Social Anthropology Social Anthropology is a branch of sociology. It always describes human, human behavior and human societies around the world. It is a comparative science that examines all societies. The term anthropology comes from Latin world ‘anthrop’ means man or human and ‘logos’ means science or study. So, the term anthropology means scientific study of man or human beings. Meaning of Social Anthropology: The term “Anthropology” is derived from two Greek words, anthropos meaning human and logos meaning study. So, in the simplest terms, Anthropology is the study of human beings. An anthropologist tries to study and understand everything that can be related to humans and not limited by time and space. Definition of Anthropology: Anthropologists have defined anthropology in many ways. Some of them are given below. “Anthropology the study of human kind everywhere, throughout time, seeks to produce useful generations about people and their behavior and to arrive at the fullest possible understanding of human diversity” (Havilland, W. A.1975). “Anthropology is the study of people and all the things they do, think, say and make" (Gwynne and Hicks, 1994). “Anthropology is the study of human beings, divided into the branches of biologically oriented, physical anthropology and social oriented, social anthropology” (Jary and Jary, 2005). 1. The concise oxford dictionary: study of mankind especially of its societies and customs; study of structure and evolution of man as an animal”. 2. Kroeber: “Anthropology is the science of groups of men and their behavior and production”. 3. Herskovits: “Anthropology may be defined as the measurement of human beings.” 4. Jocobs and Stern: “Anthropology is the scientific study of the physical, social and cultural development and behavior of human beings since their appearance on this earth.”
Scope of social anthropology While defining social anthropology, Beals and Hoijer write that “it is concerned with culture per se, whether it belongs to the primitive men of the stone age or the European city dwellers of today.” Although it is more properly a definition of cultural anthropology, yet it surely and clearly shows that the field of social anthropology is very wide. It includes a study of different parts of culture, social institutions and economic and political administration. The main branches of social anthropology are given below: 1. Ethnography 2. Familial anthropology 3. Economic anthropology 4. Political anthropology 5. Symbology and linguistics 6. Thought and Art 1. Ethnography: Ethnography is the main field of social anthropology. As is clear from its name, it studies the human race. Its scope also includes the study of cultures of different races. 2. Familial anthropology: Family is the basic institution of society. Social anthropology, therefore, studies the family also. This branch of social anthropology is known as familial anthropology. It takes up a comparative study of the families of different cultures and societies. It studies the different forms of family along with its progress. A family is based on marriage. Familial anthropology therefore, includes a study of different forms of marriage. It also includes other blood relations along with marriage. 3. Economic anthropology: Economic rules play an important art in social organization. Some radical changes take place in social structure along with a change in economic administration. Social anthropology, therefore, minutely studies the economic administration of primitive and civilized human societies and of different levels of evolution in them. 4. Political anthropology: Political anthropology has also an important place in social structure along with economic administration. Social anthropology, therefore, studies all types of political administration, laws, governments and rules of punishment, etc. This branch of social anthropology is known as political anthropology. 5. Symbology and Linguistics: The study of different symbols of human behavior, which are current languages of different societies, supplies many important facts for the study of society. Social anthropology, therefore, studies all these also. The whole linguistic field falls within this branch of social anthropology. The main branches of linguistics are given below: i) Descriptive Linguistics: it studies the individual and regional languages; ii) Historical Linguistics: It’s a historical study of languages; iii) Comparative Linguistics: It studies the comparative fact about language; iv) Common Linguistics: It studies the difference between the minimum and maximum roots of some languages. 6. Thought and Art: The study of thoughts in theoretical study is very important. Thought includes religion, magic, science and even legends. Social anthropology is a comparative study of all these things in ancient human society. Art is an important part of culture and culture depicts the interior of a society. Social anthropology studies sculpture, metallurgy, and even dancing and instrumental and vocal music. Nature of social anthropology Social anthropology is a science and to know this fact, it is necessary to understand what is science. Some begin to consider a particular subject matter to be science as chemistry or engineering etc. common people distinguish between science and art in this very sense. But it is better to let the scientists explain what science is. Some definitions of science are given below: 1. Beisanz, J and Besanz, M. it is approach rather than content that is the test of science. 2. Green, science is a way of investigation. 3. White. Science is scientizing. 4. Weinberg and shabat. Science is a certain way of looking at the world. 5. Karl Pearson. The unity of science consists alone in its method, not in its nature. Besides these scientists, Karl, Churchman, Acoff, Gillin and Gillin and many social anthropologists also have regarded science as method. It is because of method that it differs from art. It is due to method that all science even when they have separate scopes are called sciences. Steps in Scientific Method: Scientific method is a systematic study of a subject matter within a limited scope. This method requires great patience, courage, hard labor, constructive imagination and objectivity. No man can utilize scientific system without a scientific notion, before starting work on a scientific system; a research scholar should minutely define the problem which is the subject of his research. The clearer is the definition the easier shall be the work of research. Main steps of scientific method is given below: 1. Observation: The first step in scientific system is to observe the subject matter of research minutely and carefully. This observation often needs the help of the instruments. These instruments must be exact. 