FOOD MANUFACTURE

Tol. XXI, No. 3 M arch 1, 1946

Self-Raising Flour Standardised out by a number of analysts, using the new tech­ nique, produced closely agreeing results. The ALLING attention, in our issue of October 1, upper limit of 0-65 per cent, for total carbon 1945, to an “ Unstandardised Standard,” we C dioxide is abolished and manufacturers may now referred to the confusion caused by the delays use as much bicarbonate of soda and acid as they occasioned by the lack of agreement among ex­ wish. This is important and many manufacturers perts as to the nature of reasonable and practical will play for safety and attempt to neutralise the standards which could be imposed on self-raising natural running down of self-raising flour by an flour. extra dose of ingredients. The limit for available The Foods Standards Committee had decided carbon dioxide is reduced from 0-45 per cent, to that the main criterion of a good self-raising flour 0-40 per cent. This is a useful concession, though was a guaranteed amount of available carbon not quite as much as the trade desired, but if dioxide. This was a reasonable decision, as the manufacturers make sure that the initial total car­ aeration of the cooked goods made from self- bon dioxide is not less than 0-60 per cent, and the raising flour depends on the amount of carbon acid and soda ingredients are properly balanced, dioxide liberated in the usual baking processes. the flour should (if stored under reasonable condi­ The point at issue was how much carbon dioxide tions) conform with the prescribed standards after should be specified. several months. It is evident that the rather out­ In 1944 an Order (Food Standards (Self-Raising spoken comments in our October issue have been Flour) Order, 1944 (c)) was issued which said that justified. Manufacturers of self-raising flour now self-raising flour should not contain more than 0-65 have a reasonable chance of keeping within the per cent, of total carbon dioxide nor less than law and the housewife guaranteed a product that 0-45 per cent, of available carbon dioxide. The will give her satisfactory results in the kitchen. fixing of an upper limit of 0-65 per cent, was due entirely to the desire of the Ministry to prevent unnecessary use of phosphates. The figure of 0-45 D ried E gg per cent, for available carbon dioxide appears to Withdrawal of the domestic dried egg allocation have been arrived at somewhat arbitrarily. The has been necessary to convince the public that they directions given in the 1944 Order for determining like the product. Until Sir Ben Smith announced residual carbon dioxide (on which figure depends that domestic supplies would cease on February 2, the available carbon dioxide) were so vague that few foodstuffs were more maligned. considerable discrepancies occurred in the results As a result of the storm of protest, the domestic obtained by competent analysts. The difficulties supply of dried egg will probably be resumed in caused by the conditions of the 1944 Order were May. The Government have placed an order in pointed out to the Minister of Food and fresh in­ America for 12,000 tons of dried egg (more than vestigations were instituted. A Committee con­ 86,000,000 packets) for delivery as soon as possible. sisting of representatives from the Ministries of The cost will be £10,500,000. America has con­ Food and Health, Public Analysts, Trade Chemists, siderable bulk stocks of dried egg, but the packets and Private Consultants met on several occasions have still to be manufactured. Negotiations are and faced the difficulties. proceeding for a further 6,000 tons at a lower price. Recommendations were made by this representa­ The cost of the 12,000 tons works out at approxi­ tive body which have resulted in an amended mately 2s. 7d. a packet, but the Ministry of Food Order (S.R. & O. 1946 No. 157) dated January 31, is expected to charge the same retail price as in the 1946. The new Order is much more explicit than past— namely, Is. 3d. its predecessor. Very complete details are given During the discussion the Minister admitted that for the determination of residual carbon dioxide, he had some bulk supplies of dried egg for the food ind we understand that a collaborative test carried manufacturing and catering industries, but no con­ March, 1946 91 M tainers in which to make these supplies available necessary nor desirable while the Ministry of Food to domestic consumers. He added that if he were retains control over the industry. The Board to distribute these bulk supplies to the public advocates direct payment from curers to pig pro­ there would be a shortage of pastry and other pro­ ducers. ducts that people were very glad to have. During 1945, £35,000,000 was spent on dried egg. A Year’s Work Sir Ben Smith has stated that to maintain the domestic supply at the same level during 1946 A comprehensive review of its work in 1945 has would cost £25,000,000. It would seem, therefore, been issued by the Ministry of Food, and covers all that the cost of the dried egg used by the food aspects of developments and activities throughout manufacturing and catering industries is some the year of victory. £10,000,000 a year. Attention was called in Parlia­ Faced with long-standing nutritional and dis­ ment to the relative claims of dried egg and tribution problems at home and mounting commit­ cinematograph films on the nation’s dollar re­ ments in the international field, Sir Ben Smith, sources. The fact is that in 1945 dried egg con­ speaking in the House of Commons on November 7, sumed just over twice as many dollars as did films. announced that the Ministry of Food would be a In addition to the American dried egg, 21,000 permanent Department. Meanwhile, the world tons from other sources, including Canada, Aus­ shortage of food necessitated a cut in rations late tralia, and Argentina, will follow. in May; this was followed by the cessation of Lend- Lease, a scheme which had from its inception financed the supply to the United Kingdom of Pigs Board wants Bacon Factories some 6 ,092,000 tons of American foodstuffs. A The Pigs Marketing Board has issued a long­ warm tribute is paid to the valuable assistance term pig marketing policy designed to remove received from the Dominions in response to the many of the defects that limited the value of the Minister’s appeal for bacon, meat, and butter to pre-war scheme. One of the main proposals is that maintain the British ration, without which it the Board should control the marketing of all pigs, would have been impossible to restore the cook­ whereas before the war only baeoners came under ing fat ration. Gift parcels from overseas also control and the bulk of the pigs produced were out­ helped to eke out the rations at home. side the scope of the Marketing Board. National bread was a topic for much discussion The Board proposes that the pork market should in view of the decision to reduce the extraction have first call on all supplies of pigs, but em­ rate of flour from 82j per cent, to 80 per cent., phasises that the consumer demand for pork and and the conference convened by the Ministry in bacon should be the only limit to pig production January, 1945, and attended by representatives of in this country. Regulation of imports, guaranteed the milling, baking, and flour-importing industries, prices related to costs, and rationalisation of the the Medical Research Council, and the Government bacon and pork industries are considered essential Departments concerned, published in October a to the post-war efficiency of the industry. report which recommended the fixing of minimum The average distance that a pig travelled to a standards for vitamin B,, nicotinic acid, and iron factory under the pre-war bacon pig contracts was content in bread. about 110 miles. The Board suggests that, except A new scheme involving the use of instructional in a few areas, no pig should travel more than films dealing with the various aspects of food pre­ 40 miles to the place of slaughter. Baeoners would paration and cooking was begun in 1945 in col­ usually be slaughtered at the factory; but the laboration with the Ministries of Agriculture and1 view is expressed that carcases, rather than live Education. This was supplemented in December pigs, should be transported over long distances. by the publication of the Ministry’s own cookery Slaughterhouses in the pig-producing areas, to­ book, reviewed elsewhere in this issue. gether with refrigerated transport for the carcases, It is gratifying to note from the Ministry of are therefore suggested. The use of collecting Health’s report for 1944-1945 that nutrition was centres for pigs and of marketing contracts is con­ being well maintained, and that new low records sidered unnecessary. were, reached for child mortality. It is suggested An important point for the curing industry is that some of this improvement can be attributed that the Board considers that it should have power to the priority schemes operated by the Ministry to erect or acquire bacon factories in suitable of Food. areas. One purpose of this would be the obtain- ment of accurate data on factory costs which could be used to the advantage of pig producers in any The Income Tax Act, 1945 review of prices. Shrinkage losses in transit, effects The Income Tax Act, 1945 (to operate by the of carcase dressing, and grading are other points Finance Act (No. 2), 1945, from April 6, 1946)' on which the Board considers it would benefit by introduces new allowances off income tax on build­ possessing its own factories. Curers consider that ings, machinery, and plant. increased powers for the Pigs Board are neither For purely buildings a new deduction called the

92 Food Manufacture “ initial allowance ” is introduced of 10 per cent, to any that may be retained but have fallen in of the capital expenditure, and also what is called value. the “ annual allowance,” this being 2 per cent, This new Act does not apply to Excess Profits each year, which applies to all buildings erected Tax or National Defence Contribution, only for less than fifty years before April 6, 1946, the Income Tax.’ allowance applying for the remaining years of a life of fifty years. In short, for new buildings the cost will be written off in forty-five years; for Meat Extracts and their Substitutes other buildings take as example a building twenty- A considerable paper by L. de Saint-Rat ap­ five years old, 2 per cent, annually will be allowed peared on pages 3-26 of the Bulletin de I’Associa­ for the next twenty-five years. tion des Chimistes, Vol. 62, 1945. This journal is Discontinued, however, will be the special allow­ devoted especially to the technical interests of the ance for buildings given for mills, factories, etc., French sugar and distilling industry, and it is although a firm already receiving same can con­ therefore natural that the prime emphasis of the tinue to do so up to a period of five years if it so article should be on the potentialities of yeast ex­ desires. This new building allowance only applies tracts as supplements to the French ration. to industrial buildings, that is, mills, factories, Though the author does not appear to be well etc., and similar premises, not to retail establish­ informed about recent British developments, the ments. article is useful on account of its historical notes For machinery and plant (second-hand as well as and its references to Continental literature. The new) there will be an “ initial allowance ” of 20 greater part of the article is a compilation of data per cent, of the capital expenditure, and these and formulae relating to the composition and con­ provisions apply to all trades (including retail) stituents of meat extract. A table gives a synoptic and professions as regards anything coming within view of the amino-acid content of various sub­ the term of machinery or plant used in the trade. stances such as beer yeast, casein, gelatine, and The new allowance is in addition to the existing proteins of beef, chicken, and fish; another table yearly percentage allowance for wear and tear of provides very full data about the dry matter con­ machinery and plant, and from April 6, 1946, the tent, ash constituents, nitrogen partition, etc., of extra one-fifth which applied to all trades and extracts of similar materials of both animal and operates in connexion with the agreed percentages vegetable origin. The dietary values of meat and of the particular trades will become one-fourth. yeast extracts are discussed, though from the vita­ The position is that the cost of machinery and min point of view the discussion requires to be plant will be allowed against tax earlier than now. supplemented by knowledge obtained in Britain This new “ initial allowance ” does not just apply during the war. to any first installation of new machinery or plant The author concludes that meat extracts and in the post-war period, but will continue to apply their substitutes cannot add more than a small each time machinery or plant is replaced or set up. amount of nitrogen to a diet which, in France, is If it is scrapped before the whole cost has been markedly defective and unbalanced. They are all allowed against tax, the balance will be allowed, far from having the biological values of the foods called a “ balancing allowance,” this really taking for which they are proposed to be substituted; the place of the older obsolescence allowance in nevertheless, the content of vitamins and accessory these cases. But unlike the present obsolescence factors in the extracts entitles them to considera­ allowance, which applies only where machinery is tion as useful supplements to, rather than replace­ replaced, this “ balancing allowance ” will apply ments of, fresh food. He points out that the usual whether it is replaced or not. But, on the other determinations of total organic nitrogen and of the hand, if it is disposed of at a price in excess of amino-acids en bloc do not provide satisfactory the written down value, the excess for tax purposes guidance as to the nutritive value of the extracts; will be considered a profit and taxable, although apart from the accessory substances in the ex­ this would not apply if the amount received is used tracts, their nutritive value is (he says) settled by for the renewal of machinery. The obsolescence the presence or absence of essential amino-acids. allowance can continue to apply, in the case of He pleads for strict control of the manufacture and replacements on or after April 6, 1946, in use sale of the extracts, some of which he alleges to be before that date, if the taxpayer notifies the In­ food products only in name. spector that he elects that it shall be so, and then the “ balancing allowances ” new rules will not apply. The special allowance for exceptional de­ Toxicity due to Grain preciation of buildings, machinery, or plant W. L. Kretovitch and Z. G. Skripkina have made (Finance Act, 1941) is by this new Act to be given a plant-physiological study (C. R. Doklady Acad. not only in respect of those (provided since Janu­ Sci. V.S.S.R., Vol. 47, 1945, pp. 485-488) of ary 1, 1937) which have been sold or become obso­ damaged grain liable when ingested to provoke lete (the conditions by Finance Act, 1941), but also the severe human disease septic angina; this is an

March, 1946 93 alimentary toxicosis caused by some poisonous sub­ The report says that by the combined use of stance which develops in grain allowed to stay NDGA and citric acid equivalent stabilities may during winter in the field under snow. The disease be obtained at a cost of only 10 to 20 per cent, of has been observed as a sequel to the consump­ the cost when NDGA alone is employed. It was tion of wheat, rye, and millet. Though the fact found possible to increase the relative stability of is not stated in the paper, it may be presumed a steam-rendered lard from four hours to thirty- that the condition has become common as a result five hours (active oxygen method) at a cost of less of war, the grain not having been harvested at the than 0-06 cent for each pound of lard treated, proper time. One of the control samples, sup­ using the synergistic mixture mentioned. posedly obtained under normal conditions and It was the aim of the AM I research to find an stored for some time, showed manifestations antioxidant mixture in which the entire cost of similar to that of known toxic millet. The disease the material would add less than 0-1 cent per in man caused by such grain has effects on the pound to the cost of the lard. bone marrow, inducing inhibition of leucopoesis The stabilities of the lard treated with the mix­ and hence leucopenia in the early stages, and ture did not carry through into the baked or fried septic, necrotic angina in the late stage. goods as well as when resin guaiac was used as an A test has been found depending upon redden­ antioxidant, but the report states that this need ing, oedema, and necrosis of the shaved skin of not be an important factor in lard manufacture for white rabbits after application of oil from the toxic home consumption. grain; normal germ-oil gives no reaction. The test is definite, but takes at least a week to perform. Sunshine for Supper The authors have shown that although such poison­ What rosy visions come to mind on reading the ous grain is externally indistinguishable from nor­ account of the New York speech made by Dr. mal grain, and has a similar weight, the germi­ Julian Huxley, in which he suggested a use for the nating power of affected grain is greatly reduced. atomic bomb for thawing the great Arctic ice packs Dissection and examination of the germ showed and thereby transforming the maligned British that a high proportion of the embryos of affected climate to that of southern Europe! Gone would grain were darkened or quite black, presumably be our perennial grumbling over cold bleak Britain owing to the presence of unspecified fungi and throughout those dreary months before “ well- other micro-organisms; such germs are very brittle. apparelled April ■ on the heel of limping Winter The authors suggest that the presence in a treads.” In place of such grousings what in­ sample of millet of \ per cent, of grains with black finite variety of “ tropical splendour,” as the embryos, or 5 per cent, with dark embryos, should crooner would call it, would furnish our dining indicate doubt about the suitability of the sample tables in place of austerity meals which have irri­ for food. Oil from the blackened parts of the grain tated almost as much as the weather outside. No produced a very intense reaction on the skin of longer need we in song salute those “ Peaches rabbits (much more intense than that of oil from down in Georgia ” when peaches from Pennine other fractions of the same sample), so that a con­ slopes will deck our table. Further allocating of nexion between the blackening of the grain and its oranges will be unnecessary in days when it will toxicity seems to be fairly established. For a need a publicity campaign far stronger than the quick test of this toxicity the authors suggest a old London street cry of “ Oranges and Lemons ” determination of the germinating power of the to get rid of the glut of citrus from Kent and grain: a negligible fraction of blackened grains Sussex rather than from Spain and Sicily. germinate, and the germinating ability of even As for the gastronome thinking only of courses slightly affected (grey) grains is severely reduced. before dessert, an abundance of turtle soup tinned Such a presumptive test can be made within ap­ at Torquay will be but a beginning. A little more proximately forty-eight hours. plutonium in the bomb and we shall have home- produced kangaroo steaks and elephant’s heart and Low Cost Lard Stabilisation all those other special delights such as the giraffe A new low cost means of lard stabilisation using marrow praised by one of Rider Haggard’s char­ nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA) in combination acters. And lastly will come with the extra with inexpensive acid synergists so that lard tropical heat-wave the piece de resistance told of stabilities equivalent to those obtained from 0 01 by the High Commissioner for South Africa at one per cent. NDGA (active oxygen method) may be of those luncheons of the Wine and Food Society. obtained from 0001 per cent, to 0-002 per cent. Our gastric juice will flow in very anticipation of NDGA together with 0 01 per cent, citric acid has the “ subtle flavour ” of hippopotamus’s trotters been developed by the Department of Scientific which hunters on the Upper Thames will bring to Research of the American Meat Institute. The us. What a delight to those epicures who have research is described in a report on “ Antioxidants seen but scorned the smaller yet succulent rows of for Lard,” by B. W. Beadle, Ve Nona Swartz, and pigs’ trotters which the butcher and tripe-dresser F. C. Vibrans, issued recently by the Institute. marshal into line in their windows!

91 Food Manufacture A perfect sample of bleached car­ rageen in its raw state.

Carrageen in the Channel Isles

BASIL C. DE GUERIN

LTHOUGH stories circulated by some of the of their Duke William, ultimately the Conqueror A more irresponsible national newspapers infer­ of England, the kelp washed up on the shores of ring that, at the time of their liberation from Nazi the islands by the equinoctial gales had been used oppression, Channel Islanders had become reduced as manure for the land. Both in its fresh state, to biting raw seaweed off the rocks in order to when it was spread so that its natural salts should exist were definitely untrue, yet certain seaweeds be washed into the soil and followed later by the played a very great part in the survival of these ploughing in of the residue to form humus, and loyal little communities. Especially was this so after burning, in the form of valuable potash, it during the latter half of their five-years spell of was and still is regarded as one of the finest fer­ enforced isolation. tilisers obtainable. For many centuries, probably prior to the days Needless to say, during the German occupation the fullest use of this valuable and inexpensive manure was made, Good and bad carrageen. Bottom right,'“ male” ; bottom left, “ neuter” although special permission to «p, edible. The first two\ariations are inedible. gather it had to be obtained from the invaders, who sprinkled all the island beaches liberally with mines as a precaution against in­ vasion by the Allies. Useful as this kelp was in its indirect effect upon the produc­ tivity of the soil, however, the majority of islanders, particularly those engaged in industrial occu­ pations, were more interested in another form of seaweed, the con­ sumption of which, after treat­ ment, gave rise to the exaggerated statements that the inhabitants had reverted almost to a state of nature. 95 Irish Moss nutritive qualities of carrageen, began to consider Another name for the kelp (Chondrus crispus) is its commercial possibilities and set about placing Irish moss, which has probably been used by the upon the market a clean and sterilised article that islanders’ ancestors as treely as it was by the Irish would not contaminate other foodstuffs and be seafaring peasantry in the days before packed easily handled. cereals became popular as breakfast foods. Contact was made with professional fishermen Contrary to rumour, however, Channel Islanders willing to gather, wash, and bleach the weed to a were never reduced to pulling handfuls of this standard of purity high enough to make it palat­ fibrous growth off the rocks and eating it raw. In­ able, and experiments were begun to reduce the deed, the preparation of “ Carrageen,” as it was substance to a soluble powder or granules. commonly known, is a long and laborious process. Necessarily the initial experiments were rather After gathering, it has to be thoroughly and primitive, indeed almost Heath-Robinsonian, con­ minutely picked over for foreign bodies and in­ sisting as they did of “ cooking ” on a biscuit tin edible matter, then washed until completely freed lid over a gas jet and passing the result through a of sand and grit. Bleaching, the next process, is fine mincing machine, but gradually, by the pro­ dependent upon the weather and the season of the cess of elimination, the correct temperatures, con­ year, but is a lengthy business at the best of times. sistency, and other factors were arrived at. These initial stages of preparation are of the A step forward was made when the fresh weed greatest importance, as upon them depends the was gradually dried out to the necessary crispness edibility of the finished article. in sacks placed on top of a baker’s oven and Early in the German occupation many islanders ground in the local flour mills. The resultant pro­ gathered the moss, both for their own consump­ duct, however, was too coarse, took a long time tion and for sale by retail, but lost their labour to dissolve, and was too bulky to pack economically through insufficient attention to the necessary tech­ for retail sale. So the carrageen was sent first to nique of preparation. the tobacco factory, where it was reduced to shreds Carrageen, among other things, is used in table which dried out more rapidly, and ultimately jellies, soups, and stews. ground to a more satisfactory state. In this way powdered carrageen made its appear­ ance on the Channel Islands market, the trade Initial Experiments passing automatically into the hands of the Islanders who throughout the five years under chemists, although the article was still to be pur­ German rule were rationed for milk from their chased in bulk at the grocer’s or vegetable stalls own cows, even to the extent of being allowed by those who preferred it in that form. only separated milk (as on Guernsey) could not From being an “ experiment ” in diet, of which afford to waste their meagre allotment. many soon tired, the product in its new form made It was then that island chemists, realising the carrageen more of a household necessity as the weary years of captivity dragged by. Washed carrageen spread out to dry and bleach. Further Developments So great did the demand become that all stocks of available containers were speedily exhausted. Fresh supplies were unobtainable and recourse was had to paper bags which were purchased from island confectioners whose empty shelves held nothing to pack in them. As an instance of the demand for this new pro­ duct one chemist on Guernsey, Mr. J. N. Carre, was compelled to engage five lady assistants within two months to pack and label the powder, while he employed whole families of fisherfolk to gather the moss by the ton. This success was due also to the fact that this energetic young chemist had still further improved the product by adding first flavouring and later colouring, thereby making the ultimate dish more attractive. The former consisted of raspberry, orange, lemon, ginger,'pear, nutmeg, etc., and the colours were red, green, and orange. So long, as chemical stocks lasted or could be obtained from France carrageen was supplied in these various guises, but

96 Food Manufacture Before and after. On the right, carrageen before washing in fresh water, and, on the left, after wash­ ing and partial bleaching.

Gathering carrageen below water. Harvesters must know by feel or instinct which type of carra­ geen to cut.

The harvest of the sea. In baskets, edible carra­ geen ; on the rocks, the kelp used as fertiliser and for the extraction of iodine and potash.

