Germany and the UK after 1945, cleansing, with architecture as its medium, to the role of designers in the ‘post-9/11’ era. is a phenomenon that has been barely She asserts that the two central themes for understood.” (Bevan, 2006:8) For Vanderbilt, any analysis of postwar reconstruction are: war is the extension of architecture by other the aesthetics of rebuilding and the role of means. He argues that, “apart from the obvious those who are doing the reconstruction.

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(Charlesworth, 2006). limits agricultural development, consequently, with the exception of ﬁsh; it depends almost Castells (2004) asserts that the construction entirely on food imports. Political conditions of identities is fundamental to the dynamic in the region were always a major concern of societies and that cultural identity is the because of their impact on oil prices and its process by which social actors build their own supply to the world market. meaning according to cultural attributes. The psychological impact of war on people changes

YASSER MAHGOUB the meanings they associate with architecture and buildings. Al Sayyad (2001) argues that many nations are restoring to heritage preservation, the invention of tradition, and the rewriting of history as forms of self-deﬁnition. Indeed, the events of the last decade have created a dramatically altered global order that requires a new understanding of the role of tradition and heritage in the making of social space and the shaping of city form. “Returning to the roots” is a common reaction of people to overcome the psychological impact of wars. This was evident in search of the lost identity in Kuwaiti architecture after its invasion by Iraq as will be illustrated by this paper.

Figure 1: Map of Kuwait and its neighboring countries The Experience of War in Kuwait (Source: Y. Mahgoub).

It is a caprice of history that the lands now occupied Kuwait was influenced by political conflicts in by Iraq and Kuwait, ravaged by conflict throughout the region that persisted since the early 1980s history and now again rent by war, gave birth to the world’s first civilization. when the Islamic revolution in Iran succeeded (Harry G. Summers, Jr.) in assuming power. It continued during the 8-year First Gulf War between Iran and Iraq The impact of war on Kuwait has started with during 1980s that threatened the security of the the discovery of oil during the 1930s by the whole Gulf region (Figure 1). Kuwait supported British and its concealment until the end of the Iraqi side financially during the war, yet, the Second World War in order to divert the a conflict over the adequacy of Kuwait’s attention of Nazi Germany away from the financial support to Iraq during the war resulted area. Kuwait contains approximately 100 billion in its invasion by Iraq on the 2nd of August, 1990. barrels of proven oil reserves, or roughly 8% of According to Vale, “Kuwait struggled to remain the world’s total oil reserves. Its harsh climate officially neutral in the Iran-Iraq war during the

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1980s. Though it gave an estimated $1 billion a developments during the second half of the 20th year in financial assistance to its Iraqi neighbors, century as a result of revenues generated from such aid did not ease perennial border disputes the production and sale of oil. This economic and other tensions with Iraq, as the Iraqi invasion prosperity permitted the development of its of Kuwait soon made clear.” (Vale, 1992:211). modernization through its First Master Plan in 1952 that was developed by the British firm The Iraqi invasion and annexing of Kuwait in Minoprio, Spencely and Macfarlane. The 1990 had a dramatic impact on the whole planners main objectives were to illustrate YASSER MAHGOUB region and initiated a collision between the and describe the improvements which they US and other countries to liberate Kuwait. considered necessary for the development The Second Gulf War, called “Desert Storm”, of Kuwait in accordance with the highest was a significant event after the collapse of standards of “modern town planning.” The the former Soviet Union and an opportunity matters which the consultants regarded as to prove the US superiority as the sole super being of primary importance in the re-planning power in the world after the end of the Cold of the town were: (a) the provision of a modern War. Following the 9/11 events, the US became road system appropriate to the traffic conditions determined to eliminate the political regime in Kuwait, (b) the location of suitable zones for of Sadam Hussain in Iraq as a prime source public buildings, industry, commerce, schools, of aggression and instability in the world. The and other purposes, (c) the choice of zones Third Gulf War and the troubling situation in for new houses and other buildings needed in Iraq after the elimination of Sadam’s regime residential areas, both inside and outside the in 2003 - and lately the Iran nuclear conflict town wall, (d) the selection of sites for parks, - are overshadowing the urban and economic sports ground, school playing fields and other development in Kuwait as a prime entry point open spaces, (e) the creation of a beautiful for the US and allied military forces to Iraq. and dignified town centre, (f) the planting of trees and shrubs along the principal roads and The Impact of the War on Development at other important points in the town, and (g) the provision of improved main roads linking Plans Kuwait with the adjoining towns and villages. (Minoprio et al., 1951). The story of Kuwait is a rich and long story written within a very short span of time. It is the story of The Plan called for the demolition of the old humble, organic desert Arab village that exploded houses inside the old wall to give way for new into a haughty, over-extended desert Arab metropolis roads and public buildings. Modern residential according to a geometric paper-plan, finding itself today (1964) a full fledged State embroiled in neighbourhoods were to be built outside scientific planning and world affairs. the old wall. Kuwait utilized its oil wealth to construct a modern city to replace its old (Saba George Shiber) traditional settlement. As noted by Kultermann, “only a few historic monuments have been Kuwait was influenced by rapid economic preserved in Kuwait as modernization continues

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to rake its toll on the old urban environment half-century of oil-sponsored riches led a tribally and historic buildings. A few mosques have oriented sheikhdom to confront issues of global been saved from demolition, and many have scope.” (Vale, 1992: 211). been replaced with new structures, reflecting the rapid changes in the recent history of the On the 2nd of August, 1990, the Iraqi regime of state.” (Kultermann, 1999). Saddam Husain decided to invade Kuwait and annex it to Iraq. Saddam’s primary justifications The 1973 Middle East War caused sharp included a charge that the territory of Kuwait YASSER MAHGOUB increase of oil prices and income for Kuwait was in fact an Iraqi province, and that that initiated a second phase development annexation was retaliation for “economic and modernization. While Kuwait was not warfare” Kuwait had allegedly waged through directly affected by the war, it benefited from slant drilling into oil supplies that were in the increase of oil prices that followed the oil disputed territories along the borders between embargo to finance its construction plans. the two countries. The monarchy was deposed Kuwait was described during the 1980s as the after annexation, and a new Kuwaiti governor “Jewel of the Gulf.” It was the main point of was installed by Saddam Hussein. This event entry of modernization to other Gulf countries; initiated the collaboration of forces from such as Dubai, Bahrain, Qatar and Abu Dhabi. different countries as “allied” forces to liberate For example, the first school and the first Kuwait in 1991. Authorized by the UN Security hospital constructed in Dubai were financed by Council, a US-led coalition of 34 nations fought the Kuwaiti government. Professional workers the Second Gulf War, known as Desert Storm, from Egypt and other Arab countries used to to reinstate the government of Kuwait. After 6 go through Kuwait before going to other Gulf weeks of fierce fighting in early 1991, Iraq was countries. It was the leader and idol for these forced to withdraw its troops from Kuwait on emerging societies and participated in shaping February 26, 1991. their modernization and development. During their retreat, the Iraqi Armed Forces The stock market crash during the 1980s and the practiced a scorched earth policy by setting decline of oil prices slowed down the process fire to Kuwaiti oil wells. The fires took over nine of development. The 8-year First Gulf War months to fully extinguish, and the cost of repair between Iran-Iraq during 1980s threatened the of oil infrastructure exceeded $5,000,000,000. security of the whole Gulf region and diverted Beside the damage inflicted on oil fields, the the attention towards security and financial damage was also inflicted on a large variety of burdens of supporting the Arab neighbor Iraq building types such as; mosques, government during the war. As Vale put it, “even before it buildings, palaces, public buildings and was invaded in August 1990 by Iraq, Kuwait markets as well as architecture landmarks. was known to the world for three things: its oil, Private property, houses, hotels, office wealth, and its precarious position in the war- buildings, university buildings and schools were torn Persian/Arabian Gulf. Kuwait’s great wealth also subject to vandalism and destruction. The has not come about without consequences. A well-known Kuwait Water Towers by Malene

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Bjoern, the National Assembly Building by Jorn during the invasion (Figure 2). Historical and Utzon, the Sief Palace by Reima Pietilae, and traditional buildings were targeted and the International Airport by Kenzo Tange were destroyed (Figure 3). among the buildings damaged and vandalized YASSER MAHGOUB

Figure 2: Examples of impact of war on landmarks of Kuwait, Left: Seif Palace/Right: Kuwait Airways HQ. (Source: Y. Mahgoub).

