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CINE-EXCESS JOURNAL

Are You Ready for the Country:Cult Cinema and Rural Excess Cine-Excess Journal, Volume 4. First digital edition, published in the United Kingdom in 2020 by Cine-Excess. Copyright © 2020 Cine-Excess & contributors. CINE-EXCESS JOURNAL ISSUE 4

Are You Ready for the Country: Cult Cinema and Rural Excess

Edited by Joan Hawkins, Xavier Mendik, Janet Steiger & Glenn Ward List of Papers

Introduction 3

DownUnderRisesUp:Nature’sRevengeinOzploitationCinema 11 Lindsay Hallam

Germany is Not Texas. Finding Reunified Germany in the Rural: 24 Christoph Schlingensief’s The German Chain Saw Massacre Sarah Pogoda

‘WeareNeverGoingintheWoodsAgain’:TheHorrorofthe 40 Underclass White Monster in American and British Horror. Shellie McMurdo

BadS**t,KillerWormsandDeadlyDawns:TheCultCinema 54 and Rural Excess of Jeff Lieberman Jon Towlson

Out Of The Blue (Sunshine): An Interview With Director 70 Jeff Lieberman Conducted by Xavier Mendik

AMonster of our Very Own:Razorback , Howling III: The 80 Marsupials and the Australian Outback Renee Middlemost

Entertaining the Villagers: Rural Audiences, Traveling Cinema 94 and Exploitation Movies in Indonesia Ekky Imanjaya

Tim Burton’s Curious Bodies (The First International Conference 108 on Twenty-First Century Film Directors) Carl Sweeney

I Spit on Your Grave: Dialogue and Book Review 114 By Martin Barker and David Maguire

Cult Film and Controversy: FromDay of the Woman toDéjà Vu 124 An Interview with Jamie Bernadette and Maria Olsen Conducted by Xavier Mendik

Notes on Contributors 132

Acknowledgements 136 INTRODUCTION

From early moonshine movies depicting themselves resulted in the further circulation regional rule breakers, to backwoods of degenerate, rural white trash tropes survivalist fictions such asDeliverance across more contemporary sets of film (1972),The Texas Chain Saw Massacre releases. (1974),Southern Comfort (1981),The Devil’s Rejects (2005) and beyond, the Beyond America’s fixation with its rural American countryside and its inhabitants own, Europe has also used cult film imagery have come to evoke humour, horror and to acknowledge regional splits and social morbid fascination as expressed through a divisions. These tensions have fed into a range of cult film genres. In so doing, these range of representations, myths and narratives draw on wider conceptions of the stereotypes that extended from eugenic rural poor that sees the regionally case-study to exploitation cinema. dispossessed as tagged through multiple and derogatory labels that frequently become In addition to these territories, other global associated with the term ‘white trash’. Such cultures also frequently construct the rural is the prominence of these rural conceptions space as a site of either erotic fulfilment or that it is possible to argue to argue that white foreboding in a range of unsettling and trash imagery has come to dominate film iconic genres that warrant further traditions from the early 20th century investigation. In order to explore cult onwards. Here, the longstanding myth of the cinema’s continued fascination with the rural American ‘hick’ has inspired a wide rural, this edition of theCine-Excess journal variety of cinematic cycles from sentimental is devoted to global case-studies that explore dramas and ribald comedies to action film classic and contemporary representations of franchises and race conflict narratives, with the countryside, outback and its inhabitants, a regular flow of titles being produced whilst also providing direct commentaries between the 1930s and 1960s. Arguably, the from some of the cult filmmakers most prolific era of white trash cinema responsible for these creations. emerged in the 1970s. Here, images of debased rurality circulated most widely Our examination begins with an analysis of across a wide variety of cult and the unsettling natural elements implicit ‘exploitation’ film releases. Within this body within the Australian outback, as discussed of work, the rural landscape was recast as a in the article ‘Horror Rises Up: Nature’s foreboding terrain whose inhabitants exact Revenge in Ozsploitation Cinema’. Here, retribution against the urban ‘outsiders’ for author Lindsay Hallam considers a range of the wider bonds of social exclusion that films released between 1971 and 2008 that have been inflicted on the rural dweller. The all depict the Australian landscape as influence of these 1970s productions has seeking to overthrow and punish those

3 settlers deemed as colonial and exploitative. actually considers the close connections Although these productions figure this between Tobe Hooper’s American release of revenge of nature through a variety of The Texas Chain Saw Massacre and more differing animal species, they all retain an recent European renditions of regional incisive commentary on the historical and debasement that followed. Writing in the abusive treatment of Australian landscape article ‘Germany is not Texas. Finding by its white settlers. As a result, Hallam Reunified Germany in the Rural: Christoph employs the term of Ozploitation as ‘eco- Schlingensief’sThe German Chain Saw horror’ to describe a cycle of cult films that Massacre’, Paogoda considers focus on the threatening potential of the Schlingensief’s film in light of wider Australian outback, and can also be tensions surrounding region and nationhood, distinguished from more dominant whilst also offering a comparative analysis American ‘revenge of nature’ traditions. The of the visual elements across both texts. The nationally specific nature of these outback author begins by considering the production, dramas is then detailed by the author marketing and academic reception of the through an analysis of Colin Eggleston’s The Texas Chain Saw Massacre, noting how 1978 filmLong Weekend. Here, nature and the film’s release saw it became indelibly the outback enact a slow and systematic linked with both national tensions occurring campaign of revolt against a bickering in the 1970s, as well as regional aberrations couple, whose marital malaise is figured relating to its Texan locality. It is a similar through their wanted destruction of the rural national/regional focus that the author finds space. Although the film configures its eco- as underpinning Christoph Schlingensief’s horror revenge through a variety of insects, release, which can be viewed as a direct birds and mammals, it is manmade weaponry response to the country’s national and modern machinery that finally lead to reunification in 1990. Indeed,The German the couple’s demise. This further underlines Chain Saw Massacre even focuses on an ill- Hallam’s view that the Ozploitation eco- fated East German group who are waylaid cycle offers a cutting critique of the white and killed by a cannibalistic family from the settlers’ attempts to master and dominate the Western region whist they journey across Australian landscape, which ultimately the newly reintegrated nation. By dwelling signals that a “history of colonisation is on a recently aligned culture that exposes actually one of invasion and exploitation”. the horrors previously concealed within its isolated territories, Schlingensief reveals his Although Hallam’s article seeks to cynicism towards the ideological structure disentangle the Australian ‘revenge of of beliefs that underlie such processes of nature’ narrative from its American German nationalism. This leads Pogoda to a counterpart, Sarah Pogoda’s submission concluding analysis of the ways in

4 INTRODUCTION

Schlingensief’s film distinguishes its spaces white trash typology (defined by distinct of regional depravity from Tobe Hooper’s physiological traits, kinship values, genetic American template. Specifically, by patterns and moral codes), it also enforced relocating its horrors from the countryside the myth that these marginal groups could to Germany’s industrial zones, the film be easily segmented from the more implies that the nation’s centres of socio- mainstream and intellectually developed economic productivity are actually sites of urban dweller. While these marked socio- oppression, exploitation and insatiable economic distinctions remain central to consumption. conflicts frequently played out in backwoods American horror titles, McMurdo applies While Pagoda’s analysis draws attention to them to a British cult film: Eden Lake the ways in which the white trash monster (James Watkins, 2008). The author comes to symbolise wider issues of national contextualises the film’s representation of a unification, it is the pseudo-scientific violent white trash subculture terrorising a principles underpinning the construction of middle class couple against wider media this feared figure that concerns Shellie panics surrounding feral gangs circulating in McMurdo’s contribution. Writing in the the UK at the time of its release. Such press article ‘We Are Never Going in the Woods reporting (which traded on the non-human, Again: The Horror of the Underclass White animalistic tendencies of these wayward Monster in American and British Horror’, youth groups, as well as their defective McMurdo examines cross-cultural family/parenting structures) confirms the constructions of rural aberration against the continuation of eugenics frames of pervasive influence of the eugenics interpretation across more contemporary movement that flourished in both Britain cultural phenomena. For McMurdo,Eden and America. In an incisive opening section, Lake provides “a visual checklist, a pedigree McMurdo outlines how 19th century fears chart similar to those used by the around the unabated growth of the poor and eugenicists.” The film not only functions to dispossessed fed the development of the separate its feral white trash aggressors from movement, whose reach extended into the their potential middle class victims but also 20th century to encompass ‘progressive’ reveals eugenics belief structures as evident educational and social reform measures across British cult film imagery. around birth control and parenting techniques alongside more direct state Whereas McMurdo provides new insight in interventions that included UK legislation to British variants of the white trash myth, aimed at segmenting the intellectually Jon Towlson profiles an American director inferior from its social elite. While these whose films offer significant representations statutory acts aided the development of a of this feared figure. Writing in the article

5 ‘Bad S**t, Killer Worms and Deadly would later explore inJust Before Dawn. Dawns: The Cult Cinema and Rural Excess Often deemed as Lieberman’s lost release of Jeff Lieberman’, the author argues that due its conflicted production and release while Lieberman’s output is often dwarfed history,Just Before Dawn eschews the by horror auteurs such as George A. Romero dominant characteristics of the slasher trend and Wes Craven, his work retains the to focus more on the stark inequalities subversive use of genre imagery and cutting between urban and rural communities that social commentary often attributed to those the film depicts. While the film’s dispossessed other filmmakers. To substantiate this rural killers remain “stereotypically interpretation, Towlson provides a portrayed as impoverished, primitive, inbred consideration of three of Lieberman’s most and morally degenerate”, they are very iconic titles: Squirm(1976) , Blue Sunshine much matched by an unappealing group of (1978) andJust Before Dawn (1981), urban dwellers defined by their obsessions arguing that these titles advance genre with consumption and materiality, thus constructions of rural communities and reinforcing a set of moral ambiguities that seventies subcultures alike. As Lieberman’s can be seen to pervade the film and first feature film,Squirm provided a reboot Lieberman’s wider output. to the revenge of nature horror cycle popular during the decade, through its focus To compliment Jon Towlson’s submission, on earthworms made monstrous by a felled we are also delighted to publish an interview electricity pylon. Despite the film’s visceral with Jeff Lieberman that was especially reputation, for Towlson it is the aspects of prepared for the current edition of theCine- place and location that reveal a more Excess journal. In the article ‘Out of the nuanced understanding of its core concerns. Blue (Sunshine): An Interview with Director By shiftingSquirm from its original Jeff Lieberman’, the filmmaker responds to intended New England setting to that of the interpretations outlined in Towson’s Georgia, the narrative underscores conflicts article, alongside wider critical accounts of between rural and urban communities as its his work. Lieberman begins by discussing key thematic consideration. Here, the how his creative talents were influenced by outbreak of the earthworms killing spree his formative training at film school in New coincides with the arrival of an urban York, as well as consideringon how this outsider, keen to exploit antiquities early work fits with wider trends in 1970s contained within the rural locale. These exploitation cinema production. As well as actions, as well as his participation in a responding to the continued fascination with romance that further disrupts the social the rural images that dominate many of his fabric of the community, establishing a set most iconic narratives, Lieberman also of city/country conflicts that Lieberman considers how these white trash

6 INTRODUCTION interpretations can actually obscure the demonstrate a “double transgression” which gendered focus that he feels underpins films employs imagery of monstrous untamed such asJust Before Dawn.Alongside a animals and the figure of the disruptive forthright dialogue surrounding political outsider to comment upon the settlers’ interpretations of his films, Lieberman inability to contain and master the concludes the interview by contextualising Australian lands they colonised. In his first feature filmSquirm in light of the Razorback this double transgression motif current vogue for seventies horror remakes. fuses the story of a grieving grandfather seeking vengeance against the wild boar that In our second submission dedicated to killed a young relative with an American representations of the Australian outback, activist seeking to document the inhumane Renee Middlemost considers two 1980s cult treatment of the nation’s animals. Although releases that reconstitute the landscape from this disruptive outsider also falls victim to a symbol of national security to a site of the untamed outback creature, her demise is terror. Writing in the article ‘A Monster of as a direct result of the persecution and our Very Own:Razorback , The Marsupials molestation endured at the hands of plant and the Australian Outback’, Middlemost workers responsible for the mistreatment of notes that despite their central focus on rural animals she is seeking to expose. Thus, the space Razorback (Russell Mulcahy, 1984) double transgression device functions in the andHowling III: The Marsupials (Philippe narrative to undercut constructions of Mora, 1987) represent two prominent civility and savagery within an Australian examples that have largely been excluded context. This feature is further explored from critical debates around national through Middlemost’s analysis ofHowling cinema. The author links the marginality of III: The Marsupials, which even more these releases to their reliance on the explicitly links the untamed rural space and controversial 10BA system of tax subsidies the disruptive outsider to longstanding offered to film investors during the 1980s. tensions within the Australian condition. Although this government fund facilitated a Here, white anthropological investigations rapid increase in productions throughout the into lycanthropy coalesce with the plight of decade, the generic nature of the films it a young heroine who seeks refuse from an created, as well as their reliance on abusive set of rural bonds through a international casting led to them frequently relationship with an American filmmaker. being dismissed as inauthentic constructions Events that subsequently unfold not only of Australian culture and identity. Despite reveal the true nature of theheroine’s such critical reservations, Middlemost goes untamed powers, but also foreground the on to provide a convincing analysis of how power of ritualistic belief structures often both films utilize this marginal status to ignored by the film’s empowered white