March, 1946 War-time packing for a war-time product. “ Carravita,” a proprietary line of carra­ geen.

the Germans, and proceeded to strip every rock of all vestiges of algae of all types. The resultant culinary tragedy convinced many of these that, as in most cases where they sought something for nothing, there was a catch in it somewhere. Those who engaged themselves to gather carrageen in quantity were fishermen who knew, by instinct if not by training, the various different forms of weed that grew upon the rocky coasts or were washed up by the great Atlantic rollers. These men did not dally in the pools left by the receding tide, but waded into after D-day the Allied blockade of the Channel re­ the deep water where it was possible to gather the stricted all German shipping between the Continent fern-like alga by great handfuls. and the islands to the bare necessities of life and When the military situation justified it, permis­ carrageen eventually returned to its natural appear­ sion could be obtained for these harvesters of the ance. sea to put out in their boats to visit the rocks un­ A steady demand for it still exists, though covered only at low tide. But the Germans did naturally only a very small proportion of that of not encourage activities that might possibly lead to the occupation period. A decoction of Chondrus escape parties if fog were to descend suddenly, crispus has long been recommended for bronchial and even when allowed to use their boats the moss- troubles, catarrh, and the common cold, and, gatherers were continually under the eye of armed whether by coincidence or due to the compulsory guards who patrolled the coast. diet of vegetables on which the islanders lived, it is Moreover, those who walked along the mine- a fact that there was a marked decrease in those strewn beaches did so at their own risk just as they ailments which were so prevalent before the war took a chance of a roller filling their fragile boat and are again as widespread today now that a or some submerged rock tearing its bottom out. wider variety of foods is obtainable. The gathering of carrageen is no job for a weakling! Carrageen in all the stages of its preparation was submitted to examination by the local public ana­ lysts, and reports showed that no loss of nutritive A Valuable “ Substitute” value occurred. Being rich in phosphate and One aspect of the introduction of carrageen to iodine it was largely recommended as a tonic food the islanders during the German occupation was the by local doctors. psychological effect of the availability of a nutritive During the war, flavoured and coloured carra­ substance at a reasonable figure without recourse to geen was exported from Guernsey to Jersey, Sark, the “black market.” and even to the working parties of civilians on the In communities like the Channel Islands, and evacuated island of Alderney. Whether it would Guernsey in particular, where prices of every con­ be a profitable commercial proposition in peace­ ceivable commodity other than the progressively time is doubtful. The scarcity of containers and decreasing quantities of official rations rose to astro­ high cost of freight would prohibit immediate nomical figures, it was comforting to those who development in this respect, while the labour ques­ could not entertain even the thought of buying tion on the islands makes the services of qualified “ under the counter ” to know that the cheap and gatherers of the moss very problematical in future. plenteous carrageen preparations were nourishing and sustaining albeit not as palatable as the juicy steaks of which they dreamed. Carrageen Collection A vegetable stew thickened with carrageen was The collection of carrageen is by no means the a poor substitute for a good dinner, but with bread unskilled labour which those who have not engaged at 15s. or £1 a loaf, tea at £40 or more per lb., and in it may assume. Many amateurs found this to other black market prices in proportion there was their cost when in the early days of its notoriety no alternative. No wonder many islanders bless on the islands they invaded those beaches to which the name of carrageen today, for without it they they were allowed access “ by kind permission ” of would not now be alive.

98 Food Manufacture The Vitamins

Progress in 1945 F. A. ROBINSON, M.Sc.Tech., LL.B., F.R.I.C. Glaxo Laboratories, Ltd.

URING the previous twelve months several sium chloride solution is used for oxidation in place Dimportant advances have been'made in our of the usual potassium ferricyanide solution. Until knowledge of the vitamins. Perhaps the most out­ recently no satisfactory microbiological method of standing event is the announcement by a group of estimating aneurine was known, but now an ex­ American workers1 that the structure of folic acid cellent method using Lactobacillus fermentum 36 has been elucidated and its synthesis accomplished; has been described;8 this will estimate as little as no details have yet been published. Of almost 0-005 Fg- equal interest and importance is the discovery of three roles played by pyridoxine and its derivatives Microbiological Assay Methods in the animal economy, and the further confirma­ tion that several members of the vitamin B com­ Improvements have been made in the micro­ plex are synthesised by intestinal bacteria. Both biological assay of nicotinic acid.9 In one of these these discoveries are discussed in greater detail methods the now customary use of pure substances below. for making up the medium is discarded in favour of natural extracts treated to remove nicotinic acid; this is claimed to increase the response of the Estimation of Vitamin Contents organism and to eliminate the extra stimulation due to other growth factors in the materials under A new colour reaction for the estimation of vita­ test. Another method makes it possible to estimate min A has been described,2 which depends on the nicotinic acid, nicotinamide, and nicotinuric acid formation of an immediate blue colour, changing in a mixture containing all these by utilising the to violet, on addition of glycerol 1 :3-dichlorohy- different responses of Leuconostoc mesenteroides drin. The violet colour is more stable and there­ 9135 and Lactobacillus arabinosus 17-5 to the three fore easier to estimate than the blue colour formed substances. with antimony trichloride. It is, however, less in­ Other substances for which new or improved tense and the presence of carotene interferes, microbiological assay methods are available are though a correction for the amount of carotene pantothenic acid,10 using Lactobacillus arabinosus present can be applied in the usual way. The same 17-5, in place of L. helveticus; folic acid,11 using reagent can also be used3 for the estimation of vita­ L. helveticus and Streptococcus lactis (faecalis) R; mins Do and D3, a stable green colour being formed; and choline, biotin,12 and inositol,13 using Neuro- as in the method for vitamin A, however, the spora crassa. Attention has been called to the colour is not so intense as that formed with anti­ stimulating effect of fatty acids on the growth of mony trichloride. A suggestion has been made4 L. helveticus14 and of L. arabinosus,15 necessitating that the vitamin A content of fish oils should be their removal by extraction with chloroform. A expressed in milligrams and not I.U. per gram, suggestion has been made16 that the older methods since the factor used for converting from E ^ of calculating the results of microbiological assays into the latter is uncertain; the factor for convert­ are inaccurate, and it has been recommended that ing into milligrams per gram is 1000/1750. Atten­ the relative potencies of the test material and stan­ tion has been called5 to the improved accuracy dard are better expressed as the ratio of the slopes obtained in the assay of vitamin A with antimony of the two linear curves relating increase of bac­ trichloride by using light of low intensity in the terial growth to amount of vitamin. spectrophotometer. Several papers have been pub­ lished on the estimation of vitamin E by the well- known aa-dipyridyl reaction; the most important Vitamin Content of Foodstuffs describes a method6 of eliminating interference Fewer papers than usual have appeared on the due to vitamin A and carotenoids by catalytic vitamin content of foodstuffs. Asparagus and hydrogenation. spinach have been found17 respectively to contain Some of the members of the vitamin B complex vitamin C, 43, 30; aneurine, 018, 0 088; riboflavin, continue to be estimated by chemical methods, but 0 32, 0 21; and carotene, 0 43, 4 1 mg. per 100 g. it is clear from the much larger number of papers The high vitamin C content of green walnut shells describing microbiological methods of assay that (550-670 mg. per 100 g.) and rose hips (207-416 these are gaining favour. An improved method of mg. per 100 g.) has been confirmed,18 and values estimating aneurine by conversion to thiochrome has obtained for other vegetables that are in agreement been described,7 in which mercuric oxide in potas- with published results. Roasted coffee has been

March, 1946 99 found19 to contain 10 mg. of nicotinic acid per protectors of the vitamin in animals, whilst thio­ ioo g., and tea20 5-6 to 9-4 mg. per 100 g. urea is still more effective, and its use is advocated The following values for the riboflavin contents industrially. The natural protectors of vitamin C of a number of dairy products are recorded:21 in cabbage juice appear to be thiols. fresh milk, 1-77; dried whole milk, 14-5 to 15-5; Bourne31 found that the tensile strength of dried skimmed milk, 19 to 20; condensed milk, wounds in guinea pigs increased with the amount 3-95; evaporated milk, 3-6; cheddar cheese, 47; of vitamin C given, but that saturation was not cream cheese, 1-9; cottage cheese, 3-0; cream, 1-5; necessary in order to obtain the best result. and butter, 0-37. Beef muscle contained22 1-2 to 2 '3 FS- Per g- °f riboflavin, and tongue, spleen, Vitamin B Complex liver, and heart, 3 1 , 3-9, 27-2, and 10 7 /xg. per g. respectively. Stout, ale, and lager were found23 to The effect of a borderline deficiency of the vita­ contain 0-25 to 0-85, 0-25 to 1-18, and 0-22 to 0-45 min B complex on human subjects was investigated jug. of riboflavin per litre. Fresh milk12 contains by Keys et al.,32 who found that the only differ­ 149 mg. of choline per litre and 30 to 40 /xg. of ence between the group receiving the deficient diet biotin per litre. and the control group was a higher concentration of pyruvic acid in the blood of the former. The results therefore suggest that aneurine is the limit­ Fat-soluble Vitamins ing factor in a multiple vitamin deficiency. Syden- Zechmeister and his colleagues24 have continued stricker,33 however, claims that a variety of symp­ their investigations of the carotenoids, and now re­ toms is produced by a deficiency of the vitamin B port several with vitamin A activity. a-Carotene complex— e.g., malaise, weakness, lassitude, ner­ has 53 per cent., neo-/3-carotene U 38 per cent., vous irritability, depression, muscle pains, ano­ pro-y-carotene 44 per cent., -y-carotene 28 per cent., rexia, and disturbances of gastrointestinal motility. and neo-a-carotene U 13 per cent, of the activity of These symptoms become more marked as the de­ /3-carotene, whereas pro-lycopene was inactive at ficiency progresses, and are followed by character­ 60 fj.g. It has been shown25 that the seasonal istic signs of individual deficiencies such as de­ changes in the blood carotenoids of cattle depend generative changes of the peripheral nerves of the primarily on the diet; on a diet deficient in vita­ heart due to vitamin B, deficiency, dermatoses, min A, available stores of carotenoid are converted lesions of the mucous membranes, disturbances of into vitamin A, so that the level of the latter is cerebral cortex and mid-brain due to nicotinic acid maintained as constant as possible. Vitamin A has deficiency, and other dermatoses and ocular dis­ been found26 to have an effect on the healing of turbances due to riboflavin deficiency. He claims fractures, and administration of large doses in­ that some of these symptoms only respond to treat­ creases the strength of the fractured bone to normal. ment with the whole of the vitamin B complex. It has been reported27 during the year that no Richards34 also favours the administration of the increase in rickets occurred during the war, though whole of the vitamin B complex rather than of one there are areas where the incidence of rickets is or two of the better-known vitamins. This is more considerable. Thus of 820 children between the 01 less generally accepted in the treatment of pella­ ages of two weeks and two years attending hos­ grins, and it has now been observed that the feed­ pitals in Bristol 3i'4 per cent, showed definite ing of excess vitamim B, and calcium carbonate rickets. According to Morris,28 vitamin D defici­ may precipitate a vitamin B6 deficiency, which can ency in the human subject produces no disturb­ be prevented by giving other members of the group. ances other than can be accounted for by a defec­ Claims that pantothenic acid and other members tive utilisation of calcium and phosphorus— namely, of the vitamin B complex are effective in restoring rickets in infancy and childhood and osteomalacia the colour of grey hair in humans are not supported in adults. by recent investigations. In fourteen individuals, No reports on the value of vitamin E to humans for example, treated35 with calcium pantothenate or appear to have been published during the year. />-aminobenzoic acid no darkening of the hair took place, whilst only three cases out of eighty-eight Vitamin C were cured36 by 100 mg. of />-aminobenzoic acid three times daily for ten to twelve weeks, and one It has been shown29 that in pre-school children of these subsequently relapsed. tissue saturation is not maintained on a daily intake of 23 to 25 mg. of vitamin C, though this was not far below the required amount. The utilisation of Intestinal Synthesis of Vitamins the vitamin was increased by the addition of potas­ Kon37 has reviewed the synthesis of vitamins by sium citrate to the diet, while the vitamin C in micro-organisms in the alimentary tract. It was orange juice was utilised still better. Attempts to suggested as long ago as 1915 that the vitamin re­ discover substances able to protect vitamin C from quirements of cattle may be covered by bacterial oxidation led to the discovery30 that creatinine, synthesis in the intestine, whilst the demonstration some of the purines, and glutathione are the chief that such synthesis actually occurred in the rumen

100 Food Manufacture was made by Bechdel et al. in 1927 and confirmed derivatives of pyridoxine: pyridoxal and pyridox­ by later workers. That bacterial synthesis occurs amine. In the intestine was not conclusively demonstrated These have the same activity as pyridoxine for until 1942, when it was observed that administra­ rats, moulds, and some micro-organisms, but are tion of sulphonamides depressed the growth of the several thousand times more active for certain micro-organisms in the intestines of experimental lactic acid bacteria. They suggest that pyridoxal animals and produced deficiency symptoms. Now and pyridoxamine can effect transamination re­ evidence has accumulated that bio tin, aneurine, actions, since pyridoxal and glutamic acid react to nicotinic acid, and riboflavin may be synthesised give pyridoxamine and a-ketoglutaric acid and in the human intestine, but the conditions under vice versa. It has also been shown44 that pyridoxal which this takes place, and the extent to which the phosphate is a coenzyme for the decarboxylation of vitamins are absorbed, have not been established. several amino-acids. It has been suggested that intestinal synthesis is the factor that explains why milk and milk pro­ ducts, which are deficient in nicotinic acid, will pre­ vent pellagra, whereas maize, which is not more deficient than wheat, induces pellagra.

Riboflavin and Nicotinic Acid A new synthesis of riboflavin has been described by Bergel et al.,3S whilst Schopfer39 has shown that large yields of riboflavin are produced by the micro­ organism Eremothecium ashbyii. The microbio­ logical production of riboflavin promises to be a serious rival to the synthetic method. It is well known that several substances related to nicotinic acid have an effect in canine black­ tongue and human pellagra, and Najjar et al.*° have shown that nicotinic acid, nicotinuric acid, nicotinamide, and diethyl nicotinamide, all of -which cure blacktongue, lead to the excretion of N-Methyl-nicotinamide in the urine, whereas in­ active analogues do not. N-Methyl-nicotinamide chloride was claimed to cure blacktongue in dogs, and it was therefore suggested that the effective part of the antipellagra vitamin is N-Methyl-3- carboxypyridinium. These reactions would in themselves appear to Krehl and Elvehjem41 showed that several esters provide an adequate explanation of the importance of nicotinic acid were effective in canine black­ of pyridoxine, yet they do not apparently exhaust tongue, but that the symptoms were not completely the functions of pyridoxine and its derivatives, for cured unless folic acid was also administered. Scott et al.45 have found that two lactones derived These workers were unable to confirm the claim of from pyridoxine, for which the names a- and Najjar et dl. that N-Methyl-nicotinamide chloride /3-pyracin are proposed, prevent an anaemia in was capable of curing blacktongue, and therefore chicks fed a synthetic diet. The two lactones are disagreed with the mechanism proposed by them. equally effective in this respect, but 0-pyracin is The administration of nicotinic acid and amide42 the more active as a growth factor. may lead to fatty infiltration of the liver. This can It has also been found45’46 that folic acid (now be prevented by choline, and it is suggested that believed to be identical with vitamin Bc and the administration of nicotinic acid or amide upsets the L. casei factor) prevents an anaemia in chicks and methylating mechanism of the body by competing in rats. These two observations may account for with other substances for the available methyl the well-known association of the vitamin B com­ donors. plex with anaemia.

Pyridoxine and Folic Acid Other Members of the Vitamin B Complex In previous reports it has been stated that micro­ Evidence has been obtained47 that pantothenic biological assays of pyridoxine have been invali­ acid is concerned in the synthesis of tryptophan. dated by the presence of a related substance termed A chronic biotin deficiency in monkeys has been pseudopyridoxine.” Snell and his co-workers43 shown48 to produce de-pigmentation and loss of have now shown this to be a mixture of two simple hair, whilst an acute deficiency, produced by the

March, 1946 101 feeding of egg-white, causes a scaly dermatitis over 30 E. Kawerau and W. R. Fearon, Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin the whole body. “ O-Heterobiotin,” the oxygen Soc., 1944, 23, 171. 31 G. H. Bourne, Lancet, 1944, ^46, 688. analogue of biotin, was prepared,49 and shown to 32 A. Keys et al., J. Physiol., 1945, 144, 5. have activity towards yeast, L. helveticus, rats, 33 V. P. Sydenstricker, Proc. Nutr. Soc., 1944, 1, 142. and chicks; it is the first biotin analogue found to 34 M. B. Richards, B rit. Med. /., 1945, 1, 433. have activity on higher animals. Desthiobiotin,50 35 H. Brandalcone, E. Main and J. M. Steele, Amer. J . Med. S ci., 1944, 208, 315. the sulphur-free analogue, has half the activity of 30 J. J. Eller and L. A. Diaz, N.Y. Sta. J. Med., 1943, bio tin for yeast. 43, 1331. Three factors previously claimed51 to be necessary 37 S. K. Kon, Proc. Nutr. Soc., 1945, 3, 217. for the guinea pig have been found to be identical 38 F. Bergel, A. Cohen and J. W. Haworth, J. Chem. Soc., 1945, 165. with folic acid, with a mixture of cellulose and 39 W. H. Schopfer, Z. Vitaminf., 1945, 16, 106. casein, and with strepogenin, an unidentified factor 40 V. A. Najjar et al., Johns Hopkins Hosp. Bull., 1944,. present in casein that is essential for the growth of 74, 406. certain bacteria. It is possible, therefore, that yet 41 W. A. Krehl, C. A. Elvehjem and F. M. Strong, /. Biol. Chem., 1944, 156, 13; W. A. Krehl and C. A. another bacterial growth factor may prove to be a Elvehjem , ibid., 1945, 158, 173; L. J. Teply, W. A. vitamin. Krehl and C. A. Elvehjem, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 1945, 58, 169. REFERENCES 42 P. P. Foci, N . L . FoeI and A . Field, Arch. Biochem.,. 1945. 6, 215. 1 R. B. Angier et al., Science, 1945, 102, 227. 43 E. E. Snell, /. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1944, 66, 2082; 1945,. 2 A. E. Sobel and H. Werlin, J. Biol. Chem., 1945, 159, 67, 194; S. A. Harris, D. Heyl and K. Folkers, ibid., 681. 1944, 66, 2088; F . Schlenk and E . E . Snell, /. B iol. 3 A. E. Sobel, A. M. Mayer and B. Kramer, Ind. Eng. Chem ., 1945, 157, 425; E. E. Snell and A. N. Ranne- Chem., Anal. Ed., 1945, , 160. 17 feld, ibid., 475; E. E. Snell, ibid., 491. 4 W. S. Metcalf, Nature, 1945, 155, 575. 44 J. Baddiley and E. F. Gale, Nature, 1945, 155, 727;. ‘ M. J. Caldwell and D. B. Parrish, /. Biol. Chem., W. W. Umbreit, W. D. Bellamy and I. C. Gunsalus, 1945, 158, 181. Arch. Biochem., 1945, 7, 185; W. W. Umbreit and' * M. L. Quaife and P. L. Harris, J. Biol. Chem., 1944, I. C. Gunsalus, J. Biol. Chem., 1945, 159, 333. 156, 499. 45 M. L. Scott et al., J. Biol. Chem., 1944, 154, 713; 7 W. I. M. Holman, Biochem. J., 1944, 38, 388. 1945, 158, 291; /. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1945, 67, 157. H. P. Sarett and V. H. Cheldelin, /. Biol. Chem., 44 A. Komberg, H. Tabor and W. H. Sebrell, Am er. J. 1944, 155, 153. P h ysiol., 1944, 142, 604; P . L . D a y et al., J. Biol. * E. C. Barton-Wright, Biochem. J., 1944, 38, 314; Chem ., 1945, 157, 423; K. Kreuger and W. H. Peter­ H. P. Sarett, R. L. Pederson and V. H. Cheldelin, son, ibid., 158, 145. Arch. Biochem., 1945, 7, 77; B. C. Johnson, /. B iol. 47 M. G. Sevag and M. N. Green, /. Biol. Chem., 1944, Chem ., 1945, 159, 227. 154 719. 10 H. R. Skeggs and L. D. Wright, J. Biol. Chem., 1944, 45 H. A. Waisman, K. B. McCall and C. A. Elvehjem, 156, 21; E. H. Hoag, H. P. Sarett and V. H. Chelde­ /. N utr., 1945, 29, 1. lin, Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed., 1945, , 60. 17 49 R. Duschinsky, L. A. Dolan, D. Flower and S. H. 11 L. J. Teply and C. A. Elvehjem, J. Biol. Chem., 1945, R ubin, Arch. Biochem., 1945. 6, 480; K . Hofm ann 187, 303. et al., ibid., 7 , 394. 12 A. Z. Hodson, J. Biol. Chem., 1945, 157, 383. 50 S. H. Rubin, L. Drekter and E. H. Moyer, Proc. Soc. 13 G. W. Beadle, /. Biol. Chem., 1944, 156, 683. Exp. Biol. Med., 1945, 58, 352. 14 E. Kodicek and A. N. Worden, Biochem . J ., 1945, 39, 51 D. W. Woolley and H. Sprince, /. Biol. Chem., 1945, 78. 15 V. R. Williams, /. Biol. Chem., 1945, 159, 237. 157, 447. *• E. C. Wood, Nature, 1945, 155, 632. 17 E. G. Gleim, D. K. Tressler and F. Fenton, F ood R es., 1944, 9> 47i- 18 E. Kawerau, Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., 1944, 23, Books Received 181. 19 L. J. Teply, W. A. Krehl and C. A. Elvehjem, Arch. Bulletin of the International Institute of Refrigera­ Biochem ., 1945, 6, 139. 20 E. B. Hughes and T. L. Parkinson, Analyst, 1945, tion. 20, 86. East Mailing Research Station. Annual Report,. 21 L. Daniel and L. C. Norris, F ood R es., 1944, 9 , 312. 1944- 22 D. E. Brady, W. J. Peterson and A. O. Shaw, Food Jahrbuch der Schweizerischen Milchwirtschaft, 1945- R es., 1944, 9, 406. Manual of Nutrition, 1945. Published by the 23 J. W. Tullo and W. J. Stringer, /. Inst. Brewing, 1945, 51, 86. Ministry of Food. 24 H. J. Deuel, C. Johnston, E. Sumner, A. Polgar and Meat Technology. By Frank Gerrard, M.Inst.R.,. L. Zechmeister, Arch. Biochem., 1944, 5, 107; 1945, M .R .S a n .I . 6, 157; H. J. Deuel, C. Johnston, E. Sumner, A. Science and Nutrition. By A. L. Bacharach, M.A.. Polgar, W. A. Schroeder and L. Zechmeister, ibid., (Cantab)., F.R.I.C. 365. 2B W. Braun, /. N utr., 1945, 29, 61, 73. Studies in Hypertony. By I. Harrris, M.D. 28 D. H. Copp and D. M. Greenberg, J. N utr., 1945, 29, Utilisation Industrielle des Fruits, Confitures, Mar- 261. melades et Geldes. By H. Cheftel. 21 British Pediatric Society, Arch. Dis. Childhood, 1944, Bisol Industrial Chemicals. Manufactured by British 19, 43; B. D. Comer, ibid., 68. Industrial Solvents, Ltd. 28 N. Morris, Proc. Nutr. Soc., 1944, x48- 28 F. L. Meyer and M. L. Hathaway, /. N utr., 1944, 28, Elastomeric Engineering. Published by Andre 93- Rubber Company, Ltd. 102 Food Manufacture The Use of Gas in Food Manufacture