Figure 3: Damaged traditional buildings. Left: Old market – Right: Old mosque minaret. (Source: Y. Mahgoub).

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As early as September 1990, the government The first study was conducted by Garbarino of Kuwait in exile began discussions with US immediately after the liberation of Kuwait government regarding post-war plans for on samples of Kuwaiti children and youth. reconstruction. A task force was established Garbarino discovered that 62% of the children even before the liberation of Kuwait to develop were exposed to traumatic experiences ranging plans for the reconstruction of Kuwait. (Al-Bahar, from observing violent events to loss of parents. 1991) By the end of 1990, the Kuwaitis had (Garbarino, 1991). Al-Sarraf studied the impact begun formulating an infrastructure emergency of the war on the behavior of secondary school YASSER MAHGOUB and restoration action plan. This plan envisioned students. He argued that the shock and brutality a three-phase reconstruction process as follows: of the invasion experience caused emotional 1) The Emergency Relief Phase, 2) The Recovery shock for individuals and groups. He focused Phase, and 3) The Reconstruction Phase. The on the emotional impact of the invasion on Emergency Relief Phase was expected to take high school students according to their age, about three months and was coordinated by educational system, and existence during the the Kuwait Emergency and Recovery Program invasion, inside or outside Kuwait. The results of (KERP) offices in Washington and in Kuwait. his study indicated that the invasion experience In the immediate post-war, KERP was largely caused negative impact on the emotions of responsible for the assessments of damages high school students. The most significant are: made in Kuwait during this period. Due to the feeling that the Gulf region became full of a large number of delays, this has continued dangers, mistrust of Arabs, pessimism regarding past the originally planned three month period. the future of Kuwait, fear of the unknown and During The Recovery Phase, sector-by-sector increased anxiety and anger when thinking damage reports were used to begin bringing about the northern neighbor. (Al-Sarraf, 1994). Kuwaiti services back to full operation. Damage assessment reports were also used to initiate Al-Khawaja and Ramadan studied the change planning for longer term reconstruction based of values of university students before and after on a number of factors, including projected the invasion. They used the Rokeach Human demographics of post-war Kuwait, desirability Value test on a sample of university students to and degree of government involvement in rank 18 values according to their importance. various sectors, and the financial position of the They compared their results with a similar study government as the reconstruction phase begins. conducted in 1988 and discovered that 3 values Finally, The Reconstruction Phase lasted more were affected by the invasion experience; than five years when renovation of Kuwait’s state security, world peace and religious infrastructure took place in accordance with salvation. They attributed the change of values national objectives laid out in preceding phases to the impact of the invasion experience that changed many of the opinions, behaviors and beliefs of the Kuwaiti citizens. (Al-Khawaja, The Impact of the War on the Individual 1994). Several researches were conducted to study the impact of the war on the Kuwaiti personality. Al-Damkhi, an eyewitness of the aggressions of

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the Iraqi regime wrote, “the Kuwaiti citizen was ofﬁce, car showrooms, and the Complex of not the only target of the Baghdad government. Ministries building. Monuments or memorials His homeland was the other. In order to erase dedicated to events in Kuwait’s heritage Kuwait from the map, the Baathist regime were singled out for demolition. One of the determined on a plan to destroy and erase all ﬁrst measures taken by the Iraqi regime was the features and landmarks that characterized the change of names of places, areas, and the State of Kuwait. It was a campaign against buildings. Kuwait that escalated as soon as it became YASSER MAHGOUB clear that Kuwaitis remained loyal to their The experience of the war in Kuwait is leaders.” (Al-Damkhi, 1992) He observed the documented in a special museum called Bait destruction of prominent landmarks and the Al Kuwait Lila’maal Alwataniyaa (Kuwait House vandalism of many important buildings such for National Works : Not to Forget Museum of as the Kuwait Airways Corporation downtown Saddam Hussain Regime Crimes) (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Bait Al Kuwait Lila’amaal Alwataniyaa, Kuwait House for National Works: Not To Forget Museum Saddam Hussain Regime Crimes. (Source: Y. Mahgoub).

The museum occupies an old converted house The invasion experience by the neighboring Arab and contains documents and photos about all country Iraq and its liberation by international the crimes inﬂicted on people, properties and forces, led by the US, had a dramatic impact culture. It displays models of the invasion and on the Kuwaiti culture. As described by Khattab, destruction of the city using audio and visual “particularly in the case of Kuwait, reasserting effects. The museum is visited by school children the local identity has lately become a matter of and tourists to show them the crimes of the Iraqi great importance especially after Iraq’s claims regime during the invasion. in Kuwait and the Second Gulf War.” (Khattab,

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2001:56) This was reflected on the architecture occupation has been estimated at between being produced in Kuwait by local and Kuwaiti US$25-30 billion. “No new design projects are architects in their attempts to recognize and expected to be commissioned during this acknowledge the heritage of traditional Kuwaiti period as emphasis will be directed primarily architecture during the 1990s. towards the reparation of the damage inflicted on existing buildings. Although architects could The invasion experience polarized the opinions participate in some capacity in the rebuilding of the Kuwaitis regarding its causes and results. efforts, Kuwait’s post-war construction market YASSER MAHGOUB While one group attributed this trauma to the will mainly require the professional services of illusions of Arabism, another group attributed structural surveyors, civil engineers, construction it to the secular trends away from true managers, and interior as opposed to Islamic practices. The first side became more architectural designers.” (Al Bahar, 1991). interested and supportive of Westernization, Americanization and Globalization and the The impact of wars on architecture and the second side became more interested in urban environment is evident in the case of reviving Islamic traditions and customs. This Kuwait. After the liberation of Kuwait by the was reflected on the architecture produced allied forces led by the US on 26th on February, during that era especially private villas and 1991, the plans for recovery and reconstruction public buildings that utilize Islamic architecture were executed. The plans included oil wells features such as; arches, motifs, and patterns. fire-fighting, clearance of mines, and explosive Others elected to utilize Western styles in the dumps as well as repair of public buildings and design of their houses. As described by the infrastructure. This effort created a halt in the Egyptian philosopher Zaki Nagib Mahmoud, the field of new architectural design and planning. citizens became either drained of the principles The post-invasion reconstruction requirements of Arab cultural principles, imitating divergent resulted in a downgraded architectural service elements from different cultures, or over packs and lack of appreciation of the importance themselves with society’s cultural elements to of the architectural design discipline. It block themselves away from the influences of resulted in environment lacking high quality contemporary civilization. Both cases present architecture and expertise. It also crippled the alienated individuals unable to integrate and implementation of the Second Master Plan and interact with the society. (Mahmoud, 1978). delayed the development of a new master plan for more than a decade. Architecture in Kuwait after the War The continuation of the Iraqi regime hostilities Huda Al-Bahar stated that the Gulf conflict has during the nineties did not permit the existence had a shattering impact on Kuwait’s economy, of a level of security required for rapid its environment, service infrastructure, industries development. The elimination of Sadam’s and intellectual, cultural and academic regime in 2003 initiated a more secured institutions. The cost of reconstructing and optimistic atmosphere for development and repairing the damage to Kuwait during the construction. In 2002 Kuwait Municipality

