Appendix I Physical Constants and Astronomical Measurements

Speed of light in a vacuum, c = 3.00 Â 105 km/s = 3.00 Â 1010 cm/s Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2 = 980 cm/s2 Gravitational constant, G = 6.67 Â 10-11 N-m2/kg2 = 6.67 Â 10-8 dyne-cm2/g2 Boltzmann’s constant, k = 1.38 Â 10-23 J/K = 1.38 Â 10-16 erg/K Stefan-Boltzmann constant, σ = 5.67 Â 10-8 W/m2-K4 = 5.67 Â 10-5 erg/s-cm2-K4 Planck’s constant, h = 6.63 Â 10-34 J-s = 6.63 Â 10-27 erg-s Astronomical Unit, 1 A.U. = 1.496 Â 108 km Light year, 1 ly = 9.46 Â 1012 km Parsec, 1 pc = 3.09 Â 1013 km (= 3.26 ly = 206,265 A.U.) Equatorial radius of the Earth = 6378 km Mass of the Earth = 5.97 Â 1024 kg Radius of the Moon = 1738 km Mass of the Moon = 7.35 Â 1022 kg Equatorial radius of the Sun = 6.96 Â 105 km Mass of the Sun = 1.99 Â 1030 kg Luminosity of the Sun = 3.83 Â 1026 W Effective temperature of the Sun = 5780 K World human population in 1500 = 450 million World human population in 2012 = 7000 million

L.M. Golden, Laboratory Experiments in Physics for Modern Astronomy: 551 With Comprehensive Development of the Physical Principles, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3311-8, # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 Appendix II Julian Dates

Julian Days, abbreviated J.D., is the time reckoning used by astronomers. This table provides the Julian dates for given calendar dates at 0 hours universal time, the time at Greenwich. For simplicity, we have deleted both the leading two digits, 24, and the 0.5 fraction of a day. The result is the so-called Modified Julian data, MJD = JD À2400000.5. We have chosen to begin the table on January 11, 2012, so that one Julian date is provided for each month, except for the final entry. The interval between entries is 30 days.

TABLE OF JULIAN DATES (January 11, 2012 through December 31, 2013) Modified Days from Julian Date Year Month Day 1/11/2012 55937 2012 1 11 0 55967 2012 2 10 30 55997 2012 3 11 60 56027 2012 4 10 90 56057 2012 5 10 120 56087 2012 6 9 150 56117 2012 7 9 180 56147 2012 8 8 210 56177 2012 9 7 240 56207 2012 10 7 270 56237 2012 11 6 300 56267 2012 12 6 330 56297 2013 1 5 360 56327 2013 2 4 390 56357 2013 3 6 420 56387 2013 4 5 450 56417 2013 5 5 480 56447 2013 6 4 510 56477 2013 7 4 540 (continued)

L.M. Golden, Laboratory Experiments in Physics for Modern Astronomy: 553 With Comprehensive Development of the Physical Principles, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3311-8, # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 554 Appendix II Julian Dates

(continued) Modified Days from Julian Date Year Month Day 1/11/2012 56507 2013 8 3 570 56537 2013 9 2 600 56567 2013 10 2 630 56597 2013 11 1 660 56627 2013 12 1 690 56657 2014 12 31 720 Appendix III Day-of-the-Year Tables

For convenience, you might want to refer to a table of the days of the year. These provide the ordinal number of each calendar date. For example, January 1 is the first day of the year and December 4 is the 338th day of the year (in a non-leap year). Note that some refer, incorrectly, to days-of-the-year as the Julian date. Many desk calendars also provide the number.

Day-of-the-year (Non-leap years) Date Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1 1 32 60 91 121 152 182 213 244 274 305 335 2 2 33 61 92 122 153 183 214 245 275 306 336 3 3 34 62 93 123 154 184 215 246 276 307 337 4 4 35 63 94 124 155 185 216 247 277 308 338 5 5 36 64 95 125 156 186 217 248 278 309 339 6 6 37 65 96 126 157 187 218 249 279 310 340 7 7 38 66 97 127 158 188 219 250 280 311 341 8 8 39 67 98 128 159 189 220 251 281 312 342 9 9 40 68 99 129 160 190 221 252 282 313 343 10 10 41 69 100 130 161 191 222 253 283 314 344 11 11 42 70 101 131 162 192 223 254 284 315 345 12 12 43 71 102 132 163 193 224 255 285 316 346 13 13 44 72 103 133 164 194 225 256 286 317 347 14 14 45 73 104 134 165 195 226 257 287 318 348 15 15 46 74 105 135 166 196 227 258 288 319 349 16 16 47 75 106 136 167 197 228 259 289 320 350 17 17 48 76 107 137 168 198 229 260 290 321 351 18 18 49 77 108 138 169 199 230 261 291 322 352 19 19 50 78 109 139 170 200 231 262 292 323 353 20 20 51 79 110 140 171 201 232 263 293 324 354 21 21 52 80 111 141 172 202 233 264 294 325 355 22 22 53 81 112 142 173 203 234 265 295 326 356 23 23 54 82 113 143 174 204 235 266 296 327 357 (continued)