SPECIALLY CONTRIBUTED

HE use of gas in the preparation and manufac­ (10). The grading, density, and type of dust T ture of certain types of foodstuffs has increased governs to a large extent the method of collection considerably during recent years, particularly for employed. For instance, where the entrained dust drying and dehydration. The gas industry has is not considered sufficiently valuable to justify assisted in the development of apparatus to meet maximum collection efficiency, the exhaust hood the requirements of the various branches of the with dust collecting hopper (11) would be sufficient. food industry, and the following examples show Should a more efficient collection be required, a several ways in which gas has proved itself a most high efficiency type of collector would be substi­ efficient fuel. tuted for (10). The dried product is discharged A special rotary louvre drier is designed for continuously from the spigot or spout (12). It will the production of various breakfast cereals, such as be appreciated that the product and dust may be puffed wheat, flaked maize, etc., as well as a arranged for discharge in line for further process­ roaster for nuts, cocoa beans, and similar products, ing. With some materials which may require re­ and is used for this latter purpose by several of the duced evaporation while heating up, and also to leading chocolate manufacturers. Other products give a higher thermal efficiency, a portion of the processed in this manner include cereals, sage, partially saturated exhaust gases are recirculated; rice and cornflour, sesame seed, sugar, salt, meat, being mixed with the heating gases passing into the apple pomace, vegetables, and vegetable waste. drum, a heating medium is thus provided with a higher saturation than would be normal. In the case of bread which is baked specially to The Drying of Breadcrumbs serve as a sausage “ filler,” the loaves are first There have been installed a number of rotary sliced or broken down into reasonably small par­ louvre driers for the production of breadcrumbs to ticles, and from this machine they pass to a granu­ be used as a “ filler ” for sausage making. This lator for crumbing the bread while it is moist. plant (Fig. i) is arranged for a straightforward dry­ From the granulator the feed is automatically con­ ing operation. The material to be processed is in trolled into the rotary louvre drier, the dried pro­ this case fed by means of a vibrating feeder (i) at duct being screened and sacked off. The coarse an even and continuous rate in to the rotary louvre material from the screen is used as a “ filler,” while drum (2). The heating and drying medium is pro­ the “ fines ” are utilised for “ dressings ” and meat vided by means of a combustion chamber (3). pastes. With some materials it is essential that an air heater should be used, heated by steam, in which case the heater is located between the main fan Capacity of Plant and the drier hot air inlet, as shown on inset (4), The capacity of an average plant is about 5 cwt. which also shows the arrangement for “louvre" ex­ per hour output containing 4 per cent, of moisture, haust. which involves a feed to the drier of 830 lb. per The main fan (5) is specially designed to suit the hour of moist bread containing 35 per cent, mois­ operating temperature, and induces the hot gases ture. The inlet temperature is 350° C., the exhaust at a predetermined temperature, which is auto­ temperature is 75° C., and the material tempera­ matically controlled, and delivers them by way of ture 65° C. when using gas having a calorific value the hot air inlet (6) through the manifold into the of 500 B.Th.U. per cubic foot. The gas consump­ effective gas channels, which are covered by the tion on a plant of this capacity would be 5J therms material being subjected to treatment. After per hour. passing through the material, the exhaust gases, An interesting feature when producing bread­ together with the evaporated water vapour, are crumbs with gas as the heating medium is the ease, extracted by means of the exhaust fan (7), either due to extreme flexibility of control, with which the from the exhaust outlet (8), which is directly oppo­ temperature may be varied in order to accomplish site the hot gas inlet, or from the vaned and hooded certain requirements. For example, when returned discharge end (9) or both, according to the ex­ loaves are used for the production of breadcrumbs, haust system adopted. as opposed to making them specially for the pur­ The exhaust fan (7) delivers the exhaust to atmo­ pose, the process used is exactly the same, but in sphere, and in the case where a proportion of dust this case it is necessary to increase the inlet tem­ is likely to be entrained in the stream a cyclone perature slightly in order to kill the yeast which is dust extractor is installed between fan and drier contained in normal household bread. To this end

March, 1946 103 Fig. 1.— Rotary louvre drier. it is desirable to raise the temperature of the The Drying of Pomace crumbs themselves to at least 70° C., which can successfully be accomplished without any discolora­ A further use to which the rotary louvre drier tion of the crumbs. may be put with gas as the heating medium is the Again, it is sometimes necessary to use stale drying of apple pomace. An apple canning fac­ loaves for the production of fish and ham dress­ tory uses the following process for drying the ings, and when white bread is used for this pur­ pomace consisting of peels, cores, and undersize pose, it is required to colour this white bread by apples. means of toasting. This can be carried out by a The peels, cores, and undersize apples are sent further easily adjusted increase of temperature until through a hammer mill and then through a hy­ that of the crumbs is around 950 to 1000 C. The draulic press, which presses the pomace to about drying, killing of the yeast, and toasting can all be 70 per cent, moisture content, after which it is fed accomplished by the use of one gas heater, simply to the rotary louvre drier by means of a variable by altering the predetermined temperature of the speed screw feeding operating at 2 to 6 r.p.m. The inlet air entering the unit. drier has a shell measuring 5 ft. 2 in. dia. x 20 ft.

104 Food Manufacture Fig. 2.—A gas-heated a g it a t e d r o t a t in g pan drier f o r d e x ­ trine and starch pro­ ducts. long, which is rotated at 2-36 r.p.m. by a 2 h.p. the pomace would immediately regain moisture. motor through a double-reduction herring-bone-gear The dried product is finally bagged at the discharge speed reducer. The drier handles up to 1,225 lb. head of the drier. of apple pomace per hour, reducing its moisture content from 70 per cent, to 8 per cent, at an inlet temperature of 3200 F., resulting in 400 lb. of Miscellaneous Drying Plant dried product per hour. This means that the drier Every problem of industrial drying requires in­ evaporates 825 lb. of moisture an hour. The dividual treatment for its correct and efficient solu­ finished pomace, containing 7 to 8 per cent, mois­ tion. Atmospheric conditions, movement and tem­ ture, is discharged at a temperature of 118° F., the perature, speed of drying, manner of material temperature of the exhaust air being 130° F. As handling, and the correct method of heat applica­ the result of experimentation it has been found that tion must all be taken into account. Not only is the pomace can be dried to as low as 1 per cent, experience in practical engineering necessary, but moisture content without losing pectin value, but it also a sound knowledge of the theory of drying, is not necessary to operate the unit in this way as heat transfer, evaporational processes, and air

Fig. 3.—A conveyor-type drier used for repairing biscuit tins and for impressing labels on them March, 1946 105 Fig. 4.— A truck and tray batch oven used for a wide variety of food and confectionery products, such as bread, junket powders, predigested and infant foods, casein, etc. movement. A most careful study of all these fac­ bread, junket powders, predigested and infant tors has proved the suitability of gas-heated equip­ foods, casein, etc. Cereals are dried and roasted ment in food manufacture and its allied services. in a variety of designs of gas-heated equipment, A gas-heated agitated pan drier for dextrine and ranging from standard stoves and band driers to starch products supplied by L. A. Mitchell, Ltd., rotary driers as shown in Fig. 5. Rotary driers, and conveyor-type driers used for preparing bis­ gas heated, are also in use for vegetable dehydra­ cuit tins and for impressing labels on such tins are tion, although the more usual method is in truck illustrated. (Figs. 2 and 3.) Continuous multi­ and tray tunnels, which are heated indirectly by band driers are in use in biscuit manufacture, gas; the use of gas-heated radiant panels for the rusks, sausage meal, for drying almonds, raisins, drying and roasting of foodstuffs is another develop­ fruits, vegetables, etc., while the truck and tray ment in this field which is receiving attention by stove (Fig. 4) is being used for a wide variety of the Industrial Gas Development Centres of the Gas food and confectionery products, such as sliced Industry.

Fig. 5. — Cereals are dried and roasted in a variety of designs of gas- heated equipment rang­ ing from standard stoves and band driers to rotary driers, one of which is shown here.

Food Manufacture Vegetable Dehydration

ILL vegetable drying undermine the position. is about six to nine times higher than No. 2. Wof British vegetable producers? This was the It furnishes a product which directly competes with question posed and ariswered by Mr. Robert fresh produce, and while production has been re­ Templeton at a meeting of the Farmers’ Club on served during the recent war for the feeding of the February 4, 1946. Mr. Templeton, who was one Services, the product can be used by the club, of the delegates of the National Farmers’ Union, restaurant, institution, or by the housewife. has recently returned from a tour through the The fourth process produces the remarkable United States and Canada to study fruit and vege­ article— Potato Mash Powder. The feature of this table drying processes. finished product is that it will, by the mere addition Pointing out that vegetables represent a range of hot water, reconstitute instantly into mashed of products the physical characteristics of which potato, indistinguishable from the same thing pre­ do not lend themselves to drying by natural pared from fresh potatoes. Its cost is very much agencies, such as the sun and the wind, used im- higher than the first two processes, although it memorially by the agricultural industry in pre­ appears likely that it will be more economical than serving surpluses like grass for hay, the practice process No. 3. of vegetable drying therefore hinges on the fact that there have been developed alternatives by Evolution of Diversionary Methods using coal to take the place of the sun and currents of air induced by fans to take the place of the Mr. Templeton proceeded to describe the evolu­ wind, and so enable this basic idea which farmers tion of the diversionary methods— cattle food and have practised for thousands of years to be ex­ indirect human food— and pointed out that the tended to crops which hitherto could not be so origin of these methods had nothing to do with the treated. war, and that indeed they proved themselves satis­ factory under peacetime conditions in this country and in others long before hostilities started. The Four Classes of Drying removal of moisture from the vegetables as a There were four distinguishable classes of vege­ means of reducing weight in order to limit the table drying, two of which were diversionary in demands of emergency transport was known cer­ their effect— that is to say, the drying is conducted tainly as early as 1852 and since that date has been in such a way as to furnish a product such as cattle revived in subsequent wars. During the recent war food which, in this altered form, is effectively much good work was done to improve the process, diverted from competition with growers’ fresh pro­ but the lecturer’s point was that the process is duce. The other two have the opposite effect in exactly the same in principle. What happened to that the vegetable is so treated after careful pre­ this process between the wars marking its revival? paration that the dried product will retake its nor­ The answer was that on the whole it had failed to mal content of water and will be, after ordinary survive when confronted with the competition of cooking, practically indistinguishable from the fresh growers’ fresh produce. That is actually true of commodity with which, inevitably, it must com­ the circumstances in this country as between the pete. 1914-1918 war and the recent one, but is not en­ The first of the four processes provided very tirely true, for example, of America and Canada rapid and economical drying by which a surplus of where seventeen operators were known to be work­ potatoes, for example, could be converted into ing the process, selling their products largely to cattle food at a cost (pre-war) of about Jd. per lb. restaurants and institutions in competition with of dried products. The second process provides fresh produce in 1938; their output, however, was rapid and economical drying by which a surplus of not large. potatoes, for example, can be converted into in­ The fourth process— Potato Mash Powder— is direct human food at a cost (pre-war) of about id. really the only one which could claim any degree per lb. of dried material. The lecturer stressed of novelty and that has not as yet been substanti­ here that the word “ indirect ” was a qualification ally developed. Mr. Templeton offered as a first to distinguish the product as being inconvenient conclusion that as far as these processes were con­ for direct human consumption, and therefore not cerned the answer to the question: “ Will vegetable saleable in competition with growers’ fresh produce, drying undermine the position of British vegetable but suitable for the manufacturers of soups, sauces, producers?” was decidedly in the negative so long fillings, and such proprietary products as would as all questions and processes affecting the diver­ benefit in nutrition and flavour by the use of vege­ sion of vegetable surpluses did not revert to the table carbohydrates. position from which they sprang (namely, under Process No. 3 is “ the war-time process.” Its cost the supervision of the Producers’ Organisation); he

March, 1946 107 thought thal, we might safely say that the position able— canning, freezing, or drying. These methods of British vegetable producers would be consider­ will be natural competitors one with the other, and ably aided and strengthened by the operation, if Mr. Templeton believed that the final answer would necessary extended, of these classes of vegetable lie in terms of products and be not general. For drying. example, quick freeze might predominate on light He referred to the simplicity of the decision that fruit, canning might hold its position on heavy out of a io-ton Lincolnshire crop, it is sounder to fruit, but drying would have its place, and indeed sell 8 tons of potatoes for £50 and divert the two on such a product as Potato Mash Powder it might unwanted tons, than it is to attempt a forced sale well prove to be the master of all three. of the full 10 tons with results which in the past have brought the price per acre down to £30 or less. He thought this example would be acceptable Can “ War-time Processes ” Survive ? evidence, not only of the absolute necessity to have With regard to “ war-time processes” it was quite at hand such economical and convenient methods obvious that there was no way by which a volun­ of diversion as those referred to, but also con­ tary market could be secured to take over the vincing proof that producers have nothing to fear whole of the produce of the vastly expanded and much to gain from operation under the proviso capacity of this particular process; it might indeed of “ appropriate control.” be a very serious matter for producers if any attempt were made to this end. What is more likely is that as governmental aid is withdrawn Producers’ Difficulties from the industry the bulk of the operators who The difficulties from the standpoint of the pro­ have been working under conditions of guaranteed ducers began in earnest when contemplating the remuneration will drop out, leaving only those who alternative processes Nos. 3 and 4. When it was might be prepared to take risks and invest capital realised that the expansion of vegetable drying in under conditions of long-term service to form the the United States and Canada was at least fifty-fold basis of a continuing industry. in a period of three or four years, and that herein Mr. Templeton submitted it as a fact chat either lies the means whereby any one country having or both processes discussed could operate to the these facilities can take a surplus unwanted within disadvantage of British vegetable producers, par­ its boundaries, dry it, and despatch it to any part ticularly if so applied to a low-priced surplus as of the world for sale at a subsidised or surplus to give the effect of internal competition or as a price, it is quite obvious there is, on this basis result of export to this country, in which event the alone, sufficient reason for some anxiety on the part dried products are not diverted but are preserved of the vegetable producers who, by and large, have and must therefore compete with growers’ fresh enjoyed a remuneration for their efforts in produc­ produce. tion which is generally conceded as having been aided, more or less, by the perishable nature of Summary their goods. Yet drying can take the word “ perish­ able ” out of vegetable production. Summarising the submissions made, Mr. Temple­ As the lecturer saw it, there were two factors to ton said that first, the diversionary processes of weigh very carefully in the problem. In the first vegetable drying will not undermine, but should place, history teaches us that the war-time process assist and strengthen, the position of British vege­ has failed to survive when matched by peacetime table producers, provided they are attached to and competition of fresh produce. This is a fact that are controlled by the appropriate Producers’ has been influenced in the past by the high cost of authority. Secondly, that the processes (including dried vegetables. This cost is still a high one, but the war-time process) which yield an article com­ in this particular process some of the American peting with fresh vegetables can undermine the factories have definitely made progress in important position of British vegetable producers, to whom matters of detail which tend to reduce the costs it is therefore a matter of considerable interest to and further progress is confidently anticipated. watch all developments of these, classes of dried Secondly, it would be unwise to ignore the progres­ vegetable production. Thirdly, that the point of sive and strongly marked trend of the last twenty- demarcation between the two policies— to divert or five years among consumers to purchase food in a to preserve— is of fundamental importance to pro­ semi- or wholly-prepared form. ducers, since in the first case their marketing The lecturer asked his audience to assume for the arrangements are assisted, and in the second case moment that this trend is continued and might well might well be disrupted by the action of spending be accelerated. money to preserve an article already marked down as unwanted— if a surplus. Putting his submis­ sions in the form of one final proposal, Mr. Temple­ Three Competitive Methods ton said that vegetable drying, like so many other For food manufacturers desiring to cater for an things, can be a good servant but a bad master to expanding demand there are three methods avail­ the agricultural community.

108 Food Manufacture

l^J The Confectionery Industry

Progress in 1945 J. T. STOCK, M.Sc., F.R.I.C.

URING the past year no changes in the sys­ material, while edible nuts were again available for Dtem of rationing or in the distribution of manu­ allocation at intervals during the year. Though factured chocolate and sugar confectionery have the supplies consisted largely of peanuts, other occurred. The significant announcement that the varieties such as almonds, hazel nuts, and desic­ zoning scheme is to end this month has, however, cated coconut were also included. been made. This scheme, which was introduced during 1943, has operated in an extremely satisfac­ Packaging tory manner; its cancellation is, of course, a neces­ As a result of representations made by the War- sary step in the restoration of freedom to a vigorous Time Trade Associations, several small but wel­ and healthy industry. Under the present condi­ come relaxations in the packaging standards have tions, however, it is probable that the first conse­ been made. For example, the use of a full wrap­ quences of this act will be to cause new, if tem­ ping for solid chocolate blocks, previously allowed porary, difficulties in the industry. This applies only when approved as being essential, has now particularly to the small manufacturer, who is now become optional, while the immediate wrapping of faced with the problem of making consignments of hard boilings is generally permitted for lines which much less than a container-load to a greatly in­ were wrapped in pre-war days. Paper used for creased number of destinations without a corre­ certain purposes connected with packaging for ex­ sponding increase either in his output or in his sup­ port was also freed from restriction. plies of packing material. This difficulty must of In addition to its pleasing natural appearance, necessity remain until improvements in transport, aluminium foil has other useful properties; for the labour situation, supplies of raw materials and example, it may be coloured attractively and it availability of board and other forms of packing completely excludes light. Hence the release of begin to make themselves apparent. this material to the industry, at first strictly on a basis of pre-war usage, was most welcome. Later, Basic Raw Materials all restrictions upon its use, either at home or for The exchange scheme for certain allocated overseas markets, were removed. materials, permitting sugar to be relinquished in Shortage of materials does not appear to have favour of additional supplies of treacle, glucose, or diminished the volume of scientific research car­ starch, and conversely, was again permitted by the ried out in connexion with packaging. Particular Ministry of Food. This concession has been useful attention has been paid to the assessment of re­ in permitting adjustments to be made in produc­ sistance to transmission of moisture vapour pos­ tion. sessed by various materials, a matter of high im­ During the latter half of the year the industry portance to the confectionery industry. Studies of was advised that, owing to the severe shortage of the kinetics of this subject have been made, and a sugar, further economies were essential. Conse­ unit of resistance to aqueous penetration has been quently, the allocation of sugar, which had pre­ suggested as a basis for comparing packaging viously been maintained at 40 per cent, of the materials. Considerable ingenuity has been shown usage during the basic year ended June 30, 1939, in devising methods for assessing resistance to was cut to a level of 37 per cent, of this usage. moisture-penetration; for example, the electrical Later, however, not only was it found possible to measurement of the thermal conductivity of a restore the cut, but also to increase supplies to 421 stream of air passing over the surface of the per cent, of the basic usage. The improvement material, the lower side of which is in contact with was opportune in providing for the increased pro­ air saturated with water, enables continuous read­ duction needed to meet the extra Christmas ration, ings to be made and allows large areas to be tested. and also for expansion in civilian consumption due to the demobilisation from the Armed Forces so far Essential Oils effected. Little improvement in the availability of these The cessation at the end of June of supplies of extremely important materials can be reported. In skimmed milk powder must be regarded as a fact, there are many instances in which the situa­ serious loss to the industry, and the prospect of its tion appears to have become even more difficult, as availability in the immediate future appears to be is the case with essential oils obtained from citrus obscure. fruits. Except for limited amounts allocated Manufacturers who used honey during the basic through the Essential Oils scheme, supplies of year were enabled to acquire supplies of this orange oil have been far from easy, and became

March, 1946 109 Fig. 1.— Paste mixer with special safety guard. even more restricted during the second half of the variable' quality and extremely high prices were past year. The production of lemon oil in Sicily demanded, and deliveries under the Essential Oils did not by any means reach expectations, being scheme were limited. The supply position of de- even less than in the previous year. Though small mentholised oil of the Japanese type,' which is quantities of non-controlled oil of good quality were distilled from Mentha arvensis, appears to have occasionally offered the shortage has been severe. become considerably easier during recent months. The amount of tangerine oil manufactured during The author has not had the opportunity of exam­ the previous season being reported to have been ining samples of the oil available for allocation, small, it is not surprising that little was available but in general this variety is considered to be to the confectionery industry. Although supplies definitely inferior in flavour to the piperita type of of lime oil were very short in the early part of the oil and is not desirable for high-class work. year, substantial shipments arriving from the West Small amounts of non-controlled aniseed oil Indies in the middle of the year considerably eased were offered at high prices, the limited quantity of the supply position of this particular oil. controlled oil which was received finding its way No improvement in the availability of true into the medicinal trade; however, during the latter peppermint oil, which is derived from Mentha part of the year a slight improvement in the supply piperita, can be reported. The small quantities of position was reported, owing to the arrival of small non-controlled oil which were offered were again of quantities from China. Spice oils were again in

Fig. 2.—Drop roller machine of tandem type.

