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Godslastering, Discriminerende Uitingen Wegens Godsdienst En Haatuitingen

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Godslastering, Discriminerende Uitingen Wegens Godsdienst En Haatuitingen Godslastering, discriminerende uitingen wegens godsdienst en haatuitingen WWODC_248_12.inddODC_248_12.indd 1 222-3-20072-3-2007 111:32:541:32:54 WWODC_248_12.inddODC_248_12.indd 2 222-3-20072-3-2007 111:33:171:33:17 248 Onderzoek en beleid Godslastering, discriminerende uitingen wegens godsdienst en haatuitingen Een inventariserende studie B.A.M. van Stokkom H.J.B. Sackers J.-P. Wils Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek- en Documentatiecentrum WWODC_248_12.inddODC_248_12.indd SSec1:3ec1:3 222-3-20072-3-2007 111:33:171:33:17 Onderzoek en beleid De reeks Onderzoek en beleid omvat de rapporten van onderzoek dat door en in opdracht van het WODC is verricht. Opname in de reeks betekent niet dat de inhoud van de rapporten het standpunt van de Minister van Justitie weergeeft. Exemplaren van dit rapport kunnen worden besteld bij het distributiecentrum van Boom Juridische uitgevers: Boom distributiecentrum te Meppel Tel. 0522-23 75 55 Fax 0522-25 38 64 E-mail [email protected] Voor ambtenaren van het Ministerie van Justitie is een beperkt aantal gratis exemplaren beschikbaar. Deze kunnen worden besteld bij: Bibliotheek WODC, kamer KO 14 Postbus 20301, 2500 EH Den Haag Deze gratis levering geldt echter slechts zolang de voorraad strekt. De integrale tekst van de WODC-rapporten is gratis te downloaden van www.wodc.nl. Op www.wodc.nl is ook nadere informatie te vinden over andere WODC-publicaties. © 2007 WODC Behoudens de in of krachtens de Auteurswet van 1912 gestelde uitzonderingen mag niets uit deze uitgave worden verveelvoudigd, opgeslagen in een geautomatiseerd gegevensbestand, of openbaar gemaakt, in enige vorm of op enige wijze, hetzij elektronisch, mechanisch, door fotokopieën, opnamen of enige andere manier, zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestem- ming van de uitgever. Voorzover het maken van reprografische verveelvoudigingen uit deze uitgave is toegestaan op grond van artikel 16h Auteurswet 1912 dient men de daarvoor wettelijk verschuldigde vergoedingen te voldoen aan de Stichting Reprorecht (Postbus 3060, 2130 KB Hoofddorp, www.reprorecht.nl). Voor het overnemen van (een) gedeelte(n) uit deze uitgave in bloem- lezingen, readers en andere compilatiewerken (art. 16 Auteurswet 1912) kan men zich wenden tot de Stichting PRO (Stichting Publicatie- en Reproductierechten Organisatie, Postbus 3060, 2130 KB Hoofddorp, www.cedar.nl/pro). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm or any other means without written permission from the publisher. ISBN 978 90 5454 805 8 NUR 820 WWODC_248_12.inddODC_248_12.indd SSec1:4ec1:4 222-3-20072-3-2007 111:33:171:33:17 Voorwoord De verhouding tussen religie en het publieke domein is van tijd tot tijd (opnieuw) voorwerp van debat en studie.1 Dat kan moeilijk verwondering wekken, het gaat immers om een ingewikkelde verhouding. Dit geldt a fortiori voor de relatie tussen religie, in het bijzonder religieuze uitingen en het recht. Naast het recht op vrijheid van meningsuiting hebben burgers recht op bescherming van godsdienstige gevoelens door de overheid. Maar waar ligt de grens tussen vrijheid