7 protagonists. If these themes confirm how by the additional “Japanese Period Genre” Australian cult film releases utilise the that the author identifies as reflecting imagery of the untamed outback to provide Indonesia’s period of wartime occupation, unsettling commentaries on the nation’s with more internationally oriented past, then these strategies remain central to productions (combining horror and Middlemost’s revaluation of such film titles, sexploitation traits) also being marketed to which concludes by evaluating the role of rural audiences through the layar tancap contemporary festivals and exhibition platform. Imanjaya does concede that wider platforms as additional circuits through classifications of these Indonesian pulp which to review these texts. cinema texts as ‘cult’ did not begin to circulate until the early 2000s, when a range While Middlemost concludes her analysis by of film titles were marketed to international considering how festivals enhance thecult audiences on the basis of their ‘exotic’ status of outback horror films, is the rural mysticism, generic hybridity and balletic exhibition practices and viewing patterns scenes of violence. However, despite that occupy Ekky Imanjaya’s submission. differences in content and classification, the Writing in the article ‘Entertaining the author offers a convincing consideration of Villagers: Rural Audiences, Travelling layar tancapas an Indonesian rendition of Cinema, and Exploitation Movies in midnight movie phenomenon that helped Indonesia’, Imanjaya provides a case-study popularise cult material in other global of the travelling cinema (orlayar tancap) regions. Indeed, the grindhouse exhibition circuit that became popular in Indonesia comparison appears confirmed by official during the authoritarian ‘New Order’ era. Indonesian definitions oflayar tancapas a Here, mobile film screenings for rural based “second class” product that was consumed audiences functioned as a direct challenge to outside standard cinema venues: “usually the military and political orthodoxy that the location was an outdoor arena such as a dominated between 1966 and 1998. The football field.” Although there is evidence of types of production that circulated in these layar tancapscreening sessions being rural contexts alternated between what exploited by the military regime for Imanjaya terms as the “Legend genre” propagandist purposes, Imanjaya concludes (which recycled popular myths into that these ideological processes remained spectacular action/supernatural narratives) negotiated and resisted by rural audiences, and theKumpeni genre (that offered more who favoured the subversive mixture of historically specific renditions of the uncensored film titles that were consumed in colonial conflicts suffered under Dutch a subcultural viewing environment that this rule). The adaptation of real life trauma for form of mobile cinema afforded. As a result, populist entertainment is further confirmed layar tancapand their rural audiences reveal

8 INTRODUCTION such Indonesian film viewing patterns as a David Maguire and Professor Martin Barker. site of cultural conflict between Accompanying the review of Maguire’s authoritarian state bodies and Indonesia’s volume we are delighted to host additional resistant regional cinemagoers. interviews with Jamie Bernadette and Maria Olsen, two lead performers from the 2019 Completing this edition of the journal are release I Spit on Your Grave Déjà Vu. Here, reviews of the Tim Burton conference held Bernadette and Olsen further reflect on some at the University of Wolverhampton, of the issues raised in David Maguire’s alongside a dialogue surrounding around the book, while both also discuss the continued recent Cultographies volume onISpiton fascination of the white trash monster to the Your Grave, conducted between its author I Spit on Your Gravefranchise.

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Down Under Rises Up: Nature’s Revenge in Ozploitation Cinema Lindsay Hallam

Abstract The Australian outback is a place of isolation. Harsh and uninviting, it seems to hold within it the ghosts of past crimes and a will to destroy anyone who dare try to colonise and contain it. Yet, for the past two hundred years many have sought to dominate this land and in Australian horror cinema the land is beginning to take its revenge. ‘Ozploitation’ films such asWake in Fright(1971), Long Weekend (1978),Roadgames (1981),Razorback (1984),Fair Game (1986), andDark Age (1987), as well as post-2000 horror films such asBlack Water (2007), Rogue (2007), andDying Breed (2008), often have characters battling against the unforgiving environment and its inhabitants. In retaliation against the exploitation and abuse perpetrated by these white settlers, these films present nature as a presence that seeks to avenge and punish past wrongs.

Through the analysis of several key films from Ozploitation past and present, this article will investigate how these films subvert many common Australian stereotypes and question Australian’s national identity as one that is predominantly white, male and rural, demonstrating that nonhuman animals and landscape play an important role in commenting on, and embodying, national history and identity.

Keywords: Ozploitation, Eco-horror, Nature, Nonhuman, Animals, Australia, Revenge.

Introduction Game(1986), Dark Age (1987), andThe The Australian outback is a place of Howling III: The Marsupials(1987), as well isolation. Harsh and uninviting, it seems to as post-2000 horror films such asWolf Creek hold within it the ghosts of past crimes and (2005),Black Water (2007),Rogue (2007), a will to destroy anyone who dare try to andDying Breed (2008), often have colonise and contain it. Yet, for the past two characters battling against the unforgiving hundred years many have sought to environment and its inhabitants (both dominate this land and in Australian horror human and animal). In retaliation against cinema the land is beginning to take its the exploitation and abuse perpetrated by revenge. ‘Ozploitation’ films such asWake these white settlers these films present in Fright(1971), Long Weekend (1978), nature as a presence that seeks to avenge Roadgames (1981),Razorback (1984),Fair and punish past wrongs.

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In many of these films nature’s revenge is embodied and expressed through an animal, usually a large predator such as the crocodiles inDark Age, Rogue and Black Water, or mutated, hybrid creatures such as the giant pig inRazorback or the were- thylacines ofThe Howling III. In Colin Eggleston’s 1978 filmLong Weekend,the animals are still agents of vengeance, but they seem to be in service of a larger force, the force of Nature itself: Gaia, or Mother Nature or mother-Earth.

The evocation of James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis’ Gaia theory suggests that the film presents Earth itself is as a single organism, with humanity therefore portrayed as a primary threat to the organism’s survival.

Everett de Roche, the screenwriter of the Heroes and villains: Poster for TheLong Weekend (1978) film, confirms this view stating that “(n)ature is supposed to be the hero of the Before examiningLong Weekend in more piece”,1 and that the premise of the story detail I will first discuss the specific sub- “was that Mother Earth has her own auto- genre of eco-horror, in which concerns and immune system, so when humans start fears about humanity’s destruction of the behaving like cancer cells, she attacks.”2 environment are expressed and often Yet, humans are more than a viral force that embodied by a monstrous animal. The is just following its own nature, they are animal’s monstrosity is typically the result villains, evildoers who must be made to pay of human interference, and as such becomes for their actions. As the tagline onLong a figure of sympathy even as it wreaks Weekend’s movie poster declares: ‘Their havoc on the human protagonists. Australia crime was against nature… nature found has produced many eco-horror films, and I them guilty.’ The film then depicts nature will argue that this prevalence reveals a guilt meting out its sentence against those who it and shame associated with Australia’s has found guilty, specifically, a couple from colonial history in regards to the resulting an Australian city, Peter and Marcia, who go destruction of the land and the extinction of camping over the long weekend. animal species. I will explore how the land

12 itself in these films becomes sentient and deforestation and species extinction, the aware of human transgressions, whilst the problems associated with nuclear waste and humans themselves remain ignorant. This radiation (culminating in the tragic accident ignorance is embodied by the gangs of on Three Mile Island), increasing pollution, rampaging men that commonly feature in and freak events such as occurrences of acid Ozploitation films, who victimise nonhuman rain. Bernice M. Murphy, in her bookThe animals and women alike. This conflation of Rural Gothic in American Popular Culture: femininity and nature is common in eco- Backwoods Horror and Terror in the horror films, a notion I will examine in Wilderness, explores the basic formula of relation to films such as Fair Game and the 1970s American eco-horror film, which Mad Max: Fury Road (2015). A further is typically set in a small rural town that is invasion of sorts will also be considered in terrorised by a rampaging animal created regards to the impact of American culture from the results of human folly or hubris. not only on the making of Australian films, Despite the presence of a sympathetic human but also in terms of how American protagonist there is also an overriding sense characters are represented as repeating the that the animal antagonist is not purely evil, sins of the original colonial invaders by but an agent of nature’s vengeance which is continuing to use and exploit the land. fighting back in self-defence. Finally, I will return to discussion and analysis ofLong Weekend, exploring how Within these horror narratives the the film presents nature’s revenge as one rampaging animal is thus positioned in the that is righteous – and inevitable. monster role, an embodiment of the liminal state between civilised humanity and Ozploitation as eco-horror instinctual, primal nature. Although the Long Weekend is an early example of what animal threat is usually vanquished and has come to be known as ‘Eco-horror’, a order restored, an underlying sympathy with sub-genre of horror cinema which features the monstrous animal exists and often the nature running amok, often in the form of deaths of ‘deserving’ humans are presented attacking animals or natural disasters and and enjoyed with a certain glee. In Stacy extreme weather. Films with environmental Alaimo’s article ‘Discomforting Creatures: themes and messages about conservation Monstrous Natures in Recent Films’, it is and protection have become more frequent argued that while many eco-horror monster in the past decade, for example,The Last movies confirm the hierarchy that places Winter (2006),The Happening (2008), and human society above nature, demonstrated The Bay (2012). The beginnings of this by a “vertical semiotics”³ in which the trend can be traced back to the 1970s, a time human environment is located above ground of many environmental crises such as while monstrous nature dwells below in

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subterranean underground spaces, there is a Ozploitation production, features shots in “corporeal identification” with the monster which the landscape is depicted as and a “resistance to the desire to demarcate, possessed of knowledge and of threat. In the discipline and eradicate monstrous titular picnic four young girls appear to be natures.”4 I will argue that this resistance drawn to, nay seduced, by the all-powerful exists in Ozploitation eco-horror films rock; repeated low-angle shots convey its wherein the monstrous animal and the overwhelming size and ancient sovereignty, national landscape are represented as the a low rumbling drone suggesting a righteous hero, while the human is presented subterranean force that is ready to erupt. as a destructive force that must be judged The land takes the girls as part of a and sentenced for past transgressions. sacrificial rite, a temporary appeasement that sends those left behind into chaos, if Although most eco-horror films have been only because there is never a clear answer or produced in the US there is also a tradition resolution to the girls’ disappearance. of such films in Australia, as Murphy Nature cannot be known and it cannot be explains: “Eco-horror films are most controlled. commonly found in the US and Australia, both nations established by the descendants While Picnic at Hanging Rock presents of white settlers who set out to create a nature as an ethereal and mysterious “new world” in the midst of a vast, influence (the girls are not taken by force), unfamiliar, and often physically treacherous in Ozploitation films nature becomes landscape occupied by resentful native vengeful and violent, ready to attack. In her inhabitants.”5 Thus, in Australian films of article ‘Australian Eco-horror and Gaia’s this type we can see an interrogation of Revenge: Animals, Eco-Nationalism and the Australian history and a confrontation with “New Nature”’, Catherine Simpson explores the wrongs that have been committed the notion of trespass in these films, positing against the land and its native inhabitants, that the humans in these films “deserve what both human and nonhuman. The narrative of they get.”6 For Simpson, there is a “double colonisation is subverted in the eco-horror trespass, both cultural and ecological” as film, revealing colonisation as invasion and human characters invade land that is already viral contagion. Echoing de Roche’s earlier inhabited by those who are indigenous to it, statement in which Mother Nature is both human and nonhuman.7 Not only do positioned as the hero, the land itself these invaders disrupt and brutalise the land becomes embodied and sentient. Even Peter through the creation of roads, farms, and Weir’s 1975 filmPicnic at Hanging Rock, tourist attractions, there are also an example of a film from the Australian transgressions against indigenous cultural New Wave, which ran in parallel to practices and sacred sites. Simpson refers to