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commissioned the Kuwaiti consultant KEG from Iraq. On the other hand, appreciation (Kuwait Engineering Group) in association of the determination and persistence of the with CBP (Colin Buchanan and Partners) to Western countries led by the US, England and review and update all data and information the allied forces to liberate Kuwait created to accommodate new plans and projects and a trust in western culture and values. This develop a new Master Plan until the year 2030. condition led to an extreme polarization in Several mega-projects are currently being the production of architecture in Kuwait. On envisioned or planned for in Kuwait, yet they are one hand it reflected the need to construct YASSER MAHGOUB not materialized because of long bureaucratic new modern buildings that tie Kuwait with the procedures required to implement projects. global world and on the other hand buildings Individuals and critics are expressing their that reflect Kuwait’s history and belonging to a views in conferences and media regarding the particular place. unsatisfactory condition of Kuwait’s status in the region. A recent MEED conference discussed Another important result was the Kuwaiti’s “what needs to be done to unlock the country’s interest to search for the roots of their political vast potential and streamlining the project and cultural origins. This was evident in many approvals process.” (MEED, 2008). researches and publications investigating the . writings on Kuwait in the oldest possible travelers Kuwait is living amidst two sharp extremes; one and orientalists writings and the search for extreme is what is happening in Iraq and the identity in the “few” remaining vernacular and complete destruction of its human and material traditional buildings. The First Master Plan of culture, and the other extreme of fast track Kuwait called for the destruction of all the “old” development of neighboring Gulf countries; buildings to clear the way for the construction Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, Abu Dhabi and of modern road system and public buildings. Dubai. During the Seventies and Eighties, The Kuwaitis discovered - belatedly - that the Kuwait was the leading country of the Arab Gulf demolition of traditional buildings was a great states in, education, health, economics and loss to their cultural continuity. They started construction development. During the Nineties, several efforts to preserve the remaining old Kuwait was recovering from the impact of the mosques, Diwanis (guest houses) and old invasion and liberation trauma. Kuwaitis feel houses. Large vacant lots in the downtown area the loss of Kuwait’s leadership role in the region are reminders of the destruction of old houses, due to the rise of other regional economic and streets and gathering areas (Figure 5). financial centers. Architects started to search for the lost identity The shattering impact of the invasion experience in Kuwait architecture that was constructed by Iraq created a sharp dualism in the Kuwaiti during the seventies. There was an interest in cultural identity. The “Arabization” slogans developing an authentic Kuwaiti architecture promoted by Nasser of Egypt during the sixties that stems from architecture found in Kuwait became very much questionable after being before the discovery of oil. According to Al- invaded by the neighboring “Arab brothers” Duaij, “new architectural style emerged which

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is considered a continuation of the postmodern traditional architecture and local identity.” (Al- architecture that is widely used in these days Duaig, 2004). emphasizing principles of regionalism, the YASSER MAHGOUB

Figure 5: Renovated traditional buildings. Left: Al-Sadu House – Right: Diwan Al-Bahar (Source: Y. Mahgoub).

The Kuwaiti Architect Saleh Al Mutawa is an 1997). Today, the work of Saleh Al Mutawa cannot example of architects who design buildings using be passed unnoticed in the urban landscape of elements of Kuwaiti traditional architecture in Kuwait (Figure 6). He attempts to localize his a very direct way. As described by Goodwin, architecture practice by reinterpreting some “when Saleh began to build he was utterly alone, local architectural elements in a contemporary like a child who contrives to ﬂy his kite against the language of three-dimensional forms. (Al- wind. After twelve years, and with forty buildings Mutawa, 1994). to his credit, the winds have veered.” (Goodwin,

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YASSER MAHGOUB

Figure 6: Examples of the work of Saleh Al Mutawa – Salmiya Palace Hotel. (Source: Y. Mahgoub).

Architects, such as Muhammad Al Khedr and architecture styles, materials and construction Farid Abdal use traditional Kuwait architecture systems (Figure 7). Although Saba George as a source of inspiration for their designs. They Shiber, warned against the loss of identity that focus on the climatic and social factors that a too-rapid modern transformation would shaped, and continue to shape, architecture in precipitate (Kultermann, 1999), many Kuwaiti Kuwait. On the other hand, there are architects architects are alluding to the absence of who believe that true Kuwaiti architecture identity in architecture and the need to develop should be a reﬂection of contemporary a Kuwaiti identity in the built environment. A

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documentary produced by Kuwait Television in Kuwait and points to the importance of titled “Kuwaiti Architecture: A Lost Identity” developing a Kuwaiti identity in architecture. depicts the development of architecture YASSER MAHGOUB

Figure 7: Examples of projects reﬂecting opposing architectural identities. Left: Mies Al-Ghanem Restaurant – Right: Hard Rock Café (Source: Y. Mahgoub).

Conclusion at the cross-roads of conflicts in the Middle East – and the World – Kuwait will continue to be Money does no make architecture; human effort does. affected by regional and global conflicts. While (Stephen Gardiner) the elimination of Sadam’s regime from Iraq created as sense of security, the deteriorating This paper discussed the impact of war security situation in Iraq is over shadowing this on architecture in Kuwait. It illustrated the sense of security in Kuwait. Furthermore, the impact of war on the physical as well as the increasing tensions between the US and Iran symbolic aspects of architecture. During the over Iran’s nuclear activities is pausing another war, architecture in Kuwait was targeted for serious threat to all countries in the Gulf, destruction as a representative of an opposed especially Kuwait. In case of any confrontation ideology and culture. The attack on architecture between the US and Iran the whole region, and was an attack on cultural and ways of living. especially Kuwait, will be threatened. New plans, After the war, the reconstruction of architecture such as the construction of the Silk City north of was an ultimate goal to reinstate territoriality Kuwait, near the Iraqi borders, and the utilization and legitimacy. A search for “a lost identity” of the rich northern oil fields will continue to be that vanished as a result of rapid urbanization threatened by the unstable conditions in Iraq. and development has started. Expressions of The impact of war on architecture in Kuwait is identity in architecture by different groups of not over, yet. architects reflect different modes of thinking of groups in the society. Because of its location

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References Charlesworth, E. (2006). Architects without Frontiers: War, Reconstruction and Design Responsibility, Al Sayyad, N. ed. (2001). Consuming Tradition, Architectural Press, London, United Kingdom. Manufacturing Heritage, Routledge, United Kingdom. Garbarino, J. (1991). The Youngest Victims: Kuwait Al-Bahar, H. (1991). Kuwait’s Post-War Reconstruction, Children Bear Psychic Scars of Conﬂict in Gulf, MIMAR: Architecture in Development. London: Psychology International, 2, pp. 1-3. Concept Media Ltd., 40, pp. 14-17. Gardiner, S. (1983). Kuwait: The Making of a City,