enerzijds en bescherming die de beperking van een andere of andermans vrijheid meebrengt anderzijds? Wordt de vrijheid van meningsuiting begrensd in samenlevingen, hoe gebeurt dat en met welke mogelijke (onvoorziene) gevolgen? En ook: onder welke omstandigheden kan bescherming daadwerkelijk vorm krijgen? De studie van de Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen die voor u ligt, is het resultaat van een inventarisatie van wat er uit recente binnen- en buitenlandse literatuur, jurisprudentie en uit enkele cijfermatige bronnen bekend is over godslastering, discriminerende uitingen wegens godsdienst en (religieuze) haatuitingen. Met deze studie wordt invulling gegeven aan een toezegging die de voormalige Minister van Justitie Donner aan de Tweede Kamer heeft gedaan in het debat naar aanleiding van de moord op Theo van Gogh op 2 november 2004. In het debat werd de vraag opgeworpen wat de mogelijkheden zouden kunnen zijn van een (verdere) strafbaarstelling van godslastering. Inzicht in achtergronden en toepassing van deze aanpak waren voor de beantwoording van die vraag nodig. Deze studie laat in de eerste plaats zien op welke overwegingen de strafbaarstelling van godslastering en discriminatie wegens godsdienst in Nederland en daarbuiten is gebaseerd. Verder is nagegaan hoe strafbaarstelling, onder meer blijkens de jurisprudentie, in de praktijk wordt toegepast. Bijzondere aandacht is besteed aan de hate crime- wetgeving in de Verenigde Staten. Daarnaast is nagegaan welke gegevens over de ontwikkelingen van (het aantal) haatuitingen, onder andere via internet, voorhanden zijn. Ten slotte is aandacht besteed aan alternatieven voor of in aanvulling op het strafrecht, die een bijdrage kunnen leveren aan het stimuleren van het vreedzaam samenleven van bevolkingsgroepen met zeer verschillende religieuze overtuigingen. Prof. dr. Frans L. Leeuw Directeur WODC 1 Zie bijvoorbeeld: Religie en grondrechten, Justitiële verkenningen, nr. 1, 2007. WWODC_248_12.inddODC_248_12.indd SSec2:5ec2:5 222-3-20072-3-2007 111:33:171:33:17 WWODC_248_12.inddODC_248_12.indd SSec2:6ec2:6 222-3-20072-3-2007 111:33:171:33:17 Inhoud Samenvatting 11 1 Probleemverkenning 17 1.1 Inleiding 17 1.2 De terugkeer van godslastering 19 1.3 Inperking van vrijheid van meningsuiting? 22 1.4 Haatuitingen: een lastig en gecompliceerd vraagstuk 25 1.5 Vraagstelling en opzet 27 1.6 Probleemstelling 28 Deel 1 Normatieve perspectieven 33 2 Godslastering en kwetsing van overtuigingen: een historische blik 35 2.1 Inleiding 35 2.2 Godslastering – een pan-Europese praxis 36 2.2.1 De scholastiek 38 2.2.2 De reformatie 39 2.3 Excursus over eer en waardigheid 41 2.4 De verlichting 42 2.5 Gereformeerde theorieën in Nederland 44 2.6 Conclusie 46 3 Vrijheid van meningsuiting: rechtvaardiging en redenen voor inperking 49 3.1 Inleiding 49 3.2 Democratisch pluralisme en de waarde van vrije meningsuiting 50 3.3 Redenen voor inperking: een raamwerk 54 3.3.1 Moralisme 54 3.3.2 Aanstoot 55 3.3.3 Schade 56 3.3.4 Enkele kanttekeningen 61 3.4 Godslastering en inperking van de vrijheid van meningsuiting 63 3.4.1 Kwetsing van religieuze gevoelens 63 3.4.2 Rechtsgelijkheid 65 3.4.3 Discriminatie op grond van godsdienst 66 3.5 Conclusie 69 Deel 2 Religiegerelateerde uitingsdelicten in het Nederlands strafrecht 71 4 Godslastering 73 4.1 Inleiding 73 4.2 Recht en religie 74 