L.M. Golden, Laboratory Experiments in Physics for Modern Astronomy: 555 With Comprehensive Development of the Physical Principles, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3311-8, # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 556 Appendix III Day-of-the-Year Tables

(continued) Date Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 24 24 55 83 114 144 175 205 236 267 297 328 358 25 25 56 84 115 145 176 206 237 268 298 329 359 26 26 57 85 116 146 177 207 238 269 299 330 360 27 27 58 86 117 147 178 208 239 270 300 331 361 28 28 59 87 118 148 179 209 240 271 301 332 362 29 29 88 119 149 180 210 241 272 302 333 363 30 30 89 120 150 181 211 242 273 303 334 364 31 31 90 151 212 243 304 365

Day-of-the-year (Leap years) Date Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1 1 32 61 92 122 153 183 214 245 275 306 336 2 2 33 62 93 123 154 184 215 246 276 307 337 3 3 34 63 94 124 155 185 216 247 277 308 338 4 4 35 64 95 125 156 186 217 248 278 309 339 5 5 36 65 96 126 157 187 218 249 279 310 340 6 6 37 66 97 127 158 188 219 250 280 311 341 7 7 38 67 98 128 159 189 220 251 281 312 342 8 8 39 68 99 129 160 190 221 252 282 313 343 9 9 40 69 100 130 161 191 222 253 283 314 344 10 10 41 70 101 131 162 192 223 254 284 315 345 11 11 42 71 102 132 163 193 224 255 285 316 346 12 12 43 72 103 133 164 194 225 256 286 317 347 13 13 44 73 104 134 165 195 226 257 287 318 348 14 14 45 74 105 135 166 196 227 258 288 319 349 15 15 46 75 106 136 167 197 228 259 289 320 350 16 16 47 76 107 137 168 198 229 260 290 321 351 17 17 48 77 108 138 169 199 230 261 291 322 352 18 18 49 78 109 139 170 200 231 262 292 323 353 19 19 50 79 110 140 171 201 232 263 293 324 354 20 20 51 80 111 141 172 202 233 264 294 325 355 21 21 52 81 112 142 173 203 234 265 295 326 356 22 22 53 82 113 143 174 204 235 266 296 327 357 23 23 54 83 114 144 175 205 236 267 297 328 358 24 24 55 84 115 145 176 206 237 268 298 329 359 25 25 56 85 116 146 177 207 238 269 299 330 360 26 26 57 86 117 147 178 208 239 270 300 331 361 27 27 58 87 118 148 179 209 240 271 301 332 362 28 28 59 88 119 149 180 210 241 272 302 333 363 29 29 60 89 120 150 181 211 242 273 303 334 364 30 30 90 121 151 182 212 243 274 304 335 365 31 31 91 152 213 244 305 366 Appendix IV Fast Fourier Transform Spectrum Analyzer Software

Spectrum analyzer software allows us to display the intensity of the echo signal as a linear function of frequency without using spectrum analyzer hardware. A brief explanation of how it works will enable you to understand the display of the echo signal you will be observing on the computer screen. Such software calculates the familiar Fourier transform of a signal of finite time duration, in our case the radar echo. The actual computations utilize the fast Fourier transform (FFT), a Fourier transform algorithm which greatly reduces the number of computations, and therefore the time, required to achieve the Fourier transform. Although FFTs were first discussed in 1965, the genius mathematician and physi- cist Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) had described the critical concept by 1805. The range of frequencies you can detect (f1, f2) and the frequency resolution Df you can obtain with FFT spectrum analyzer software depend on two characteristics of the experimental setup. These are the sampling rate, r, of the sound card in your computer and the length of time, T, the signal is detected by the spectrum analyzer software. Typical computer sound cards have a sampling rate of 44.1 kHz. This means that they can detect frequencies of up to 22 kHz. To understand this, imagine a signal of 1 Hz observed for 1 s, as in Fig. 1. Only if the signal is sampled at least twice during this period, a sampling rate of 2 Hz, will it be identifiable as a 1 Hz signal. We can generalize this finding to the statement that the maximum frequency, f2, detectable will be one-half of the sampling rate. Audio frequencies, those detectable by the human ear, range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. This choice of a 44.1 kHz sampling rate for the sound card is therefore common because it enables the computer to detect the very highest frequencies that we can hear. At the other end of the frequency bandwidth, the minimum frequency you can detect, f1, and therefore the frequency resolution, Df = f1, is equal to 1/T, where T is the length of time you are observing the signal. This also makes sense. If you observe a signal for 5 s, say, then the longest wave that would have gone through one complete cycle, and is therefore detectable, has a frequency of once every 5 s, as in Fig. 2. Any longer wave, of smaller frequency, will not have completed a complete cycle and would therefore not be unambiguously detectable. The corresponding minimum detectable frequency is 0.2 Hz, that is, 1/T.