YASSER MAHGOUB Al-Damkhi, A. (1992). Invasion: Saddam Hussain’s Longman, London, United Kingdom. Reign of Terror in Kuwait, Kuwait Research and Advertising Co. Ltd., UK., Dubai Printing Press, UAE. Goodwin, G. (1997). Saleh Abdulghani Al-Mutawa: New Vision in Kuwait, Alrabea Publishers, London, UK. Al-Duaig, O. (2004). Kuwait Contemporary Architecture, In J. Abed (Ed.), Architecture Re- Khattab, O. (2001). Globalization Versus Localization: introduced: New Projects in Societies in Change, Contemporary Architecture and the Arab City, The Aga Khan Award for Architecture, Geneva, CTBUH Review, 1 (3), pp. 56-68. Switzerland. Kultermann, U. (1999). Contemporary Architecture in Al-Khawaja, J. and Ramadan, A. (1994). Ranking the Arab States: Renaissance of a Region. McGraw- of values of university students before and after the Hill, New York, USA. Iraqi aggression on Kuwait, In Abdul-Khaliq, A., ed. Mahmoud, Z. (1978). Thaqfatna Fi Muwajahat Al-Asr Psychological and Sociological Implications. The (our culture facing the age, Dar Al Shrouq, Cairo, International Conference on the Effects of the Iraqi Egypt. Aggression on the State of Kuwait, April 2-6, 1994. The Center of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies, MEED, (2008). The Kuwait 2008 Conference: Detailing Kuwait. pp. 107-134. the key opportunities in the public and private sector project market. 4 – 5 February, 2008, Kuwait. Al-Mutawa, S. (1994). History of Architecture in Old Kuwait City, Al-Khat, Kuwait. Minoprio & Spencely and Macfarlane. (1951). Plan for the Town of Kuwait: Report to His Highness Shaikh Al-Sarraf, Q. (1994). The impact of the Iraqi Abdulla Assalim Assubah, C.I.E. The Amir of Kuwait. occupation of Kuwait on the emotions of High school students, In Abdul-Khaliq, A. (Ed.), Psychological Shiber, S. G. (1964). The Kuwait Urbanization, Kuwait and Sociological Implications, The International Government Printing Press, Kuwait. Conference on the Effects of the Iraqi Aggression Somma, P. (2004). At War with the City, Urban on the State of Kuwait, April 2-6, 1994, The Center of International Press, Gateshead, United Kingdom. the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies, Kuwait, pp. 15-52. Summers, H. (1991). Desert Storm, Empire Press, New York USA. Bevan, R. (2006). The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War, Reaktion Books Ltd, London, Vale, L. (1992). Architecture, Power, and National United Kingdom. Identity,: Yale University Press, New Haven and London, United Kingdom. Castells, M. (2004). The Relationship between Vanderbilt, T. (2003). War as Architecture, The Globalization and Cultural Identity in the early 21st Knowledge Circuit, Design Institute, University of Century, Forum Barcelona, Spain. Minnesota, MN, USA.

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------Yasser Mahgoub Dr. Yasser Mahgoub, is a faculty member in the Department of Architecture, College of Engineering and Petroleum, Kuwait University since 1999. Received Doctorate in Architecture degree from The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA in 1990. Taught at Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt from 1990 to 1993,

YASSER MAHGOUB at United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, UAE from 1993 to 1999, and at Kuwait University from 1999 to date. Research interests include social and cultural aspects of architecture, sustainable architecture, architectural education and the impact of globalization on architecture. Teaches architectural design studios, human environmental factors, and architectural professional practice courses. Practiced architecture in Egypt and is currently a consultant for Kuwait University Vice President for Planning for the New University City Campus Master Planning. He can be reached at [email protected]

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PROPORTIONS AND HUMAN SCALE IN DAMASCENE COURTYARD HOUSES

M. Salim Ferwati & M. Alaa Mandour

Abstract Introduction Interior designers, architects, landscape architects, and even urban designers, agree that environment, All over the world, there are plenty of evidences as a form of non-verbal communication means, has a of adapting common systems to produce symbolic dimension to it. As for its aesthetic dimension, different traditional buildings that architecturally it seems that beauty is related to a certain proportion, signify various functions in response to users’ partially and as a whole. Suitable proportion leaves needs and cultural background. As a human a good impression upon the beholders, especially fine product, buildings can not only be looked when it matches human proportion. That in fact was at as places that fulfill certain functions or the underlining belief of LeCorbusier, according to which he developed his Modular concept. genuinely designed to hormoniously fill a spatial gap within the urban fabric, but it is also a form, The study searches for a modular, or proportion, geometrically speaking, that visually pleases system that governs the design of Damascene the beholder and psycologically effects his/ traditional house. By geometrical and mathematical her mental and emotional status. Architecture examinations of 28 traditional houses, it was found serves multi-purposes. The concern in this that a certain proportional relationship existed; study, however, is the presence, more or less, however, these proportional relationships were not of humanistic aspects in architecture. Built fixed ones. The study relied on analyzing the Iwan environment in Muslim areas is the subject of elevation as well as the inner courtyard proportion in relation to the building area. Charts, diagrams and the study. tables were produced to summarize the results. The question forwarded in this research is whether there are geometrical aspects that Keywords play a role in composing architecutre in the Proportion; human scale, traditional architecture; Damascus; courtyard houses. Islamic world. A case study is taken in relation to the Damascene house to show that there are systems of proportion that govern the compostion of architecutral components.

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Steps followed to reach the goal of the study objective foundation, independent of man are as follows: a literature review related and his subjective tastes, a beauty is attained to the topic was done ﬁrst; then 28 plans of that which is general, universal, and eternal. traditional houses were examined to analyze Order and proportion are viewed as cosmic the proportional relations among their different laws whose processes man undertakes to spaces, especially the inner courtyard, Iawn comprehend through arithmetic, geometry, elevation, and the house built area. The and harmony” (Ardalan and Bakhtiar, 2000, analysis concerns the examination of the parts p. 21). The arithmetical proportions of Roman with regard to each other. Thirdly, with similar Architectural distinctionly presented in Andrea number of house cases, another search for Palladio’s book “The Four Books of Architecture” proportion was done on area measurement of (The book is writen in 1400-latest edition 2002). the inner courtyard and the house as a whole. In more details Wittkower’s book “Architectural The result was a set of proportions that was Principles in the age of Humanism” (3rd responsible for the building appearance (entire rev.ed.1998) is a good reference. On an and complete body), wherein each member international scale, Flitcher’s book The History of agrees with the others. Architecture (20th edition, 1998) discussed, with the aid of a number of drawings, the dominating proportional types that govern the design of

M. SALIM FERWATI & ALAA MANDOUR Theories of Proportions buildings. Although, scientifically presented The study of proprtion (geometric, arithmetic, in a traditional way, it unarguably underlines and harmonic) is as old perhaps as architecture. the difference among traditional buildings all In fact, all of these studies form an attempt around the world. The following are some of to define beauty in architecture, or to search the most known theories that form the base for for aspects responsible of different feelings architectural proportion in different regions. within different built environments. “Among the Cistercians, Gothic, Renaissance, Egyptian, The Golden Section: It is known as the proportion Semitic, Babylonian, Arab, Greek and Roman between two portions of a line being divided traditions, the harmonic proportions, human according to the formula (a/b = b/a+b = 1.618) proportions, cosmological/ astronomical or (3/5 = 5/8 = 8/13). When similar formula is proportions and orientations, and various applied on both lengths of rectangular sides aspects of sacred geometry (the vesica piscis), (ab and bc), it is called “Golden Rectangle”. pentagram, golden ratio, and small whole- Also, The Golden Section is defined as the value number ratios) were all applied as part of the of each number as a result of the proceeding practice of architectural design”.1 two numbers, that is (1,2,3,5,8,13,etc.), forming a series that is similar to the Fibonacci Series Nader Ardalan and Laleh Bakhtiar offered in in Mathematics. The initiation of the Golden their new edition of “The Sense of Unity” the Section refers to the Ancient Greek. At that geometric shapes in nature showing laws of time, Pythagoras developed his concept, similitude, symmetry, and geometry (p.21). which stated the relation between some As a result, they argued that “resting on an harmonic numbers and the universe. Greek

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believed that human body and temples were The Orders: The term “orders” refers to the Greek related to Higher Universal Order. They noticed and Roman Columns that appears in their the accordance of the Golden Section System temples and buildings. The unit of measurement with the proportion of human body. As a result, was the radius of column section. It was their their buildings were designed on the bases of Module where 12 units formed the height of The Golden Section. Similarly, Gothic Architects the Tuscany column and the Doric, and 18 units followed their footsteps. (Figure 1). formed the height of the Ionic, Corinthian and Composite column in the Roman style. From that Module, all architectural details were calculated, as the complete structure contains the Entablature, Shaft, and Pedestal.