14 Greg McLean’s 2007 filmRogue , in which a horror films are portrayed as completely giant crocodile attacks a group of tourists on unsympathetic, as users and exploiters of a boat after they trespass onto a waterway the land. In the documentaryNot Quite on sacred land.As the tour guide Kate Hollywood: The Wild, Untold Story of (Radha Mitchell) acknowledges, “We’re not Ozploitation! (2008), director Quentin meant to be here.”As they pass through the Tarantino mentions the prevalence in waterway several wide shots, one from Australian films of “marauding packs of overhead, reveals the expanse of the bullies… [who] roam the highways looking landscape and the relative smallness and for people to pick on, women to rape, and powerlessness of the boat – as well as guys to beat up… they roam the countryside planting the suggestion of another presence looking for people to fuck with.” Certainly, that is observing and beginning to circle in. in many Australian horror films these It is eerily quiet, with only the almost rampaging men commonly feature, and as inaudible sound of high-pitched strings, as well as looking for ‘people to fuck with’ close-ups of Kate and Pete, an American they just as often take their aggression out journalist, portray their unease. As they on the land and nonhuman animals. These continue to glide through between two men are the product of colonisation, cliffs, one of the tourists, Simon, begins to malevolent invaders armed with guns and take pictures of a drawing of a crocodile that mechanised weapons, souped up cars and is etched onto the rock. As he takes the heavy utility vehicles that crush everything photos there is the sound of indigenous under their weight. music and a lone voice singing – there is no one there so the landscape itself seems to be One of the most shocking scenes in any producing the music. Simon drops the Australian film is the kangaroo hunt that camera and looks unsettled; his taking of the takes place in Ted Kotcheff’s 1971 film photos, of treating sacred land as a tourist Wake in Fright, which uses actuality footage attraction, is a further trespass and of a real hunt. The hunt takes place at night exploitation of the land. Not only have they after an afternoon of male bonding and committed an ecological trespass by using heavy drinking. The scene in question sees the waterway and disrupting the area, the the film cross over into documentary, an music also signals their cultural trespass and exposé of commonplace practices that many the breaking of indigenous laws. people are unaware of. The hunt is excruciating to watch, a stark representation The tourists inRogue are not intentionally of human barbarity and brutality perpetrated ill-willed, being drawn to the area through against a native species that has become an curiosity and fascination. In contrast, many Australian icon used in many tourist characters found in other Ozploitation eco- advertisements, as well as in the popular

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children’s television showSkippy the Bush the men attempts to rape her, and in one Kangaroo which aired from 1968-1970. incredibly horrifying scene they strip her Andrew McCallum writes that during the and tie her up onto the front of their utility filming of the scene “Members of the crew vehicle (the way she is posed is similar to were shocked to find the hunters drinking the mounting of kangaroo and other animal during the hunt and described the event as ‘trophies’). In order to combat these an “orgy of killing”, eventually staging a invaders upon her sanctuary Jessica must power failure to put it to an end.”8 Upon the use their mechanised weapons against them. film’s release it was a commercial failure in Heller-Nicholas rightly asserts that: “If the Australia, with one audience member film’s symbolic logic is to be understood reportedly shouting out “That’s not us!” correctly, the only chance nature (and the during a screening. Actor Jack Thompson’s feminine) have against machines (and the retort to the audience member: “Sit down, masculine) is to succumb totally to its mate. It is us”, demonstrates how the film dominant order and use its power to fight contains harsh truths that the Australian it.”10 As this comment suggests, a common public were unwilling to confront. This trope in eco-horror films is the confluence of scene reveals the stark contrast between the nature and femininity, which is set in representations of the kangaroo in advertising opposition to masculinity and colonialism. and children’s television (often broadcast to Although such a binary opposition is built international audiences), and the day-to-day on essentialist representations of gender, it treatment of the animal in the Australian also brings with it a darker sexual threat as outback – they are not cute companions but Fair Game illustrates. The colonial viewed as vermin to be exterminated. masculine force does not only destroy, it commits acts of violation and exploitation in Another ‘marauding pack of bullies’ also its quest for power, which are enacted on the shows up in Mario Andreacchio’s 1986 film land and on the bodies of women Fair Game, with kangaroos again being subject to slaughter, this time in a sanctuary The recent film Mad Max: Fury Road run by a woman, Jessica, played by (2015) presents the struggle of women who Cassandra Delaney. According to Alexandra must flee sexual slavery by taking up arms Heller-Nicholas, inFair Game “masculinity and fighting back using tools commonly is aligned with machines, while femininity associated with masculine power. As a late is aligned with nature.”9 Just as the men instalment of the Mad Max franchise, a stalk and hunt the kangaroos, they begin to series which typifies the Ozploitation style do the same to Jessica, but with a disturbing of fast cars and extreme violence,Fury sexualised aspect to their attacks: they take Road confronts head-on past representations photos of her while she sleeps naked, one of of female victimisation and proceeds to shift

16 the position of women from that of victim to often viewed in the Australian media as a hero. With her mastery of cars and guns the form of cultural imperialism, an American character of Imperator Furiosa illustrates invasion of Australian cultural expression that these devices no longer belong to the that shifts into an extra-textual discourse domain of the male and exist in conjunction beyond the representation of American with the cultivation of the land and in characters in the films themselves. Richard balance with nature, as seen in the Franklin states that “there was some hostile community of women that she is a part of. press about using an American cast in These women join Furiosa, along with Max, Australian movies”,¹¹ in particular from in a battle against the dominant masculine journalist Bob Ellis, who appears inNot power that treats women as sexual slaves Quite Hollywood sardonically exclaiming and breeding machines (earlier in the film that “I felt then as now that Americans are Max himself is also treated similarly, as a scum and should not be let anywhere near ‘blood bag’- a human who exists to provide our money.” There was even an outcry from blood for a wounded War Boy).Mad Max: Actors Equity after the casting of Keach and Fury Road is thus a contemporary film that Curtis, claiming that jobs were being taken harks back to the original Ozploitation away from working Australian actors.¹² Yet, period (albeit with a much bigger budget), the influence from Hollywood genre cinema while also playing with the previous binary on Ozploitation cinema is very apparent – opposition that divided nature and Franklin was marketed as ‘the Australian machinery along strict gender lines. Hitchcock’ (in Not Quite Hollywood Franklin describesRoadgames as ‘Rear In one respect though,Mad Max: Fury Road Window set on a truck’), while Russell continues the Ozploitation tradition by Mulcahy’sRazorback exhibited a casting two non-Australian leads, Charlize heightened and stylised MTV aesthetic, Theron and Tom Hardy. Richard Franklin’s cultivated from Mulcahy’s previous Roadgames from 1981 typified this trend experience in music video direction. toward international casting as its two protagonists, Quid and Hitch, are played Nods to American film making and the respectively by American actors Stacy American market are often made Keach and Jamie Lee Curtis. Often the begrudgingly though, with American casting of non-Australian actors, characters in Australian films frequently particularly Americans, was down to represented in a negative light, as sightseers commercial interests, an attempt for the film who treat the land and wildlife as mere to gain a larger international audience tourist attractions and entertainments. through Hollywood star power. Yet, this Simpson states that “the deaths of kowtowing to commercial interests was Americans can be read as more ‘invasion

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scenarios”… foreign imperialists getting thylacine, in fictional films and the their just desserts from meddling in another occasional news story, are examples of nation’s business… The foreigners and wishful thinking, a hope that we are no tourists are unable to know, understand and longer guilty of its extinction – which may read the land.”¹³ While historically Australia be why they are never shown to be avenging has ties to Great Britain, through the course their elimination. of the twentieth century there was a marked increase in the influence of America on In contrast to the portrayals of thylacines as Australian culture. Simpson’s assertion that non-violent, the nonhuman species that do this can be viewed as an ‘invasion scenario’ enact revenge are ones that commonly is apt, with the taking over of Australian known to be dangerous predators, primarily culture by an outside force answered with a crocodiles who are a species that hark back harsh response from the land itself. to the prehistoric and prehuman era. In Dark Age the crocodile is protected by the local As Simpson makes clear, human deaths at indigenous people, who believe it to contain the hand of animal or nature are presented their spirit and link to ancient times. The as somewhat justified. These films are white poachers who hunt the crocodile and expressions of national guilt and shame at make racist remarks about the Aboriginal historical mistreatment of the native flora, people of the area are the ones who are fauna and human inhabitants. Simpson cites attacked, suggesting that the animal is Tim Low’s admonition of Australia’s directing its vengeance toward those who terrible record when it comes to animal are a threat – toward those who really extinction (it has one of the worst in the ‘deserve’ it. The tradition of stories and world), and even quotes Val Plumwood’s films involving rampaging animals killing use of the term ‘animal holocaust’ to human prey can thus be read as admittances describe Australia’s history of species of guilt: we realise our culpability as the elimination at the hands of human and agents directly responsible for their industrial development.14 The thylacine, or destruction, yet also express underlying Tasmanian tiger as it is also known, is a fears of retaliation – once nature finds us common example of an extinct species that guilty, what sentence will she mete out? haunts Australian cinema. In its appearances Although we may deserve our punishment, in films such as The Howling III: The we will not be able to overcome our own Marsupials, Dying Breed,andThe Hunter instincts for survival, as these films illustrate (2011) the creature is depicted as non- in their climatic battles between human and threatening, its continued survival nonhuman. depending on it remaining hidden from the human population. Sightings of the

18 “Nature found them guilty”:Long Weekend to injury, the camera stays on the lifeless In Colin Eggleston’sLong Weekend the kangaroo as another car drives by and again revenge enacted is a gradual, systematic, runs over the animal. and silent one, which suggests that nature is beginning a process of taking back the land and punishing those who have sinned against it. Unlike the rampaging men seen in Wake in Fright, Fair Game and many other Ozploitation movies, the protagonists of Long Weekend are quite different (as is the style of the film, which is not attempting to Soon to be less-than-happy campers: intruders in the Bush ape Hollywood but instead goes for something more experimental). Peter and Once at their camp they continue their Marcia are a married couple – unhappily insensitive treatment of the land: littering, married – who live in the city and, like spraying insecticide, aimlessly chopping at a many tourists from other nations, only tree and firing guns for no particular reason. venture into the bush for a holiday. They are However, it soon becomes apparent that the not outback residents, they are modern and land and its inhabitants are not taking this urban: Marcia angrily comments that Peter mistreatment lying down. In fact, Gaia/ has spent $2000 on camping equipment – nature/Mother Earth had been making the the same amount it would cost to get “a five couple aware of her unhappiness about their star suite at The Southern Cross”. Although arrival from the beginning, as the couple has the couple are not getting along – it is trouble finding where to camp, getting lost revealed that Marcia has had an affair and and seemingly going in circles. Murphy an abortion – they are equals: equally states that in Australian films, “The natural unsympathetic, that is. Not only do they landscape is possessed of an intelligence constantly argue and snipe at each other, that may not see white Australians in a they also treat their surroundings with the particularly welcoming light.”15 Yet once same lack of care and consideration. Even there, they are forbidden to leave – they before they arrive at their campsite, a close- must face judgement and the subsequent up shows that the cigarette Peter punishment for their crimes. The first shot thoughtlessly tossed out of the car window of the film puts the viewer ill at ease. There has caused the dry grass to be set alight; and is a close-up of a spider climbing up a rock, due to his tiredness he also runs over a a seemingly innocuous image (depending on kangaroo (kangaroos really do have a hard your view of spiders), yet the music time of it in Australian films). Adding insult provides a menacing atmosphere.

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Throughout the film there are a series of Furthermore, although Peter and Marcia close-ups of animals – again, they aren’t perpetrate many abuses against the land, doing anything particularly threatening, they they are not extreme ones. In this respect are just there, watching and judging. These Marcia and Peter are typical campers, shots reveal that Peter and Marcia are completely unaware of their ‘crimes’ and constantly observed, that just as we see them too wrapped up in their own human drama mistreat the land and its inhabitants, so too do to realise the consequences of their actions. the nonhuman animals. The subsequent events Restating Simpson’s quote from earlier, are thus the outcome of their judgement. these characters “are unable to know, understand and read the land.”19 It could be Unlike the attacking predators inRazorback , argued that the threats from nature are also Rogue, and several other films, these animals repeated chances given to the couple to are not actively attacking and feeding on acknowledge their responsibility and human prey – the process of punishment is change, yet they are too ignorant to heed slower, seemingly methodical. In a review these warnings. fromCinema Papers written at the time of the film’s release, Scott Murray sees a fundamental problem with this representation of the animals: “Because the animals are shown to be menacing before they have been menaced, they are basically unsympathetic.”16 Murray even goes on to suggest that Eggleston presents a distorted All mod cons in the Outback view of the animals: “An inoffensive goanna is photographed to look like a Another problematic element of the crocodile, while a wombat is asked to take narrative is the issue of Marcia’s abortion. on demonic portents.”17 Screenwriter Unlike Jessica inFair Game whose Everett de Roche also echoes this sentiment, femininity is in sync with nature, Marcia is stating that “the bush comes across as a in complete disharmony – she states early threat too early; it should have emerged as a on that she is “not the outdoor type” and she threat only after the audience had is incredibly bored by her surroundings. sympathised with the animals. And I don’t Exemplifying Marcia’s conflict with her think the sympathy is there.”18 De Roche location and complete lack of maternal mentions the opening shot and the heavy, instinct is an incident where she finds an menacing score as contributing to the eagle egg. Several shots show her look at it, representation of the animals as threatening hold it, and place it on a soft surface. Peter rather than as being victimised. jokes that it should be “made into an