2. Recording: The second step needed in scientific system is to record this observation carefully. An impartial objectivity is very essential in doing it. 3. Classification: Then the classification and organization of the collected material will have to be done. It is a very serious step. In the words of Karl Pearson, “The classification of facts, the recognition of their sequence and relative significance is the function of science”. The classification is done in such a way that a relation and semblance in the scattered elements may be seen. Thus, the subject matter is arranged on logical grounds. 4. Generalization: The fourth step in a scientific system is to find a common rule or to generalize on the basis of semblance in the classified matter. This common rule is called a scientific principle. In the words of MacIver “such a law is simply another name for a carefully described and uniformly recurring sequence of conditions”. 5. Verification: A scientific system does not stop after making generalizations. The verification of these generalizations is also necessary. Scientific principles can be verified and such a verification is their necessary condition without which they cannot be called scientific. Essentials of Science: What are the requirements of any study to be called scientific is now clear for the above explanation of the scientific method? The necessary elements or the special features of science are given below: 1. Scientific Method: As has been said before, any subject is called a science not because of its subject matter but because of a scientific method. 2. Factual: Science is a study of facts. It discovers real truths. Its subject matter is not ideal but factual. 3. Universal: Scientific principles are universal. They are found to be rue in all countries and at all times. 4. Veridical: A scientific rule is veridical. Its veracity can be examined at any time. As many times it is examined, so many times it will prove to be true. 5. Discovery of cause-effect relationship: Science discovers the relations of cause and effect in its subject matter and presents a universal and verified rule in the same connection. 6. Prediction: Science can predict on the subject of cause-effect relationship on the basis of universal and verified rules. It is on this belief in cause-effect that the foundation of science stands. Scientist knows that ‘what will be’ can ne decided on the basis of ‘what is’ because the law of cause-effect is universal and unchanging. Social Anthropology as a science An examination of social anthropology, on the basis of the aforesaid six rudiments, reveals that social anthropology possesses all the essential elements of a science. 1. Social anthropology makes use of scientific method: All methods of social anthropology are scientific. They make use of scientific techniques like schedule, participant observation, historical procedure and case history, etc. First of all, they gather facts through observation. Then they are recorded in an orderly form. Afterwards this matter is classified and, in the end, common principles are made on the basis of accepted facts. The validity of these principles is examined. 2. Social anthropology is factual: Social anthropology is a comparative study of the facts about social events, relations and reactions. Participant observation is its main method. In this method an anthropologist goes to live among those people whom he has to study. 3. The principles of social anthropology are universal: The rules of social anthropology are proved in all countries so long as the circumstances are the same; there is no chance of an exception in them. 4. The principles of social anthropology are veridical: Thus, the principles of social anthropology always prove true on verification and even on reverification. Their validity can be verified b anybody and at any time. 5. Social anthropology defines cause effect relations: Social anthropology discovers cause-effect relations in social facts, events and relations, etc. for example, an anthropologist, after his comparative study of various cultures tells us about life style to be found in a particular culture and the extent to which the life styles undergo a change with culture changes. Thus, social anthropology answers ‘what’ along with ‘how’. 6. Social anthropology can predict: On the basis of cause-effect relationship, social anthropologist can guess the future and can predict about social reactions and events, etc. he can decide ‘what will be’ on the basis of ‘what is’ after knowing the cause-effect relations. For example, by observing cultural change, he can predict about a change of life pattern. It is clear from the aforesaid discussion of the nature of social anthropology that social anthropology is a science. It contains an abstract form of thoughts. Scientific study is possible only through abstract forms. The rules of these abstract forms decide the reactions of concrete things. In this way the rules of social anthropology are universal and veridical in practical shape. Social anthropology has brought revolutionary change in the notions of psychologists, sociologists, politicians and social reformers, has given a hope for organization of human society in future and has presented useful suggestions to decide pattern of its organization. Sub-Fields in social Anthropology A. Physical/ Biological Anthropology: The systematic study of human as a biological organism. It studies the present-day human variation in the world. Bio anthropologists concentrate on the biological aspects of humans. They examine biological variation across space and time to explore topics such as human evolution, how humans adapt to different physical environments, and what other primates (our closest relatives) can tell us about what it means to be human. Bio anthropologists often look for links between human biology and culture to determine how each affects the other.