Renaissance Theories: Designers during the Renaissance era relied on Pythagoras’ proportion theory. He considered the ﬁve- head-star as a spiritual and holy symbol. Starting from a pentagon, he extended all sides to meet forming a ﬁve-head-star. When drawing a line M. SALIM FERWATI & ALAA MANDOUR between every two close consecutive heads, a bigger pentagon was produced. Repeating the extension of the star’s sides and the connecting lines, a series of stars and pentagons were produced. Fithholrs found that the proportion of each star’s sides and the pentagon sides was similar to that of the Golden Section. Also, the proportion of all numbers respectively with the series of star and pentagon is similar to that of the Golden Section Series. (Figure 2)

The Modular: Le Corbusier, a well-known architect of the twentieth century, had two attempts to search for a module that helps achieve both the beauty and functional aspects of architecture. He did his ﬁrst attempt by taking the average height of 175 French man as a base. He applied the Golden Section division on this height. He obtained the number 108 cm, which reaches the human belly. This height reminds of the belly height of the ideal Figure 1: The Golden Section (Source: D. K. Ching, 1996). man who was drawn by Leonardo De vinci. Le

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Corbusier divided the number 108 to smaller spiritually and physically, beside the need to units in accordance with The Golden Section create pleasant and beautiful architecture. division. Being unconvinced by the resulting What about Islamic Architecture? numbers, beside his fearing of the production of small rooms, low ceiling heights, and unsuitable door way height, he carried out a second Francesco Giorgi, attempt by using the height of a 180 cm English 1525. Illustration Policeman. Repeating similar calculations, shows series of proportion he ended up with two ﬁnal series of numbers according to that gave a variety of options. In an illustrative Pythagoras’ Theory drawing, he shows the vision of the application in Comparison of these numbers starting from the feet, to with Greek Music Proportion. carrying out different functions, such as table, desk, chair, counter, and doorway. (Figure 3).

The Ken: It is the Japanese measurement unit used for organizing interior and exterior architectural elements.1 For example, the M. SALIM FERWATI & ALAA MANDOUR placement of columns determines the size of the panels that form their interior and exterior light partitions. The usual height of columns is 1 Ken, while the distance between columns is equal to 3 or 3 ½ ken. This distance is divided to accommodate four panels (fusuma)2, the desirable proportion in Japan. Another example that usually determines the structural modular and wall panels as well is the mat. It is called Tatami. It is 2 1/8 inches in thickness, 6 feet in length, and 3 feet in width. The number of mats covering Japanese space determines the dimensions of rooms. In fact, one can describe the room by the mats’ pattern. Mats are arranged in different patterns corresponding to the desired functions of the room. Generally the size is based on 4 ½, 6, 8, 12, 15 and 18 mat combinations. (Figure 4)

So, there is a number of theories applied in different parts of the world and at different times. All prove the importance of proportion Figure 2: Renaissance Theories (Source: D. K. Ching, 1996).

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Figure 3: The Modular: LeCorusier’s concept. (Source: D. K. Figure 4: The Ken as a measurement unit used in a typical Ching, 1996). Japanese house. (Source: D. K. Ching, 1996).

In his article: “Omar Khayyam and the plans. But working on the architectural Artesian”, Ozdural (1995) proves the existence dimension whether in elevations or plans is of Converzaioni, where the willingness of Muslim demonstrated in other references such as Mathematicians to cooperate with artisans Dodds (1992) and Rasmussen (1964) who to solves problems regarding geometry and illustrate several examples where building plans architecture. This article did not show if such are proportionally thought-out. Likewise, in collaboration had prolonged to the building pages 126 and 127 of their book “Geometric

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Concepts in Islamic Art”, Issam El-Said and Ayse essential features in the traditional house. The Parman (1988) illustrate six Islamic monuments’ study will concentrate on their proportional plans (such as Al-Mshatta and Qasr Al-Kharnah) qualities. The following two sections analyze the where their architectural design concepts main interior facade of the courtyard that is the followed geometric patterns that helped Iwan elevation and then explain geometrically to develop the analysis of the section “The the proportional relationship between the Square Courtyard” below. The following is an courtyard area and the house. empirical study to ﬁnd out about the existence of dimensional and geometrical proportions in In order to select the samples for the typical residences of traditional neighborhoods geometrical analyses, some conditions are put inside the Walled City of Damascus. forward. These are: 1- The house should be original, has no change Description of Damascene House or additional space(s). The Traditional Damascene built environment 2- There should be an Iwan. consists of organically connected buildings, 3- The shape of the inner courtyard should be share walls, or contiguous independent walls square or rectangular. bound together by a system of private and

M. SALIM FERWATI & ALAA MANDOUR An additional condition was considered in the public routes that limits interference with last section, that is the existence of a single household privacy and maximizes social inner courtyard only. The exclusion of houses interaction. This traditional house is developed containing other forms of inner courtyard with respect to time and social rules. It consists and has more than one courtyard does not of two floors, the ground floor is used for day mean they lack originality. However, working activities as it contains the guest room, the on simple and most common forms helps living room, the kitchen, the Ka’a (a principle simplify the matter and give a case for a future guest room), and the inner courtyard. The inner study of more complicated house designs courtyard has several components, these are: that assumingly did not take their shapes fountain, trees, plants, and sky. The Iwan is coincidentally. a covered part of the courtyard located at its northen side. The courtyard symbolically represents the Garden of Eden described in Dimensional Analysis of the Iwans’ the Quran (The Muslim scripture book). Both Facades the courtyard and the Iwan are used as one open-living area during the summer. They are Searching for the presentation of proportions in found as a result of three directional factors: historical buildings is done typically by applying the socio-religious factor (determined in man- geometrical or mathematical approaches on a woman interaction with strangers), exposure single building, mostly one that carries significant to sun (four walls of the courtyard facades function, such as a monument, palace or are exposed to sun), and the scenery (inward temple. Consequently, the results are confined openings onto inner courtyard). These are the to the case study. In this research the attempt

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is different. The study searches for the common proportion). All Iwan’s dimensions are measured proportion presented in a number of different and a table below summarizes the calculations. house sizes. Therefore, 28 houses are presented (Figure 5 and Table 1 and 2). to study the Iwan elevation (opening, type, and M. SALIM FERWATI & ALAA MANDOUR

Figure 5: Six examples of the 28 houses being analysed: 1-Nezam House, 2-Alkowatly House, 3-Alswaid (aljazaari house), 4 Farahi Almoalem House, 5-Aljazari House(1), and 6-Alkazi House. (Source: Authors).

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Table 1: Mathemtaical meaurments of Iwans' elements for 28 traditional houses. (Source: Authors). M. SALIM FERWATI & ALAA MANDOUR

Findings arch pinnacle down to the floor level, and its width from wall to wall. The numerical finding is Finding 1: shown in table 1 with two charts that summarize Considering the opening in the northern the results of each Iwan. The first chart façade, measurements were as follows: the shows the actual measurements. It gives an height of the opening was measured from the understanding of the differences in sizes of Iwan

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openings. For more a meaningful comparative look, the percentage of the height (H) and of the width (W) for each case are calculated. The results are represented in the second chart. It is noticeable that the common proportion of the opening of the façade’s width and height is 40 and 60 respectively. This proportion is similar to the proportion of 2 to 3, which is presented in the literature reviews in the Golden Section series. Figure 6: The construction of regular pointed arch. (Source: Finding 2: Authors). As shown in table 2, there are 25 cases that have pointed arches, 3 of them have their To find out how close or far each case is from centers located above the arch base. Beside the regular pointed arch or semi-circle arch, the 25 cases, there are other three cases that few calculations are needed to determine have semi-circle arches. In order to analyze the height and width of each arch of the 28 the proportion of each case and compare it cases. The results are summarized in Table 2 with M. SALIM FERWATI & ALAA MANDOUR with the others, two regular forms are adopted, three attached charts. Presenting the actual the pentagon-based arch and the semi-circle measurement, the first chart shows the variety arch. According to Pythagoras’ concept, of arch sizes of all cases. The result of calculating as mentioned in the literature review, the the percentages of the width (W) and height pentagon forms an important proportional (H) of each arch is presented in the second element that has spiritual and physical symbols chart. The significant finding of chart 2 is that 24 and beauty (for Europeans). cases have the proportion of H/W equals to 60 to 40, a result which recalls the Golden Section To construct a regular pointed arch, which proportion of 3 to 2. requires two centers, a pentagon should be placed on one of its sides vertically, (let’s say A Finding 3: and B), giving the shape of an arrowhead pointed The results of dividing the height over the width upward. From both ends of the pentagon base for each case help compare each case on side (A and B), two arches can be constructed a leaner scale to see how close or far each starting from point A with a radius of AD or its case is to the pentagon-based arch or the equivalence AC, and another arch from the semi-circle arch (see Figure 7). It is noticeable point B with a radius of BD or its equivalence that the proportional values are distributed BE. Whatever the size of the pentagon, the linearly, no clear clustering is determined; thus, calculated proportion of the height to the width there is no agreeable proportion of all cases. is always 0.69. Similarly, the calculation of the However, the dominating proportion of H/W is height and width of a semi-circular arch gives ranging between 55 and 65. On one hand, the proportion of 0.5. (Figure 6). four cases are similar to the pentagon-based

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arch proportion; on the other hand, there are is probably due to the location of their centers no actual semi-circle arches, even though above or below their baseline, or as a result of three arches are marked as semi-circular. This the lack of accuracy during construction.