20 omelette”, Marcia does not respond. Soon pup crying for its mother (although at first after this remark Peter is attacked by an Peter claims not to hear the sound, which eagle. Marcia is convinced that the eagle suggests initially that the sound is in was the mother and was after her egg, which Marcia’s head, an expression of guilt). she then throws against a tree, an extreme close-up showing the egg smash with blood There is soon a shift in this perception, as it oozing down the bark. Peter admonishes her is with the dead dugong that a supernatural and says “It’s a living thing.” Then in a later presence starts to be felt, with the body of scene when the two have a very impassioned the dugong appearing to move.At the and vitriolic fight, Peter again brings up the climax of the film, with Peter alone in the destruction of the egg in the same sentence bush unable to find his way out, he stumbles in which he mentions her abortion: “You across the dugong far away from the beach. knew it wasn’t mine and you attacked it, just Peter comes across another abandoned like you attacked that eagle’s egg.” camp, indicating that Peter and Marcia are not the first victims, that this land is The film is in danger here of taking on a possibly ‘haunted’or has become a hunting rather moralistic tone – are these two ground for nature and its agents (the singled out for attack because of Marcia’s animals) to wreak vengeance on the humans abortion? Is this act being aligned with their who have for so long been the ones to hunt, other acts of harm against nature? It is control and exploit. Found at the abandoned unclear. The representation of motherhood campsite is a dog who Peter finds inside a and the instinct to protect one’s young is tent. The dog bares its teeth and looks persistent throughout the film. Not only do poised to attack. While the human campers we have the eagle attack, there is also the have seemingly vanished, the dog has been dugong that Peter shoots and buries on the spared and has taken its place in the ocean shore. Marcia sees the dugong and wilderness. Meanwhile, Peter’s dog Cricket calls it “ugly” and that it “stinks”, while remains a loyal companion. Whilst alone at Peter looks at it and says, ‘you poor old night Peter implores Cricket, ‘You wouldn’t lady’ and buries it (although it doesn’t stay leave me, would you, girl?’ buried for long!). Notably, the nonhuman animals seen throughout the film are However, it ends up being Peter who leaves primarily female – the eagle, the dugong, Cricket in the car, as he proceeds to run and Peter’s dog Cricket. Peter and Marcia through the bush desperate to find an are also plagued by a repeated sound of a escape. Yet, Peter and Marcia are eventually mournful cry, which Marcia likens to a killed at the hands of other humans. After baby’s cry. This turns out be close to the Marcia leaves and fails to find her way back truth as it is the sound of the dead dugong’s Peter sits in the dark, armed with a spear

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gun. He hears several noises and in terror fires the spear. As the sun rises, it is revealed that the noise Peter heard was Marcia and he has killed her. Unlike the situation inFair Game, where the feminine force of nature must take up the symbols of masculine Just roadkill or just desserts? power in order to vanquish its enemy, in Long Weekend mechanised masculine power In conclusion, through the analysis of is rendered useless. Cars soon run out of several key films from Ozploitation past and petrol and become bogged down in the mud, present, it is revealed that Australia’s history weapons are turned against the user as the of colonisation is actually one of invasion night sky obscures all targets. Nature need and exploitation. That this counter view of only manipulate the surroundings for a short history is expressed through eco-horror time, as eventually the human instinct for tropes reveals not only the guilt attached to selfish survival will do the dirty work. Later this history, but also the underlying fear of when Peter reaches a road he is run over by retribution. Incorporating elements from a huge truck. The camera lifts up and in both the European arthouse and the wide shot we see the truck driver walk over American grindhouse, the foreign influences to Peter’s lifeless body, which he then and characters in these films subvert many decides to leave rather than seeking help. common Australian stereotypes and Although justice has been served – Peter is question Australia’s national identity as one now reduced to the status of roadkill, that is predominantly white, male and rural. recalling the kangaroo that he ran over Further, these films also question notions of earlier in the film – the crane shot also the Other in terms of the human and reveals that the truck’s cargo is cattle, most nonhuman, as animals and landscape play likely being transported to a slaughterhouse. an important role in commenting on, and embodying, national history and identity. While Peter and Marcia have been dealt with, the cattle in the truck signals the wider injustice that is still being perpetrated. In solidarity with this continuing loss, as the man walks away from Peter’s body we hear once again the mournful cry of the dugong.

1Davies, P. (2008) “Everett de Roche”,Senses of Cinema, 2Graham, A.W. (2012) “Crafting ‘Little Aussie Issue 48. Found at: http://sensesofcinema.com/2008/ Masterpieces’: An Interview with Everett de Roche”. dossier-on-australian-exploitation/everett-de-roche/ Found at: http://www.spectacularoptical.ca/2012/06/an- [accessed 11 December 2015] interview-with-everett-de-roche/ [accessed 11 December 2015]

22 3Alaimo, S. (2001) “Discomforting Creatures: Monstrous 10Heller-Nicholas 2011: 111. Nature in Recent Films”, in Armbruster, K. and Wallace, 11“Richard Franklin Interview &Eskimo Nell Article”. K.R. (eds),Beyond Nature Writing: Expanding the Found at: http://mondostumpo.blogspot.com.au/2007/11/ Boundaries of Ecocriticism. Charlottesville: University richard-franklin-interview-2002.html [accessed 30 Press of Virginia. 279-296: 280. December 2015] 4 Alaimo, 294. 12O’Regan, T.Australian National Cinema.London: 5Murphy, B.M. (2013)The Rural Gothic in American Routledge, 108. Popular Culture: Backwoods Horror and Terror in the 13Simpson, 47. Wilderness. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 181. 14Simpson, 44. 6Simpson, C.(2010) “Australian Eco-Horror and Gaia’s 15Murphy, 211. Revenge”, Studies in Australasian Cinema, 4 (1): 51. 16Murray, S. (2008) “Long Weekend”, Senses of Cinema, 7Simpson, 47. Issue 48. Found at: http://sensesofcinema.com/2008/ 8McCallum, A. (2014) “The Hunt:Wake in Fright”,Senses dossier-on-australian-exploitation/long-weekend/ of Cinema, Issue 70. Found at: http://sensesofcinema.com/ [accessed 11 December 2015] 2014/key-moments-in-australian-cinema-issue-70-march- 17Murray. 2014/the-hunt-wake-in-fright-ted-kotcheff-1971/ [accessed 30 December 2015] 18Davies. 19 9Heller-Nicholas, A. (2011) Rape-Revenge Films: A Simpson, 47. Critical Study. Jefferson: McFarland, 110.

23 Germany is Not Texas. Finding Reunified Germany in the Rural: Christoph Schlingensief’sThe German Chain Saw Massacre Sarah Pogoda

Abstract The article deals with Christoph Schlingensief’s filmThe German Chain Saw Massacre (1990) as an immediate filmic response to the German Reunification of 1989/1990. Decoding the most prominent references to German history and the mythological narrative on the German nation, the article shows how Schlingensief appropriates Tobe Hooper’sThe Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974) but at the same time creating an original filmic contribution. Focusing on both, Hooper’s and Schlingensief’s usage of the rural as a topography that is inscribed by national narratives, the article elaborate on the importance of the Ruhr region which is whereThe German Chain Saw Massacre was shot. By doing so, the article explores the Chain Saw plot as a transnational narrative.

Keywords Christoph Schlingensief, German Trilogy, German Reunification, Transnationalism, Capitalism and Cannibalism, Chain Saw Massacre, Helmut Kohl.

The Texas Chain Saw Massacre complexity of its cultural references and the Tobe Hooper’sThe Texas Chain Saw ingenuity of the director’s filmmaking. Most Massacre (1974,TCSM ) is indisputably a critical work on the film draws on Wood’s cult classic. Critics have described it as “a early reading of it, and hence focuses on the key text of the 1970s post-studio period”,¹ political climate of the US in the 1970s, “among the most effective horror films ever particularly such events as the Vietnam War, made”,² a film that stands out for its shrewd the Watergate scandal or the Cambodia aesthetics.³ Robin Wood, as one of the first bombing.5 Some scholars conflate these critics to express admiration for Hooper’s claims with remarks on Hooper’s ground- film, concluded his Marxist-Freudian breaking visual style, which is said to analysis by labelling horror films “the most disconcertingly confound viewers’ genre important of all American film genres” of expectations. Others relate the political the 1970s4 for their ability to express an context of the film to its cosmic symbolism, America in crisis. Now often cited as a either elaborating on the former’s “struggle seminal text of American cinema, Hooper’s between good and evil”6, or viewing its fatal film has received a plethora of scholarly trajectory as a metaphor for life.7 Avoiding attention that has brought forth both the such broad interpretations, Roche explores

24 how the narrative of the film allegorises regional horror.11 According to Rose, the industrial capitalism in its late phase.8 film’s particular regional context is part of its stylistic and thematic coherence. Rose Roche’s reading has much in common with points out that the title of the film evokes Merritt and Jackson, who focus on the verisimilitude. Supported by the conditions of industrial production and how documentary style of the first few minutes they replace human labour by mechanical of the film, the name Texas in the title labour.9 This historical development is consolidates the reality of the events that indeed represented in the film by its family follow.¹² Furthermore, in the context of the of unemployed butchers trying to make ends early 1970s, Texas recalls traumatic events meet by slaughtering people with a chain saw. of the recent past, such as the murder of John F. Kennedy and “the Charles Whitman TCSM seems to allow a wide range of shooting spree at the University of Texas, readings. From the wide range of alongside notions of small and insular interpretations available we can infer that farming communities, rednecks, racism, the chain saw narrative not only constitutes homophobia, inbreeding, and the constant, an apocalyptic vision of the United States in intense heat.”13 For her part, Brown outlines 10 the 1970s, but serves as a transnational the social conditions of 1970s Texas, which imagining of the decline of Western society gave new life to the hillbilly trope.14 Many under late capitalism. I would argue that the scholars follow Brown in identifying the transnational implications of the chain saw Sawyer family in TCSM as ‘hillbillies’, narrative have received scant attention; while locating these figures firmly in the similarly, there has thus far been little film’s regional landscape.15 Bell, for critical engagement with the influence and instance, analyses how the function of the legacy of Hooper’s film beyond the context homegrown American monster is taken up of the USA. in the film by Texan country folk.16

Texas in the Chain Saw Massacre Even so, the epistemic value of the Texas What has been explicitly identified is the location complements rather than specifically Texan location of Hooper’s undermines the transnational implications of films. The fact that the title of the film was the chain saw narrative, exemplifying how initially to be Leatherface and was later transnational codes are adapted at national changed – although some crew members level, and how national and regional strongly protested against the naming of specificity can be transliterated into different Texas in the title – suggests that the film’s national contexts. Christoph Schlingensief’s geographical specificity is significant. The German Chain Saw Massacre(1990, Brown and Rose, for instance, agree with GCSM) is an instructive example. Albright thatTCSM is a milestone of

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Landscapes in Christoph Schlingensief’s and intense situations. With most of his films Films he sought isolation, opting to shoot in Like Hooper’s film title invoking Texas, remote locations where crewmembers’ Schlingensief’s film explicitly names social contacts with the ‘outside world’ were Germany as the location of its chain saw severely reduced. As a result, group dynamics tale. And like Hooper for the Texas were intensified within this microcosm to countryside, Schlingensief goes to great the extent that interpersonal relations among lengths to reference images associated with the crew became tense and conflictual. the German landscape. This was probably motivated less by a desire on Schlingensief’s part to emulate Hooper than by Schlingensief’s own understanding of filmmaking. Schlingensief’s style certainly has affinities with Hooper’s ‘guerrilla’ approach to filmmaking. For instance, as Hooper’s film crew was behind schedule, Egomania. Island without Hope: Extreme working they were forced to shoot the film’s climax – conditions: bitterly cold shots of the North Sea island of Langeroog the evening dinner with the Sawyer family – over 26 long hours. The Texas summer caused almost unbearable conditions. With 95° Fahrenheit plus and animal props, filled with formaldehyde, literally rotting under the lights17 (Muir, 15), the shooting itself turned into an experience of gore and horror. The make-up artist Dorothy J. Pearl is remembered as having said: “At one point, Egomania. Island without Hope: more extreme working […] I looked around and thought, we are conditions: a shot of the actor Volker Bertzky’s body truly living this thing. We aren’t making it showing how the conditions make it into the film any more. We’re living it.”18 Schlingensief’s films undoubtedly mirror the mood on set. One of the most impressive Schlingensief, too, worked on a low budget, examples of this approach to filmmaking and most of his films were shot within a few can be found in Schlingensief’s100 Years of days, under extreme working conditions. In Adolf Hitler. The Last Hour in the interviews, he confirms that he did indeed Führerbunker (1988), made over a 16-hour aim for a gaining of momentum when period in an original World War II bunker: shooting and that he therefore chose the most isolated location possible was locations which could trigger uncontrollable found and the experience was intensified by