➢ Pale anthropology: Human evolution as revealed by the fossil record. ➢ Human genetics: The scientific study of the ways in which different Characteristic are passed from generation to generation. Exam: Body structure, color, shape etc. ➢ Human growth and development: The study of human variations Investigates how and why contemporary human populations differ in Biological and physical characteristics. Ex.: language, attitude, behavior etc. ➢ Human biological plasticity: The body’s ability to change as its copies with stress such as heat, cold and attitude. Ex.: Australian people, African people etc. ➢ Others: The biological evaluation behavior and social life of monkey’s apes and other nonhuman primates. B. Cultural Anthropology: Cultural anthropology mainly focuses on human behavior. It can be divided into the area of archaeology, linguistic anthropology and ethnology. Although each has its own interests and methods, all deals with cultural data. Cultural anthropologists study living societies and cultures by learning from the people who inhabit them. They may conduct ethnographic field work by going to live as a participant-observer with a group, society, or culture. They make comparisons between cultures to explain similarities and differences. Cultural anthropologists can study any aspect of a culture – family structure, social organization, economics, political systems, religion, art, and language. They are especially interested in the linkages and connections that bind cultures and societies together or distinguish them from each other.
C) Archaeology: The study of material remains usually from the past to describe and explain human behavior. Archaeologists use the material evidence of the past. They study potsherds, tools, the ruins of buildings, animal bones, and many other types of objects to learn how people lived in the past. Archaeologists study both prehistoric cultures (those who left behind no written records) and historic ones too. The patterns of the archaeological record are used to explore topics such as the emergence of agriculture, the evolution of technology, the appearance of complex societies, and how societies change over long periods of time.
D) Linguistic Anthropology: Linguistic anthropology is the study of languages, ancient and modern written form, talking style etc. Linguistic anthropologists study the social and cultural contexts of language and how they vary. They can seek to reconstruct vanished languages, study the fundamental processes of language and how it evolves, how it is related to patterns of thought and meaning in different cultures, and how and why social variation relates to the way’s language is produced and used.
E) Ethnology: The systematic description of a cultural based on first hand observation. Ethnology is the study of the characteristics of different people. This can be considered as a subfield of anthropology. In ethnology, the individual pays attention to the specific characteristics of a group of people such as an ethnic group in terms of social, cultural elements. These characteristics are then studied in depth. The ethnologist attempts to study various unique features of the group such as origins, social structure, political structure, economy, religion, language and even on members. From the list of elements, it is clear that the study of ethnology is mostly focused on culture and the changes that have come about in different groups of people.
Social Stratification in Simple Societies Egalitarian Societies: The term is derived from the French word e´gal which means equal. Egalitarianism as a political ideology can be defined as the doctrine that sees each and every person as equal in their moral status, thereby granting them equal rights and opportunities. As a social doctrine, it advocates the removal of economic inequalities among people and decentralizing power. So, an egalitarian society is one where every person is entitled to equal rights, receive equal treatment and opportunities. These societies comprise of groups of people who agree to live together in these societies as egalitarianism as one of their core values. Two things can be considered important if they have common relevant qualities. Based on this, it cannot be denied that all men are equal. Egalitarianism is important in the sense that only through equality people can be accorded justice; justice and equality go hand in hand. A person cannot claim of being an egalitarian if he only takes into consideration his own society. Thus, it can be said that every form of egalitarianism is inclusive as it is based on a theory of universal human commonality. The main goal of an egalitarian society is solely the reduction of discrepancies of any sort so that each and every social class gets an equal share of the resources; be it wealth or power. A uniform and equitable distribution of resources are emphasized. Different social groups (categorized on the basis of gender, age, status, etc) are sought to be given equal rights and benefits. Such societies can often be referred to as classless societies as all the people have equal access to resources and decision-making power. In an egalitarian society, egalitarian decisions are taken where decisions are made by a group rather than a single individual. Even though this decision can be made not by the entire community but just by a committee or group, it is still rendered as an egalitarian decision. The decision is taken through consensus where each person gets a power to either agree or disagree. A society can be called an egalitarian society if the assets, valuable resources, and all the basic necessities, income, etc are accessible to all the people or are distributed equitably throughout the group. These communities are a type of commune (a group of people who choose to live together by sharing responsibilities and possessions). However, not all communal groups are egalitarian in nature.