110 Food Manufacture variable supply, with a general tendency towards In the compounding of certain fruit flavourings scarcity. of the peach or strawberry type the so-called “ alde­ hydes,” such as undecalactone or methyl phenyl Essences and Fruit Flavourings glycidic ethyl ester have hitherto been important. Though the deliveries of vanilla beans have Since these materials were largely of Continental given general satisfaction as to quality, the amounts origin supplies have been difficult or impossible to available have been limited and the prices de­ obtain; fortunately, however, home-produced sub­ manded correspondingly high; this has been re­ stitutes for many of these compounding materials flected in the amount of first-quality vanilla essence are now available. In this connexion the range available. A tightening in the supplies of vanillin, of “ aldones,” of which the octyl-, nonyl-, and which is the fundamental flavouring principle of decyl- aldones are examples, are particularly in­ the vanilla bean, has also occurred, thus adding to teresting. The “ aldones ” are claimed to possess the difficulties in producing other grades of vanilla characteristics which should render them superior flavourings. to the “ aldehydes,” as opposed to being mere sub­ Owing to the continued shortage of fruit little has stitutes for the latter substances. Particularly been available to the essence industry. One conse­ notable is their enhanced covering power, while in quence of this has been the scarcity of fruit con­ certain instances flavourings possessing a fuller and centrates, supplies of these being extremely small sweeter note may be prepared. For this reason it and limited in range. In most cases, the meagre is likely that these materials will find a steadily quantities produced have had to be extended by increasing use in the production of flavouring the skilful compounding with artificial flavouring materials. materials, and in most cases this has been done extremely well. From time to time reports have Plant and Machinery been received of quantities of fruit available from With the cessation of hostilities interest in plant Continental sources, but apart from a small quan­ and machinery has been considerable, especially as tity of Dutch raspberry pulp, which was allocated the Ministry of Food advised manufacturers to for jam manufacture, none of this has come to the place orders for such equipment with the minimum notice of the author. of delay. Some interesting modifications of exist­ One helpful and encouraging sign adds a touch ing designs, as well as new developments, are to of brightness to a picture which is otherwise some­ be expected, and it may be useful to review some what dreary. There appears to be a slight but of the tendencies in this direction. definite easing in the supply position of certain The commendable attention which is being paid solvents, as well as of esters and similar fortifying to the question of safety in industry is naturally and compounding agents, which are so important reflected in the design of plant and equipment. in imparting to a successful flavouring material The .paste mixer shown in Fig. I is a good example its distinctive note. of such design. The tilting device is operated by a hand-wheel, the batch being discharged into a Technical Aspects of Flavourings tray which is slid into position upon the runners Although development work has naturally been fitted to the base of the machine. Although the handicapped by the shortage of supplies and by special guard allows sufficient clearance for the other causes which are only too general, the scien­ discharge to take place, it cannot open to an extent tific and technical aspects of the production and which might cause the revolving arms to endanger use of flavouring materials have not been neg­ the operator. Except when the chamber is in the lected. A review of events in this field is beyond discharging position the guard cannot be raised the scope of the present article, but a few examples unless the stirring arms are out of action. may be given. Useful studies of vapour pressure In the.production of certain pieces, such as small and other factors which influence the volatility of liquorice pellets or chewing-gum pieces, difficulty food flavours have been made. Since first-class is sometimes encountered owing to the sticking of flavouring materials are of necessity expensive, the material to the rollers of the drop machine. such work is likely to be valuable in connexion This may be overcome by using two pairs of with their usage in the most economical manner. rollers in tandem, the first pair cutting longitudin­ The question of the chemical composition of lime ally and the second transversely. A machine of oil, which until recently had been but scantily this type is shown in Fig. 2. The clutch is examined, has now received attention on both sides arranged so that it may be operated either from of the Atlantic. As might be expected, the com­ the front or from the rear, the elbow being used if position is by no means simple, the presence of over the hands of the operator are not free. The a score of different compounds having been proved. machine is also useful in the manufacture of certain Fundamental work of this kind, although difficult, types of thin drops, the first pair of rollers being is of vital importance, since it furthers the under­ used for thicknessing and the second for cutting. standing of the art and science of flavouring, thus A considerable interest is being shown in the providing a lead to future technical developments. fabrication of plant in stainless steel. Although

March, 1946 111 applied to the outside of the mass and permeates inwards, the heating effect is generated throughout the mass. Since the output of the generator is readily controlled, any desired extent and rate of heating may be achieved. Accordingly, the method should be useful for the heat-sensitive and badly conducting materials which are often met with in the confectionery industry. Thus it has been re­ ported from the United States that the melting of chocolate by electronic methods is several times faster than by the conventional method, and there is no danger of overheating.

Milk (Special Designations) Regulations, 1936-1946

W ith reference to the Milk (Special Designations) Regulations, 1936-1946, which came into operation on March 1, 1946, the Ministry of Health has issued the following communication to local authorities : “ The effectiveness of the phosphatase test as a test whether milk has been adequately heat-treated is now well established, and the Minister has decided that compliance with the test should be added to the condi­ tions of a licence for Pasteurised milk and Tuberculin Tested Milk (Pasteurised). At the same time, the Minister is advised that the plate-count test, as pre­ scribed for these milks in the Milk (Special Designa­ tions) Order, 1936, is defective not only because a wide margin of error appears inevitable in arriving at the result of the count, but more particularly because the test takes account of heat-resistant organisms whose presence is of no material significance for the safety or the keeping quality of the milk. The Minister has, therefore, as an immediate step, and pending any further revision of the conditions re­ lating to licences for these milks which may be neces­ this material has, of course, a lower thermal con­ sary, made the new regulations which rescind the plate-count test and require that both Pasteurised milk ductivity than has copper, for many purposes this and Tuberculin Tested Milk (Pasteurised) shall comply disadvantage is more of a theoretical than of a with the phosphatase test and with the methylene blue practical nature. Since stainless steel resists cor­ test in the form in which those tests have already been rosion it is easy to clean with mild detergents and prescribed for Heat-Treated milk by the Heat-Treated thus retain a smooth and shining surface, which Milk (Prescribed Tests) Order, 1944. is obviously desirable from the hygienic point of Authorities, many of whom will already have had view, as well as making for an attractive factory experience of these tests, will appreciate the import­ layout. An interesting mixing machine, with a ance of observing carefully the precautions recom­ steam-jacketed stainless steel pan is shown in mended in the Addendum to Memorandum 139/Foods respecting the phosphatase test issued by the Ministry Fig. 3. The pan is raised and lowered by operat­ of Health in March, 1943. They will also observe ing the hand-wheel at the right, and, when a batch that the details of the methylene blue test, as now pre­ requiring no mechanical stirring is being prepared, scribed for Pasteurised milk, differ from those pre­ the stirrer head may be swung clear of the pan. scribed in the Milk (Special Designations) Regulations, Methods of heating are of fundamental concern 1936-1943, in relation to raw designated milks. in many directions, not the least of these being the Samples should not be packed in ice for transport to confectionery industry. Accordingly, some interest­ the laboratory, but should be kept at atmospheric shade ing applications of the electronic or radio-frequency temperature and protected from the direct rays of the method of heating may be expected. In this sun. The methylene blue tablets referred to in Part V of method of heating, high-frequency oscillations the Third Schedule to the Regulations are the same generated by a system of thermionic valves are tablets as are used for the methylene blue test in rela­ applied to suitably designed electrodes between tion to raw designated milks in accordance with para­ which the material to be treated is placed. Con­ graph 13 of Memorandum 139/Foods issued by the trary to normal methods, in which the heat is Ministry of Health in January, 1937.” 112 Food Manufacture Clarification of Sugar Cane Molasses for Yeast Culture

The production of food yeast, Torula utilis, depends on a cheap source of sugar, which in South Africa is available as cane sugar molasses. During the develop- ment of the process at the Low Temperature Research Laboratory, Cape Town, it was found that the molasses solution transmitted a variable degree of brownish coloration to the yeast cells which could not be removed by washing the yeast. The resulting colour is conditioned to a large extent by the manner of drying the yeast, flash-roller drying ensuring a light buff-coloured product, but without initial removal of colour from the molasses solution it would be hard to obtain a sufficiently pale food yeast E. BEYERS

Composition of Molasses sludge, but the removal of the characteristic colour ATAL molasses contains about 50 per cent, of without loss of sugar is a difficult matter. In the Nsugar, about 10 per cent, of ash, a variable first place it is necessary to bear in mind that the amount of colloidal material and soluble organic molasses solution is ultimately adjusted to a pH matter including a brownish-black pigment, the value of 4'2 to 4 8, the optimum range for genera­ amount of colloids and pigment depending on the tion of Torula utilis. The colloid and high ash system of cane juice defecation. The bulk of content of molasses constitute a complex which is molasses is produced from cane juice clarified by the critical to pH changes so that solubilities and iso­ sulphiting process, of which Tongaat molasses is an electric points come into play especially when alka­ example, giving riss to a crude deeply pigmented line defecants which are more effective for colour type high in colloids and with an average ash con­ removal are employed. Secondly, treatments must tent of 9-6 per cent., consisting mainly of 35-4 per be confined to those which after adjustment of pH cent. K 20 , 15 8 per cent. CaO, 7 4 per cent. MgO, do not leave enough of any substance in solution 22 0 per cent. Cl, 13 9 per cent. S0 3, and 6-6 per which would inhibit or retard the growth of yeast. cent. C 0 2. One refinery, Natal Estates, is equipped Thirdly, the materials used should be cheap and with the carbonation process, which produces a readily available for large-scale application. clearer type of molasses low in colloid content and with an ash content of 11-5 per cent., composed Clarification Methods mainly of 36 4 per cent. K 20 , 20 9 per cent. CaO, 22 2 per cent. Cl, 19 0 per cent. C 0 2, with only Crude molasses diluted to 1:4 and 1:1 with tap 04 per cent. MgO and 3 6 per cent. S0 3. The water was boiled for varying periods with various nature of the ash composition has a bearing on the substances and the mixture centrifuged hot for amount of sludge obtained in clarification. fifteen minutes in an Ecco centrifuge at 3,500 r.p.m., which was sufficient to separate all but the finest colloidal particles. The sludge was dried Treatment of Molasses and weighed, providing only a very approximate The term “ clarification ” refers to the treatment estimate for comparison, as it included sugar and of molasses which is necessary to render it fit as a other soluble constituents remaining in the moist medium for yeast growth, and is used in the sense sludge. of removal of colloids and other extraneous matter The clarified solution was tested for colour, sugar, as well as partial removal of the dark colouring calcium, and phosphorus content after further dilu­ matter. Furthermore, it has been extended to in­ tion to 1:9 and adjustment to pH 45. The theo­ clude the use or addition of substances such as retical amount of sugar required in the feeding phosphate and ammonia, which may not have a solution for maintaining the maximum rate of direct bearing on clarification as such, but which growth of Torula utilis is 4 0 per cent. A final may be required to nourish the yeast cells, and these dilution of molasses of 1:9, equivalent to rather are introduced at this stage to simplify subsequent more than 4 per cent, of sugar, was adopted as a feeding. Any pre-treatment of molasses is based convenient basis for comparison in all the tests on a period of heating to sterilise the solution. described. Colour was measured with the aid of a Most of the dirt and colloidal matter can be re­ Spekker absorptiometer, using neutral OB, filters moved by dilution, boiling, and separation of the and expressing the depth of colour in terms of

March, 1946 113 colour density. Reducing and total sugars were Torula utilis, however, uses sucrose as well as estimated by the Lane and Eynon titration method reducing sugar for energy, and tests at this labora­ against Fehling’s solution, calcium by Alport’s tory have shown that growth is unaffected by the method of precipitation with ammonium oxalate presence of 0-133 per cent, calcium in a 1 :9 solu­ and titration against permanganate, and phos­ tion of molasses. Moreover, this dilute molasses phorus by Holman’s molybdenum-blue method. solution is used at a pH. of 4-2 to 4 8 and is free A large number of substances were tested and a from alcohol, so that calcium is not precipitated comparison is presented of the following treat­ and the need for its removal falls away if less than ments: sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, superphos­ 0.133 Per cent. phate with ammonia or ammonium sulphate, lime The 1 :4 molasses solution was treated with suffi­ and the carbonation process. Of other substances cient sulphuric acid to lower the pH to 4-0 and tried, hydrochloric acid, alum, kieselguhr, talc, boiled for sixty minutes, which resulted in the re­ and kaolin were no better than boiling only. Am­ moval of roughly the equivalent amount of calcium monia and caustic soda produced a very slight re­ from solution. Some inversion of sucrose also took duction of colour, while injection of precipitated place, but the colour of the molasses solution was calcium carbonate, talc, or kieselguhr into the boil­ not much altered by this treatment as compared ing solution adjusted to pH 8-5 or 10 with lime with boiling only, nor did the use of larger amounts failed to improve the colour beyond that obtained of sulphuric acid produce any improvement in with lime only. colour. With larger amounts of sulphuric acid, however, Natal Estates molasses gave rise to a pro­ portional increase of sludge, mainly calcium sul­ Analytical Results phate, due to the low S0 2 content of its ash in Tongaat and Natal Estates molasses contain relation to the CaO content, whereas with Tongaat practically the same amount of total sugar— molasses (high SO, content in ash) there was little namely, 47-6 per cent, and 47-0 per cent., including increase of sludge with increasing amounts of sul­ 8-8 per cent, and 6-oper cent, of reducing sugar phuric acid. respectively. The former, representing the type of Boiling with Phosphoric Acid.— Feeding of molasses obtained by the sulphiting process, is high Torula utilis comprises the addition of sugar, phos­ in colloidal and colouring matter, as shown by a phate, and ammonia while maintaining the correct colour density of 3-00 for the 1:9 solution of the pH, aeration, and temperature, and is facilitated untreated molasses, whereas Natal Estates molasses, by combining sugar and phosphate in one solution. produced by the carbonation process which re­ Phosphate can be conveniently added to the moves most of the colloids, is by contrast rela­ molasses solution in the form of orthophosphoric tively refined with a colour density of 1-30, but has acid (H.,PO,) in the correct proportion and the a higher calcium content of 0170 per cent. mixture boiled. However, when the calculated Treatment by Boiling.— Most of the colloidal quantity of 3-03 g. of H3P 0 4 was added to 400 g. matter was removed by boiling for sixty minutes, of 1:1 molasses the expected concentration of resulting in a fairly clear solution with a colour 0-048 per cent, phosphorus in the 1:9 solution was density after dilution (1:9) of 1-95 for 1:4 Tongaat not secured unless sulphuric acid was also added. molasses. Boiling, however, made no difference to Evidently the acidity due to phosphoric acid alone the colour of Natal Estates molasses, which is in­ was near the critical point for precipitation of phos­ dicative of its low colloid content, the dried sludge phate in the 1:1 mixture and a lower pH was amounting to only 0-9 per cent, as against 4-3 per necessary to keep the phosphate in solution. In the cent, for Tongaat molasses. The amount of sludge case of Tongaat molasses complete recovery of was more than doubled when the treatment was phosphorus was obtained at pH 3-8, but Natal applied to the 1:1 molasses solution without, how­ Estates molasses, having a higher lime content, lost ever, affecting the colour density (measured at the 12 per cent, of the added phosphorus even at pH 1:9 dilution after adjustment to pH 4-5 in each 3-5 with double the amount of sulphuric acid. The case). The increase of sludge cannot be explained phosphorus remained in solution after separation of by the presence of sugar in the sludge. the sludge and dilution when the pH was raised to Boiling with Sulphuric Acid.— This is the treat- 4-5, as applied in all these tests, and will remain 1 ment used in molasses distilleries in the United in solution up to pH 6 0, but precipitation of cal­ States (Food Industries, 17, 1945, 94) for the pur­ cium phosphate occurred above this point. pose of removing the bulk of the lime present in While phosphoric acid alone improved the colour molasses, which would otherwise be precipitated on somewhat, the co-addition of sulphuric acid left the account of the high concentration of the mash and colour the same as with boiling alone. These treat­ the presence of alcohol, causing scale formation ments had a marked effect on inversion of sucrose and contamination of the yeast. Sulphuric acid, and removal of calcium from solution, more so in apart from inverting sucrose necessary for fermenta­ the presence of sulphuric acid. A large increase tion, combines with the lime to form calcium sul­ of sludge was obtained with Natal Estates molasses, phate, which is removed from the molasses solution. .again not ascribable to presence of sugar, the phos­

114 Food Manufacture phoric acid inducing a rearrangement of the ash solution. The more rapid the rate of additions the complex of this type of molasses, giving rise to pre­ greater was the effect on removal of colour. cipitation of other substances, since most of the Carbonation at pH 10 0 reduced the colour to a added phosphate remained in solution. marked degree, especially in the case of Tongaat Boiling with Superphosphate and Ammonium molasses, the colour density falling from 1-95 to Sulphate.— Although ammonia is best added o-6o, a light amber colour. In the case of Natal separately to prevent accumulation and loss in the Estates molasses the colour density was reduced spent wort, it may be conveniently added together from 1-30 to 0-47. This is the only treatment which with phosphate in the molasses solution in the form produced a bright, clear solution of Tongaat ■of ammonium sulphate. This treatment supplies molasses, a faint haziness due to very fine colloidal nitrogen in the correct proportion for growth of particles persisting in all other treatments, whereas Torula utilis, which is capable of utilising the am­ clarified solutions of Natal Estates molasses were monium radicle and soluble phosphate from super­ all crystal clear except in the case of the sulphuric phosphate. The addition of 5-3 g. of superphos­ acid treatment. phate (15 per cent. P20 5) should provide 0-034 Per The sugar content was not appreciably reduced cent, of phosphorus in the 1:9 molasses solution. and the calcium content of the final clarified solu­ Actually only 0-026 per cent, of phosphorus was re­ tion was no higher than the original amount covered, and this loss may be ascribed to the rather present. The main disadvantage of the treatment high pH of the mixture. The colour of the final arises from the large quantity of lime and C 0 2 re­ solution was somewhat better than that obtained quired and the bulky precipitate which must be with boiling only. removed. Addition of Ammonia after Boiling with Super­ phosphate.— This is the method adopted and re­ Conclusion commended by Thaysen (Teddington, England) for clarification of molasses used in feeding Torula It is apparent that of the clarifying systems in­ utilis. After boiling with superphosphate for thirty vestigated only carbonation was effective in sub­ minutes sufficient ammonium hydroxide is added stantially reducing the typical dark coloration of to raise the pH to 8-5 while the solution is still hot. molasses without appreciable loss of sugar. This The alkaline treatment improved the colour to some process involved the use of large quantities of lime extent without affecting the sugar content, but the and C 0 2 and separation of a large amount of soluble phosphate contributed by the superphos­ sludge. Boiling with a small quantity of lime also phate was almost entirely precipitated and 50 per greatly improved the colour but gave rise to loss cent, of the ammonia added was lost. of sugar and increase of soluble calcium. Where Lime Treatment— Boiling with lime at a pH colour is of minor importance, boiling for sixty of about io-o caused a marked reduction of colour, minutes and separation of the sludge is sufficient to but boiling even for two minutes gave rise to loss remove most of the colloidal matter, and little is to of sugar, calcium combining with reducing sugar, be gained by employing sulphuric acid, phosphoric and at the same time a big increase of soluble cal­ acid, or superphosphate except when it is desirable cium occurred in the final solution which would to reduce the soluble calcium content or introduce render it unsuitable for feeding to Torula utilis. phosphate with the molasses solution for feeding to Carbonation Treatment.— This treatment was yeast. based on the system of cane juice defecation em­ ployed at the Natal Estates sugar refinery, where milk of lime is fed into the crude juice simul­ taneously with a stream of carbon dioxide at a con­ trolled temperature and pH. A similar system is Relaxation of Transport described by Skaar and McGinnes (Ind. Eng. Chem., Ind. Ed., 3 6 , 1944, 574) for defecation of Restrictions beet juice. The destructive effect of lime on sugar T he Food (Sector Scheme) Order will terminate at is prevented by continuous combination with CO., midnight on March 2, 1946, and certain Wholesalers at a relatively low temperature. By regulation of War-Time Association arrangements will also be the C 0 2 flow and lime additions the pH can be abolished. maintained at the desired level. The Minister has decided for the purpose of bacon Heating at 800 F. for thirty minutes while main­ distribution to revert, as the first step, to a three sector taining the pH at 8-5 or io-o was adopted. Heat­ scheme, almost the same as that which was in force ing at 700 or 900 F., as well as shorter periods of from January, 1940, until the imposition of the Food heating, gave less satisfactory results. The rate of (Sector Scheme) Order in August, 1942. When the Food (Sector Scheme) Order terminates carbonation in these tests was limited by the Great Britain will be divided for bacon distribution into amount of foaming that could be tolerated without three sectors which will comprise : loss of molasses. Foaming increased with tempera­ (i) Scottish Sector.— All Scotland. ture, pH, and the concentration of the molasses (ii) Northern Sector .— The Northern, North-Eastern,

March, 1946 115 North-Western, North Midland, Midland and North excess of that which might reasonably be expected to> Wales Divisional Food Areas. prove lethal. Mr. Baumgartner quotes the opinions of (iii) Southern Sector.— The Divisional Food Areas different authorities on this matter, and offers his owm south of the Northern Sector Divisional Food Areas— summary of the present position : namely, South Wales, South-Western, Eastern I, “ 1. Spore-forming bacteria of a heat-resistant Eastern II, Southern, South-Eastern, and M.I. Areas. nature are not infrequently found in commercially N ote A.'.— N eutral A reas. The counties of Cardigan sound canned foods. Provided that cool storage condi­ and Radnor will be neutral to the Northern and tions obtain, these organisms do not cause spoilage, Southern Sectors; the Borough of Berwick will be and their presence is no reflection on the heat-process- neutral to the Scottish and Northern Sectors. ing conditions to which the food has been subjected. N ote B .— A licensed bacon wholesaler, whose ware­ 2. In fat-free canned products such as fruit and house is situated not more than ten miles in a direct vegetables the presence of viable non-spore forming line from a bacon sector boundary, may accept nomina­ rods or cocci is an indication of under-processing or tions from a retailer in the adjoining sector provided leakage of the container. that such retail shop(s) is situated not more than forty 3. In pressure-processed fatty or oily foods the ques­ miles from the said wholesaler’s warehouse. tion of the survival of non-heat resistant forms is open Retailers, catering establishments, and institutions to doubt. If these organisms do withstand process­ purchasing by wholesale will be given an opportunity ing, their survival is probably due to fat protection. to nominate new suppliers for bacon with effect on They appear to have little practical significance, and April 28, 1946. As from that date : this may be due to the fat preventing their subsequent (1) A retailer may nominate as his supplier(s) for development. bacon not more than two licensed bacon wholesalers 4. When viable cocci or other relatively non-heat re­ who have warehouse premises situated in the same sistant forms are found in large numbers in the sector as his shop which is to be supplied, or situated aqueous phase and throughout any canned product, in conformity with Note (A) or (B) above. Where a their presence is the result of under-processing or con­ retailer owns more than one shop, each shop is treated tainer leakage. ” as a separate entity. A number of methods, useful in the bacteriological (2) A licensed wholesaler in a sector may only accept control of canned foods, have been added, and these, the nomination of a retailer whose shop is situated in together with raw material tests, form the subject of the same sector as that in which his warehouse a new chapter. premises are situated, or situate in conformity with This book may without exaggeration be called indis­ Note (A) or (B) above. pensable in the canning laboratory, and its perusal' (3) In the case of a licensed multiple, each of its would doubtless convince those canners who hitherto retail shops will be free to nominate not more than have not indulged in what they might have considered two wholesale suppliers, the multiple’s own depot, if the luxury of a bacteriological section to invest in one nominated, being counted as a wholesale supplier. forthwith— T. C-W. (4) No licensed multiple shop owning 25 branches or more may purchase from wholesalers a greater per­ centage of its aggregate requirements than is being purchased from wholesalers at the present time. A licensed multiple owning not more than 24 shops will have the same freedom of choice as before. Mushrooms Empoisoned

To those who by virtue of their financial status (a glance at the price tickets in the greengrocers’ shops will clarify this allusion) or irrepressible desire still Canned Food Microbiology retain their addiction to mushrooms, Dr. John Rams- bottom’s companion* to his first booklet on edible A se c o n d edition of the excellent little textbook* on the fungi will be of interest and reassurance, especially the microbiology of canned foods, the first edition of which latter, for the author hastens to inform his readers was reviewed in F o o d M a n u fa c tu r e in August,. 1943, that, “ despite popular belief, the number of poisonous has recently been published. Among the changes fungi is very small, and the plates of this latest publi­ which have been effected in the new edition is a new cation have had to be eked out with edible fungi! ” chapter summarising some of the literature on the Any exaggerated feelings of security, however, may microbial condition of marketable canned foods and possibly be dissipated by the statement that “ there is indicating the practical aspects of the matter. The only one practical way of distinguishing between edible interesting theory of fat protection of micro-organisms and poisonous toadstools. This experimental method is discussed. Although published results lack uni­ is sure, but the result may not profit a man. . . . As formity, many experienced workers believe that bac­ with other foods, the only safe method to follow is to teria which are normally not heat-resistant are fre­ rely on the experience of one’s predecessors. There quently present in sound canned foods which have are many toadstools which are perfectly wholesome been processed under pressure. Assuming this view to and readily distinguished. Indiscriminate eating of be correct, the question arises as to the mechanism others may render the consumer meet for repentance whereby these organisms survive heat treatment far in or beyond it.”