26 the practice of shooting until everyone was Wall and the official celebrations at the totally exhausted, irrespective of whether Brandenburg Gate, showing women in the end of the script had been reached. The Trabants (the iconic East German car) and performative relevance of the shooting men with bananas yelling “We are the location was particularly important for people”.19 But instead of joining the Schlingensief’s early films, such as celebrations Schlingensief’s mind was full Tunguska. The Crates Are Here!(1983), of the dreadful images of Hooper’sThe shot in the space of just nine days in the Texas Chain Saw Massacre Iand II(1974 apocalyptic setting of a quarry in Rauen, or and 1986) that he had seen only a few the metaphysical melodrama Egomania – weeks before. Island without Hope (1986), shot over 10 bitterly cold days on the North Sea island As a result, Schlingensief sat down and of Langeroog. wrote his screenplay. A viewer acquainted with the chain saw formula can predict most 100 years of Adolf Hitler, followed by of the narrative events. East Germans GCSM andTerror 2000. Intensive Care Unit leaving their former homeland of the GDR Germany (1992), comprised Schlingensief’s for West Germany are caught, slaughtered Trilogy of Germany. As the series title and minced into sausages by a cannibalistic suggests, these films about Germany mark a family of West German butchers – a similar shift in his work towards a more directly premise to that of TCSM. However, whereas politicised engagement with history and the latter opens with images of an excavated place. As I argue below, the location of the corpse, with the black screen only films is now where Germany itself is sporadically illuminated by a camera flash, happening, where the Germany of the late Schlingensief’sGCSM opens with the TV 1980s and early 1990s (as seen by coverage of the state ceremony for the re- Schlingensief) is simultaneously coming to unification of Germany at the Brandenburg the surface and where it is rooted. Gate in Berlin. While Hooper’s soundtrack for those pre-credit images takes the form of The German Chain Saw Massacre a radio report on recent grave robberies Written, shot and edited within three weeks across the country, Schlingensief’s in early October 1990,GCSM was a very soundtrack comes from the TV coverage, early and immediate response to the fall of consisting of moments from the speech by the Berlin Wall in November 1989 and the the then German president, Richard von official reunification of Germany on 3 Weizsäcker, accompanied by the national October 1990. Schlingensief once stated that anthem and people cheering. We might say the idea for the film came to him as he that death and decay characterise Hooper’s watched a TV broadcast about the fall of the introduction, while a new beginning and a

27 GERMANY IS NOT TEXAS

promising future is what concerns teleological end after a long and fraught Schlingensief’s. Yet even as Schlingensief’s journey. To elaborate on this: in the late 18th adaptation of Hooper’s original seems to century, when there was as yet no political contradict its model, the very contrast body called Germany, but an emerging implies that Schlingensief’s opening is longing for a unified Germany was intended to be read as horror. That is to say, beginning to make itself felt, the two most Schlingensief blended the positive and famous German poets – Friedrich Schiller triumphalist images of cheerful, rejoicing and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – coined Germans with the disturbing images from a legendary aphorism: “Deutschland. Aber Hooper’s films, which were still fresh in his wo liegt es? Ich weiß das Land nicht zu mind, and both have the same terrifying finden, wo das gelehrte beginnt, hört das effects. Anthony Coulson argues that politische auf.”²² – “Germany. But where is Schlingensief’s film with its array of it? I cannot find this country. Where cultural hegemonic images of reunification is a kind Germany begins, there the Germany of of critical manifesto about that specific politics ends.” The aphorism expresses a historical moment and what lay behind it: hegemonic discourse about the identity of the German nation that was to emerge in the Schlingensief targets his succeeding two centuries. The idea of onslaught, in drastic hyperbole, on Germany as a nation that only finds its the image-making itself, on the identity as a cultural entity (as the land of screen drama of national poets and thinkers) but lacks territorial and celebration. For him the depravity political unity became one of the most of these images, and of the society prominent and influential topoi in the that apparently believes in them, German national narrative – encapsulated in consists in camouflaging the the term “cultural nation” (“Kulturnation”), unsavoury realities of unification, which the German historian Friedrich realities which, with few Meinecke coined at the end of the 19th inhibitions, his satire then century.²³ Almost 200 years after Schiller proceeds to expose.20 and Goethe and following two centuries of Germany struggling with its geopolitical WhereasTCSM responds to the pessimism frontiers, borders began to blur again, of American youth in the late 1960s and shaping a unified Germany and – as it were early 1970s,²¹ Schlingensief reacts finally – successfully completing the viscerally to the optimism of the Germans in national project. Schlingensief, however, is 1989 and 1990. That is, the euphoria around more than a little sceptical about this reunification was linked to the idea that the supposed new reality. In one of the early German nation had finally achieved its scenes, a Trabbi rattles along an unsurfaced

28 road, until it hits a name sign saying GDR. contradicts the promise of freedom that Logically speaking, you have to assume that former East Germans associated with the car has just entered the GDR, since the German reunification. However, we soon sign is passed in the direction of travel. But discover that Klara is not alone at this site, if you follow the alternative logic of the for it teems with characters, symbols and narrative, then the car has just passed the sounds from both highbrow and lowbrow border into West Germany. The same German mythology, such as Fritz Haarmann uncertainty is evoked when the East German (a German equivalent of Ed Gein), or the fact heroine, Klara (the film’s equivalent of that one of the butcher family members Hooper’s Sally) crosses the border into West wears a winged helmet (except that the wings Germany. Since this takes place at night, are replaced by sausages). The following only the border crossing-point itself is night, Klara is poisoned with a potion, and illuminated; but it is surrounded by intense dreams a danse macabre: among the darkness. Both the GDR, soon to be left dancers is Adolf Hitler. This and other behind, and West Germany, which is about references to the German National Socialist to be entered, lack any distinguishing past, for instance a torchlight procession by features: the border might be anywhere and the male members of the family, unsettle nowhere. Every aspect of these shots seems any feelings of national pride in German directly to challenge ideas of what and reunification that the spectator might have where Germany is, or will be in times to experienced. come. Schlingensief subverts the euphoria of German reunification, instead affirming Goethe’s and Schiller’s topos of an intangible German nation.

When Klara awakens in her car the morning after she has crossed the border, West

Germany appears mysteriously out of the The German Chain Saw Massacre: A member of the fog. Klara’s new life, the start of which is butcher family with his winged helmet implied with her awakening in the new A scarcely less ambiguous soundtrack country, begins in a grim and off-putting accompanies these visual references. A manner. The lifting of the fog merely scratchy gramophone plays various German unveils an unappealing grey and isolated folk songs. “Die Gedanken sind frei, wer site dominated by brutal concrete blocks the kann sie erraten” (“Thoughts are free, who function of which remains unclear. These can guess them”)²4, for instance, is the blocks not only obstruct Klara’s view, but iconic German song about freedom of also evoke a claustrophobic mood which thought that has served as a political protest

29 GERMANY IS NOT TEXAS

song in the cause of liberation ever since the Und Pommerland ist abgebrandt.26 rise of the German national liberal (Fly Ladybird! movement in the early 19th century. Father’s at war. Another isRoter Wedding25, a political Mother’s in Pomerania. protest song of theAlliance of Red Front And Pomerania’s burnt down.) Fighters during the Weimar Republic. The text by Erich Weinert (melody by Hanns GCSMappears to work quite similarly to Eisler) tells the story of the so-called TCSM in the way it employs elements of Bloody May of 1929, when the Berlin national narrative and culture to present a police brutally fought back against disturbing account of current national protesting workers and several protesters sensitivities. When he presents the members were killed. Another folk song is “Hoch auf of the family of butchers singing German dem gelben Wagen” (“High on the Yellow folk songs while they hunt for East Wagon”). This song, originally from the late Germans, Schlingensief links allegedly 19th century and long forgotten, regained innocuous traditions of German popularity in 1973 when the then German romanticism with savagery. Schlingensief Foreign Minister (and later German Federal reads German history less as an President) Walter Scheel sang it on a well- eschatological trajectory than as a history of known German television charity show. violence which haunts Germany´s presence 300,000 copies of the resulting record were and future. sold, and the song entered the music charts and stayed there for 15 weeks. The way Transposing Texan Rural Spaces into these songs fill the scene of the chain saw Industrial Germany massacre means the landscape is inscribed Brown reconstructs how the aesthetics of with their embedded references to German the European Gothic were transposed into political history, which appears as a history the existential conditions of the American 27 of perpetual political struggle and warfare. people. In her account, the main difference This is suggested, for example, when the between the latter and the European Gothic family of butchers, as it hunts for victims, is to be found in the Gothic space. Whereas intones the famous German nursery rhyme enclosed spaces are the loci of European “Maikäfer flieg!” (a version of “Ladybird, horror, it is the Frontier with its vast and Ladybird, Fly Away Home”): open spaces that haunts the American Gothic imagination. She further argues that Maykäfer, flieg! it is not the European haunted house that we Der Vater ist im Krieg. find inAmerican horror films, but an Die Mutter ist im Pommerland. abandoned farmhouse. As Hooper’s film

30 demonstrates, Texas is emblematic of the spaces of the American Gothic. Its dry, brown vegetation stretches seemingly infinitely through a flat, open landscape. Hooper captures this vast openness in shots which Bridget Cherry has gone so far as to describe as sublime. The immensity of space dwarfs all the characters, rendering them The German Chain Saw Massacre: Schlingensief’s claustrophobic staging of the abandoned industrial site, 28 victims of a hostile, deathly world. and a lost Klara looking for help

Schlingensief transforms the Texan rural The industrial site refers to both the East context into a derelict German industrial site German and the West German national in what is apparently a rural area: deserted, narrative. The progress of industrialisation muddy, chilly undergrowth some time in a was an essential part of the East German late German autumn. Though this brownfield socialist vision: the image of smoking site with its monumental steel scaffolding chimneys, steel ladles and polluted water and endless concrete walls and blocks has and soil evoked (whatever immediate very little in common with the vast open unease it also gave rise to) the promise of a spaces of Texas, it too may be described as better future. Of course, the national sublime. The demiurgic power that once bankruptcy of the GDR proved such hopes created and mastered this monstrous and efforts to have been baseless, and the structure is absent, yet at the same time derelict industrial site is a portent of the lingers as an anonymous, forceful power. rundown of the GDR – a warning sign of The gigantic structure’s sublime effect times to come. At the same time, such a recalls the enduring effect of ruins, as redundant site is also iconic for the famously proposed by Hitler’s architect landscape of the West German Ruhr region, Albert Speer in his “theory of ruin value” where Schlingensief himself grew up. (“Ruinenwerttheorie”).29 Resisting any extreme long-distance shots, let alone In the post-war years, the Ruhr region was panning shots of the set, Schlingensief avoids the engine and the emblem of the rebuilding providing an overview, making it harder for of West Germany and later of its economic the spectator to gain orientation and stability miracle.30 The region mainly produced the within the depicted space: the spectator feels coal and steel essential for the rapid as lost as the fictional characters. recovery of West Germany. However, coal mining and steel production fell into decline

31 GERMANY IS NOT TEXAS

again once the industrial reconstruction of ofGCSM might invoke a famous promise the country was accomplished.³¹ With the made by Chancellor Helmut Kohl in a steel crisis of the mid 1970s it became televised speech in July 1990, only three increasingly apparent that the Ruhr region months before the filming of Schlingensief’s could barely compete in a globalised piece. In his speech, Kohl promised market. In 1975 the growth period in the “flourishing pastures for the New Germany” steel sector came to an abrupt end.³² Asa (“blühenden Landschaften”), a Germany result, the number of steel workers dropped where it would be worth living and working. from 204,000 to 150,000 between 1979 and This metaphor, which was intended to show 1985. Specifically in the region of Duisburg- economic growth and social welfare as the Oberhausen, whereGCSM was filmed, there guaranteed effects of the western capitalist was an employment cut of 30% in iron free market, is, of course, undermined and production.³³ And with the announcement of negated by the industrial ruins ofGCSM . further job losses at the end of the 1980s, the unemployment rate reached almost 20% Now, in the film’s present, the industrial site in the Ruhr region – whereas West Germany is home to the cannibalistic and incestuous as a whole saw an economic jump between family of butchers who process East 1984 and 1986.34 The industrial action which Germans crossing the border to West took place, most prominently in the Krupp- Germany into sausages. At this point, I Stahl AG steelworks at Stahlwerk Duisburg- would like to interject some remarks on the Rheinhausen,35 was similar in character and butchery theme which already works public perception to the UK miners’ strike tremendously well in Hooper’s narrative, of 1984-85. The industrial site is therefore a but which works even better in a German locus of existential struggle, and of failure. context: sausages (German: Wurst) are a The times when it was associated with the cultural good in Germany. More than 1,500 victorious post-war social market economy different kinds of sausage are produced in of West Germany are long past. And, the country, and in 2014 the pro capita moreover, the Ruhr was the first regional German consumption of sausage was 29.5 economy that faced the downsides of kilogrammes (compared with 60.3 kilos per globalisation and market liberalisation, a capita of total meat consumption).37 The process that was particularly encouraged by essentiality of sausage culture has its effect the German government from 1983 onwards, on German idioms, too. If Germans simply when Helmut Kohl became Chancellor of a say “Wurst” or “Das ist Wurst!”, they are conservative-liberal coalition.36 expressing complete indifference to something. At the same time, “Jetzt geht es For a German viewer of 1990, the um die Wurst!” (literally: “Now it’s about impression of the cold, muddy, derelict site the sausage.”) means something like “It’s