L.M. Golden, Laboratory Experiments in Physics for Modern Astronomy: 557 With Comprehensive Development of the Physical Principles, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3311-8, # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 558 Appendix IV Fast Fourier Transform Spectrum Analyzer Software

Fig. 1 The maximum frequency detectable by FFT spectrum analyzer software is one-half of the sampling rate

Fig. 2 The minimum frequency detectable by FFT spectrum analyzer software is 1/T, where T is the length of time observed. This is also the frequency resolution available Appendix IV Fast Fourier Transform Spectrum Analyzer Software 559

In summary, the frequency interval will be (1/T, r/2). The frequency resolution will be Df = 1/T. A signal of 1 s length would result in a frequency resolution of 1 Hz. Sound engineers and software developers often refer to the “block length” of the signal processed rather than the length of time. The block length is defined as the number of samples processed at the given sampling rate. If B is the block length, then we have trivially T = B/r and the frequency interval would be expressed as (r/B, r/2). With this notation, the frequency resolution would be expressed as Df = r/B. Our spheres will be rotating on the turntable at 33 1/3 rpm and 78 rpm, corresponding to 0.55 and 1.3 revolutions per second. As a result, a complete rotation occurs in 1.8 and 0.77 s, respectively. We need only observe the rotating spheres these lengths of time. The corresponding frequency resolutions, given as 1/T, are therefore 0.55 and 1.3 Hz. Observing the echoes a greater length of time would, by the principle of the Fourier transform, seem to provide information of smaller frequency resolution, but in fact this information would not be physically meaningful because the same echo would repeat itself as the spheres rotate. Nonetheless, we will observe for greater lengths of time. This will enable the software to average out spurious signals such as those generated by other students moving about in the laboratory. About the Author

Leslie Morris Golden received the B.A. with Distinction and Masters in Engineering Physics from Cornell University, where he performed his masters’ thesis on erosion of lunar craters by micrometeorite impacts under Bruce Hapke and studied radio astronomy with Frank Drake. He was the award-winning editor-in- chief of the Cornell Engineer magazine. He received the M.A. and Ph.D in astronomy from the University of California, Berkeley, where he worked with Leland Cunningham on the software for calculations of comet orbits, Carl Heiles on the HI map of the galaxy, Harold Weaver on selection effects in the study of the evolution of quasars, and W.H. McCrea on isotropy of radio source counts with position over the sky. He performed his dissertation, a microwave interferometric study of the subsurface of the planet Mercury, under William J. (“Jack”) Welch. He obtained a National Research Council Resident Research Associateship grant to continue studies of Mercury at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory under Michael Janssen

L.M. Golden, Laboratory Experiments in Physics for Modern Astronomy: 561 With Comprehensive Development of the Physical Principles, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3311-8, # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 562 About the Author

The author (left) and his devoted and loyal pal, Cicero (ball in mouth). Rescued from the streets, my beautiful, athletic, intelligent, spirited, protective, obedient, always wanting to please, and bonded best friend and studied the time variability of quasars with E.E. Epstein at the Aerospace Corporation before obtaining his academic appointment at the University of Illinois at Chicago, where he became affiliated with both the physics department and the Honors College. In 1986 Dr. Golden was selected by Royal Cruise Lines to be their on-board lecturer on the high seas during the 1986 apparition of Halley’s Comet and in 1996 he was a visiting professor on the University of Pittsburgh’s Semester at Sea program. Among his many public speaking appearances, he presented a lecture series on extraterrestrial life to the Field Museum of Natural History and was the featured speaker on the occasion of the dedication of the new wing of Chicago’s Adler Planetarium. Dr. Golden’s research and scholarly interests are planetary radio astronomy, observational selection effects, cosmology, and the history of astronomy. Dr. Golden is one of a handful of individuals who is a member of both Tau Beta Pi, the engineering honorary society, and Phi Beta Kappa, the arts and sciences honorary society. He was also elected to Pi Delta Epsilon, the honorary journalism society. Dr. Golden has additional careers as a professional trumpet player, stand-up comedian, and professional actor. He has over 100 stage, screen, radio, television, and commercial credits. At the University of California, he was a jazz disk jockey, the play-by-play announcer for California Golden Bears basketball, and one of the founders, a trumpet player and vocalist, and the emcee for the University of California Jazz Ensembles. He also applies probability and statistics to popular casino games as a columnist for four London-based gambling magazines. He is a passionate animal welfare advocate and fervent environmentalist and shares his home with his rescued canine friends. Index