* Canned Foods: An Introduction to their Micro­ * Poisonous Fungi. By John Ramsbottom. The biology. By J. G. Baumgartner. Second edition. King Penguin Books. London. Pp. 32 + 16. Coloured Pp. 239+xi. 1946. London. 12s. 6d. net. plates. 2s. 6d. net.

116 Food Manufacture Preceding the description of the different species are ten pages of general discussion, all too short for those Bovine Tuberculosis in America who can appreciate Dr. Ramsbottom’s engaging pen. The descriptions of the three “ deadly species ” of In an article published in the Bulletin of the Dairy the gen u s A m an ita (Amanita phaIloid.es, Amanita verna, Research Bureau, Dr. H. A. Harding, the well-know'n and Amanita virosa) and of the “ poisonous species ” expert, gives a very interesting account of the history Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina are and progress of the campaign to eradicate tuberculosis frightening enough, and a careful account of their among dairy cattle in America. structure is given. In a preliminary reference to the origin of this The deadliness of Amanita phalloides, or “ Death disease, Dr. Harding points out that the beginnings of Cap,” is revealed by the fact that it is responsible for human and of bovine tuberculosis go back beyond the over go per cent, of the recorded deaths by fungus beginning of written history. There are references to poisoning. More than 50 per cent, of the cases of both in the Bible and in the early writings of the poisoning are fatal ; the percentage has been put as various races. In 1882 Robert Koch definitely estab­ high as 90. lished that tuberculosis is due to the presence and There are plates and corresponding descriptions of activity in the tissue of the tubercle bacillus. Later, it 24 species. On the plates of the poisonous ones is a was found that there were numbers of recognisable skull and crossbones and, in confirmation of the varieties of this tubercle bacillus, and each variety is scarcity of lethal species, this only appears attached to capable of producing tuberculosis in certain animals. three of them. Having found the cause of tuberculosis, Koch turned However, some must be cooked or dried, and even his attention to the problem of cure, and in 1890 pre­ then produce uncomfortable although not serious pared a substance which was made available to the symptoms when eaten. public under the name of Koch’s lymph. This lymph, Those wanderers in the countryside in the fungus however, proved a failure as a curative agency for season would do well to carry Dr. Ramsbottom’s book­ humans, but useful in diagnosis of tuberculosis in lets, the last one if only to help avoid the deadly cattle. The lymph injected into a healthy animal pro­ Am anita. It should also comprise a minor textbook duced no result, whilst when injected into a diseased for the “ Nature Studv ” classes in country schools.— animal, a noticeable fever resulted. In this way the T . C-VV. substance which was originally put out as a cure for tuberculosis became a very helpful guide in diagnosing the presence of the disease in cattle, and it received the name of Tuberculin. Tuberculin began to be used in the United States in 1893, and twenty-four years later, in 1917, the Ameri­ can Ministry of Agriculture launched a great tubercu­ The Key to the Kitchen losis eradication campaign. The campaign, however, actually started in 1918, and during that year 134,143 T he tyro in the culinary field need have no qualms as animals were tested, of which 4-9 per cent, reacted to to his capabilities were he first to study the Ministry the tuberculin test. By 1928 sufficient testing had been )f Food’s latest cookery book.* This is not a cookery done in various parts of the United States so that a book in the ordinary sense as it contains no recipes, reasonably accurate idea of the magnitude of the prob­ but as a guide to methods useful in days of plenty lem was available. By that date the percentage of and days of rationing, it is invaluable. animals reacting to the tuberculin test had gone down Every sort of advice is given on the care of utensils, to 2 per cent. food storage, cooking terms, and the right and wrong Dr. Harding doubts whether there is any State in way of using recipes. How many people know how to the Union at the present time which is entirely free season food? A section of this book is devoted to the from tuberculous dairy animals. At the present uses of the different seasonings and flavourings, and moment the areas in which approximately 1 per cent, a study of this particular section would help to convert or more of the cattle are tuberculous are restricted to the dull dishes to which we have become accustomed New York, Vermont, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, during the last five years into something more ex­ Kansas, Nebraska, and California. citing, more piquant. In practically all these cases slowness in clearing up Other sections deal with various foodstuffs such as the tuberculosis has resulted from the combative atti­ milk and cheese, eggs, fish, meat, game and poultry, tude assumed by local dairymen. After the lapse of vegetables and salads, and fruits, and the reader is forty years there still remains considerable scepticism left in no doubt as to the best way of dealing with each regarding the accuracy and dependability of the tuber­ commodity. Proper feeding plays such a vital part in culin test, even though it is now vastly better under­ the health of a nation that the authors of this manual stood than when its use began. have been wise in including a section on the planning It is generally agreed that it is a very valuable aid of meals— it is well worth the closest study. in combating the spread of tuberculosis, but like all To render even more remote the possibility of mis­ other animal tests it is not infallible, and much takes being made, the booklet includes illustrations of depends upon the knowledge and good judgment of most of the operations and, if used as suggested in the party making the test. the introduction, in conjunction with the Ministry of Dr. Harding concludes his article saying that it is Food Recipe Leaflets, kitchen procedure will no longer remain a mystery to the uninitiated.— J. R. the hope and aim to keep the amount of tuberculosis among cattle at or near vanishing point, but this cam­ * The A B C of Cookery. Ministry of Food. Pp. 72. paign in America has lasted seventeen years and is not is. net. yet end ed.— Through the Milk Messenger.

March, 1946 117 Smithfield Old and New

SPECIALLY CONTRIBUTED

Smithfield is “ demobbed.” After six years of de­ centralisation Smithfield Market, centre of the British meat trade, returned recently to something like its pre­ war activities. Here is a Smithfield porter carrying a load for weighing.

HE return to Smithfield as centre for the whole­ who decry modernity and most things of this age, T sale meat trade provides the answer to those follow the rise of Smithfield and note what a differ­ who toyed with the idea of “ by-passing ” this great ence— from the bad old days, for a change. Smith­ market. The idea came in 1936, when the strike field or “ Smoothfield ”— “ a waste land to the of Smithfield porters brought emergency measures North of London Wall ”— is one of those places for meat distribution and constituted a period when which, as the hackneyed phrase puts it, is “ steeped such by-passing may be said to have been tried. A in history.” Just beyond the old City Walls it was second period of doing without Smithfield came a convenient place for all those jousts, knights’ with the war, with decentralisation of the trade to tournaments, Bartholomew Fairs, executions, and a number of depots throughout London. But burnings with which our ancestors amused them­ while representatives of large multiple shops and selves in days long before Hollywood came to the co-operative societies saw in this by-passing of rescue. Here was Wallace executed by Edward I; Smithfield a means of cutting marketing rents, the here Wat Tyler, leading his 30,000 peasants, was smaller tradesmen, known as “jobbers ”— who are stabbed by Walworth, Mayor of London; here, too, peculiar to Smithfield— found this centre their came many martyrs to perish at the stake. salvation. For jobbers, catering for the small man and not for large organisations, supply, for example, so many legs of lamb for a butcher not A Bewildering Scene requiring an equal number of lamb or sheep car­ Then, to liven things up and change “ stakes ” cases. Jobbers buy whole carcases, cut them up, to “ steaks,” camc the cattle market to bring not and sell to small retailers whatever satisfies their only an intolerable nuisance and blot in London’s particular demands. development, but inspiration to Dickens to put forth his vitriolic pen. Newgate Market was bad enough. But worse was Smithfield, to get across Old Smithfield and After which on a greasy, muddy day without slipping But Smithfield’s comeback brings to mind far or being knocked down was a noteworthy feat. more than this suggestion of doing without a well- Dickens is the man to describe the scene, as those planned spacious centre, which contrasts so favour­ who know their Oliver Twist will agree: “ It was ably with other cramped, wholesale food-markets of market morning; the ground was covered nearly the metropolis. Compare “ Old Smithfield ” with ankle-deep with filth and mire, and a thick steam the Smithfield which has developed since 1855, perpetually rising from the reeking bodies of the when the market for live animals was moved to cattle, and mingling with the fog . . . All the pens Copenhagen Fields in North London, and what a in the centre . . . and as many temporary ones as difference! Or with the change which came in could be crowded in were filled with sheep; and tied 1868 when the new Central Meat Market in red up to posts by the gutter side were long lines of brick renaissance sprang up after four years’ work oxen. Countrymen, butchers, drovers, hawkers, and a cost of £200,000. Let those who profess to boys, thieves, idlers, and vagabonds of every low see good only in old customs and old buildings, grade were mingled together in a dense mass. The

118 Food Manufacture Another view of Smithfield Market. whistling of drovers, the barking of dogs, the bel­ those days with 24,000 sheep and 4,000 cattle lowing of sheep, and grunting and squeaking of crammed in the area, with the cheap cookshops pigs; the cries of hawkers, the shouts, oaths, and and “ the surfeiting fumes that arose from their quarrelling on all sides, the ringing of bells, and the rotten-roasted diet, which made the street stink like roar of voices that issued from every public house, a Hampshire farmer’s yard when singeing of a the crowding, pushing, driving, beating, whooping bacon-hog,” as “ The London Spy ” put it, had to and yelling, the hideous and discordant din . . . go- the unwashed, unshaven, squalid and dirty figures . . . a stunning and bewildering scene.” Modern Smithfield Exaggeration? Not according to the stern his­ In their place came modern Smithfield, greatest torian. The original market of three acres was of wholesale markets, a meat exchange of inter­ paved, drained, and railed in 1685; had grown to national repute. By 1924, 400,000 tons of meat 6J acres by 1834; and just a century ago was deal­ (with only one-sixth from Britain and Ireland) ing with one and a half million sheep and over passed through. Retailers supplying ten million 200,000 head of cattle annually. Mondays for people were served, the market being run in con­ cattle and sheep; Fridays for milch cows and other junction with the Islington abattoir, a model in cattle, with “ scrub horses and asses ” sold at contrast to “ the good old days ” when cattle were 2 p.m.; and hay and straw sold on other days: slaughtered in the street and offal dumped into there were many rules like the “ Statutes of Smith­ Fleet Ditch. Modern Smithfield with its avenues- field.” But rules, like skulls at times, were meant of open-fronted shops; its cleanliness and orderli­ to be broken; they could not pen in the noisy com­ ness; its meat brought in insulated vans and in­ munity expanded far beyond the original plan. spected before being sold: all this development There were good points: a moderate regulated four should be a lesson to those pessimists of the present shillings commission on the sale of an ox, eight- and praisers of the past, who need only go to our pence on a sheep, a City toll of one penny per food industries to see what progress means. beast and a shilling a score for sheep. There was the Smithfield Club founded in 1798 with annual cattle shows at the Agricultural Hall. And there TO A U T H O R S were those famous Smithfield salesmen who could estimate the weight of cattle by eye— and were F o o d M an u factu r e is prepared to consider the seldom more than a few pounds out. Even glovers publication of any books on scientific and tech­ and other leather workers relied on Smithfield, nical subjects which authors might care to subm it. where all genuine skins were stamped, craftsmen being bound not to deal in unstamped skins. But

March, 1946 119- Vitamin Persistence in Processed Milk

M. SCHOFIELD, M.A., F.R.l.C.

N ALL the controversies appearing repeatedly in when taken to the boil as in sterilising there is no Ithe Press and on the platform concerning the appreciable diminution. Thus Krause, Erb, and question of Raw Milk v. Pasteurised, the vitamin Washburn2 in 1933 showed that feeding rats on a content is as much ignored as is the fact that pas­ diet deficient in the A factor, yet to which raw or teurised milk was first thought of, not by Pasteur, pasteurised milk had been added in the two but by Nicolas Appert when he instructed a milk­ groups studied, caused no marked difference in rate man of Gournay on methods of preservation by of growth or appearance of respiratory disease. heat. It may be that the layman— and laymen are Stassanised milk— viz., milk flash-pasteurised at as ready as any to take up the cudgels— has de­ 75° C., kept there for 30 seconds, and then cooled liberately refrained from entering upon any discus­ quickly— seems to have exhibited a smaller loss sion involving the vitamin alphabet, still looked on than ordinary pasteurised types. In 1937 Gillam, by him as somewhat of a strange language. Yet, Henry, and Kon3 studied the effect of commercial whenever he enters the battle, sometimes on a pasteurisation on carotene and vitamin A in milk major scale as A. G. Enock has done in This Milk by taking twenty samples of butter churned from Business, he should have enlightened himself on raw and from pasteurised samples over a five- what progress has been made in any particular weeks period, and examining by the Lovibond and direction of attack. spectrophotometric methods. Again no appreciable The survival or persistence of vitamins in pas­ difference was found. In all studies of this prob­ teurised, sterilised, condensed, or dried milk is an lem the variation in vitamin and /3-carotene with important example with all this war-time increase season and conditions must be noted, for this is in consumption of milk and its recognition (at far more marked than any variation brought about last!) as a highly nutritious foodstuff. It is an by processing. Thus Kon (loc. cit.) has reported example which requires a review, an assessment that in the conditions met with in the South of of the position to date. For, in the words of Dr. England milk may normally be expected to contain Kon1 of Reading, to whom we are indebted for 150 to 200 I.Units per 100 ml. from May to Novem­ much of the research on this subject: “ The idea ber or December; but this proportion may drop to that raw cow’s milk possesses unique nutritive pro­ one-half during the rest of the year. The A factor perties which are lost if it is exposed to any form persists in condensed milk and on complete dehy­ of heat treatment is certainly not supported by the dration. bulk of modern evidence.” Dr. Kon’s work has brought out of the bag another problem for the dairy which seeks to give B Vitamin Complex customers “ safe ” milk in the processing of which The B vitamin complex has required much more has occurred a minimum loss of vitamins and of work and has brought results somewhat at vari­ digestibility of proteins. This problem is con­ ance. Krause, Erb, and Washburn (loc. cit.) tried cerned with the detrimental effect on the C vita­ feeding rats on diets deficient in Bj or in B2 com­ min of exposure to light and oxidation, and of plex with milk additions. They found that about copper in utensils where catalytic activity of this 25 per cent, of the Bt activity was impaired by metal aggravates the effects of heat treatment. pasteurisation, but in the case of B2 evidence Leave a bottle of milk on the doorstep of a house, seemed to show that this factor was unaffected by followed by a period in the darker recesses of the pasteurisation or other forms of heating. Dutcher, pantry, and half the antiscorbutic potency may be Guerrant, and McKelvey4 in their work on rats con­ lost. The glass bottle banished the rough-and- cluded that both Bj and B2 suffered some loss in ready retailing by can and measure; yet it has potency when milk was included which had been brought a new factor requiring further study while pasteurised at 63° C. for 30 minutes. This result the transparent milk bottle is in vogue. This is supports flash-pasteurising, yet differs as regards one of several problems with which man must con­ B2 both from the preceding workers and from the cern himself when he robs the suckling calf, when studies of Stirling and Blackwood,5 who concluded Nature intended milk to pass directly from udder that Bj is relatively thermolabile but B2 thermo­ to the waiting mouth! stable, the B complex in milk being on the whole unimpaired. In 1937 Kon6 and his co-workers began to furnish results relevant to this point. Vitamin A Feeding rats on a diet deficient in B complex, Beginning with vitamin A, of which milk is a which was followed by loss in weight, they tried good source, it was early established that even additions of raw and pasteurised milk. After eight

120 Food Manufacture ■weeks there was no apparent change among the exposure to light are the two evils to be avoided; does, yet the bucks fed on raw milk weighed more that aluminium, stainless steel, or glass-lined tanks than those fed on processed milk (one buck showed were better; and that amber bottles might solve the beri-beri symptoms after 47 days). Some loss of dairyman’s problem. Exposure to light followed B complex on pasteurising seemed to be the answer, by pasteurising seems to destroy the reversibly yet Henry and Kon7 later used larger quantities of oxidised part of ascorbic acid. In 1933 Kon11 dis­ milk in such trials and found no appreciable differ­ cussed the lability of the reducing factor, studying ence in groups receiving raw and pasteurised milk. the quantity of vitamin responsible for the reduc­ Later evidence shows B, suffers, however. Thus tion of chloro-phenol-indophenol reagent, which Houston, Kon, and Thompson8 used fluorometric quantity was subject to marked and irregular fluc­ tests and found a 10 per cent, reduction in the Bj tuations (as Schlemmer, Bleyer, and Cahnmann12 factor of pasteurised milk although riboflavin was had also shown). It was concluded from that early unchanged. This 10 per cent, seems capable of study that the presence of vitamin C in reasonable becoming 25 per cent, in some cases or even 30 per amounts cannot be guaranteed even in fresh milk •cent, loss in sterilised milk. Spray drying causes samples of high grade produced under excellent 10 per cent, loss of Bj| film or roller drying as feeding and management conditions. Such rapid much as 33 per cent.; evaporating in vacuo fol­ disappearance of the C reducing factor hinted at lowed by sterilising at 240° F. up to 50 per cent, the changes which set in immediately the milk according to Kon. In sweetened condensed milk, leaves the udder. Typical milk samples of mixed on the other hand, the loss of B, is down to 5 to morning and evening batches were studied, these 30 per cent. In raw milk the content of B, should being titrated within one hour of delivery from the remain constant at 12 to 15 I.U. per 100 ml., dairy, the bottles being left in the retail crates until whereas the B complex system includes some fac­ tested. (This simulation of actual working is to be tors which Kon rightly points out as requiring commended in all studies of milk problems). In further study before conclusions are arrived at. B 6 Kon’s 1941 paper the vitamin C factor is held to and nicotinic acid seem to be heat stable however. be independent of the feed of the cow, working out at 40 to 50 I.U. per 100 ml., yet is easily destroyed Vitamin C on exposure to light, since it is first converted to the labile form, dehydro-ascorbic acid, which de­ Turning to vitamin C brings definite evidence of composes on heat treatment. The holder method marked deterioration on processing. Stirling and brings a loss of 20 per cent, because of exposure Blackwood (loc. cit.), for example, conclude that to light; spray drying also loses 20 per cent.; the anything up to 50 per cent, loss of antiscorbutic roller method causes 30 per cent, loss, which be­ potency may be expected. Since copper in the- comes increased further in those factories which processing plant is condemned due. to its cata­ mix milk batches by air bubbling. Because of the lytic effects, the use of glass-lined or aluminium removal of fat it must be noted that dried skim vessels scores greatly in this direction. King and milk which aroused so much prejudice in the past Waugh9 support aluminium, although Schwartz (and still does in some localities) has a higher pro­ and his co-workers disagree, giving up to 40 per portion of B and C factors than full-cream milk cent, loss with aluminium, rather greater propor­ gives. In the Midlands and in some parts of Lon­ tions with tinned copper, and up to 90 per cent, don there is still a demand for sterilised milk sold with copper itself. Early workers had found all in the “ swing type ” of stopper. Besides de­ methods of pasteurising or heating milk detrimental creasing the biological value of the milk proteins, to the antiscorbutic factor, but flash-pasteurising Kon has pointed out that a 50 per cent, loss in C -seemed less harmful, as shown by feeding tests and is to be expected. Sweetened condensed milk by chemical methods. Kon and Watson had found samples analysed by this worker had lost 15 per only 20-8 per cent, loss of C, and pointed out that cent. C, whereas unsweetened or evaporated milk wide variations in results seem to be the rule. The sterilised after concentration showed the high loss usual holder method of 30 minutes processing at of 60 per cent. 65° C. is condemned when compared with flash - pasteurisation in all cases. In some cases simple boiling in aluminium or glass vessels has been The D Factor claimed to be least destructive, while full sterilisa­ The D factor with its riboflavin seems, like A, to tion at 100 C. is rapidly destructive. After Trout be unaffected. This point was shown by Henry, and Gjessing10 had actually found ascorbic acid Kon, Auchinachie, and others in feeding rats, while content of grade A raw milk to be less than in pas­ other workers have studied the feeding of calves. teurised milk after the latter had been stored for There appears to be no difference in the anti­ one day at various seasons in the year, it became rachitic value of butter samples churned from raw evident that the C factor needed further attention. and pasteurised milk from the same source. Kon Here it was that Kon and Watson showed that con­ supports the resistance of D and riboflavin in the siderable loss could occur even in raw milk of the highest grade. They maintained that copper and (Continued on page 126)