32 crunch time!” Referring to those notions, social stasis and constriction of the Kohl Johnny, a member of our butchering family, era, which was especially pronounced in the sings: “Alles hat ein Ende nur die Wurst hat federal state of North-Rhine Westphalia. It keins” (“Everything has an end, only the is no accident that this was where sausage has none.”) in the final sequence of Schlingensief grew up and whereGCSM GCSM, ironically referring to the German was shot. Although West Germany faced idiom and indicating that the massacres will several economic crises and social never cease. Yet the film’s family of challenges at the time, the protective, butchers does not just represent a minor, insulating effect of West Germany’s post- perhaps marginalised group in the German war welfare state continued to characterise nation, but is the German nation as a whole Germany even after the fall of the Berlin in the latter’s own self-understanding. Thus, Wall in 1989: economic stability and sausages take their place in Schlingensief’s welfare and contented self-absorption were challenge to the dominant discourse dependent on economic growth and on reunification. technical progress, and both of these therefore become important for post-war This is Where the Free Market Begins German identity. It is because of this that GCSM reflects the conflicting economic even the challenge of high rates of structural consequences of German reunification, for unemployment in the 1980s (ca. 8%) did not the western post-war promise of infinite affect a fundamental social consensus in progress and economic growth was arguably West German society, mostly thanks to fulfilled only in the perverted productivity widespread material prosperity.40 of self-consumption.38 In the course of the film, the cannibalistic and incestuous family Schlingensief stages the industrial site as a of butchers allegorises Germany as a prison, perverting the message of protection production line of insatiable global and security. The manner in which the capitalism. In this setting, capitalism shows camerawork reproduces the framing of each its true Janus face. Clearly Schlingensief’s scene (see images 3 & 6) creates a kind of and Hooper’s chain saw massacres make on-going liminality. The main effect of these similar connections between cannibalism marked borders within the shots is that the and capitalism, and most scholarly work on landscape appears claustrophobic, in Hooper’s film identifies capitalism as the contrast to the agoraphobia-inducing Texan main source of horror.39 But Schlingensief’s landscape with its wide-open spaces and adaptation focuses on unmasking the distant cinematographic horizons. illusory ideology of progress, which he Schlingensief’s great industrial structure understands as the constitutive dynamic of does not turn out to be the promised land of capitalism. Schlingensief addresses the democracy and freedom, but a huge prison.

33 GERMANY IS NOT TEXAS

In most shots, concrete walls, columns, ambivalent role and refer to the oil crisis of pillars and steel scaffolding or similar the early 1970s. The shortage of petrol structures frame or block the characters. immobilises Sally and her friends, forcing They are entrapped and seldom escape, and, them to stop at the Sawyer property. Their if they do, this is merely in order to fail at need for gasoline therefore plunges them another obstacle. Furthermore, most into the catastrophe. But at the end, Sally characters end up at exactly the same point escapes thanks to a car and a truck that are at which they set out. Thus, the film passing on the near-deserted road by the performs a narrative loop: the first scene of Sawyers’ house.41 InGCSM, by contrast, the industrial site is also the last scene of the cars do not promise escape. Even though film: on a deserted roadway, the camera there is no shortage of petrol, none of the pans as it follows a pick-up truck controlled vehicles will escort anyone to safety. Once by the patriarch of the cannibalistic family. again, Schlingensief adapts an iconic prop The screaming Klara is shown on the back of the German context, since cars crossing of the truck, and then a woman who has borders – especially Trabbis – are the been cut in two and is singing “Thoughts are images that were so frequently to be seen on free.”At the very end of the film, we see the television and in the newspapers in 1989/90. same shot, but it remains rather longer with Of course, these images were meant to be the singing woman, whom we now know to read as a metonym for freedom. Indeed, be a member of the family of butchers who throughout the film, Schlingensief strikingly has herself become a victim of the massacre. incorporates many shots of cars crossing the There is no escape – either for strangers or screen. A closer look at these shots, for family members. however, reveals that the cars are framed by the industrial site or blocked by obstacles in it just as much as the camera seldom follows the cars into an open, infinite space. Although the vehicles manage to rupture the framed space (columns, pillars, walls) and to exit the shot, they have to do so over and over again. Thus, none of the breakthroughs or breakouts lead to the promised freedom The German Chain Saw Massacre: Horror and the site of no escape outside the frame. Every single car shown in this film ends up back in the industrial site; The loop narrative also points us to another none will ever get out of it again; and the main difference between Hooper’s and culminating scene preceding the final credits Schlingensief’s Chain Saw films. InTCSM , of the film shows a car burning. as Jackson argues, vehicles play an

34 We see the family of butchers in harmony – as never before or afterwards – as its members Alfred, Brigitte and Margit encircle a scene of slaughter, working on their recent victims and illuminated by the red evening sky.

The German Chain Saw Massacre: Schlingensief’s claustrophobic staging of the abandoned industrial site/ cars do not promise escape – but are entrapped within bordered frames.

All borders crossed in this film are inner borders, only leading deeper into an uncomfortably cocooned and self- The German Chain Saw Massacre: A romantic sunset consuming Germany. The violent repetition envelops the butchering feast in semi-darkness of the border crossings could at the same time be read as Schlingensief’s desperate This scenery refers of course to the final criticism of capitalism in general, offering a episode of Hooper’sTCSM , a scene that transnational approach to his culturally Rose calls “the most powerful in the history specific transposition of the chain saw of horror cinema.” As he states: narrative. But considering the emphasis on the German context that Schlingensief Unrestrained and unchecked, apparently brings to his more global Leatherface’s dance merges reading, the continuing crossing of borders him with the sun, absorbing is perhaps paradoxically linked to the stasis him into its intense orange of the Kohl era. The rapid pace ofGCSM glow. There, in this does not produce any development: the consummation, he is finally film’s narrative circularity negates progress aligned with the narrative’s and exposes the speed of development as prime motif of chaos, with the illusory, even though the actions within the arcane movements of the solar loop are executed at high velocity. system defining him as an unfathomable and It is on account of the general fast pace of uncontrollable power, one the film and its aggressive soundtrack that governed by forces beyond the one shot stands out for its slowness and its reaches of Law and Order.42 unexpected use of an instrumental version of the German folk song “Thoughts Free.”

35 GERMANY IS NOT TEXAS

But whereas Hooper’s final scene aligns region and its polluting steel production, with the apocalyptic motifs of his film to which actually caused such impressive anticipate the coming slaughter, the sunsets. The Ruhr with its coal mining and equivalent scene in Schlingensief’s film is steel working was at the heart of the prominently set around the midpoint of the German economic miracle of the 1950s and film assembling, several encoded references 1960s, as West Germany’s rapid economic linked in each case to the German national growth created heavy demand for the narrative of unity and freedom that had region’s products; and this in turn was the begun to flourish again with German basis of West German society’s fundamental reunification in 1990. Whereas the opening assent to capitalism, to its constitutive idea sequence of Schlingensief’s film presented of growth and progress and with it to the the seemingly benign and peaceful German complacent, narrow-minded bourgeois crowd celebrating in front of the mentality mentioned earlier. Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, he counters that documentary footage with the The film’s ironically epiphanous central apparently true face of the happily united scene, begun by Alfred and completed by German family. Once more, Schlingensief Brigitte and Margit is a reminiscence of that undermines the German self-adulation that era and its value system: “In einer Zeit, in came with reunification, pointing to the der alles möglich ist, ist es gleich, ob etwas Janus face of Germany – reunited or not. gut ist oder schlecht” (“At a time when The teleological fulfilment of the German everything is possible, it does not matter if national narrative as suggested by the events something is good or bad”). The staging of of 1990 is affirmed in this scene, but also this epiphany incidentally evokes the cynically underpinned by a romantic sunset German fairy tale Rumpelstilzchen that covers the butchering feast in semi- (Rumpelstiltskin in English) and its imp or darkness, associating it with pagan rituals. dwarf who hops around his fire, believing Even more ironically, German viewers himself unobserved, and sings aloud the detect an allusion to a central line of the solution to his secret riddle. But in addition, national anthem of the GDR: “that the sun the slogan “At a time [...], it does not matter shines more beautifully than ever before [...]” also returns us to sausages, the phrase over Germany”. Read in the context of the being a more or less elaborated version of whole film, this scene seems to state the the familiar idiomatic saying “Das ist self-fulfilment of the German nation as a Wurst” (“It doesn’t matter” or “Who history of greed and violence. cares?”). That cynical family catechism is effectively the film’s thematic key. In this regard, the setting of the scene also evokes the landscape of the industrial Ruhr

36 Indifference is the film’s essential diagnosis. One can see that Schlingensief’s abandoned The fall of the Berlin Wall and German industrial site within rural Germany reunification simply complete the appropriated the rural setting of Hooper’s indifference of a capitalistic mentality. And TCSM. This “terrible place”43 is the when Alfred, the head of the family of reunified Germany and it would be worth butchers, welcomes all East Germans with comparing the two films’ ‘haunted castles’, the words: “This is where the free market the Sawyer mansion and the German begins”, before killing and processing them family’s mansion, together with the into sausages, the industrial site shows inhabitants of both in order to elaborate on Germany as a battleground where the free both films’ similarities and differences. So market celebrates its victory, which came far, we have seen that both films share a about with the decline of the GDR and its notion of anti-capitalism and show its Janus socialist visions. With capitalism, however face emerging in rural settings. But whereas, (and this is the film’s central point), comes a in Hooper’s case, “the sense that the hopes dissolution of moral standards, values and and aspirations of the American dream had differentiation. Limitless capitalism brings ended […] was pervasive in 1970s the removal of all boundaries: at a time America”44, Schlingensief shot his film at a when everything is possible, it does not time when the German dream, its hopes and matter if it is good or bad. It is here that aspirations, had only just begun. In 1990, Schlingensief’s film reveals its moral core – Schlingensief is already asserting its end, and presumably its fear of a reunified and envisioning its cannibalistic dynamics. Germany that transgressed and continues to transgress any border, be it territorial, ideological or moral.

1Donaldson, L.F. (2010) “Access and Excess inThe viewFile/190/178. Accessed 13 January 2016; Brown, TexasChain Saw Massacre (Tobe Hooper, 1974)”, In J.(2013)Cannibalism in Literature and Film. New York: Movie: A Journal of Film Criticism, 1: 1. Palgrave Macmillan. 2Hogan, D.J. (1986)Dark Romance: Sexuality in the 6Phillips, K. R. (2005)Projected Fears. Horror Films and Horror Film. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & American Culture. Westport, CT: Praeger, 102-103. See Company, Inc. Publishers, 247. also: Sharrett, C. (2004) “The Idea of Apocalypse inThe 3Worland, R. (2008)The Horror Film: An Texas Chainsaw Massacre”, In Grant, B.K. and Sharrett, Introduction.Oxford: Blackwell, 208. C. (eds)Planks of Reason: Essays on the Horror Film, 4 Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 300-321. Wood, R. (1979) “An Introduction to the American Horror 7 Film”, In: Wood, R. and Lippe, R. (eds)The American Muir, K. (2002)Eaten Alive at the Chainsaw Massacre: Nightmare: Essays on the Horror Film.Toronto: Festival The Films of Tobe Hooper. Jefferson, North Carolina: of Festivals, 7-33: 17. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, 67. 8 5Roche, D. (2014)Making and Remaking Horror in the Roche, D.Making and Remaking Horror in the 1970s and 1970s and 2000s: Why Don’t They Do It Like They Used 2000s: Why Don’t They Do It Like They Used To?, 23-24. To? Jackson: University of Mississippi Press; Merritt, N. 9Merritt, N. “Cannibalistic Capitalism and other American (2010) “Cannibalistic Capitalism and other American Delicacies. A Bataillean Taste of The Texas Chain Saw Delicacies. A Bataillean Taste of The Texas Chain Saw Massacre”; and Jackson, C. (2008) “Blood for Oil. Crude Massacre”, Film-Philosophy 14.1 [online]. Available at: Metonymies and Tobe Hooper’sTexas Chain Saw http://www.film-philosophy.com/index.php/f-p/article/ Massacre (1974)”, Gothic Studies, 10.1, 48-60.