A Apollo investigations, 20, 106, 127–129, Absorption lines, 519, 531, 534–536, 132, 133, 135, 156, 157 538–540, 543–545, 547–549 Apollonius of Perga, 261 Acceleration of gravity, 51, 159 Apparent magnitude, 30, 49, 273 Accretion disk, 497 Arcturus, 273 Accuracy, 7, 8, 40, 95, 152, 525 Arecibo Ionospheric Observatory, 194, 202, Acoustic waves, 361 204, 206 Adaptive optics, 322 Aristarchus of Samos, 262 Adiabatic, 159 Aristotle, 261, 262 Adiabatic processes, 159 Asteroids, 27, 60, 87, 106, 193–213, Aliens, 17, 43–45, 71, 190, 325, 470 215–257, 295, 363, 368, 371, Almagest, The, 261 520, 530, 547, 548 Altitude-azimuth (alt-azimuth) mount, Astra 1KR satellite, 368 94, 438 Astrologers, 93, 94, 261 Amalthea, 352 Astronauts, 20, 107, 129–131, 134, 136, American Ephemeris and Nautical 137, 156, 157, 481, 495 Almanac, 295 Astronomical noon, 95 American Optical, 270 Astronomical unit, 263, 293 Ammonia (NH3), 294 Astronomy magazine, 434 Andromeda galaxy, 3, 4, 19–23 Audio frequencies, 204, 218, 223, 226 Angle Autumnal equinox, 90 of incidence, 108, 109, 112, 113, 122 of reflection, 109 Angstrom, 16, 31, 55, 68, 526, 530, 531, B 537, 539 Babylonians, 13–15 Angular measure, 3, 13–15 Balmer, Johann, 522 Antenna temperature, 434, 443 Balmer lines, 530 Aperture, 54–57, 61, 84, 361, 371, 438 Balmer series, 522 Aphelion, 292, 293, 296, 311, 313, 348 Bandwidth, 198–201, 204, 210, 221, 223, Apogee, 292, 351 224, 227–229, 234, 248, 250, Apollo 12, 156 253, 254, 362–363, 367, 369, 547 Apollo 14, 157 Barringer Meteor Crater, 186 Apollo 15, 20 Basalt, 395 Apollo astronauts, 20, 107, 129–131, 134, Beam width between first nulls 135, 137, 156, 157, 257, 280, 424 (BWFN), 360

L.M. Golden, Laboratory Experiments in Physics for Modern Astronomy: 563 With Comprehensive Development of the Physical Principles, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3311-8, # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 564 Index

Beam width between first nulls of radio 21-Cm line See 21-Centimeter (21-cm) line antennas, 360, 361 Collecting area, 54, 55, 57, 61, 62, 359, Bell Telephone Laboratories, 428 434, 437, 485, 508, 512 Big Bang, 474 Colliding galaxies, 19–23 Big Bang theory, 47 Collimator, 523, 537 Blackbody radiation, 255, 356, 357, 365, 373, Collisional deexcitation, 520 391, 394, 397, 400, 422, 432, 471, Collisional excitation, 520, 473–498, 502, 513, 515, 534–541, Collision, Milky Way and M31, 19, 33 545, 546 Color Blackjack, 27 filters, 54, 75, 78, 82, 105, 116, 117, Blue Danube Waltz, 14 119, 129, 478–481 Bohr, Niels, 517–521, 523 index, 480 Boltzmann, Ludwig, 422 Comets, 87, 157, 292, 294–295, 316 Boltzmann’s constant, 422, 474, 476, 502 Communication satellites, 326, 433, 439, Bracewell probe, 43–45 440, 442–445, 447 Bracewell, Ronald, 43 Conjunction, 46, 262–264, 269, 268, 289, Brahe, Tycho, 87, 292 322, 324, 328 Brightest stars, 266, 272, 273 Conservation Brightness, 17, 37, 46, 53–73, 75–78, 109, of angular momentum, law of, 308 112, 127, 275, 326, 362, 433–437, of energy, law of, 19, 158, 159, 394 444, 482, 483, 490, 494, 501, 504, of linear momentum, 295 538–540, 542 Constant of gravitation, 20, 321 Bulletin of the Philosophical Society, 158 Contact points, 431, 432 B–V color, 480 Continental drift, 157 BWFN See Beam width between first nulls Continuous spectrum, 539, 542 (BWFN) Convection, 500, 503 BWFN, beam-width at first null, 460, 361 Conversion factors, 21, 329, 331, 484, 488 of units, 4, 10, 19, 22 C Copernicus crater, 130, 156, 185, 186 3C273, 17, 37, 530 Copernicus, Nicolaus, 128, 156, 185, 186, Cairo Museum, 325 260, 261 Calcium atom, 531 Corona, 536 Calculus, the, 395, 475 Crater Davy, 157 Caldera, 156, 157 Crater degradation, 185 Callisto, 320, 326, 331, 332, 344–346, Crater rims, 155–159, 161, 164–167, 349, 350 169–175, 181, 185 Carbon atom, 518, 519 Carbon dioxide, 515 Card-counters, 27 D Card-counting, 27 Data reduction, 445–448, 482 CCD detectors See Charge-coupled Decibel scale, 224, 225, 231–232, detectors (CCDs) 361, 434 Celestial coordinate system, 435, 436 Declination, 92, 95, 96, 103, 165, 271–273, Celestial sphere, 91–96 280, 432, 433, 435, 436, 438, 440, Celestron telescopes, 270 483, 484 21-Centimeter (21-cm) line, 363, 434 Deferent, 261 CH4 See Methane (CH4) Degrees of arc, 95, 431 Charge-coupled detectors (CCDs), 363, 478 Dicke switch, 65 Chromatic aberration, 54, 59, 75–85, 109 Diffraction, 55, 227, 361, 362, 517, 519, Classical mechanics, 14 523–526, 529, 532, 533, 536, 537 Claus, Santa, 29, 367 Diffraction grating, 362, 517, 519, 523–526, CLOUDSAT satellite, 367 532, 533, 536, 537 Index 565