The various areas of concern for establishing an egalitarian society are communism, legal egalitarianism, gender equality, political equality, racial equality, etc. every person residing within the society must be treated equally, should be provided with equal opportunities, rights, freedom, justice, and so on. Every individual, whether man or a woman must be equal in their rights and duties. People belonging to all the religions should also be treated equally even if that religion engulfs only a minority section of people. Many egalitarian theories have also developed at the cultural level including socialism, libertarian socialism, progressivism, economic egalitarianism, etc. The opposition to egalitarianism is referred to as Anti-egalitarianism.
Egalitarian societies are those in which little or no formal structure exists that places authority and power into the hands of certain individuals or groups on the basis of hereditary right or positions of authority. Indeed, in egalitarian societies there are no positions of authority. Every man, and in some society’s woman, has an equal say in matters concerning the group and participates fully in decision making. No person can exert authority over another, and there are no avenues for individuals to acquire privileged positions that might provide them with unequal power over others. The existence of egalitarian societies might suggest that relations between all members of the society are based upon equality. However, one must take a closer look at the realities. There are extremely few societies where all members—men, women, and children— have an equal say in decisions made on behalf of the group. The majority of egalitarian societies maintain inequitable relations between certain classes of its members. Even in those societies of the Kalahari Desert and Australia where equality between individuals is most apparent, women and the uninitiated have an inequitable part to play in matters concerning marriage, for example. When anthropologists talk about egalitarian societies, they are generally referring to the relations between men.
Ranked Societies
Rank Societies:
A ranked society in anthropology is one that ranks individuals in terms of their genealogical distance from the chief. Closer relatives of the chief have higher rank or social status than more distant ones. Societies who follow this kind of structure associate rank with power, where other societies associate wealth with power. When individuals and groups rank about equally, competition for positions of leadership may occur. In some cases, rank is assigned to entire villages rather than individuals or families. The idea of a ranked society was criticized by Max Weber and Karl Marx. Ranks in ranked society are the different levels, platforms, or classes that determine someone’s influence on political aspects, votes, decision making, etc. A person’s ranking also gives them societal power (power within their civilization).
Rank societies are characterized by inequality in access to recognized prestige statuses although equality in access to resources may obtain. Ranking is most apparent in the political or power domain. The highest in rank is the chief of the society. The position of the chief can be attained only by being his genealogical heir. The chief is the principal organizer and director of all activities within his community. The superior ranking in the social sphere is expressed in the chief elaborate regalia including clothing and ornamentation. A chief is addressed with extravagant titles and is treated with respect. Those of the inferior ranking are dressed in simple clothing. They are even required to kneel before the chief while talking to him. According to their relationship to the chief the other members of the society are ranked in descendent order. In rank societies equal access to economic resources obtains. The role of the chief is mainly that of a redistributor. Although he may be designated as the owner of all communal property, his status is above all others because of his generosity or in the magnanimous act of giving away wealth rather than keeping it to self.
Rank commonly refers to the social position of people in societies recognizing social hierarchies of one kind or another. These societies are organized according to principles determining the relative value of certain groups or individuals over others. This often has implications for people’s relative access to resources, opportunity, positions of power, and authority within the political or religious sectors. While all societies have some level of status differential where age, gender, and other individual characteristics are markers of relative value, those societies recognizing hereditary rank have more formalized means of attributing value, affording individuals with relative status.
In egalitarian societies, goods and services are spread relatively evenly among the population. High-ranking individuals in a community can be identified archaeologically by studying human burials, where differences in grave contents, the health of an individual or his or her diet can be examined. Ranking can also be established by the difference sizes of houses, the locations within a community, or the distribution of luxury or status items within a community.