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10Phillips, K. R.Projected Fears. Horror Films and 29Speer, A. (1969)Erinnerungen . Frankfurt am Main: American Culture. Propyläen. 11Albright, B. (2012):Regional Horror Films, 1958-1990: 30Boldt, K.-W. and Gelhar, M. (2008)Das Ruhrgebiet. A State-by-State Guide with Interviews. Jefferson, North Landschaft – Industrie – Kultur. Darmstadt: Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 55. 31 12Rose, J. ([2013] 2014)Devil’s Advocates: The Texas Aring, J. and Butzin, B. and Danielzyk, R. And Chain Saw Massacre. Peterborough: Ateur. Rose quotes Helbrecht, I. (1989)Krisenregion Ruhrgebiet? Alltag, the following source: Marcor, A. (2010) Chainsaws, Strukturwandel und Planung. Oldenburg: Bibliotheks-und Slackers, and Spy Kids: 30 Years of Filmmaking in Informationssystem der Universität Oldenburg, 35. Allston, Texas. Austin: University of Texas Press, 29. 32Aring et al. 37. 13Rose, J. Devil’s Advocates, 30. 33Aring et al. 39. 14Brown, J.Cannibalism in Literature and Film. 108-116. 34Boldt, K.W. and Gelhar, M.Das Ruhrgebiet. Landschaft – 15Sharrett, C. “The Idea of Apocalypse inThe Texas Industrie – Kultur, 58. Chainsaw Massacre”, 305. 35Wirschning, A. (2006)Abschied vom Provisorium 1982- 16Bell, D. (1997) “Anti-Idyll. Rural Horror”, In: Cloke, P. 1990. München: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 249ff. and Little, J. Contested Countryside Cultures: Rurality Hartmann, R. and Konegen, N. (1985) “Das Leben geht and Socio-cultural Marginalisation. Florence: Taylor and weiter – die Krise auch” In: Barcikowski, R. (ed). Jeder Francis, 94-108. kocht seinen eigenen Stahl. 10 Jahre Stahlpolitik in der Krise, Göttingen: SOVEC. 119-121. 17 Muir, K.Eaten Alive, 15. 36 18 Rödder, A. (2004)Die Bundesrepublik Deutschland Rose, J. Devil´s Advocates:The Texas Chain Saw 1969-1990. München: R. Oldenbourg Verlag. 184ff. Massacre, 13. Rose quotes the following source: Marcor, 37 A. (2010) Chainsaws, Slackers, and Spy Kids: 30 Years of Salavati, N. (2015) “So viel Wurst essen die Deutschen”, Filmmaking in Allston, Texas. Austin: University of Texas Süddeutsche Zeitung [online], 27.10.2015. Available at: Press, 31. http://www.sueddeutsche.de/ wirtschaft/fleischindustrie- 19 so-viel-wurst-essen-die-deutschen-1.2710373 [Accessed Schlingensief, C. (2005)Christoph Schlingensief und 13 January 2016]. seine Filme. Interview mit Frieder Schlaich. 38Anthony Enns (2012) elaborates this “connection [DVD].Berlin: Filmedition Filmgalerie 451. between capitalism and cruelty” in: “Post Unification 20Coulson, A. S. (1995) “New land and forgotten spaces: Cinema. Horror, Nostalgia, Redemption”, In: Ginsberg, T. the portrayal of another Germany in post-unification and Mensch, A. (eds.).A Companion to German Cinema. film”, In: Durrani, O., Good, C. and Hilliard, K. Malden [Mass]: Wiley & Blackwell. 110-133, 112. (eds).,The New Germany. Literature and Society after 39Wood, R. (1984) “An Introduction to the American Unification. Sheffield: Academic Press. 213-230, 218. Horror Film”, In: Grant, B.K. and Sharrett, C. (eds.). 21Phillips, K. R.Projected Fears. Horror Films and Planks of Reason: Essays on the Horror Film. Metuchen, American Culture. New Jersey: Scarecrow Press. 164-200. Williams, T. 22Goethe, J.W. von (1966)Goethe. Poetische Werke. (1996)Hearths of Darkness. The Family in the American Gedichte und Singspiele II: Gedichte. Nachlese und Horror Film. London: Fairleigh Dickinson University Nachlaß. Weimar and Berlin: Aufbau Verlag, 441.The Press. Merritt, N. “Cannibalistic Capitalism and other translation is by the present author. American Delicacies. A Bataillean Taste of The Texas Chain Saw Massacre”. 23Schmidt, G (2007) “Friedrich Meineckes Kulturnation. 40 Zum historischen Kontext nationaler Ideen in Weimar- Rödder, A. Die Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1969-1990, 94. Jena um 1800“,Historische Zeitschrift, 284, 597–622. 41Jackson, C. “Blood for Oil. Crude Metonymies and Tobe 24Hoffmann von Fallersleben, A. H. and Richter, E. (1842) Hooper’sTexas Chain Saw Massacre (1974)”. Schlesische Volkslieder mit Melodien. Aus dem Munde 42Rose, J. (2013)Devil’s Advocates. The Texas Chain Saw des Volkes gesammelt. Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel, 307. Massacre. New York: Auteur, 86. 25Lammel, I. (1959) Lieder der Agitprop-Truppen vor 43Clover, C.J. (1989) “Her Body, Himself: Gender in the 1945. Leipzig: VEB Hofmeister. Slasher Film”. In: Bloch, H. R. and Ferguson, F. (eds). 26Nachtigal, J.K.C (2013)Volcks-Sagen . Berlin: Edition Misogyny, Misandry, and Misanthropy. Berkeley, Los Holzinger Taschenbuch, 46. Angeles and Oxford: University of California Press. 187-221, 197. 27Brown, J.Cannibalism in Literature and Film. 107-108. 44Phillips, K. R. Projected Fears.Horror Films and 28Cherry, B. (2009) Horror. London and New York: Routledge, 90. American Culture. 107

38 39 ‘We are Never Going in the Woods Again’: The Horror of the Underclass White Monster in American And British Horror. Shellie McMurdo

Abstract This article uses cultural studies perspectives and refers to the eugenics movements of Britain and America, to explore the poor white character as an embodiment of societal fears and perceived threats in recent horror cinema: a traumatic monster that is feared because of its polluted identity and monstrous poverty. The exaggerated (mis)representations of the poor white character in horror cinema often take the worst depictions of the poor white body detailed by eugenicists, and emphasise them, turning ‘white trash’ or the ‘chav’ into an imposing and monolithic Other. This article compares the polluted cinematic identity of the Southern underclass in American rural horror to the violent ‘chav’ of recent British examples.

Focusing onEden Lake(James Watkins, 2008), I propose that rather than interpreting the characterisation of the chav or ‘hoodie’ character as merely mimetic of the American white trash character, it is possible to read the chav as a specifically British monster which carries its own socially significant weight.

Keywords: Eugenics, White trash, Poor white bodies, Class,Eden lake.

Bad Blood and Good Births: The Eugenics Education Society in 1907. Influence of Eugenics. Eugenics gained popularity in upper-class The eugenics movement originated in circles in Britain, with public supporters of England, and was founded by Francis eugenics including women’s rights Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin. campaigner Marie Stopes,¹ who advocated Hereditarians such as Galton and his sterilisation of those people she believed American counterpart Lothrop Stoddard were unfit for parenthood. To her thinking, were advocates of the belief that genetics this included “the inferior, the depraved, and determined intelligence and disposition. the feeble-minded… who are thriftless and Eugenics quickly became an academic unmanageable yet appallingly prolific.”² discipline in Britain, with a Eugenics Laboratory at the University of London At the heart of the eugenics movement in established in 1904, and organisations were Britain was a belief that the poor and feeble- formed in an attempt to win public support minded bred at an alarmingly high rate for eugenic values, such as the British when compared to the higher classes.

40 The aim of British eugenics was to redress to hereditarian concepts, Francis Galton this imbalance in breeding rates, as it was asserted that: thought that natural selection, which would have normally slowed reproduction of the As it is easy… to obtain by lower classes, had been suspended because careful selection a permanent of sanitary reform, charitable organisations breed of dogs or horses… it and medical science, allowing the lower would be quite practicable to classes to grow unchecked. Eugenics in produce a highly-gifted race of Britain was separated into positive eugenics, men by judicious marriages which aimed to increase reproduction in the during several consecutive fitter classes and negative eugenics, which generations.5 sought to discourage reproduction in lower classes. Acts of Parliament such as the 1913 This demonstrates a clear Us vs. Them Mental Deficiency Act proposed mass mentality that has filtered into both segregation of the feeble-minded from the American and British rural horror cinema, rest of society and, although sterilisation as the lower class are coded as poor not just programmes were never legalised in Britain, by their clothes, but also by their speech, those in support of eugenics lobbied for etiquette and physicality. voluntary sterilisation.³ Here we can see the beginnings of the boundaries that echo in This is not to suggest that eugenics solely rural horror, most clearly inEden Lake, focused on lower class whites. In British where literal boundaries by way of fences eugenics, there was a strict hierarchy which are to be erected around the executive “encompassed fears of miscegenation and homes that are being built in a rural area of hybridity” with the white European at the England, to protect the middle-class top, and the black African at the bottom.6 As inhabitants from the prolific breeding and the eugenics movement grew in popularity negative influence of the poor whites in in America, there was also growing reference the community. to issues of race. Charles B. Davenport, a prominent American eugenicist and The primary concern of eugenicists, both biologist, believed for example that the British and American, was with what American race was essentially being eugenicists perceived as their duty to ‘polluted’ by immigrants. In addressing improve the overall quality of the human what he terms the “negro problem”, race, often with direct comparisons made Davenport notes that “persons with darker between lower classes and insects such as skin” should be “kept in happiness but kept maggots.4 In addition to explicit references from reproducing their kind.”7 Eugenics was used therefore not only as scientific

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validation for classism, but also racism. The was established in 1910 and carried out consequences of this validation can be seen several studies on underclass families such in the class-driven and government- as The Nam Family: A Study in Cacogenics approved sterilisation of the poor, such as (1912),¹³ to try to determine by way of a that resulting from the Buck v. Bell case of biometric approach any common family 1927,8 and the racist Jim Crow Laws of the traits that were likely to be inherited by late 19th century, which enforced racial future generations. Continuing the influence segregation in the Southern United States. of zoological concepts on British eugenicists, pedigree charts akin to those used in dog The idea of being white trash “raised a host breeding were produced for the families that of unsettling anxieties about the stability were studied by the ERO.14 These studies and content of racial identities.”9 People were intent on demonstratingand proving deemed to be white trash were often seen as the dangers of what they termed ‘bad’ births. victims of circumstance to be rescued by The overarching message of the studies was well-to-do whites, as shown in John Abbot’s influenced by cacogenics, meaning the call for the liberation of poor whites, deterioration of genetic stock over time, and specifically “the thousands of poor ignorant, warned against sexual relations with degraded white people among us, who, in degenerates which, to the ERO’s way of this land of plenty, live in comparative thinking, included the poor, the criminal and nakedness and starvation.”10 Abbot the so-called feeble minded. Eugenicists described this situation in explicitly racial instead promoted ‘good’ births, meaning the terms however, by continuing that the poor breeding of physically and mentally fit whites must work against a system that individuals, and went as far as in 1914 to “drags the whites with the blacks down into establish a model for intervention which the gulf of ignorance and penury.”¹¹ This proposed to sterilise those who were deemed intersection of race and class is pertinent to socially inadequate, specifically those who the final section of this article, in which I Harry Laughlin noted were supported examine hoodie horror. However, it is wholly or in part by public expense.15 important to note that I focus on the representations of the poor white character Ideals conceptualised by the eugenics in American and British horror cinema and movement were being used by sterilisation as such examine only one strand of racial campaigns as recently as the 1970s in representation in national horror cinemas. America and would eventually be adopted by the German National Socialist Party in Founded by Charles Davenport,¹² who built pursuit of their ‘final solution’. Although upon the basis of eugenics set by Galton, the Galton himself did not motion towards Eugenics Records Office (ERO) of America forced sterilisation, it is clear that he

42 intended eugenics to be practiced. In alater through generations, holding within it the essay he notes that “eugenics cooperates with degenerative genes. Eugenicists the working of nature by securing that disseminated the family studies of the ERO, humanity shall be represented by the fittest along with the idea of a tangible Germplasm races. What nature does blindly, slowly and as evidence that the poor rural white was a ruthlessly, man may do providently, quickly, contaminating influence, and to quote and kindly.”16 Lothrop Stoddard, “spreading like cancerous growths […] infecting the blood One of the more widely known family of whole communities.”18 It is clear that studies carried out by the ERO was Henry eugenics was based around a fear of Goddard’s study The Kallikak Family: A pollution, specifically the ‘bad blood’ of Study in the Heredity of Feeble-Mindedness degenerates, and preoccupied with (1912). This account discerned two lineages boundaries that could be instated to protect stemming from the same man, Martin against their contamination and possible Kallikak. The first strand is from a sexual transmogrification into the poor white. This liaison with a tavern maid and produces a ideology of pollution, contaminated long and over-populated line of criminals identities and class-based fear runs through and degenerates. The other line from a much rural horror. The Southern rural marriage to a Quaker woman produces six landscape is presented as an almost alien prosperous, socially mobile and virtuous territory, a dirty, defeated, and entirely Other individuals, what the ERO would have seen land. In terms of their filmic representations, as good breeding stock. The connotations of Gael Sweeney notes that “Hollywood’s pollution contained in this study are clear: depictions of White Trash [is] as either idiot not only do degenerates out-breed the other savants extraordinaire or amoral criminals. line at an alarming rate, allowing the But always as products of an inherited possibility of upstanding people becoming inferiority.”19 The American South, and by endangered or extinct, but whatever made a extension the poor rural body, is presented person a degenerate – or simply poor – was as both geographically and intellectually deep in their blood. It was believed that removed from Northern civility. poor people gave birth to poor children, perpetuating a cycle that the eugenicists ‘These Freakos got a Utensil for every feared would cause a tidal wave of moral Pea on the Plate!’20 The White Trash weakness. This idea of polluted blood was Monster and Etiquette further supported by August Weismann’s Carol Clover states that in rural horror “[a]s concept of “Germplasm”.17 with hygiene, so are manners. Country people snort when they breathe, snore when Weismann’s Germplasm was a substance they sleep, talk with their mouths full, drool that is transmitted in the blood, down when they eat.”²¹ The underlying threat is