Diffraction grating spectroscope, 523, F 524, 536 Fault lines, 157 Diffuse reflection, 110, 112, 113, 116 Feldspar, 364, 430 Diffusion equation, 394 FeO See Iron oxide (FeO) Doppler shift, 27, 194, 195, 197–204, 210, Filar micrometer, 271 212, 225, 228, 229, 530, 547, 548 FM radio, 153 Dot product, 93, 94 F-number, 57 Double star, 269, 272 Focal length, 54–58, 60–65, 68, 72, Drake, Frank, 434 76–79, 82, 84, 118, 269–271, 275, 280 Focal point, 55, 57, 58, 84 E Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, 395 Earth, 9, 36, 89–104, 106, 130, 157, 194, Fourier’s Law, 394 219, 260, 293, 322, 356, 400, 431, 483, 500, 546 Eastern elongation, 194, 263, 264, 269, 289 G Eccentricity, 292, 296, 306, 311, 431 Gain, 158, 159, 225, 226, 356, 368–369, Ecosphere, 316, 400 see also Zone of 372–378, 381, 400, 401, 404–405, Habitability 416, 441–444, 446, 449, 460 Egress, 432, 433, 444, 448, 462, 467 Galactic coordinate system, 435, 436 Einstein, Albert, 20, 115, 197, 292 Galactic latitude, 435, 436 Ejecta blanket, 158, 159 Galilean satellites, 106, 194, Ejecta from crater formation, 156, 269, 319–354 158, 159 Galilei, Galileo, 156, 260, 262, 277, 320 Electrical skin depth, 217 Gamma ray astronomy, 363 Electric dipole moment, 434 Gamma rays, 116, 356 Electricity and magnetism, 115 Ganymede, 320, 326, 332, 344–350 Electronic transitions, 434, 520, G-d, 520 Electron volt, 521 General relativity, 47, 197, 292 Element, of an interferometer, 36, 37, 198, General theory of relativity, 47 200, 359 Geocentric system, 261 Elongation calendar, 266, 268, 322, 323 Geometrical optics, 55, 109 Emission lines, 478, 534–540, 542–546 Ghots, 71 Emperor of China, 7, 8 Gibbous moon, 109, 443 Energy flux, 476, 485, 502 Gilbert, G.K., 158, 159 Energy-level diagram, 521–522 Glass beads, lunar, 107, 130, 131, Energy levels, 518–526 134–137, 151 Engineers, 94, 367, 370, 371, 373, 428, GMT See Greenwich mean time (GMT) 434, 470 Golden, “Chicago Slim”, 27 Epicycle, 261 Golden, Leslie M., 27 Equant, 261 Granite, 364, 365, 375, 376, 378, 380, 382, Equivalence principle, 20 383, 385, 386, 391, 395, 399, 401, Error bars, 38, 40, 45, 332, 334, 378, 403, 404, 408, 410, 413, 416–419, 379, 405, 406, 540 447, 459 Estimated percentage error, 11 Gravitational mass, 20 Etruscan manuscripts, 325 Gravitational potential energy, 19, 20, 160, ET the Extraterrestrial, 220 166, 188 Europa, 320, 326, 332, 333, 344–347, Great circle, 92, 94 349, 350 Greenhouse effect, 515 Extrapolation, 37, 42, 45 Greenwich mean time (GMT), 17 Extra-terrestrial life, 316, 434, 435, 500 Ground states, 520 Extraterrestrials, 286, 364 Gum Nebula, 60, 63 566 Index

H Ingress, 432, 433, 444, 448, 462, 467 Half-power beam width of radio antennas, Interference, 225, 226, 229, 230, 323, 363, 360, 362 433, 438, 440, 444, 523, 524 Halley’s comet, 294, 295, 313, 314 Interferometry, 549 Halogen light bulbs, 117 Intermediate-frequency (IF), 218, 223, 363, Hat Creek Radio Observatory (HCRO), 369, 370, 439, 440, 442, 444 17, 37, 46 Internal energy, 159–161, 395 Hawaiian Islands, 157 Interpolation, 42, 45 HCRO See Hat Creek Radio Observatory Io, 320, 326, 328, 332, 333, 344–346, (HCRO) 349, 350 Heat Iron oxide (FeO), 294 capacity, 395, 428, 504–505 conduction, 356, 358, 365, 394, 395, 397, 423, 428, 466, 504 J conduction equation, 395, 428, 466 James Jeans, 474 Heliocentric longitude, 262, 263, 274, Jansky, Karl, 428 276–278, 282, 298, 306 Jet propulsion, 294 Heliocentric system, 261, 262 Jets, 292, 294, 295 Heliocentric theory, 262 Julian date, 16–18, 33, 46, 277, 296–298, Helium, 424, 500, 501, 531, 536, 309, 310, 329–331, 447, 451, 452, 459 537, 545 Jupiter, 189, 194, 253, 260, 261, 269, Hertz, 194, 224, 225 270, 275, 296, 319–354, 426 Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, 475, 500 Hipparchus, 261 H2O See Water (H2O) K Horn antenna, 368, 370, 371, 400, 437–439, Kepler, Johnannes, 158, 262, 292, 293 442, 443 Kepler’s First Law of Motion, 292, 296, Hot spots, 157 304, 320 Hour angle, 92–95, 165, 483, 484, 488 Kepler’s Laws, 158, 267, 291–317, 320, 352 Hubble, Edwin, 41, 47 Kepler’s Second Law of Motion, 2267–268, Humason, Milton L., 47 293–297, 306–307, 311, 312, 314 Hydrogen Kepler’s Third Law of Motion, atom, 5, 23, 434, 518–522 293, 297–303, 309, 320–321, 353 discharge tube, 522, 523, 525, Kinetic energy, 19, 21, 158–162, 166, 179, 531, 536, 545 181, 187 molecule, 522 Kirchhoff, Gustav, 533–549 Hyperfine transition, 428 Ku band, 222, 368, 370, 373 Hypervelocity impacts, 156, 158, 159, 189