WWODC_248_12.inddODC_248_12.indd SSec3:7ec3:7 222-3-20072-3-2007 111:33:171:33:17 8 Godslastering, discriminerende uitingen wegens godsdienst en haatuitingen 4.2.1 De religiedelicten 75 4.2.2 Strafrecht en religie 76 4.2.3 Strafuitsluitingsgronden 76 4.2.4 Gewetensbezwaren 80 4.2.5 De eedsformule 80 4.2.6 Verschoningsrecht voor geestelijke 81 4.2.7 Zondagswet en klokgelui 81 4.3 Rechtsgeschiedenis delict godslastering 82 4.3.1 Mozaïsch en Romeins recht 83 4.3.2 Canoniek recht, hervorming en verlichting 85 4.3.3 De negentiende eeuw 87 4.3.4 De Lex Donner 90 4.4 De ratio van het delict godslastering 92 4.5 De bestanddelen van artikel 147 Sr 94 4.5.1 Een uitlating 94 4.5.2 In het openbaar 95 4.5.3 Op voor de godsdienstige gevoelens krenkende wijze 95 4.5.4 Smalen 97 4.6 De rechtspraak 98 4.6.1 De rechtspraak vóór 1968 98 4.6.2 Het Ezel-arrest 103 4.6.3 De rechtspraak na 1968 106 4.7 Conclusie 109 5 Discriminerende uitingen wegens godsdienst 111 5.1 Inleiding 111 5.2 Artikel 137c Sr 111 5.3 De ratio van artikel 137c Sr 113 5.4 De bestanddelen van artikel 137c Sr 114 5.4.1 In het openbaar 114 5.4.2 Beledigend uitlaten 117 5.4.3 Over een groep mensen 118 5.4.4 Godsdienst of levensovertuiging 119 5.5 De andere delicten 120 5.6 Rechtspraak godsdienstdiscriminatie 121 5.7 Andere rechtspraak 128 5.8 Straatsburgse rechtspraak 132 5.9 Conclusie 136 Deel 3 Rechtsvergelijkende excursies 139 6 Godslastering in enkele buitenlandse rechtsstelsels 141 6.1 Inleiding 141 6.2 Actuele kwesties 142 WWODC_248_12.inddODC_248_12.indd SSec3:8ec3:8 222-3-20072-3-2007 111:33:171:33:17 Inhoud 9 6.2.1 Hoofddoekjes en dergelijke 143 6.2.2 Blasfemie in Engeland en België 145 6.3 Buitenlandse rechtsstelsels 146 6.3.1 Duitsland 146 6.3.2 Zwitserland 149 6.3.3 België 151 6.3.4 Verenigd Koninkrijk 153 6.4 Conclusie 157 7 Strafbaarstelling ‘religieuze haat’ in Engeland en de Verenigde Staten 159 7.1 Inleiding 159 7.2 De aanpak van uitingsdelicten in Engeland en de Verenigde Staten 160 7.3 Ontwikkelingen in Engeland 165 7.3.1 Afschaffen godslastering? 165 7.3.2 Wetsvoorstellen voor strafbaarstelling van religious hatred 168 7.3.3 Recente wetgeving rondom hate crimes 169 7.4 Ontwikkelingen in de Verenigde Staten 171 7.4.1 De relatieve ‘afwezigheid’ van godslastering 171 7.4.2 Hate speech in de jurisprudentie 172 7.4.3 Internetjurisprudentie 176 7.4.4 Hate crime-wetgeving 177 7.4.5 Het aanhoudende debat rondom‘haat’ 179 7.5 Conclusie 180 Deel 4 De problematiek van haat zaaien: inzicht en uitzicht 183 8 Haatuitingen en -incidenten in Nederland: enkele kerngegevens 185 8.1 Inleiding 185 8.1.1 Enkele kanttekeningen bij de gegevensbronnen 186 8.2 Georganiseerde haatgroepen 187 8.3 Haatgroepen op internet 189 8.4 Etnisch-religieus geweld 191 8.5 Discriminatie op grond van godsdienst 194 8.6 Conclusie 197 9 Bestrijding van haatuitingen 199 9.1 Inleiding 199 9.2 Haatmisdrijven: dadertypen en typen sancties 200 9.3 Opsporingsbeleid politie 203 9.3.1 De aanpak in Nederland 203 9.3.2 Enkele gegevens over de aanpak binnen EU-lidstaten 205 WWODC_248_12.inddODC_248_12.indd SSec3:9ec3:9 222-3-20072-3-2007 111:33:171:33:17 10 Godslastering, discriminerende uitingen wegens godsdienst en haatuitingen 9.3.3 Contrast: de aanpak in Engeland 206 9.4 Civielrechtelijke aanpak 210 9.4.1 Law suits in Amerika 210 9.4.2 Civielrecht in Nederland.
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