Table 2: Mathemtaical meaurments of Iwans' arches for 28 traditional houses. (Source: Authors). M. SALIM FERWATI & ALAA MANDOUR

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Figure 7: Frequency of proportions of H/W for all cases. (Source: Authors).

Geometrical Analysis ﬁrstly, the square center is deﬁned. Secondly,

M. SALIM FERWATI & ALAA MANDOUR one draws a circle from that center with The aim of this analysis is to study the area of a radius reaching the furthermost point of the the house and its courtyard in order to search house. Thirdly, one confines this circle with two for proportions that dominate their dimensions. squares, their sides tangible to the circle, with First, the proportions of square courtyards will be a 45-degree-angle difference between them examined, then those of rectangular courtyards. forming an octagon. From the intersections that Two questions are forwarded: 1- How can the occurred between each square’s diameter size of the square/rectangular courtyard be and the other square’s sides, one obtains five determined? 2- Is there a proportional relation squares hierarchically reduced in size toward the center with a certain proportion. In this between the courtyard and the house area? case, one can determine the sides of the To answer both questions, several examples are courtyard. Its location has three possibilities, geometrically analyzed, starting with the search either on the first square or the second or of the size of the courtyard. After going through the third, counting from the center. The inner many attempts to find out a meaningful courtyard can not be smaller or bigger than geometrical relation between the inner these three squares (Figure 8). courtyard and the house pattern, the following methods are reached leading to three types The Rectangular Inner Courtyard of the square courtyard and five types of the In the geometrical analyses, the determination rectangular one. (Figure 8 and 9) of the lengths of a rectangular courtyard’s sides forms the starting point. There are five methods, The Square Courtyard each of which represents one proportional type To carry out the geometrical analysis on of the courtyard, two of which will be explained a traditional house with a square courtyard, here, while the other three will be illustrated

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only, as they would be self-explanatory.

Type I: One starts with drawing two 30-degree- angle lines, one line from the corner (a) of the bordering square, and the other from the opposite corner (b). Both lines will intersect in point (c). This intersection represents the center of the short side (see Illustration 9). From the midpoint (d) of the side (ab), one draws two lines with 60-degree-angle. Each TYPE I line will intersect with the vertical line drawn from point (d) determining the length of one end of the short side (e and f). By carrying the same procedure of the topside of the Boundary Square, one obtains the location of the other short side. By connecting both side ends one reaches the final rectangle, which has the proportion of 1:4. (Figure 9). M. SALIM FERWATI & ALAA MANDOUR Type II: The second case has also a few steps to draw. The first is similar to the first step presented in the previous case, while the second step requires drawing 60-degree-angle lines from all midpoint sides of the boundary square, every TYPE II two angles will intersect in (d, e, f, g) forming all together a four-head star (Figure 10). The third step requires drawing two lines (de and fg). When extending both lines, they will intersect with the vertical line drawn from point (c) and form its mirror point (c’). The result is a rectangle with the proportion of 1:2. (Figure 10).

Three other types (III, IV, and V) result from a manipulation in the intersections among the 30- and 60-degree-angle lines. The results are three rectangles with different proportions; these are: TYPE III 1.6, 1.3, and 1.2. The ﬁrst proportion recalls The Golden Rectangle, whose proportion is equal Figure 8: Three types of square courtyard houses. (Source: to 1.618. (Figures 11, 12, 13). Authors).

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TYPE I

TYPE II Figures 9 -10: Rectangular courtyard house types I and II. (Source: Authors).

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TYPE III M. SALIM FERWATI & ALAA MANDOUR

TYPE IV

TYPE V

Figures 10,11,12: Rectangular courtyard house types III, IV, and V. (Source: Authors).

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Conclusion of beauty that vary among peoples within the same society. The result is an inter-subjective Unlike other cultures, there is not a fixed one; it is summed up in Table 3. proportion governing the traditional Damascene architectural elements partially (the case of In applying the results, one can design a new the Iwan) and as a whole (the case of inner house with reference to the geometrical courtyard and house size). In other words, there relationships discovered in the Damascene are no proportional constraints in the house house without copying it. Regarding the house design. It is flexible as different cases may require part elements, such as windows or doors, different proportions, or a range of proportions. one can find a use out of the mathematical That does not mean the resulted architecture considerations that were found in the Iwan is fallen within a case of uncertainty, but rather openings and arches, keeping in mind that the it is a response to different perception that pointed arch was the most preferred type. people usually have and to different standards

Table 3: Proportions governing traditional Damascene houses. (Source: Authors).

* IWAN Square Courtyard/Square Rectangular Courtyard

M. SALIM FERWATI & ALAA MANDOUR Boundary Opening Arch Square 1 Square 2 Square Type I Type I Type I Type I Type I 3 W H W H 1/4 1/2.7 1/2 ** 1/5 1/5 1/7 1/6 1/6 40 60 40 60 *** 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.2 2 * The ﬁgures here are relative and not absolute ** The proportion of the courtyard area to the boundary square *** The proportion of the long side and short side of the courtyard

If we agree that proportion is not only spatially harmonious buildings. Such a street wasn’t conceived, we will extend the study to ﬁnd out perfect..., but it was alive. The old buildings the proportional existence of solid and void, smiled, while our new buildings are faceless. empty and full, earth and heaven, symbolically The old buildings sang, while the buildings of poor and rich, inside and outside, climate our age have no music in them”. (HALE 1994, 1; / sun / environment etc., which is important cited in Langhein 2005). to understand the esthetical and spiritual values of the whole.[i] Additionally, the study of proportion may consider the psychological side of the users (Abas, S. Jan 2004) or the harmonic sceneries of the traditional cities, as Hall puts it: “There was a time in our past when one could walk down any street and be surrounded by

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References Massachusetts, USA, pp. 104 – 126. Abas, S. (1004) (digitized 2004). Islamic Geometrical Rudolf, W. (1998). Architectural Principles in the Age Patterns for the Teaching of Mathematics of of Humanism, John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA. 3rd Symmetry, Symmetry: Culture and Science, Vol.12 (1- rev. ed. 2), pp. 53 – 65.