L I Lambert, Johann, 110 IC 1179, 46 Lambert surface, 108, 110–112, 115, IF See Intermediate-frequency (IF) 116, 123, 130, 150, 154, 213 Igneous rocks, 364, 398 Las Vegas, Nevada, 27, 39 Impact crater, 130, 155–192 Latitude, 89–104, 156, 165, 200, 201, 435, Impactors, 157 436, 440, 448, 483, 489, 504, 505 Index of refraction, 77 Law of cosines, 262, 263 Inertial mass, 20, 21 Laws of reflection, 109, 110, 112, 113 Inferior conjunction, 262–264, 269, 268, 289 Leavitt, Henrietta, 47 Infrared astronomy, 85, 115, 152, 356–358, Length of day, 18, 90, 95, 103, 363, 373, 399, 428, 429, 447, 476, Lightning bolt, 23 479, 497 Light year, 4, 5 Infrared radiation, 357, 358 Lippershey, Hans, 260 Index 567

Loads, in radiometer calibration, 369, 373 Microwave Local oscillator, 223, 363, 371 absorbers, 373 Lord Rayleigh, 55, 68, 481 antenna, 359, 390 Lunar eclipses, 430–433, 444–445 radiation, 356–358, 371, 424, 428, 467 Lunar highlands, 430 radiometer, 358, 364–367, 372, 390, Lunar maria, 430, 433 394, 398, 402 Lunation, 428 Military time, 274, 322, 330, 336, Lyman series, 521, 522 337, 482 Milky Way galaxy, 4, 19–23, 31, 33, 60, 434, 546 M Minnett, H.C., 429 M31, 4, 5, 19, 20, 23, 33 Minutes of arc, 13, 15, 16, 32, 55, 109, 272, Mach, Ernst, 33 275, 280, 326, 359, 431, 525, 538 Mach number, 33 Mixer, in radio receiver, 223 Magnetic dipole moment, 434 Moon, 20, 56, 93, 105–128, 156, 194, 256, Magnification, 54, 56, 57, 59, 75–85, 260, 296, 320, 356, 397, 109, 271, 275, 280 427–470, 475 Magnifying power, 54–56 Mt. St. Helens, 186 Main lobe, antenna, 227, 359, 362, 366, Mt. Wilson 100-inch telescope, 47 370, 372, 390, 403 Multi-channel receivers, 363 Main Sequence, 353, 354, 476, 500 Major axis of ellipse, 292, 293, 296, 297, 306, 309, 311, 348 N Mars, 36, 84, 106, 156, 158, 164, 165, 194, National Aeronautics and Space 261, 292, 293, 295–297, 305–311, Administration (NASA), 431 358, 364, 426 Near Earth Asteroid Reconnaissance Maxwell, 115, 254 Project, 363 Maxwellian distribution, 254 Neptune, 426 Maxwell, Sir James Clerk, 115, 254 New General Catalog, 32 Meade telescopes, 269, 270 Newspapers, 95, 373 Mean, 7, 11–13, 17, 30, 43, 95, 118, Newton, 20, 21, 115, 262, 292, 294, 195, 275, 280, 358, 376–384, 320, 478, 534 386–391, Newton, Sir Isaac, 20, 87, 115, 262, 431, 500, 502, 508–512, 540 292, 294, 320, 478 Mercury, 27, 36, 45–46, 106, 158, 164, Newton, unit of force, 21, 294 165, 195–213, 216–218, 221, 234, NGC 4303, 32 253, 255, 261, 263, 264, 288, 292, NH3 See Ammonia (NH3) 293, 295–297, 304, 306, 308–311, Nobel Prize, 320, 519 320, 358, 397, 423, 426, 429, Noise figure, 434 520, 530, 536, 537, 545, 257, Non-thermal galactic radiation, 435 558, 561 Meridian, 17, 18, 92, 95–98 Messier catalog, 47 O Messier, Charles, 47 Occam’s Razor, 263, 286, 287 Meteorite, 12, 157, 185, 186, 190 OH-ion, 434, 435 Meteoroids, 157, 185 Oliver, Bernard, 434 Meteorologists, 94 Olympus Mons, 156 Meter-kilogram-second system of units, Opposition, 322, 324, 328, 352 21, 321 Optical axis, 55, 57, 58, 63 Meteroid, 186 Optical bench, 59, 61, 62, 65, 76, 78, Methane (CH4), 294 536, 537 Mickey Mantle, 296 Optical interferometry, 549 568 Index