March, 1946 121 The Nutritive Value of Bread

SPECIALLY CONTRIBUTED

PART from vegetarianism, teetotalism, and commercial reasons would greatly prefer to make A religious bans on eating certain animal pro­ white flour, are prepared to admit that whiteness ducts, few questions in relation to nutrition have is associated with deficiency in vitamins. It is an evoked such intense feelings as the brown bread open secret that before the war plans were well for­ controversy, or “ battle of flours,” as it might well ward in this country to “ enrich ” white flour with be called. Extremists of the wholemeal school are synthetic vitamin B1( while in America much more inclined to regard the wheat grain almost with comprehensive action has already been taken. On reverence, as the perfect food designed by Provi­ the other hand nutrition experts who had advo­ dence for the nourishment of man. Their perfect cated the use of wholemeal bread are alive to its flour must consist of wheat, the whole wheat, and high content of fibre and of phytic acid, and nothing but wheat. White bread enthusiasts, on realise that the popular preference for white bread the other hand, may unconsciously accept this has to be considered. When, therefore, in 1940 the colour as a sign of cleanliness and purity. It is Government sought scientific advice on the best assumed to indicate a sound social and economic means of obtaining more and better bread from position; dark and dirty bread may well be left to available stocks of wheat both sides recognised the “ the lesser breeds without the law.” The mild, need for compromise. An increase in the extrac­ inoffensive taste of white bread, moreover, is pre­ tion of flour from the pre-war level of 70 per cent, ferred to the slightly bitter tang of brown. This to 85 per cent, was recommended. This gave a absence of strong flavour is held to make white “ near white ” flour which made an excellent loaf, bread the ideal background for more tasty foods. which was not only endorsed by nutrition experts, If these strong preferences were merely a matter but acceptable to public taste. of taste the impartial observer, assuming such a Unfortunately the food scientists’ warm approval person to exist, would have little interest in the of Government policy was in many instances controversy. Much scientific evidence, however, has damped last year by the reduction in the rate of been marshalled on both sides. The brown bread extraction to 82J per cent. While this drop in school have pointed to the undeniable fact that in itself causes a substantial loss of certain vitamins, the milling of white flour most of the vitamins are the implied threat of further reductions is con­ discarded with the offals. Brown bread is there­ sidered by many to be an even more serious- fore more nutritious than white bread, and particu­ feature.* A recent conference of the Nutrition larly so when on account of poverty the supply of Society for the discussion of factors influencing the vitamins cannot be made good by a high consump­ nutritive value of bread was useful therefore both tion of meat, eggs, and other expensive foods. for the communication of experimental data and Supporters of white bread, however, have counter­ for the unofficial exchange of views as to the wis­ attacked from three distinct directions. Firstly dom of the Government’s policy. they have objected to the high proportion of in­ digestible material that is present in wholemeal The Wheat Grain bread. This may not only cause irritation of the digestive tract, but means that in order to obtain In order to understand the problems confronting the same amount of energy more brown bread than both the miller and nutrition expert some know­ white bread must be eaten. The alleged prefer­ ledge of the anatomy and composition of the ence of manual workers for white bread may pos­ wheat grain is necessary. The outer layer consists sibly be explained by its greater energy value. of the husk or pericarp. This contains a high pro­ Secondly, brown bread contains “ phytic acid,” an portion of fibre, and after milling is the major organic phosphorous compound which interferes constituent of the bran fraction. Inside the husk with the absorption of calcium and iron, thus is found the aleurone layer, which is narrow in causing an increased tendency to rickets and extent and rich in protein, and which forms an anaemia. Finally, in making white flour the outer coat to what is the most important part of miller provides offals which are used by the farmer the grain from the miller’s point of view. This is in producing milk, meat, bacon, eggs, and other the endosperm, rich in starch, which yields white “ protective ” foodstuffs. flour on grinding. Its natural function when the seed is sown is to provide food for the early growth of the young embryo, or germ, which is attached The National Loaf in a small niche near the bottom end of the grain. The force of these arguments has recently re­ * Since this article was written the extraction has been sulted in considerable changes in the positions reduced to 80 per cent, and is to be raised again to 85 taken up by both sides. The millers, who for per cent. 122 Food Manufacture Between the germ and the endosperm is a tiny shown that the proteins of high extraction flours protective pad of powdery material known as the are actually less well absorbed than those of low scutellum. Studies of the relative quantities of the extraction flours. various fractions have been made by several workers, including Hinton at the Cereals Research Station, St. Albans, by the laborious method of Vitamins in Flour micro-dissection. Hundreds of grains have been The distribution of vitamins in the wheat grain teased apart while viewed under a low-powered is still more uneven than that of the protein. Only microscope. A typical grain has thus been found small amounts of carotene are found in any frac­ to consist of 12-3 per cent, bran, 2 per cent, of the tion, so that wheat is hardly worth consideration as outer layers of the endosperm, 83 per cent, of inner a source of vitamin A. It is, however, rich in endosperm, 1-2 per cent, of embryo, and 1-5 per vitamin E, which is most concentrated in the germ. cent, scutellum. By a chemical method Engel found 17 mg. of this Under all ordinary conditions of modern milling vitamin per 100 g. of 70 per cent, white flour, it may be assumed that the husk of the grain will 5-9 mg. in flours of 82 to 100 per cent, extraction, find its way to the bran, while most of the endo­ and 27 mg. in wheat germ. The main importance sperm will be included in the flour. The fate of the of wheat from the standpoint of vitamin nutrition, other components, however, is much less certain, however, lies in its high content of vitamins of the and depends not only on the degree of extraction B group. Of these factors vitamin B,, which is but to a great extent on the precise conditions also known in this country as aneurin and in which are chosen for milling. Thus if the grain is America as thiamin, is concentrated to a remark­ milled dry the germ and scutellum, which are of able degree in the scutellum. Although, as already great nutritional importance, will adhere firmly to stated, the fraction makes up less than 2 per cent, the endosperm and thus find their way into the of the whole grain it contains about 60 per cent, of flour, If on the other hand the wheat is condi­ its total vitamin Bt. Nicotinic acid is most con­ tioned to contain 16 to 17 per cent, of water before centrated in the bran, which is also rich in iron. milling these valuable ingredients are removed Riboflavin is most plentiful in the germ. with the offals. Biological estimations of B vitamins in flours of various degrees of extraction have been made by Proteins in Flour Miss A. M. Copping, of the Lister Institute. The The proteins of wheat, which are distributed un­ vitamin Bj contents of 100 per cent, wholemeal evenly in the grain, are important both for their flour, 85 per cent. National flour, and 73 per cent, direct nutritive value and for their unrivalled white flour were found to be 1-40, 1-15, and 0-35 property in holding the gases formed during I.U. per g. respectively. For riboflavin the corre­ baking and thus making porous and readily digest­ sponding figures were 2-3, 20, and 0-85 fxg., and ible bread. Early experiments by Girard indi­ for vitamin B6 (adermin) 4-0, 3-3, and 2-0 fxg. cated that the bran and germ are much richer in Kodicek and others have found similar value for protein than the endosperm, but on account of the vitamin Bj by chemical estimation and by micro­ small bulk of these fractions they contribute only biological tests with growing bacteria, but some­ about 27 per cent, of the total protein in the grain. what lower results for riboflavin have been obtained In times of scarcity, however, the loss in protein by these methods. As far as vitamin B, is con­ which would result from milling low extraction cerned it will be seen that a reduction in extraction flour would be serious enoqgh. from 100 per cent, to 85 per cent, only causes a Dr. Harriette Chick, of the Lister Institute, has ■loss of 0-25 I.U. per g., while a reduction from studied the proteins of flour in regard to their 85 per cent, to 73 per cent, removes an additional quality rather than quantity. She recalls that the 0-8 I.U. This is presumably due to the inclusion proteins of bran have been found to be richer in of most of the scutellum in flour down to 85 per the essential amino acids lysine and tryptophane cent, extraction and in the offals after that point. than the proteins of endosperm. In her own ex­ By milling so that no scutellum is lost in the offals, periments she has compared the “ biological ” flours very rich in vitamin B, may be made. Thus values of the proteins of various types of flour by “ Canada Approved ” flour, of 78 per cent, extrac­ measuring the growth rates of young rats when tion, contains 2-4 to 2-65 /xg. per g. No appre­ given the flour as their sole source of proteins. For ciable loss of vitamins occurs during baking ordi­ wholemeal flour increases in body weight of r 6 to nary breads. 1-77 g. for every gram of protein eaten were ob­ served in several experiments, for 85 per cent, flour 1-54 to 1-67 g., and for 75 per cent, flour 1-21 to The Case for High Extraction Flour 1-48 g. This superiority of the proteins of high The case for high extraction flour against the extraction flours cannot be explained by superior corresponding low extraction flour, made without absorption from the digestive tract, since experi­ “ enrichment ” with added vitamins, is thus clearly ments both with rats and human volunteers have established. While the evidence in favour of the

March, 1946 123 superiority of the proteins of high extraction flour ficiency has been put out of court by popular dis­ has been criticised on mathematical grounds by taste and by the scientific arguments of high fibre Mr. H. C. H. Graves, of Vitamins, Limited, the and phytic acid contents. The issue is therefore superiority of its vitamin contents is no longer narrowed to a choice between 85 per cent, near- open to question. white flour and 70 per cent, white flour enriched It is less certain that high extraction flour pos­ with added vitamins. A realistic approach to the sesses real advantages over “ enriched ” flour of problem reveals several important points definitely low extraction, although Prof. Peters, of Oxford, in favour of the enriched white flour. Experience and the great American authority, E. V. McCollum, in America, where various flours are available, has hold strongly to this view. Two main lines of shown that it is the favourite in popular taste. The argument may be discerned. The first recalls that synthetic and natural vitamins are identical, and when Sir F. G. Hopkins, over thirty years ago, there is no concrete evidence to suggest that they first reported the experiments which brought home do not have the same physiological activity. The the reality of “ accessory food factors,” he postu­ technical difficulties in mixing the various addenda lated that “ countless substances ” other than pro­ in the flour are not insuperable. In the U.S.A., teins, fats, carbohydrates, and minerals must be where enrichment is already practised extensively, necessary for nutrition. The large number of B the principle has the approval of most nutrition vitamins has gone far to support this conclusion. experts as the only practicable method of increasing Can we be sure, therefore, that when the fractions the vitamin B content of the average diet. which are removed from wheat by milling are re­ Perhaps the most impressive argument for en­ placed by synthetic vitamins some vital constituents richment, however, is that if vitamins and minerals may not be omitted? May not a policy of enrich­ are needed, as medical evidence suggests, they can ment lead to a slippery slope, which starts with the be supplied more abundantly in enriched flour than cheap and easy replacement of a few well-known in natural flour of high extraction. Our 85 per vitamins but which leads eventually to the neces­ cent. National flour contained 1-40 mg. of vita­ sity of supplying more and more lesser known fac­ min Bj, 0-52 mg. of riboflavin, 7-0 mg. of nico­ tors with ever increasing difficulty and expense? tinic acid, 10 mg. of iron, and 280 mg. of cal­ Secondly, if the missing vitamins are replaced in cium per lb. For the U.S.A. enriched flour the the flour by artificial means, can we be sure they Corresponding minimum and maximum standards will have the full activity which they possessed are 2-0 to 2-5 mg., 1-2 to 1-5 mg., 16 to 20 mg., when present in the foodstuffs in the natural state? 13 to 16-5 mg., and 500 to 1,500 mg. Thus there Questions of stability would presumably be the is nearly twice as much vitamin Bj in the enriched responsibility of the chemist arranging the details flour, and more than twice as much riboflavin and of enrichment, and would have to be solved satis­ nicotinic acid. Calculations indicate that the en­ factorily before any particular vitamin was added richment of flour to these standards greatly im­ to flour. But even if satisfactory stability is proved the vitamin B content of the average Ameri­ achieved it remains possible that the absorption can diet. The requirement of vitamin B, necessary and utilisation of vitamins may be less efficient for health is assessed by the U.S.A. National Re­ when they are present in an unusual state of com­ search Council at 1-5 mg. for every 2,500 calories bination, or when some other nutrient which sup­ eaten, for riboflavin 2-2 mg., and for nicotinic ports their action is still missing. Dr. R. A. acid 15 mg. Before enrichment was practised the McCance has been so pessimistic as to predict “ the average diet contained only o-8 mg. of vitamin B,, Nemesis of the Gods ” for any mortal who is bold 1-4 mg. of riboflavin, and n mg. of nicotinic acid enough to think that he can substitute synthetic per 2,500 calories. After enrichment the values vitamins for high extraction. rose to i-6 mg. for vitamin B 1( to r 6 or 1-7 mg. for riboflavin, according to whether the bread con­ tained dried milk, and to 17 mg. for nicotinic acid. The Case for “ Enrichment ” While therefore before enrichment all three vita­ In spite of the strong tendency of scientific mins were below the estimated requirement, the opinion in favour of high extraction flour, Dr. present policy leaves only a slight deficiency in ribo­ D. W. Kent-Jones, of the Dover Laboratories, has flavin. made an admirable statement of the case for “ en­ The cost of adding vitamins and minerals to richment.” White bread, in his opinion, had cer­ white flour works out at only about gd. per person tain important advantages. It was palatable, per year. It remains an open question whether readily digested, and generally well liked. It liberal enrichment with a limited number of vita­ amply fulfilled its main purpose as a source of mins furnishes all the accessory food factors which cheap energy and proteins. The discarded offals exist in the whole grain and which are necessary were used by the farmer to produce valuable pro­ for health. Experience in Newfoundland, where tective foods. Its one drawback was its low con­ malnutrition was common in pre-war days before tent of B vitamins. U.S.A. enriched flour was adopted, may help to The use of wholemeal bread to remedy this de­ give the answer. But on theoretical grounds the

124 Food Manufacture criticism that numerous unknown vitamins are that this procedure would be practicable provided omitted in enrichment m ay be countered by the the hens could be supplied with additional vitamins assumption of the presence of equally imaginary in other forms. In the opinion of “ high extrac­ forms of phytic acid and other harmful substances tion ” exponents this amounts to a confession that in the whole wheat. offals are the best parts of the wheat, which should therefore be reserved for human consumption. If we are to experiment in enrichment, why not try it Wheat Offals and Farm Animals first on poultry foods? In balancing the nutritional value of high extrac­ The argument that the milling of white flour also tion flour against the combination of white flour produces offals which provide valuable protective and the foods of animal origin which are indirectly foods through the agency of farm animals must derived from offals the question of proportion must certainly be given its full weight. It is important be kept in mind. “ Would you prefer a slice of to realise, however, that the needs of the different bread, or a slice of white bread and a nice egg?” animals for wheat offals differ considerably and the miller or poultry keeper may ask. But before that alternative foodstuffs may be as good or even answering we must remember that it takes about better. Prof. H. D. K ay, of the National Insti­ 7 oz. of offals to produce an egg, so that for each tute for Research in Dairying, has explained the egg our slice of bread must actually be a very large needs of the cow for milk production. Since B loaf. vitamins are synthesised by bacteria in the rumen The nutritive value of different kinds of wheat this animal does not depend on an external supply varies greatly. Thus hard Manitoba wheat con­ of these factors. In winter, when bulky hay and tains 13-62 per cent, of protein, while soft English roots are eaten, the supplement demanded must wheat contains only 8-89 per cent. Hard wheats be concentrated and rich in protein. Soya bean are also richer in vitamin B, than soft wheats. cake and decorticated ground nut cake are most According to Prof. J. A. S. Watson plant breeders suitable at this time. In summer, when pasture are already far advanced in breeding wheat strains rich in protein is available, the supplement should with any particular characteristic that is desired. still be concentrated but high in carbohydrate In Australia drought-resisting varieties are avail­ rather than protein. Ground grain, such as maize, able which double the yield for every inch of rain is now required. The cow could therefore dispense which falls. In parts of Canada, where the limit­ with “ weatings ” or middlings, which are not very ing factor is the frost-free period, the time neces­ suitable supplements for either season. ‘Bran, how­ sary for growth has been cut down from 150 to ever, has its own special value in making mashes, 100 days. which have a slight and beneficial laxative effect. Hitherto the main essential of the perfect wheat Milk production, therefore, does not stand in the grain has been taken as the ability to yield white way of milling up to 90 per cent, extraction flour flour which may be baked into a good loaf. If for human consumption, provided adequate however, it were considered desirable to breed amounts of maize and protein cake can be im­ strains of wheat rich in riboflavin, or some other ported. vitamin, this would doubtless be practicable, According to Mr. E. T. Hainan, of Cambridge, granted the necessary time and a settled policy as the demands of pigs and poultry for wheat offals to the milling of high extraction flour. It would are more urgent than those of cattle, since there hardly be profitable to breed wheats rich in vita­ is no intestinal synthesis of B vitamins. Bran and mins merely to give the fractions containing them middlings are a valuable source of vitamins to to farm animals. pigs, although excessive amounts, particularly of bran, may overload the intestines with indigestible material and so prevent fattening through lowering the calorific intake. Chickens, in which diseases Vested Interests in White Flour due to deficiency of vitamins and of the mineral The role filled by bread in human economy is so manganese are very common, do well on diets con­ fundamental that the word itself has been used taining wheat offals, which supply adequate since biblical times as symbolic of Man’s material amounts of these factors. Thus a diet contain­ needs. It is inevitable, therefore, that the indus­ ing 40 per cent, of middlings and 20 per cent, of tries underlying its production through the world bran is excellent for egg production. The shortage should be immense in size, and that fabulous sums of wheat offals which results from the milling of of money should be available to recompense those high extraction flour is therefore a real hardship who supply the necessary capital and labour. to the poultry farmer. Behind each stage between the unplanted seed and It may be asked whether, in peace-time, it would the finished loaf is marshalled a wealth of assets not be feasible to continue to mill high extraction including land, ' fanning machinery, transport, flour, if it is beneficial for humans, and to ear­ granaries, mills,, bakeries, and shops. On a mark for poultry the amount of grain saved from parallel track the dairy, pig, and poultry farmers bulling by this practice. Mr. Hainan considers have their own expensive equipment, which is at

March, 1946 125 least partially concerned in converting wheat pro­ affecting the livelihoods of vast sections of the com­ ducts to human food. Proprietary food manufac­ munity should not be undertaken lightly. turers, awake to the possibility of high profits, erect Before he can assume the role of prophet the factories to process wheat offals in fancy forms. scientist must search his soul in two directions. In Bran, instead of being shovelled to cows or poultry, the first place he must be sure of his case beyond is neatly packed as a palliative for human consti­ all reasonable doubt. A great increase in research pation. Wheat germ, which in this country ought is required on the nutritional value of wheat pro­ all to be included in the National flour, is widely ducts. Decisions should not be reached on the advertised under a proprietary name as a source of results of single laboratories, often working heroic­ vitamins. Finally the manufacturing chemist, ally with limited facilities under' makeshift condi­ anticipating a demand for synthetic vitamins to tions. Not only must the scope of investigation be enrich white flour, has acquired costly plant and extended so that every aspect of the complex prob­ equipped research laboratories. lem is fully understood, but the number of teams It is understandable that a network of financial engaged in the field must be increased so that over­ interests must lie behind this diversity of activities, lapping leads to healthy competition and mutual and that changes in policy in regard to milling pro­ criticism. No discovery which has not stood the cedure must substantially affect the fortunes of all test of repetition is worth consideration in planning concerned. Under present conditions almost all practical policy. Milling interests should know tradfe interests would be better pleased with low this, and should insist that all evidence is proved extraction than with high extraction flour. Thus as far as humanly possible before action is taken. the Canadian prairie farmer is concerned that the In the second place the scientist must be sure consumption of wheat should be kept up. A world­ that his motives are not coloured either by his own wide increase in extraction from 70 per cent, to 85 particular sectional interests or by long-established per cent, would mean that much less wheat was prejudices which amount to an obsession. The wanted for bread making. Moreover, if the bread milling expert, or the scientist who is interested in so produced failed to find favour in popular taste, the sale of wheat offals for human consumption, the use of alternative foods would lower its con­ should not be given the last word in deciding sumption and so depress further the demand for National policy. The inveterate brown bread en­ wheat. While in war-time the danger of a glut of thusiast, who glowers at the mention of millers and wheat is averted by the requirements of the syn­ damns “ enrichment ” without fair trial, must also thetic rubber manufacturer, the farmer remembers be kept in his place. The urgent need is for some the economic chaos and ruin which resulted from disinterested scientist with medical knowledge who over-production in the days of the great “ slump.” can sit as judge on a committee in which all in­ The miller also has less work to do, and less by­ terests are represented. products to sell, when milling high extraction flour, although the sympathy of the common man for this Croesus may be blunted with a tinge of envy. Vested interests, however, are not the prerogative of Big Business. The one-man poultry farmer, straggling to keep going without his normal supply Vitamin Persistence in Processed Milk of wheat offals, has his own vested interests in low (Continued from page 121) extraction flour. The village pastry cook bemoans the absence of the white flour which is so necessary case of dehydrating and condensing ’milk. He for the baking of his pre-war range of fancy cakes. points out that the D factor depends on the action of the sun on the cow, and that of the water- soluble vitamins riboflavin is well represented, The Responsibility of Science showing a concentration of 100 p. gm. per 100 ml. The scientist, whose advice may influence vitally in stall-fed animals rising to 150 to 200 p. gm. when our future milling policy, must therefore realise the on pasture. full weight of his responsibility. On the one hand REFERENCES he must consider the health of the nation, which I Nature, 1933, 132, 64. according to expert opinion has been adversely 3 Bull. Agric. Exp. Station, Ohio, No. 58. affected ever since the invention of the roller mill 3 Milk and Nutrition, I, p. 45. led to the production of low extraction flour. He 4 ]. D. S ci., 1934. 17> 455- 5 Nutritional Properties of Milk in Relation to Pasteur­ must remember, however, that precipitate or ill- isation, Hannah Dairy Res. Inst. Bull, 5. judged action to raise the percentage extraction, * Milk and Nutrition, I, 49. based on mere prejudice against artificial “ enrich­ 7 Ibid ., p. 57. ment,” may have serious economic reactions. 8 /. D. Res. 1939, 10, 471; 1940, 11, 67. 9 J. D. Sci., 1939. 17, 489. While in the last resort no commercial interest can 10 J. D. Sci., 1939, 22, 271. be suffered to stand in the way of ensuring the full II Nature, 1933, 132, 64. health of the people, it is important that decisions ia Biochem. Z. 1932, 254, 187. 126 Food Manufacture Trade News

Aslib Microfilm Service Institute of Physics Quick Freeze Developments As members and subscribers to Mr. E. R. Davies, F.Inst.P., At a recent meeting at Norwich the services of the Aslib Micro­ Director of Research, Kodak, convened by Batchelors Peas, film Service are aware, the de­ Ltd., has beea appointed Hon. Ltd., Mr. L. Mason, one of the velopment of the unit was closely Treasurer of the Institute of directors, explained plans for connected with war-time demands. Physics to succeed the late Major quick freezing peas and beans at The end of the war has reduced C. E. S. Phillips. Yarmouth in 1946, and other the demand for the special func­ vegetables and soft fruits later. tions A.M.S. had been established A forty-five-minute film showing to fulfil, and consequently its Mr. D. W. Cooper the American process was ex­ plained by Mr. Dunsford, of maintenance became uneconomic. Mr. D. W. Cooper, who, in By arrangement with the Royal Birdseye Foods, Ltd., one of the February, 1942, was seconded associated companies which deals Society of Medicine, and with the from George Cohen Sons and Co., consent of the Rockefeller Founda­ with all kinds of fresh foods by Ltd., to take up the appointment this method. tion and the Royal Society, it has of Assistant Controller of Machine been agreed that the equipment Tools at the Machine Tool Con­ hitherto used by A.M.S. should trol, and has for the last year be transferred to the use of a been Director of Machine Tool Exchange of Council Members special medical Microfilm Service, Disposals, has joined the Board The Incorporated Association of and. as from January 1, 1946, the of the Selson Machine Tool Co., Purveyors of Light Refreshments Aslib Microfilm Service, with its Ltd. Selsons are, of course, one and the National Society of director and staff, has become the of the 600 groups and companies, Caterers to Industry have agreed Central Medical Library Bureau of which George Cohen Sons and to an exchange of Council Mem­ of the Royal Society of Medicine. Co., Ltd., are the parent concern, bers. All orders should now be ad­ and Mr. Cooper will not be sever­ The Councils of the two organ­ dressed to : Aslib, 52, Bloomsbury ing his connexion with them. isations have long felt that greater Street, London, W .C.l. unity in the catering industry can be achieved only by the sharing Change of Name of views and the integration of Aluminium Alloy Baking Tins counsel which such a step as this John Barker and Co., Ltd., makes possible. The Tube Investments Group familiar throughout Britain as The Society has appointed Mr. of engineering industries announce “ Barkers of Kensington,” is a Harold Gardner, its chairman, the development at their Rey­ household name. Barkers (Con­ and Mr. Leslie Slark, its Hon. nolds Tube works, Birmingham, tractors), Ltd., industrial caterers, Treasurer and Hon. Secretary of a new type of aluminium alloy known throughout industry as (both of John Gardner (London), baking tin and tray which does “ Barkers,” is a very familiar Ltd.) as representatives on the not warp and requires no greasing. name in factories. Association’s Council, and the It is understood that commer­ To avoid confusion it has been Association has appointed Mr. cial production will ultimately be decided, as an act of courtesy A. H. Willman (Aerated Bread undertaken by the established to Barkers of Kensington, to Co., Ltd.) and Mr. L. Griffiths manufacturers of bakers’ equip­ change the name of “ Barkers ” Harris, its secretary, to represent ment. to Peter Merchant, Ltd. it on the National Society’s Coun­ cil. “ Music While You Work” New Packaging Materials TERMINATION OF GOVERNMENT AGREEMENTS There is being marketed a full In May, 1943, the Government expired on February 24, 1946, and range of new packaging materials, entered into Agreements with the that firms and organisations pro­ including a wide variety of plas­ Performing Right Society, Ltd., posing, after that date, to use the tic caps to fit bottles and jars, and Phonographic Performance, facilities hitherto available under and, in addition, a range of slip- the Agreements, must make ap­ lid tins from 1 oz. to 8 oz. capa­ Ltd., by virtue of which the per­ propriate arrangements direct city, lever-lid tins in all sizes, by formance, whether by broadcast with the licensing organisations Rex Containers, Ltd., who are means or otherwise, of music and mentioned above. associated with the Container Re­ gramophone records could be The addresses of the two organ­ clamation Co., Ltd. given in a wide variety of indus­ isations are: The Performing The company has made arrange­ trial premises without payment of Right Society, Ltd., 33, Mar­ ments for the whole of their ex­ individual licence fees. garet Street, W.l, and Phono­ port business to be dealt with Attention is now drawn to the graphic Performance, Ltd., 144, through General Trade Clearings, fact that these two Agreements Wigmore Street, W .l. Ltd.