Ardalan, N., and Bakhtiar, L. (2000). The Sense of Useful websites Unity, New Edition, ABC International Group, Inc. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number Ching, F.D.K. (1996). Proportion and Scale, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Corbusier Architecture: Space, Form, and Order, John & Sons, http://www.emis.de/journals/NNJ/Didactics-RHF.html Toronto, Canada, pp. 278 – 319. http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/publications/ pdfs/islamic_geometric/Islamic_Art_and_Geometric_ Dodds, J.D. (1992). (ed.) Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Design.pdf Spain, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, http://milan.milanovic.org/math/english/golden/ USA. golden4.html El-Said, I., and Parman, A. (1988). Geometric Concepts in Islamic Art, Reprint, Scorpion Publishing. Notes 1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proportion_(architecture) Fletcher, S.B. (1996). The History of Architecture, The 2 M. SALIM FERWATI & ALAA MANDOUR Royal Institute of British Architects and the University Ken is a measurement unit that is equal to ten shaku, which measure 11.93 inches. Shaku itself constitutes of 10 sun, the of London, United KingdomK, 20th Edition. basic measurement unit. Hale, J. (1994). The Old Way of Seeing: How 3 Fusuma: Interior partition, which can be completely Architecture Lost Its Magic (And How to Get It Back), removed to convert the many rooms into one open space. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts, Fusuma is covered with heavy, opaque paper on both sides. Their other form of the panel is called shoji. It consists of USA. thin wooden grid with a protecting plate at the base. On the Langhein, J. (2005). Proportion and Traditional outer face, translucent paper is pasted. Architecture, INTBAU Essay, The Prince’s Foundation / INTBAU, London, United Kingdom, Online http://www. ------intbau.org/essay10.htm . M.Salim Ferwati M. Salim Ferwati obtained in 1982 a Bachelor degree Meiss, P.V. (2005). Elements of Architecture: From in Architectural Engineering from the Architectural Form to Place. E & FN Spon, London, United Faculty at the University of Damascus, Syria. In 1988, Kingdom.. He obtained a Master’s Degree with Honors in Urban Ozdural, A. (1995). Omar Khayyam, Mathematicians Design from the University of Kansas, Lawrence, and Conversation with Artisans, JSAH, Vol. 54 (1), pp. Kansas, USA; and he received in 1993 a Ph.D. degree 54 – 71. in Cultural /Behavioral Geography at the University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada. Palladio, A. (2002). The Four Books on Architecture, Between 1996 and 1999 he was active in three areas: Translated by Robert Tavernor and Richard Schofield, teaching, architectural documentation (measured MIT Press, Boston, Mass, USA. drawings) of 80 historical buildings, and running his Rasmussen, S.E. (1964). Scale and Proportion, own architectural firm. In 1999, he moved to Saudi in Experiencing Architecture, MIT Press, Boston, Arabia, to work at the Architecture Department,

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College of Architecture and Planning at King Faisal University as a lecturer. In August 2005, he joined the department of Civil and Architectural Engineering at Sultan Qaboos University as an assistant professor to teach and help in establishing the new architectural engineering program there. He can be reached by email at [email protected]

------M. Alaa Mandour M Alaa Mandour is Associate Professor of Architecture at Helwan University studied at MIT with Prof. Reihard Gothert at the department of Planning and Urban Design. He is currently working at Sultan Qaboos University. His ﬁeld of research is in virtual urban environments and physical interactions and also on the notion of deconstruction of history and reshape of time introducing a new idea for analyzing history and extract precedents for a new language to adapt future. He had a wide global professional experience M. SALIM FERWATI & ALAA MANDOUR being MENA technical manager of Ellerbe Becket and as MENA Managing Director for SHELADIA Associates. USA. He can be reached by email at: [email protected]

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Book Review Reviews and Trigger Articles

SELECTED SCANDINAVIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURAL DISCOURSE

Ashraf M. Salama

In the following brief reviews I present two spatial design. In their analysis, they capitalize publications and a book that represent on the earlier work of Gilbert Ryle (1954) and arguments and discussions which go beyond Herbert Simon (1969). The concept of “making the main stream debate on architecture and knowledge” is basically based on Ryle’s its allied disciplines. The three pieces come distinction of “knowing how” and “knowing from Scandinavia and in fact can be seen as that.” However, they argue that “knowing how” catalysts for generating discussions that focus is a discipline of its own and has its own specific on new ways in which knowledge about the knowledge base. In this regard, the “knowing built artifacts can be further enhanced. how” concept introduced by Ryle and the science of design paradigm introduced by The first publication is the Oslo Millennium Simon act as a prelude for a disciplinary Reader, a research outcome entitled “Towards a construction of knowledge that pertain to the Disciplinary Identity of the Making Professions,” “making professions.” edited by by Halina Dunin-Woyseth and Jan Michl, and is published by Oslo School of Dunin-Woyseth and Michl draw the attention Architecture, Norway (2001). The publication of the reader to the fact that four types of was developed as a reaction to the intensive knowledge do exist to form the backbone of debates within Scandinavian academia on the “making knowledge.” These are scientific expert “making aspect” of design related research. knowledge, folk knowledge, practical skills and knowledge, and tacit knowledge. However, In an attempt to offer insights into the they admit that a continuous challenge does understanding of the character and nature exist when attempts are made to integrate and of “making knowledge,” Dunin-Woyseth, and transform these types into a mode that may Michl lay the foundation by discussing “making acquire the status of a scientific discipline. professions” as they relate to art production, object and product design, architecture, One has to relate this publication to other works landscape architecture, urban design, and developed by Dunin-Woyseth. She critically

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analyzed some of the debates on the “making that the built environment is the history which we knowledge.” (Dunin-Woyseth, 2002). Quoting live in, which gives the theory and practice of her work, she introduced different perspectives architecture its speciﬁc conditions” (Lundequist, on how scholars view research and knowledge 1999,38). Halina’s in-depth analysis illustrates within the “making professions” perspective. a sustained concern for debating aspects of Some scholars regard architectural criticism as what constitutes a disciplinary viability of the a central element in the process of establishing “making professions.” architectural research as an academic In addition to the contextual discussion made ASHRAF M. SALAMA discipline. They assume that criticism, allowing for bridge-building between architectural by the editors there are nine contributions that practices on the one hand, and the practice- illustrate the value of debating and discussing derived and practice-oriented architectural “making professions” related knowledge while discourse on the other, is a part of and strengthens highlighting its multifaceted nature. Notably, the professional relevance of this discourse J. Woodham discusses design history from a (Caldenby, 2000,99) and (Hjort, 2000,110).. British perspective; Michael Astroh looks at Seen from the viewpoint of a practitioner, this architectural design as a cultural phenomenon, assumption seems to be a part and parcel of Berrie Needham calls for considering spatial the intellectual identity of practicing architects, planning and its underlying processes a design as witnessed by the US architect Bill Hubbard discipline of its own, and Elisabeth Tostrup Jr. He sees criticism and history as two spheres, analyzes the text and designs introduced in shaping the professional identity of architects. architectural competitions over ﬁve decades. In his words “…the practice of architectural This is a valuable conscious endeavor towards design works like this: Criticism and history advancing the discourse on design knowledge. thread narrative lines through buildings and In essence, its value lies in establishing links their various aspects. Those narratives reveal between different design disciplines while to us paradigms of order, which we then use attempting to conceptualize an identity for in our design giving to criticism and history yet knowledge about these disciplines. In fact, the other buildings through which they can thread publication is a must read for educators and yet other plot lines. And when they do, they will graduate researchers in all design disciplines. reveal yet more (or differently seen) paradigms of order for yet further use” (Hubbard Jr., 1996,98). For more discussion see Dunin-Woyseth, H. (2002). The British architect Leslie Martin emphasizes the Making Based Knowledge: Between Identity and role of theory in the total account of the making Change In A. M. Salama, W. Oreilly, and K. Noschis knowledge in this way: “Theory is the body of (eds.), Architectural Education Today: Cross Cultural principles that explains and interrelates all the Perspectives, Comportments, Lausanne, Switzerland. facts of a subject” (cf. Gromark, 2000,102). From pp. 17-23. another perspective, Jerker Lundequist claims that if architecture loses its historical dimension, we also lose the ability to assess it and our ability to develop it. And it is this historical dimension,