Opus 314, 14 Ptolemy, 261 Orbital period, 194, 260, 267–268, Pulsars, 60 276–279, 282, 288, 293, 310, 313, Pumice, 398 320–322, 328, 330–335, 345, Pythagorean Theorem, 262 347–350, 352, 353, 431 Order of magnitude calculations, 8–10, 131 Orion telescopes, 270 Q Quantum mechanics, 518, 522, 535 Quartz, 364, 365, 398 P Quasars, 17, 27, 37, 197, 522, 546 Parabolic dish antenna, 370, 437 Quasi-specular reflections, 110, Parsec, 4, 21, 29, 31 112–114, 123 Paschen series, 521 Penumbra, 431, 432 Percentage R difference, 10, 11, 64, 65, 210, 306, 495 Radar, 27, 69, 87, 122, 193–213, error, 4, 10–11, 29, 30, 79, 81, 102, 215–257, 363, 368, 371, 520, 165, 277, 285, 288, 289, 296, 297, 530, 547, 548 306, 334, 335, 346, 347, 390, 509, Radar frequency bands, 222 512, 528 Radian, 15, 55, 57, 59, 62–65, 68, Perigee, 292 78–80, 118, 333, 361, 362, 438 Perihelion, 292, 293, 295, 296, 306, Radiative transfer, 357, 397, 408, 437 311, 313, 348 Radiative transport of energy, 423 Permafrost, 364 Radio frequencies (RF), 226, 363 Phase effect, 45–46, 106, 109, 357, Radiometer, 356, 358, 363–378, 381, 390, 427–470, 475 394, 398–403, 434, 439, 440, 442, Phase effect of Mercury, 46 445–448, 459, 500 Phase plot, 266, 268, 269, 275, 285 Radiometers, intermediate frequencies (IF), Photo-deexcitation, 520 218, 363, 369, 440 Photo-excitation, 520 Radiometers, radio frequencies (RF), Photosphere, 475, 497 226, 363 Piddington, J.H., 429 Radio telescope, 194, 358–364, 367, Pistachio ice cream, 17 369, 370, 428–430, 434, 435, Planck, Max, 474, 520 437–440 Planck’s constant, 474, 520 Radio wavelength radiation, 17, 116, 153, Planck’s Law,474–476 356, 363, 428, 432 Planet Kqlpr, 422 Raisin bread model of expansion, 41 Planet Yxtph, 422 Range-Doppler radar, 201–203 Pluto, 68, 358, 426 Rayleigh-Jeans approximation, 373, 432, Polar mount, 438 474, 476 Polivka, Jiri, 367, 368 Rayleigh scattering, 481 Potable water, 190 Rays from impact craters, 54, 57–61, 63, Power supply, gain variations in, 109, 110, 130, 157, 158, 482 222, 368, 372, 482, 483, Ray tracing, 54, 57–61, 63 485, 490–492, 494 Reber, Grote, 364, 428 Precision, 6–8, 91, 322, 325, 398, Reflecting telescope, 76 443, 540 Refracting telescope, 54, 76, 77 Prime Meridian, 17, 18, 96 Refraction, 76, 77, 112, 113, 115, 432 Prism, 59, 77, 478, 519 Relative error, 322, 334, 346 Prograde orbit, 326–328, 331 Renaissance, the, 87, 292 Project Ozma, 434 Resolution, 55, 56, 68, 70, 72, 156, 201–203, Ptolemaeus, Claudius, 261 217, 221, 324, 360, 430 Ptolemaic system, 260–262 Resolving power, 54–56, 70, 359, 362 Index 569