March, 1946 127 X-Ray Analysis Conference Booklets and Pamphlets The X-ray Analysis Group of OBITER DICTA Publication No. 136, issued by the Institute of Physics announces • Food is more important than G. and J. Weir, Ltd., describes that by the kind permission of the w h isky.— Dr. Edith Summer- the latest developments in the managers, its 1946 Conference will skill. Weir refrigerating machinery. take place at the Royal Institu­ Refrigerator condensing units can 9 • Whisky is a food within the tion, London, on July , 10, and definition of the Food and be supplied from 2 to 40 h.p. for 11 next, and is open to all with­ Drugs Act.— An Essex County use with Methyl Chloride or Freon out charge. It is hoped that Council Officer. F12 as the refrigerant, and from several distinguished foreign scien­ • The Lord Privy Seal is a 8 to 100 h.p. using CO,. tists will participate in the pro­ very good title, but I do not * ceedings. know what it means.— Mr. H . Standard Specifications for alu­ Further information will shortly Morrison. minium and alloys are contained be available from the Honorary • One way of stopping black in a well-produced book published Secretary, Mr. F. A. Bannister, marketeers is to " marry ” allo­ by the British Aluminium Co., F.Inst.P., Department of Miner­ cation to control.— A prominent Ltd. All current specifications alogy, British Museum (Natural Manchester fruit merchant. issued by the British Standards History), Cromwell Road, S.W.7 . • Compared with England this Institution and the various is a land of plenty of foodstuffs. — Dr. William Fearon, Profes­ Government Departments have Industrial Spectroscopic Group sor of Biochemistry at Dublin been assembled in this _ publica­ U niversity tion so as to afford a concise re­ At a meeting held in London on cord for the reference of alu­ • I think we may safely as­ January 23 an Industrial Spectro­ minium users. scopic Group was formed under sume that there is a good future ' * the auspices of the Institute of for commercial egg production. — Mr. K eith W ilson, at a m eet­ A National Scheme for the sal­ Physics. Mr. F. Twyman, ing of the Farmers’ Club. vage of sour milk has been pre­ F.Inst.P., F.R.S., of Adam Hil- • The darker loaf will act as pared and published by Milk Food ger, Ltd., was elected chairman Products, Ltd., for the benefit of of the Group, and Mr. E. H. S. a general nerve tonic and is exactly what we want to reduce farmers, dairies, and consumers. Van Someren of Murex Welding testiness, intolerance, and bad Briefly, the proposition consists Processes, Ltd., Honorary Secre­ manners. If ever we needed Bt of the utilisation of sour milk for tary. The following were elected it is now.— Lord Horder. soft cheese manufacture on a to serve as the first Committee : • You can hear hon. Members national basis within the frame­ Lt. Cmdr. J. Convey (Admiralty in the Lobbies asking each work of the general milk utilisa­ Laboratory, Sheffield). other, “ What is on tonight?” tion scheme of the Ministry of Mr. B. S. Cooper (Research And one says, " It is a Scottish Night,” so the other says, Food and Milk Marketing Board. Laboratory, General Electric * Co., Ltd.). “ Then I think I will go to a Prof. H. Dingle (Imperial College, sh ow .” — Mr. Gallacher, M.P. The following are three publica­ London). • What is feared is that in the tions issued by Griffin and Tat- Dr. A. G. Quarrell (British Non- name of political principle vast lock, Ltd.: Ferrous Metals Research Asso­ and capricious experiments will GT.1345. Describes a new appara­ ciation). be made in the economic sphere. tus for the rapid determination Mr. E. W. H. Selwyn (Research — Mr. William Mathieson, re­ by combustion in about four Department, Messrs. Kodak, tiring President of Leeds Cham­ minutes of sulphur in iron steel L td .). ber of Commerce. and ferrous and non-ferrous Mr. D. M. SmiJ:h (Messrs. Johnson alloys with potentiometric titra­ Matthey and Co., Ltd.). • Perhaps I flatter ice cream tion finish. Dr. S. D. Steele (Messrs. Babcock today in describing it as a food. GT.1346. Describes the microid and Wilcox, Ltd., Glasgow). In many cases it is little better organic stencil for use in draw­ Mr. A. Walsh (British Non-Fer­ than frozen water from a nutri­ tion point of view.— Dr. W. R . ing the structural formulae of rous Metals Research Associa­ organic compounds. tion) . Martine, Senior Assistant Medi­ cal Officer, Birmingham. GT.1351. Describes a new vari­ able - speed “ wrist - action " This is the fourth subject Group • I would say to the Right shaker, silent, portable, and to be formed by the Institute in Hon. Gentleman the Minister efficient. response to requests received from of Agriculture that it is no use industrial and Government scien­ singing “ The Yeomen of Eng­ tists. Their object is to provide land ' ’ to the wide open spaces Advisory Service regular opportunities for the inter­ when the only men there are For those food manufacturers either Germans or Italians.— change of knowledge and experi­ Major Legge-Bourke, M.P. who operate commercial motor ence between specialists. Member­ vehicles, the advisory service • There is nothing more annoy­ dealing with the different problems ship of this and other subject ing than to be served in a res­ Groups of the Institute is open to taurant with a cup of tea, the attached to them will be of interest. all interested, non-members of the cup bearing an elegant lipstick Such matters as calculating oper­ Institute of Physics paying a impression, evidently made by ating ccists, planning a delivery nominal fee. Further particulars a previous user.— Mr. W. B . service, hire maintenance con­ may be obtained from the Secre­ Calder, deputy Chief Sanitary tracts and their essential clauses, tary, Institute of Physics, 19, Inspector, Chester. etc., can be dealt with by Major Albemarle Street, W .l. E. H. B. Palmer, O.B.E. 128 Food Manufacture British Refrigeration Association The Council of the British Re­ frigeration Association have re­ ceived, with regret, the resigna­ tion of their secretary, Mr. Felix A. Rogers, and have appointed Mr. J. B. Blackwell, hitherto Passengers on long - distance troduced into the menus and assistant secretary, in his place. Empire flights will soon be able circulated among the depots. A to enjoy four-course meals served, passenger leaving England one 10,000 feet above the Mediter­ summer’s day may be offered a ranean or the Persian Gulf, as sweet embodying exotic tropical 1946 Motor Exhibition Postponed perfectly as in a West End res­ fruits. Flying over the scorched Having due regard to the im­ taurant. deserts of Arabia, or in the moist portance of the uninterrupted ex­ In a specially equipped kitchen heat of West Africa, he will delight port sales and shipments of motor in London, British Overseas Air­ in a succulent Surrey chicken vehicles, the Society of Motor ways’ catering experts are now with tender green peas which had Manufacturers and Traders, Ltd., completing final experiments with been cooked and frozen a few organisers of the Motor Exhibi­ novel “ deep-freezing ” methods minutes after being picked in an tion, have decided that the in­ which they have evolved for pre­ English garden. terests of the British motor in­ paring “ air menus.” They are dustry would be best served by aiming at perfection in pre-cook­ * Breakfast: Cereals, bacon, grilled the postponement of the Exhibi­ ing, packaging, and freezing at tomatoes, grilled sausages, exceptionally low temperatures. hot rolls, freshly made tea or tion that was to have been held coffee. in London in October of this year. On a recent “ test flight ” from the United Kingdom to Cairo, Lunch: Scotch broth, braised A review of the marketing posi­ lambs’ tongues, brussels tion reveals that there is no need three excellent meals* of pre­ sprouts, baked potatoes, for stimulation of the demand cooked food were served. stewed plums and cream. either at home or for export at The food was placed in the air­ D inner: Consommi en tasse, fried the present time. Indeed, some craft a few minutes before de­ whitebait with lemon, chicken embarrassment will inevitably be parture from England, having en casserole, pommes lyon- caused by the injection of any been cooked and frozen in naise, braised celery, stewed factor which encourages interrup­ B.O.A.C.’s experimental kitchen cherries and cream. tion of regular production flow. some days before No interference with the de­ and packed in speci­ velopment of new designs for ally insulated con­ introduction at the appropriate tainers. Thesteward time will be brought about by this removed each meal postponement. an hour before serving, placed it in a special heater, and served it piping Copper Development Association hot to passengers Concerning current develop­ and crew. ments in the electrical field, the The meals tasted annual report of the Copper De­ as though they had velopment Association states that been freshly cooked, , a number of sag and tension and there was no charts for overhead transmission loss of character, line conditions has been prepared flavour, or nutritive and issued. value. The report comments on the • Four additional great variety of engineering and main meals were industrial applications of copper carried in containers and copper alloys. “ It is enor­ for use between mously greater,” it states, “ than Cairo and Calcutta. could be envisaged as a result of The aircraft stayed individual experience.” in Cairo for twenty- The association’s work in this four ' hours, and a field is stated to comprise phases stop of several hours of metallurgical work, production, was made in the chemical and general engineering, Persian Gulf. De­ transportation, and industrial spite these stops the processes of all kinds. food remained as A detailed survey of agricul­ appetising as when tural and horticultural applica­ it left the kitchen in tions of copper salts is being made London. as a preliminary to the issue of All kinds of local publications on the subject. delicacies will be in­

March, 1946 Post-War Fishery Research the fishing industry, and especially of the Governors of the College, In 1919 the Development Com­ with the Herring Industrv Board, said that the country house atmo­ missioners appointed an Advisory of the results of many years of sphere would give young adminis­ Committee on Fishery Research fruitful work on the preservation trators who have plenty of prac­ to review the needs of fishery re­ and handling of fish, both on tical experience, an unexampled search after the last war. Under board ship and on shore. The opportunity of standing back the leadership of successive chair­ Committee on Post-War Fishery from their jobs for three months, men, the organisation for research Research have also made consider­ and of acquiring fresh experience, in this field was expanded and able progress in framing the out­ a wider outlook, and a grasp oi strengthened to an extent which line of a longer-term programme the basic principles of adminis­ has made possible a remarkable of research affecting the marine, tration and organisation. increase in knowledge of the fish­ freshwater, and shell fisheries. Research work will be under­ eries and of marine and fresh­ Full development must depend on taken at the College which, in water biology. At the request of the training of scientific staffs, time, it is hoped will become a the Ministers responsible for fish­ of which there is at present an research centre to which industry eries in Great Britain, the Com­ acute shortage, on the acquisition and the public services can refer missioners have appointed a Com­ of modern research vessels to re­ problems of administration and mittee on Post-War Fishery Re­ place those worn out by long ser­ organisation. search to enquire as to : (1) the vice in peace and during the war, An offer of £10,000 for the programme of fishery research and on necessary additions to award of scholarships has been that should be undertaken in rela­ buildings. Works at sea cannot made by the Nuffield Foundation. tion to post-war needs and the be resumed on any considerable personnel, equipment, and expen­ scale until mines and other ob­ structions have been removed. diture that would be involved; (2^ Food Wrappers the future of the International Council for the Exploration of the Vegetable parchment for food Sea; and to make recommenda­ wrappers is manufactured in The Administrative Staff College tions. The Committee have sought Britain at the British Vegetable and considered the views of all the The Court of Governors of the Parchment Mills, Northfleet, main organisations representative Administrative Staff College have Kent. The parchment is made of the fishing industry, and have accepted an offer by Lord Ham- from the purest of pulp, and the had the advantage of personal con­ bledon of the loan of “ Green- process renders the paper mois- sultation with representatives of lands,” his riverside home at ture-proof, grease-proof, and com­ the British Trawlers Federation. Henley-on-Thames, for use as a pletely sterile. Differing from the The Committee have now com­ College building. transparent wrappers, those made pleted reports on the post-war in­ Here young administrators from parchment are much more terim research programme on the nominated from among the most resistant to ultra-violet rays, and white fisheries, and on the organ­ promising of rising personnel in are more suitable for butter and isation of biological research on industry, the Civil Service, local fats generally. the herring fisheries. Meanwhile, government, and the Trades The special inks and printing the Department of Scientific and Unions will assemble for courses technique enable the parchment Industrial Research are giving each lasting three months. to carry the most beautiful and active attention to the testing on Lord Latham, Leader of the colourful designs, thus giving a works scale in collaboration with London County Council and one extra appeal. When united with aluminium foil, parchment gives the ideal wrapping material and is abso­ lutely impervious to light. Acton Industrial Exhibition

TO DEMONSTRATE VERSATILITY OF BRITISH INDUSTRY Specpure The booklet mentioned in the An exhibition to make known courtesy of different Government January issue of F o o d M a n u f a c ­ the war production efforts of local departments. Another point of t u r e describing the use of the sub­ industries and to promote their interest will be the indication it stances marketed by Adam Hil- change-over to peacetime manu­ will give of the variety of manu­ ger, Ltd., under the Trade Mark factures is being organised by the facturing activities carried on “ Specpure ” should have been Acton Chamber of Commerce, and at Acton, which claims to be the attributed to Johnson Matthey will take place at the Renault largest industrial area south of and Co., Ltd., this latter firm Works, Western Avenue, Acton, the Midlands. having, by agreement with Adam from March 4 to 9. The Rt. Hon. From ice cream and toys for Hilger, Ltd., undertaken the John Wilmot, M.P., Minister of children to organs for' churches, manufacture and purity control Supply, will open the proceed­ from scientific instruments to of these substances at their Wem­ ings. heavy machinery for engineers, bley Research Laboratories. All Public interest in the exhibition from food products for housewives future orders should, therefore, be will be stimulated by a large num­ to paper bags for shopkeepers— addressed to Johnson Matthey ber of exhibits provided by the Acton makes them all. and Co., Ltd.

130 Food Manufacture Sealing Tapes F.B.I. Conference Herts Pharmaceuticals, Ltd., Welwyn Garden City, are now able to supply industrial firms APPLICATION OF SC.ENCE BY INDUSTRY with their range of Lasso Sealing and Identification Tapes. These The Conference on Industry and The four sessions into which the tapes were extensively used Research convened by the Federa­ Conference will be divided are as during the war for sealing vital tion of British Industries, a pre­ follows : parts of planes and tanks against liminary notice of which was pub­ Session i. Science, Industry, and the permeation of water, oils, and lished in the September, 1945, the Community. solvents. issue of F o o d M a n u f a c t u r e , will Session 2. Scientific Research and Self-adhesive Lasso Tapes re­ be held at the Kingsway Hall, Production. quire only slight finger pressure London, on Wednesday and Session 3. Scientific Research and to make them adhere. Of the ten Thursday, March 27 and 28 next. Industrial Expan­ As its leading subject, the Con­ sion. or eleven varieties available, per­ Session 4. The Application of Re­ haps the most generally interest­ ference will take the application search in Industry. ing to food manufacturers is of science by industry and the Lassolastic. This tape gives a part that research is playing, and Parts of sessions 2, 3, and 4 will perfect occlusive seal against air, can play, in promoting industrial be open to discussion, and at the moisture, and acids, and is cap­ efficiency, exports, full employ­ end of the Conference Sir William able of moulding itself to all sur­ ment, and a higher standard of Larke, chairman of the F.B.I. face irregularities. Applied under living. Research Committee, will sum up. slight tension, it clings limpet-like to right-angled seams, beaded edges, and hinged lids. It is available in almost any colour, plain, or printed to suit individual Plant Installation Nominations for the positions of requirements. A recently formed organisation, President, Chairman, Vice-Chair­ A booklet, containing much use­ man, and General Treasurer, and ful information and advice about Burnett and Rolfe, brings together more than forty years’ experience the place of the 1947 Conference, sealing, is available free on appli­ can now be submitted. cation to the firm. in the design, lay-out, and in­ stallation of processing plants, The Annual Report and Ac­ and special equipment for food, counts for 1944-1945 has recently fruit juice, dairy, brewery, and been issued. chemical trades. Advice and co­ New Division to Serve Industry operation in designing plant is New M arkets in Eire Industrial Supplies Division is offered by this organisation. The Eire market presents easy - the title of a new organisation The concern’s activities include openings for the English exporter set up on January 1, 1946, by the fabrication of equipment on a or manufacturer, and many large Standard Telephones and Cables, large scale in stainless steel, mild Ltd., for the exploitation and dis­ steel, aluminium, copper, nickel, English concerns have taken full tribution of merchandise in the and monel, ranging from small advantage of the opportunities industrial field. It will handle trays to storage tanks of up to offered to have their products handled by Irish firms. the many products allied to or 3,000 gallons capacity, whether derived from the company’s work for pressure, non-pressure, or The Dorset Manufacturing Co. has an extensive factory and in telecommunications and, oper­ vacuum working conditions. Other ating as a self-contained unit, will items are vats for cream ripening, storage accommodation for the have the facilities necessary for tanks for fruit juice mixing and sale, manufacture, and handling the type of service involved. The balancing, and cheese vats. of all food or pharmaceutical Division absorbs Stanelco Pro­ Welding is carried out both lines in Dublin. Their own pro­ ducts, but the name “ Stanelco ” electrically and by blow-pipe, ducts in confectionery, sauces, will continue to be used for those and in addition profile cutting and table dainties are well known lines now so well known under and annealing are undertaken. to the trade and will carry their this trade mark. goodwill with any other products Of special value to clients will which the firm accepts, either to be the provision of provincial Legion Annual Conference manufacture under licence or as selling agents. depots. There are sales offices in This year’s annual conference London, Birmingham, Bristol, of the British Legion will be held Leeds, Manchester, and Glasgow, again in London on June 9, 10, and branch stores have heen and 11. Mr. David Fairclough opened in Bristol and Manchester. The first day’s session on Sun­ Mr. David Fairclough informs The various sales offices and day, June 9, will take place at those who are interested in grain stores depots, including the Lon­ the Dominion Theatre, Totten­ storage, processing and drying, don area, will be administered ham Court Road, W.l, and the green crop drying, etc., that he by Mr. L. G. Miller, known following two days’ sessions will is now at 147, Victoria Street, throughout the country for many be held in the Central Hall, Westminster, S.W.l. Telephone: years as Provincial Manager. Westminster. V ictoria 5614/5.

March, 1946 131 Overseas Items

Synthetic Vitamin A Fiji’s Coconut Oil Industry South African Fruit Biologically active synthetic Planned as a major industrial Mr. V. Van Der Willigen, vitamin A was secretly developed enterprise for Fiji, a large-scale general manager of the South in the U.S. during the war, ac­ coconut oil factory is nearly com­ African Deciduous Fruit Board, cording to Dr. N. A. Milas of the pleted at Walu Bay, Suva. states that Britain might consider Massachusetts Institute of Tech­ Although the factory will prob­ importing a- small quantity of nology. ably not be in full operation until South African pears this season, Of a variety of processes on the end of the year, enough of the if shipping space from Cape Town which experiments were carried machinery has been assembled to permitted, but it is unlikely that out, the most successful required give a good indication of the South African fruit would be ex­ a seven or eight stage procedure future scope of the enterprise. ported as freely as before the war and resulted in an over-all yield Its primary object is the pro­ for some seasons yet. of 10 to 15 per cent. duction of coconut oil in its purest Britain’s fruit imports are at At its present stage of develop­ form— a colourless, odourless vege­ present restricted to oranges, ment the synthetic product has table fat suitable for use as lard, apples, and bananas, in that order a potency of one-tenth to one- canned and ready for export. At of priority, deciduous fruits in thirtieth of the natural vitamin A, the same time copra by-products general being prohibited.— Reuter. though from fifty to one hundred will be produced, the most im­ times that of ordinary cod-liver portant of which is copra meal for oil.— Reuter’s Trade Service. stock and poultry. International Whaling News First reports received from the whaling expeditions now in the Antarctic—three of them British Sweden as an Importer’s Market and six Norwegian— as well as from the land station in Argen­ tina, speak of quite satisfactory PLANS TO EXTEND CONTACTS results. News from the Antarctic is being awaited with tension by For British exporters Sweden electrical materials, ferrous and international margarine and soap now offers an improved market, non-ferrous metals and manufac­ factories. and the importers there are most tures, minerals, heavy and fine Meanwhile efforts aiming at re­ anxious to resume and extend chemicals and drugs, paints, per­ striction of whale-catching opera­ their trade contacts with this fumery, oils and fats, explosives, tions are proceeding. Hand in country. To facilitate this the other Empire products such as hand with this go measures by Federation of Swedish Wholesale foodstuffs, fertilisers, beverages, Norway, the traditional whaling Merchants and Importers have and tobacco. country, designed to restore that issued a booklet “ Sweden as an The war has, of course, put a country’s weakened position in Importer’s Market,” containing severe strain on the national this field. Thus the Government information about the country’s finances. The national debt has is reported to have issued a pro­ import trade, trade policy, pur­ increased by about 400 per cent, visional decree forbidding Norwe­ chasing power, and financial posi­ up to the middle of 1945. The gian companies or individuals to tion. Statistical trades in the economic life of the country rests, participate in the whaling expedi­ booklet show that in 1938 imports however, on a very sound basis tions of other countries. Only the were divided as follows: from Ger­ derived from the substantial com­ British expeditions into the Ant­ many £29,330,000; from the U.K. mercial and industrial progress arctic for the 1945-1946 season £22,480,000; and from the U.S. of the five or six years preceding have been excepted from the £19,960,000. Swedish importers the outbreak of war. During ruling. The new measure is re­ fervently hope that British ex­ that time business undertakings garded as designed to prevent the ports will in future represent a of all kinds consolidated their finan­ development of foreign competi­ much greater proportion of cial position as far as possible tion as well as to support the Sweden’s total imports than was by laying up reserves—a policy efforts aiming at a curtailment of the case before the war. which has proved amplv justified. whaling operations. By reason of her varied and Finally, the booklet contains Holland has decided to partici­ highly developed industry and the information about the Federation pate in future in international substantial average purchasing of Swedish Wholesale Merchants whaling operations. A new whale- power of her people Sweden offers and Importers, and the forty-six fishing company was created in a large market for both raw affiliated trade organisations. Amsterdam in the middle of materials and manufactured goods. It is the Federation’s hope that December and is expected to be The volume and distribution of the pamphlet will stimulate granted a credit of £1,000,000 the imports are shown in a num­ foreign exporters to take a keener from the Dutch Government. ber of tables indicating that the interest in business with Sweden, The company, which intends to country offers a not inconsiderable and that it will be of help to them start work in the next season, in­ market for textile raw materials in organising their marketing tends to equip three to four ex­ and finished products, machinery, arrangements in Sweden. peditions eventually.— Reuter.