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The second publication is the Nordic Reader, an multiple stakeholders. Thus, transdisciplinarity is annual research magazine entitled “Discussing about transgressing boundaries of disciplines. Transdisciplinarity: Making Professions and the New Mode of Knowledge Production,” Differentiating between the two modes of edited by Halina Dunin-Woyseth and Merete knowledge production, the publication is Nielsen, and is published by Oslo School of constituted in two major parts. The first part is Architecture, Norway (2004). Distinguishing an introduction to the issues and the underlying between disciplinary, multidisciplinary, and notions of Mode 2 of knowledge production and the second is a discussion of Mode 2 as ASHRAF M. SALAMA interdisciplinary knowledge on one hand and transdisciplinary knowledge on the other, this seen from the perspective of the “making publication is important and deserves a special professions.” In the first part, four contributions attention by the community of scholars in of Helga Nowtony; Hans Jensen; Fredrik Nilsson; architecture and other design professions. In and Andres Rydberg and Bjorn Klarqvist. On order to understand the terminology involved in debating the potential of transdisciplinarity, the publication one should offer a brief on the Nowtony defines the term in its broadest sense modes of knowledge production: Mode 1 and while identifying some characteristics of Mode Mode 2. 2 of knowledge production. She contextualizes science within the making professions and Mode 1 represents the complex of ideas, argues for the need for producing socially methods, values and norms that has grown up responsive knowledge. The concept of technical to control the diffusion of the Newtonian model knowledge is outlined in a comprehensive of science to more and more fields of inquiry and manner by Jensen. He calls for the rethinking ensure its compliance with what is considered for our design knowledge models in response to sound scientific practice. Mode 2 on the other the substantial changes witnessed in knowledge hand emphasizes that Knowledge production types and their production. carried out in the context of application and marked by its: transdisciplinarity; heterogeneity; Nilsson in his article on the practice of architecture social accountability and reflexivity; and establishes links between transdisciplinarity quality control, which emphasize context – and and architectural design. Notably, he looks use-dependence. It results from the parallel at design as an exploratory research activity expansion of knowledge producers and users that produces knowledge. Evidently, based in society. The definition of Mode 2 introduces on Nilsson’s analytical discussion architectural the notion of transdisciplinarity that can be thinking implies a special ability to handle described like this: Trans-disciplinarity is a new uncertain changing and contingent situations. form of learning and problem solving involving The tools employed in architectural design co-operation among different parts of society and practice can then be seen as important and academia in order to meet complex instruments for exploring, discussing, and challenges of society. Transdisciplinary research producing knowledge about existential as starts from tangible, real-world problems. well as societal conditions and realities. Andres Solutions are devised in collaboration with Rydberg and Bjorn Klarqvist present a case on

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securing housing safety, a study that can be The third piece in this brief review is a very seen as a good example of how two different recent book entitled “Smart Homes and User types of knowledge are integrated, one is Values, edited by Greger Sandstrom and Ulf practical of a policeman and one is scholarly Keijer” and is published by Urban International of a university professor. Together, they have Press, Gateshead, United Kingdom (2007). As developed a type of knowledge that can be described on the back cover of the book, it classified under the new Mode 2 of knowledge introduces an intensive debate on smart homes production. and user values. The overall aim is to contribute to bridging the gap between technology and ASHRAF M. SALAMA The second part of the publication opens the user values in the home setting. debate on Mode 2 within the Scandinavian context. Followed by a series of contributions Most smart home projects address technology from the Ph.D. scholars of Oslo School of development, albeit often with some application Architecture, Halina Dunin-Woyseth reported of the technology in mind. In the book the on the Millennium program, which refers to other view is taken, starting with the users’ research education undertaken by the school in experiences and bringing it back to technology, support of Mode 2. I would add my voice to the organization and service delivery. Evaluations editors that this volume acts a base for initiating of smart homes in use are presented. User the discussion on the way in which researchers perspectives on, i.e. ordinary residential living, from the making disciplines may contribute to assistive living and digital services are covered. integrating Mode 2 into Mode 1 while pursuing Presented results indicate how society, the real their responsive practices. One should note that estate industry and the individual residents may these two publications of 2001 and 2004 mark benefit; and the prerequisites for it. The book a cutting edge discourse on contemporary contains evaluations of smart homes in Europe, design knowledge, which goes beyond typical Asia and North America. The book constitutes discussions that look at different disciplines in the state-of-the-art in the field, indispensable for isolation. the construction and the real estate industry, developers of systems and technology, other professionals in the field, institutions, students and everyone interested in new technology for homes and everyday life. Intelligent and smart technologies are concepts that have emerged over the past two decades or so, evoking different notions in people’s minds and typically confusion occurs because some misconceptions exist. In this book, the editors pose a number of important questions and different chapters are structured to respond to them. While the questions may appear simple they indicate the level of seriousness undertaken

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by the editors and the contributors in debating Ireland by Malcolm Fisk. In this chapter, the dialectic relationship between smart two major projects are discussed and user technologies applied to home environments perspectives are analyzed; the “Going Home- and the occupants. Primarily, these questions Staying Home Project” and “Telecare” Project. are concerned with users: Do the residents The results of this analysis reveal some dilemmas really want smart technologies as part of their affecting the spread of smart technologies and homes? Are they willing to pay for it, are they recommendations to overcome these dilemmas aspiring to have it? If yes is the answer, then are outlined. Chapter 6 by Anthony Glasock

ASHRAF M. SALAMA another set of questions can be posted, but and David Kuznik addresses the relationship most important is how should it be designed between people and the smart technologies as integral to the home environment? In fact, installed in their homes based on automated these questions represent an important set of behavioral monitoring systems. They argue that key issues discussed within eleven chapters, any monitoring system must meet the needs each of which debates one or more of these of individuals in their own home in such a way questions in a speciﬁc context. that they have greater security and increased peace of mind. Ending their contribution they In chapter 1, the editors discuss the history call for balancing individual needs with the level of smart homes and the nature of the book of technology so that behavioral monitoring while introducing the subsequent chapters. can be useful and reliable. Chapter 2 is developed by the editors as one of the important contributions of the book. Chapters 7 and 8 are exclusively dedicating They introduce notions underlying smart to the Korean context. Yeunsook Lee presents home functions and their relationship to user a Post Occupancy Evaluation study of digital values. Chapter 2 by Alison Bowes and Gillian homes in Korea. He offers a contextual analysis McClogan discusses smart technologies for of the housing market and sheds light on the older people and the way in which they view emergence of digital living as one important these technologies. Smart home environment component of the housing sector. Following between ambient and invisible intelligence is a rigorous analytical procedure Lee describes the main topic of Chapter 4 by IIse Bierhoff and the participants and the way in which they Ad von Berlo. In this chapter, classes and types use digital functions, their preferences and of smart homes are analyzed with reference attitudes. In Chapter 8 Yeunsook Lee jointly to types of applications and services, critical with Hyunjeong Lee follow the same pattern of and empirical analyses of smart home projects study, but applied to services in IT-supported within the context of the Netherlands are apartments. outlined and a set of recommendations related to aspects of utility, usability, and accessibility While Chapter 9 is dedicated to some aspects are introduced. of the Swedish context—discussing some issues related to integrated smart systems in single- The theme of older people emerges again in family houses, Chapter 10 by Mats Edenius offers Chapter 5 but within the context of Northern a critical analysis of ways in which smartness can

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be incorporated into the smart home system. Calling for more stable smart technologies, Edenius illustrates the value of transparency in addressing the complexity of smart home systems.

The concluding chapter by Greger Sandstrom and Ulf Keijer offers lessons and conclusions that emphasize the importance of customer’s ASHRAF M. SALAMA satisfaction asserting the fact that technologies for smart homes must be developed out of users’ needs. Two important demands appear to be common across the contributions, usefulness and easiness. Clear and easy installation, maintenance, and upgrading are critical prerequisites of smart technology introduction in the home environment, while customers should be able to comprehend and internalize different functionalities within their smart homes. Nonetheless, as concluded by the editors—a growing and afﬂuent market for smart homes remains uncertain.

The power of this contribution is that it covers while at the same time integrates a wide spectrum of issues that pertain to smart technology, human behavior, and special populations, all are addressed in a rigorous research based manner and relate to specific contexts. Scholars in the fields of design management, environment- behavior studies, and building performance evaluation from users’ perspective will greatly benefit from this book.

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