Reticulated eyepiece, 260, 269–273, 321, Skipper, 157 322, 329 Sky and Telescope magazine, 434 RF See Radio frequencies (RF) Slipher, Vesto, 47 Right ascension, 92, 271, 435, 436, Small angle approximation, 15, 118, 438, 483, 484 120, 267, 431 Rings of Saturn, 106, 194 Snowbirds, 103 Rockit, Brewster Space Guy!, 23 Sodium D-lines, 537 Rock music, 296 Solar constant, 358, 359, 500–504, 508, Roswell, New Mexico, 68 509, 512–514 Rotational broadening, 547, 548 Solar mass, 21, 23, 29, 33, 320, 353 Rotation period, 194, 199, 200, 204, 549 Solar spectrum, 31, 519 Royal Observatory, 17 Solid angle, 359, 360 RTL-11 Portable Radio Telescope, 367, 370 Sound waves, 22, 55, 70 Rydberg constant, 519, 522, 526 Spacek Labs, 367–370, 373 Rydberg, Johannes, 519 Special relativity, 197 Specific heat, 395, 399, 423, 424, 503–504 Speckle interferometry, 322 S Spectral lines, 16, 434, 435, 519, 532, 534, Sandstone, 364, 365, 398 537–540, 547, 548 Saturn, 106, 194, 253, 261, 426 Spectral types, 273, 354, 476 Scale factors, 15–16, 31, 32, 206, 277, 297, Spectroscopy, 535 530, 531, 548 Spectrum analyzer, 199, 204, 216, 223–226, Scattering,105–154, 213, 256, 481 229, 232 Schmidt, Marteen, 530 Specular reflection, 109–115, 123, 130, 151, Scientific method, the, 36 154, 213, 256 Scientific notation, 4–8, 19, 22, 24, 26 Speed of light, 23, 27, 115, 116, 196, Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence 197, 218, 474, 520, 530 (SETI), 28, 44 Speed of sound, 23, 33, 70, 158, 210 Seconds of arc, 13, 30, 56, 57, 59, 62, 63, Spherical geometry, 91, 92 65, 68, 109, 264, 267, 322, 329, 359, Spin-flip transition of the hydrogen 362, 484, 487 atom, 434 Seeing, 23, 56, 98, 122, 160, 272, 322, Spiral arms of the galaxy, 434 332–334, 336, 338–342, 478, 539 Spiral galaxies, 29 Seismic waves, 158 Spontaneous emission, 520–522 Semi-major axis, 158, 292, 293, 296, 297, Standard deviation, 11–13, 30, 315, 346, 306, 309–311, 321, 324, 328, 330, 376–380, 382, 383, 386–388, 331, 333, 348, 352, 358, 426 390, 405, 406 Senators, U.S., 28 Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 476, 502 SETI See Search for Extraterrestrial Stefan-Boltzmann law, 422, 475, 502, Intelligence (SETI) 513, 515 Sexagesimal system, 13 Stellar magnitudes, 480 Shadow studies, 94 Strauss, Johann Jr., 14 Shapiro, I. I., 204 Sugar Chewie Choco-Bombs, 8 Shock waves, 22, 23, 158, 159, 161, 162 Summer solstice, 96, 103, 104 Side lobes, antenna, 227, 228, 360–362, Sun, 90, 106, 130, 156, 194, 260, 292, 366, 370–372, 374, 399, 403, 438, 320, 356, 394, 429, 475, 499–515, 443, 445 519, 536 Significant figures, 5–9, 19, 22, 26, 27, 45 Sunbirds, 103 Silicon dioxide (SiO2), 364, 398 Sunrise, 95, 269 Single slit diffraction, 362 Sunset, 87, 95, 263, 269 Sinope, 352 Superior conjunction, 46, 263, 269, 289 SiO2 See Silicon dioxide (SiO2) Supernova remnant, 60 Skin depth, electrical, 216, 217 Supersonic flight, 33 570 Index

Surface roughness, 105–154, 213, 256, Vector algebra, 93 376, 378 Vela, 60 Synchronous rotation, 194 Vela pulsar, 60 Synchrotron radiation, 435, 436 Venus, 109, 194, 259–289, 296, 321, Synodic period, 266, 268, 322, 323, 326 364, 426, 515, 547 Vernal equinox, 90, 92, 93, 95–101, 263, 274, 276, 278 T Very-long baseline interferometer, 359 Telescope, 1, 47, 53–85, 94, 107, 109, Virgo cluster of galaxies, 32 127, 156, 194, 201, 202, 204, 260, VisiGhots, 71 269–273, 275, 280, 320–322, 324, Visual binary, 272 325, 329, 356, 358–364, 367–370, Volcanic crater, 157 428–430, 434, 435, 437–444, 467, Volcanoes, 157, 326, 364 478, 524, 525, 537, 538 Vulcanism, 157 Thermal conductivity, 395, 397, 399, 423, 428, 429, 507 Thermal diffusivity, 396, 397, 428–430, W 447, 466, 467, 470 Water (H2O), 43, 109, 130, 163, 219, 286, Thin lenses, 57 294, 325, 364, 395, 434, 500 TIROS-K satellite, 367 Water hole, 434, 435 Titan, 194 Weighted mean, 12 Totality, 431–433, 444, 448, 467 Western elongation, 194, 263, 269, Total power receiver, 369, 372 285, 289 Transit, 324, 330 Wheaton, Illinois, 364, 428 Trigonometric identities, 95, 120, 505 Wien Radiation Law, 475, 476 Wien’s displacement law, 475, 476, 493, 546, 547 U Wilhelm Wien, 475 Ultraviolet radiation, 85, 115, 479, William of Ockham, 263 522, 536 Winter solstice, 91, 96, 103 Umbra, 431–433, 462 Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England, 20 Uniform illumination, 118, 371 Universal Law of Gravitation, 20, 294, 320, 534 X Universal time, 17, 448 X-ray astronomy, 363 Universal wave equation, 195, 520 XyTk@2, 69–71, 194–196, 253, 255 University of California, Berkeley, 46 Uranus, 426 U.S. Department of Ufology, 325 Z Zenith, 90–92, 94, 435 Zenith angle, 91–96, 103, 104, V 156, 164, 165, 436, 481, 483, van de Hulst, Hendrick, 434 484, 487 Variance, 12 Zone of habitability, 316, 500, 513–515