132 Food Manufacture Argentine Gift New Tinned Meat Factory German Sugar Beet Industry The Argentine Government has A factory for the production of Strenuous efforts by Military authorised the National Meat tinned meat products is to be Government to put the sugar beet Board to contribute 50,000 pesos built at Bloemfontein— the first of industry of Germany on its feet towards the reconstruction of the its kind. It is expected that the have resulted in fifty-seven of the Butcher Company’s Hall in Lon­ plant will be in full production sixty-three factories in the British don in compliance with the re­ by May of this year. zone being in operation, and there quest of Senor Miguel Carcano, The factory will have refrigera­ is every hope that the existing Argentine Ambassador to London. tion facilities for 400 to 500 sugar ration can be maintained.— —Reuter. slaughtered oxen. Other depart­ Reuter. ments are designed for the manu­ Food Gifts not Causing Shortage facture of fat for cooking pur­ poses and for soap production.— Dutch Agricultural Programme In connexion with his announce­ Reuter’s Trade Service. ment of an offer of a gift of 500 It is hoped that Dutch agricul­ tons of dehydrated vegetables, in­ ture will be practically free of re­ cluding carrots, green beans, cab­ New Caffeine Extraction Process strictions in six months, it was bages, turnips, beetroot, onions, stated by the Dutch Minister of and cauliflower to the people of W hat is claimed to be a more Agriculture. Britain, the South African Minis­ economical way of reclaiming the Grain will soon be freed for ter of Agriculture, Mr. J. G. N. caffeine extracted from decaffein­ fodder, and restrictions on pig Strauss, has stated that the dehy­ ated coffee is listed in the latest breeding are to be abolished. dration of vegetables was not issue of new U.S. patents. In­ Announcing a similar easing of affecting the shortage of supplies stead of boiling all the water or restrictions with regard to cattle in the Union, as most of the de­ other solvents off, the new method and horses, he said that in the hydrated products were grown extracts the caffeine by shaking near future various products specially, in addition to normal the caffeine solution with fine clay, would come off the ration. production for the local market. which absorbs the drug. It is As to milk production, the One thousand tons of soup mix­ then re-dissolved in another sol­ Minister stated that from the ture were offered in response to vent, such as methanol, which re­ period October 20, 1945, to March an enquiry from the British Minis­ quires smaller volume and hence 16, 1946, about 742,000 tons of try of Food, as well as small can be distilled off more cheaply. milk could be produced, which amounts of other products re­ The patent has been assigned to is considerably short of require­ quired for urgent relief purposes the General Foods Corporation.— ments. Next year, however, there in the Far East. Reuter’s Trade Service. would be a surplus which would either have to be exported or con­ served. A system of conservation Milk Sterilisation in Italy Frozen Milk in Paper Containers was at present considered by the Electrochemically produced, According to reports from the Government and would need the very pure hydrogen peroxide is U.S. War Department to the Re­ installation of a large number of used in Italy for the sterilisation frigeration Equipment Manufac­ refrigeration centres. of milk. All milk in the Milan turers’ Association, paper con­ Meanwhile the Minister foresees area is sterilised by this method, tainers are being used for the about 35,000 tons of cheese ex­ and when production facilities can handling of frozen whole milk. ports next year, but as to egg ex­ be extended other areas will By utilising the “ quick-freezing” ports no figures could be made adopt the method, states Reuter’s technique, it has become possible available.— Reuter’s Trade Ser­ Trade Service. One plant hopes to ship whole milk to hospital vice. to produce the chemical in tablet ships and overseas hospitals, be­ form and has also experimented sides shipping 400,000 pints a with a solid product of hydrogen month to Alaska. Private Cocoa Trading peroxide in urea for this purpose. Wax paper containers are used. The instability and presence of Twelve such containers are placed With reference to the paragraph heavy metals in commercial hy­ in a fibre carton and filled to a on Private Cocoa Trading on page drogen peroxide has previously certain level before being sub­ 40 of the January issue of F o o d prevented the use of the chemical jected to the “quick-freezing ” M anufacture, the Ministry of for sterilisation purposes. process. Small containers are Food has called our attention to used because of the danger of con­ the fact that cocoa is at present tamination from bulk containers. allocated by the Combined Food Bread from Acorns It is stated that with the Board, and as long as this alloca­ Supervised by representatives “ quick-freezing ” process it is tion is continued the method of of the Allies, Japanese nutrition necessary to thaw the milk slowly. purchase has no effect on the total experts have developed the pro­ Twenty-four hours before being quantity received by a country. duction of flour from acorns. used the milk is placed in ordi­ Therefore, although the return of Bread, made from a mixture of nary refrigerators (36° to 40° F. business to the private trade may acorn substitute and wheat flour, temperature), where it thaws result in importers submitting has been found satisfactory for slowly. During the freezing it is many more bids to the Control taste, vitamin content, and calori­ subjected to a temperature of Board, the country will not re­ fic value. 20° F. below zero. ceive more than its fair allocation.

March, 1946 133 News from the Ministries

Wheat and Rice Resignation Sugar Allocation Sir Ben Smith agreed at the The Minister of Food has From March 3, 1946, the rate recent world food talks in Wash­ accepted with regret the resigna­ of allocation of sugar to manu­ ington to reduce United Kingdom tion of Mr. N. B. Ashworth, facturers of bakers’ prepared wheat imports during the coming Deputy Director of the Milk Divi­ materials will be increased from months, and to continue the sion, and has expressed his appre­ 25 per cent, of datum usage to policy of issuing no rice for ciation of the valuable services 40 per cent, of datum usage. British civilian consumption.— rendered to the Ministry in con­ Reuter. nexion with the administration of war-time controls of milk supplies. No More Soya in Beef Sausage Use of Imported Flour in It should be noted that the date National Bread Appointments after which soya products may not be used in the manufacture In September it became neces­ The Minister of Agriculture and of beef sausages, beef slicing sary in order to keep bakers in Fisheries appointed Mr. A. C. sausage, or beef sausage meat was Scotland adequately supplied with Sparks to be his Private Secre­ February 3, 1946. (The use of flour to increase the distribution tary as from January 1 , 1946. soya in the manufacture of pork of imported flour to 25 per cent., * sausage meat is already pro­ and the Bread and Flour Orders Mr. W. Donaldson, lately Divi­ hibited.) were amended to authorise the sional Food Officer for the North- Members of Retail Buying Com­ use of that proportion for bread East of Scotland Division, has mittees will note that the existing making. The supply of home- been transferred to Headquarters authorisations to purchase soya milled flour has now improved as head of the Welfare Foods are revoked. and the Minister of Food has Division at Colwyn Bay. made an Order reintroducing 12j Mr. C. G. Stewart, O.B.E., Sugar for Bees per cent, as the maximum pro­ M .A., is now the Divisional Food portion of imported flour which Officer, North-East Scotland. In September last the Minister may be used in the production of of Food announced that an allow­ National bread. ance of sugar not exceeding 5 lb. The Order also deletes the Cereals Group. Change of per colony might be made avail­ Schedule of depopulated areas in Address able to bee-keepers for spring the Bread Order. This Schedule feeding. Food Executive Officers authorised an additional charge The staff of the Colwyn Bay have been authorised to accept of 4d. per quartern for bread and Divisions of the Cereals Group applications from bee-keepers was introduced on account of (Alcohol and Yeast, Animal Feed­ during the period January 15 to difficulties arising through evacua­ ing Stuffs, Bakery, part of Cen­ May 31, 1946. Applications for tion. tral Division, Cereals Products, permits must be made on the The Order came into operation Home-Grown Cereals), together official application form, which on February 3, 1946. with the staff of the associated may be obtained from Local Food Finance Divisions and Statistical Offices. Branch, have, except in the case of certain Senior Officers, who are Whaling Pest Control located at 38-40, Portman Square, London, W .l, moved to the Minis­ As a result of the International The Raw Materials Department try ’s offices at London Road, Whaling Conference held in Lon­ is not now importing Red Squill Stanmore, Middlesex, telephone don from November 20 to 26 a on public account and this com­ number Edgware 2345. The fol­ further Protocol to the Interna­ modity may be imported on pri­ lowing telegraphic addresses are tional Agreement for the Regula­ vate account. Applications for now operative : tion of Whaling, as amended by Import Licences should be made the Protocol of 1938, was signed to the Import Licensing Depart­ Animal Feeding Stuffs Division, by the accredited representatives ment, Board of Trade, 189, ANILFOODS, Wire London. of the Union of South Africa, Regent Street, London, W.l, in Animal Feeding Stuffs (Finance) the Commonwealth of Australia, the usual way. Division, ANILFIN, Wire Canada, Denmark, France. Mexico, Importers are reminded that London. the Netherlands, New Zealand, Red Squill as a rat poison is sub­ Cereal Products Division, Norway, the United States of ject to the provisions of the Minis­ FLOURKEEPA, Wire Lon­ America, and the United King­ try of Food Infestation Order, don. dom of Great Britain and North­ 1943 (S.R. & O. 1943 No. 680), as Cereals (Finance) Division, ern Ireland. This document, to­ amended by S.R. & O. 1945 No. CEREALFIN, Wire London. gether with the Final Act of the 847, which, inter alia, prohibits Home-Grown Cereals Division, Conference, has been issued as a persons from engaging in the HOMGRAN, Wire London. White Paper (Cmd. 6725), copies manufacture of pest control Other Divisions, MOFSTAN, of which may be obtained from articles except under licence. Wire London. His M ajesty’s Stationery Office.

134 Food Manufacture Information and Advice

Tomato Soup If it is necessary to obtain more precise information about the granularity of biscuit flours, that is to say, B .515. Required a recipe for tomato soup. (Aus­ ascertain something about the distribution of particle tralia.) size, the sedimentation method described by Kent- The following is a typical recipe : Jones, Richardson and Spalding on page 261 of Vol. 58 o f the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry T o m a to puree 18 gal. might be employed. This method reveals the relative Onions, peeled and chopped fine 18 lb. masses of the particles which fall within arbitrarily Garlic, peeled and chopped fine 18 oz. chosen ranges of particle diameter. Beef dripping 9 lb. There are two points which should be noted. Firstly, Beef extract 7* lb. if a sieving technique is employed, it is imperative Beef stock 7i lb - that it be completely standardised and rigorously con­ Cornflour ... 13 lb. trolled. The conditions of the test may be empirical W ate r 22 gal. but arrangements must be made that the conditions S alt lb- 3 are identical for each test. Thus, the size of the S u g a r i lb. sieves, the amplitude of their throw, the speed of White pepper 2 oz. motion, etc., must be standardised. Ground ginger ...... 1 oz. Secondly, it has been found that the variation in Red colouring matter granularity normally found between different biscuit The onions, garlic, dripping, and water are sim­ flours is not sufficiently great to have a really signifi­ mered in a pan for an hour, adding boiling water to cant effect upon the biscuit-making qualities of those maintain the original volume. Add the beef extract flours. It is not suggested that granularity is of no and stock, boil, and then pass through a pulping importance in biscuit work, but, usually, the varia­ machine and return to the pan. The puree, g in ger, tions between different flours in protein content and salt, sugar, and pepper should then be added and the protein characteristics far outweigh any differences in whole simmered for five minutes. granularity. The cornflour is made into a paste with 5 gal. cold water and stirred well into the soup. The soup is made up to a total volume of 39 gal. with boiling water. It should then be filled hot into cans and Information Supplied sterilised at 245° F. for 30 minutes for 2-lb. cans. B .578. Manufacturers of orange slicing machines for marmalade making. (N orw ay.) Sieving Test B .579. Suggestions for suitable selling agents for B .754. Information required as to the mesh of the C ellu g el. (Northants.) sieves used in the analytical sieving test of flours, with B.580. Suppliers of corrugated flbreboard cases up particular reference to biscuit flours. (Scotland.) to 36 lb. in weight. (L an cs.) A sieving test was never a routine operation in the B.582. Information regarding the development and flour laboratory before the war but was instituted possibilities of quick freezing and its application to when the extraction was raised to 85 per cent, in view food . (L an cs.) of the wide range of granularity which such flours B.583. Names and addresses of firms manufacturing exhibited. These flours were, of course, distinctly pure non-poisonous anilin colours. (Sw eden.) coarser than white flours and the usual way seems to B.584. Details of manufacturers of machinery for have been to employ a 32-G.G. sieve and a No. 8-silk; peeling roots, such as onions or beetroots. (Y o rk s.) the proportion of the flour which failed to pass through the 32-G.G. was determined and also the pro­ B .585. Names and addresses of manufacturers of portion which, having passed through the 32-G.G., plant providing for the automatic packing of self-rais­ failed to pass the 8-silk. When the extraction was ing flour into cardboard cartons. (Australia.) reduced to 80 per cent, there was still some variation B.g86. Information regarding manufacturers of in granularity between different flours and, therefore, stainless steel cabinets fitted with glass shelves and the sieving test was retained but, in view of the finer doors. (G los.) nature of these flours, the 32-G.G. was omitted and B .587. Makers of plant suitable for (a) m alt beer the 8-silk replaced by a 10-silk. All that the present brewing and molasses rum manufacture, and (b) m ilk test does, therefore, is to reveal the proportion of a condensing. (India.) flour which fails to pass a 10-silk under standardised B.588. Suppliers of cardboard or metal covers for sieving conditions. No modification is made to this 1 and 2 lb. jam jars. (E ire.) test when biscuit flours are being examined, since B .597. Formula for a gum of suitable consistency these do not differ very pronouncedly in granularity for use in automatic labelling machines. (E ire.) from baking flours. If, however, a more detailed examination of granularity were required, extra sieves B.598. Recipes for the manufacture of baking pow­ could be included in the test. For example, one could der, custard powder, and self-raising flour. (London.) employ a 10-, 11- and 12-silk one above the other, B.600. Manufacturers of weighing and packing and the amount of flour remaining on each could be machinery for small quantities, such as J lb., 1 lb., determined. and 2 lb. (Suffolk.)

March, 1946 135 Recent Patents New Companies H. W. Nicholson (Relrigeration), Limited. (399871.) 1, Hartington These particulars of new patents of interest to readers have been selected Street, Moss Side, Manchester, r4. To from the “ Official Journal of Patents,” and are published by permission of carry on bus. of manufacturers of and the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office. The journal can be obtained from dealers'"th and contractors for instal­ lation of refrigerators and plant and the Patent Office, 25, Southampton Buildings, London, W.C. 2, price 1.?. equipm ent, etc. Nom . C a p .: £1,000 weekly (annual subscription £2 icw.). in £1 shares. Dirs. : H. W. Nichol­ son, 54, Springfield Road, Sale, Ches.; H . Redm ond, 268, B arton Road, Stretford, Lancs. Abstracts of Recent Specifications 573>32°- B u t l e r , L t d ., H ., and Drimilk, Limited. (399981.) 27, B u t l e r , H. : Electrical and other Chancery Lane, W.C. To carry on measuring instruments. Improvements Relating to Can bus. of producers of and dealers in 573,341. C u r l e , E. : Liquid storage Openers milk, dairy farm and agricultural pro­ tanks. ducts, and all kinds of milk powders, This invention relates to can openers 5 7 3 > 3 6 7 . C o l t m a n , J . L . , B r o o k s h a w , etc. Nom. cap.: £100 in £1 shares. of the pliers type. These openers J . G ., and I m p e r i a l C h e m i c a l I n d u s ­ Dirs. : T. V. Mercer, Pondtail Farm, have a slotted lower jaw extending t r i e s , L t d . : Heat exchange devices. Holbrook, Horsham, Sussex; May L. from an upper handle and adapted to 573,381. F o u n d r y E q u i p m e n t , L t d ., Harbold, 40, Belsize Park Gardens, embrace the seam or roll of the can, and B e e c h , A. S. : Apparatus for fill­ Hampstead, N.W.3 (elk.), and a knife-edged upper jaw extend­ ing containers, such as hoppers, with Nairobi Coffee and Tea Company, ing from a lower handle, and adapted loose material. Limited. (399990.) 31, Dover Street, to be passed through the end wall of 573,386. G e n t i l , H. L. : Process and W.x. To acquire the bus. of coffee, the can as the handles are drawn or apparatus for the treatment of con­ tea, cocoa, and confectionery mer­ pressed together. The two handles taminated oils. chants now carried on at 31, Dover are pivoted together near the jaws. 573,460. T o d , D. V .: Hot water and Street, W .l as “ The Nairobi Coffee The object of this invention is to other liquid storage tanks. and Tea Co.” Nom. cap.: £15,000 provide improved constructional forms in £1 shares (14,998 ord. and 2 fndrs). of this kind of can opener, which will Permt. Dirs. : R. P. Collings-Wells, give a cleaner cut, without jagged Green Fields, Gorse Hill Road, Vir­ edges, and also to combine with the ginia Water, Surrey; J. M. Coote, 51, opener a crown cork remover. Trade Marks Sloane Gardens, S.W .i. The two parts of the can opener are The list of trade marks of interest pressed out of sheet metal, the handles Crumpets (London), Limited. to readers has been selected from the (400032.) i d , Avonley Road, New being shaped to channel section and “ Official Trade Marks Journal " and Cross, S.E.14. To carry on bus. of the channel of one being cut to form is published by permission of the Con­ crumpet bakers, etc. Nom. cap. : a bifurcated jaw, slotted at the ends troller of H.M. Stationery Office. The £3,000 in £1 shares. Dir. : S. T. to engage the rim of a can, whilst the journal can be obtained from the Cooper, 9, Edric Road, New Cross, channel of the other has the extremi­ Patent Office, 25, Southampton Build­ S .E .14 . ties of its side walls cut away, and the ings, London, W.C. 2, price is. weekly Barry Food Products, Limited. remaining tongue curled back to form (1annual subscription £2 10s.). a knife, the side walls of the channel (399755-) 49, Bedford Row, W .C.i. also being extended outwardly and Nom. cap. : £1,000 in £1 shares. PEX.— 635,871. Nuts and ground nuts Dir. : C. H. Warbey, 45, St. George’s shaped to provide hook formations for all for food. Rowntree and Co., Ltd., removing crown stoppers, the forward Road, Palmer’s Green, N.13. The Cocoa Works, Wigginton Road, Torbay Meat Products, Limited. ends of the bifurcated part being York; Manufacturers and Merchants. flanged outwardly at the mouth of the (399853-) 10, Union Street, Torquay. BAROLA.— 636,028. Barley prepara­ Nom. cap.: £500 in £1 shares. Permt. slots to maintain the opener radial to tions for food for human use. The the can, and the limbs of the bifurca­ Dirs.: Willie F. Allanson (gov. dir.), Caledonian Milling Co. (Aberdeen), and Mrs. F. G. Allanson, both of tion being connected together behind Ltd., Caledonian Mills, Palmerston the slots to prevent spreading. Broadlands, Bronshill Road, Torquay. Road, Aberdeen; Millers and Grain Alvita, Limited. (400T71.) 65, and Produce Merchants. 571,757. Thos. M. Nutbrown, Ltd., London Wall, E.C. 2. To carry on — 633,812. Custard pow­ and Thomas Manby Nutbrown. HORIZON. bus. of manufacturers of and dealers der, preparations for making blanc­ in foodstuffs, refreshments, etc. Nom. mange and the like confections, sponge cap.: £10,000 in is. shares. Dirs.: cake mixture, pudding mixtures, frit­ Specifications Published J. Moldowsky, 15, Hocroft Avenue, ter mixture, scone and cake mixture. N.W. 2; Col. N. , Lloyd, C.M.G., The Horizon Products, Ltd., G raham Printed copies of the full Published D.S.O., 16, Balliol House, Manor Street, Leicester; Manufacturers. Specifications may be obtained from Fields, Putney Hill, S.W. 15. the Patent Office, 25, Southampton HONEYMELS.— 634,823. Honey con­ Allneeds, Limited. (400434.) Ling Buildings, London, W.C. 2, at the fectionery. Ernest Marshall, trading House, Dominion Street, E.C. 2. To nnijorm price of is. each. as Copper Kettle Preserves, Chester Walk, Cheltenham Spa, Gloucester­ carry on business of manufacturers of and dealers in all manufactured or pre­ 573,264. W i l l i a m s , J. H., and Im­ shire; Manufacturer. pared foods, provisions, produce, etc. p e r i a l C h e m i c a l I n d u s t r i e s , L t d . : PEX.— 635,870. Chocolate and con­ Applying protective coatings to sur­ fectionery (not medicated). Rowntree Nom . cap. : £500 in £1 shares. Dirs. : G. Grossman and H. E. Grossman, faces. and Co., Ltd., The Cocoa Works, Wig­ both of 1, Spencer Court, Spencer 573,268. M oiseiw itsch , W . : E lec­ ginton Road, York; Manufacturers trical tea or coffee brewing appliances. and Merchants. Road, Raynes Park, S.W. 20. 573,289. C o s s o r , L t d ., A . C ., and DOUBLE EVENT.— 636,785. Choco­ M i t c h e l l , A. G.: Deposition of late and confectionery (not medi­ Taken from the Daily Register, com­ materials by settling. cated). A. S. Wilkin, Ltd., Cremona piled by Jordan and Sons, Limited, 573,296. C o o p e r , C . J.: Grinding Park, Benton Road, Newcastle-on- Company Registration Agents, 116, m ills. Tyne; Manufacturers. Chancery Lane, London, W.C. 2. 136 Food Manufacture