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that such signs of incivility are symptomatic of a larger degeneration. Films such asThe Texas Chain Saw Massacre, Last House on the Left (Craven, 1972),I Spit on Your Grave (Zarchi, 1978) or the laterWrong Turn films (2003-2014), show the underclass body as a representation of a community Jenn awaits her fate at the hands of the "chav" gang in that the protagonists, usually coded as being Eden Lake from a higher class by way of their clothing, speech or etiquette, do not comprehend. The construct of civility is often exposed Although the two groups look similar, the within these narratives as being superficial rules are different in the antagonist’s and flimsy, based around technology and territory. This is seen in the films in terms of more often than not, around etiquette. The both morality - for example the antagonist’s concept of etiquette is mobilised to show the willingness to commit incest, to rape, and to differences between the protagonists and the steal - and in terms of civility, such as poor rural body, with their lack of etiquette cleanliness and correctly using cutlery. In marking them as those people. But, as J.W. these films, the protagonists struggle to find Williamson succinctly notes, “we in our the upper hand, and the lack of stability the suburbs are not so safely immune from our protagonists suffer is reminiscent of natures… our secret dread is that the dark, eugenicists’ fear of losing status and drunken hillbilly is no Other, but us.”²³ privilege while the poor white emerged Concepts of dirt and pollution police from “hotbeds where human maggots are etiquette and, with this in mind, the work of spawned.”²² The protagonists in rural horror Mary Douglas can be applied to the poor films are often isolated in a strange white body. landscape where civil rules no longer apply, such as the abandoned quarry inEden Lake, Douglas argues that social behaviour hinges where the threatening teenage gang indulge on the ability to adopt a scheme of in brutality in a space uninhabited by adults, classification. Douglas outlines that once we and have an advantage over Jenn and Steve define what is dirty, we can define what is through their familiarity with the area. It is clean and that our concept of dirt or pollution often only when protagonists eschew civility stands in for “expressing a general view of and engage with the antagonists on their the social order.”24 It is a system of own ‘savage’ level as primitive counterparts Othering, inspired by the social Othering of that they are able to defeat them. the eugenics movement and ratified by the pollution ideologies outlined by Mary

44 Douglas, that inform the archetypal themes Annalee Newitz notes that there is a thought and tropes of the classed characterisations in process that “in spite of white middle-class rural horror. As Douglas states: education and cultural hegemony, whites are only a few steps away from becoming They may be doing nothing amoral, rural savages who kill each other morally wrong, but their status with their hands.”26 This underlines the idea is indefinable… Danger lies in of white trash bodies being a realistic threat, transitional states, simply and it is this fear of the precariousness of because transition is neither one our privileged position and our sameness to state not the next, it is the monster that informs both American indefinable […] There is a rural horror and British hoodie horror. power in the forms and other power in the inarticulate area, The idea of sameness is another key aspect margins, confused lines, and to understanding the white trash monster. beyond the external John Hartigan Jr.’s work is of particular boundaries.25 relevance here, as it is his idea of ‘sameness’ that informs ideas of etiquette and Protagonists in these films, perhaps grasping boundaries in American rural horror, and for an alternative boundary line when that can be discerned in British hoodie presented with monsters who are visually horror. Hartigan’s concept of sameness also similar to themselves, will often situate the relates back to Douglas’s thoughts on white trash body in the primitive past. By ambiguity. Hartigan argues that whites from doing this, the protagonist codes the white the American South are a source of anxiety trash character as being a relic of this for people from the North when he states different way of life, and as such, removed that “the whiteness of his kith and kin in the from the ‘progressive’ qualities of modern South represented a confusing mix of living. The white trash monster inhabits the sameness and difference, making for an margins of classification and is coded in unstable cultural figure.”27 The poor white rural horror as a temporal discrepancy, part body in American rural horror is therefore of a long forgotten primitive past, where both like and unlike the protagonists. It is rules of etiquette did not apply. This can be both in the present and yet representative of observed in several American rural horror a primitive past. It inhabits the margins of films, for example, the Jupiter family in The classification, displaying its sameness and Hills Have Eyes eat with their fingers, and difference to the protagonists, and as such, the Sawyers ofThe Texas Chain Saw is presented as something to fear. An Massacre are slaughterhouse workers made interesting point therefore, is a change redundant by burgeoning mechanisation. present in post-millennial rural horror in

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relation to the physical appearance of the eugenicist’s warnings of race pollution by rural white monster from visually similar to way of multiculturalism in the late visually different from the protagonists.28 eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries For example, the antagonists ofWrong Turn that I highlighted earlier. 4: Bloody Beginnings (O’Brien, 2011), the Hilliker Brothers, who have brutally self- The reason I have touched upon the London mutilated their outward appearance, with Riots is that the wider concept of ‘Broken Three Finger having chewed off his digits, Britain’ has influenced the subgenre of One Eye sticking a fork in his eye and then Hoodie Horror made during this period, eating it, and Sawtooth having sharpened which is where we see the character of the his teeth to points. Through this mutilation, chav. This phrase became something of a the Hilliker Brothers actively mark buzzword in contemporary British culture themselves out as visually different to the through popular usage in the tabloid press other whites in the film and have begun to and popular media discourse. The phrase building their own boundaries, to keep out Broken Britain refers in the main to the the middle class and to redefine their societal fear that Britain has become territory on their own terms. overrun with feral youths, teenage pregnancy and Antisocial Behaviour Orders Broken Britain and Hoodie Horror (ASBOs). Arguably more recently displaced Similar to American rural horror, the chav onto debated about immigration and the or hoodie types that reside in British horror European Union, there is a lingering anxiety takes the worst depictions of the white or resentment present in British society. The underclass and emphasises them. I discussed dread is summed up onThe Guardian earlier the eugenics movement, their website’s comments section on an article Othering process of lower-class whites, and about Broken Britain,30 where a poster their understanding of this group as being named Taxpayer2go writes: distinctly different from normative whiteness. The British historian David See the crowds of feral youth Starkey echoes this sentiment, arguing that bullying elderly people to the fault of the London Riots of 2011 could death… and an ever-growing be attributed to the idea that “whites have army of shallow minded become black.”29 In this statement, Starkey single mothers all living on a equates blackness with savagery and again lifetimes (sic) benefits and marks those whites out as belonging to a retering (sic) on a pension category of whiteness that is not normative they haven’t earned. or that is less than white in some way. Starkey’s comments are reminiscent of the

46 This mix of fear and resentment in some underlying assumption that these people do British public discourse is reminiscent of the not want to work and are perfectly happy studies carried out by Cynthia Duncan, living off money given to them by charities where a resident of Blackwell, Appalachia and local governments. This recall the type states that: of language Harry Laughlin uses regarding those poor whites in America that are there’s people who don’t want to supported by the state. work at all, never have and never will. We call them first of During the same time-frame, there was also the monthers because they come repeated use of the word “feral” in news out of the mountains on the first stories about hoodie gangs and violent youth of the month with about ten kids culture.³² Films such as Harry Brown and don’t wash. When I worked (Barber, 2009) andOutlaw (Love, 2007) at the grocery store, you could featured representations of feral youth, the smell them coming.³¹ term itself conjuring up images of werewolf- like children dwelling in underpasses. This Duncan’s interviews found that the local is also reflected in Heartless (Ridley, 2009) community regarded the poor with a range where a witness to a brutal hoodie stabbing of negative connotations, from contempt to states that “these kids were like wild anger. The most constant theme that animals.” The conflation of the British emerges in Duncan’s work however is that underclass with animals also mirrors the her interviewees saw the poor as responsible eugenicists’ Othering of the poor in America, for their own poverty through laziness or which, as Jim Goad notes of the redneck stupidity. This sentiment can be seen clearly stereotype, “are presumed to be creatures of in the way that the lower classes in British instinct, swamp animals who bite if you society were, and are, often depicted in come too close. Another breed entirely.”³³ popular culture, from the character of Vicky Again, this demonstrates that the rural white Pollard, a chav character on British comedy is a different species entirely and in the case showLittle Britain (2003-2007) who is of David Starkey’s comments, a species that characterised as a grotesque teenager on is ‘contaminated’ by multiculturalism. The state benefits, to the more threatening and fact that these terms invoke images of an violent characters in films such as animalistic, brutal poor make it an apt Kidulthood (Huda, 2006). Although they are character-type for the horror genre. addressing different countries, both Taxpayer2go’s comment and the above An interesting point of difference between quote from Cynthia Duncan’s interviews the American rural white and the British refer to the white underclass, with an chav is that whereas the poor white in

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American rural horror is seen as part of a As these comments show, from when we distant and barely remembered past, the first see the antagonists inEden Lake, there underclass in British hoodie horror is seen as is almost a visual checklist, a pedigree chart representative of a barbaric and unknowable similar to those used by eugenicists: the future, with this fear stemming from the Rottweiler dog, the loud music, the carrying belief that Britain’s youth are becoming of knives, and the tracksuits. We are visually uncontrollable and brutally savage. informed that we are dealing with the Great British underclass. ‘Who you Lookin’at? You Little Rich Boy!’34 The White Trash Monster in Eden Lake follows a young couple, Jenn and British Horror Steve, as they arrive at a disused and InEden Lake, British youth reaches a new flooded quarry for a romantic getaway. Jenn level of animalistic sadism, and on the and Steve are as clearly visually coded as Internet Movie Database, myriad user not being part of the underclass as the youths comments consider the portrayal of the chav are coded as emphatically belonging to it. antagonists. Acoustic Joe notes that people The couple arrive in an expensive 4x4, can “read any paper and see how much replete with a customised satellite power feral scum have in this country” and navigation system, and are listening to radio another comment poster state that “there are reports about government prescribed enclaves of generations old lower socio- parenting contracts and Antisocial economic classes with the kind of mentality Behaviour Orders. on display here, plenty in Britain… Frightening.” Alex Hess, writing forThe The construct of etiquette is used in this film Guardian about the film, reports that in a similar way to American rural horror, with the etiquette, or lack thereof, of white The obvious way to frame the trash being emphasised. When Jenn and film is as aDaily Mail reader’s Steve stop off at a Bed and Breakfast on the nightmare incarnate – the way to the quarry, Jenn is visibly shocked onslaught of murderous, feral when a mother slaps her child. The couple kids being the logical conclusion later laugh inside their room at the revellers of the underclass’s dereliction of outside, and Steve does an impression of duty. Broken Britain wielding a their Northern working-class accents, shard of broken glass… the ending only when Jenn calls Steve a “Pikey instinctive fear provoked by its oaf.” This is not the last time that language track-suited executioners.35 and its connection to etiquette, education and social standing is highlighted. For example, when Steve accidentally kills the

48 dog of the gang’s leader, Brett, Brett construction of fifty executive homes being repeatedly says “She’s fucking die” instead built within a gated community. Jenn scoffs of “She’s fucking dead.” at this, asking “Gated community? What are they so afraid of?”As the couple drive on, Whenever the audience meet a character the audience are privy to something the from the gang or the surrounding small rural couple are not, the crudely spray-painted town, we are reminded both visually and warning on the back of the sign, reading audibly that they are different from Jenn and “Fuck off, yuppie cunts.” Steve. The gang spit into the quarry, stomp on another boy’s caterpillar, torture animals, Greg Philo of Glasgow University traces the and carry knives. Their lack of social contemporary fear of the chav back to a etiquette is made clear for example when middle-class fear of “those who might Jenn, at one point, is ushered into a bathroom undermine their security,”36 and this where a couple are having sex at a family claustrophobic fear of infection from the party. Brett, his family, and his friends are underclass is writ large inEden Lake, from repeatedly coded as those whites much in the grabbing hands closing in on Jenn and the same way as the poor underclass in rural Steve’s car to the murky woods muffling the American horror. war cries of the group of hoodies pursuing Jenn. The comparisons that eugenicists Just as the Hilliker brothers of theWrong made between the underclass and animals Turn films began to redefine the boundary and the idea of ‘feral youth’are also lines originally placed to prevent infection apparent with moments like the pack-like from the underclass,Eden Lake similarly pursuit of the couple and Brett telling his gang that all they have to do is “follow the blood” to find Steve.

As was true of poor rural whites singled out for persecution from the Eugenics Records Office, it is clear in these films that an older Steve suffers after Cooper, a member of the chav gang, is forced by the ringleader Brett to attack Steve's mouth with generation is at fault, a generation who have a box-cutting knife birthed and moulded the attitudes of the presents the rural underclass as being as young chavs who have degenerated into ferociously protective of the boundaries as animals. There is a tendency for the mothers the eugenicists once were, marking their in these films to absolve their children from territory against intruders. As Jenn and any blame. When Steve asks a waitress in a Steve arrive at the entrance to the quarry, local café if she knows the youths who they read a large sign proclaiming the slashed his tyres, her entire demeanour

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changes as she coldly replies, “no, not my protect the group because as in the parting kids.” This absolving of responsibility and line of the film, Brett’s father tells his of criminality being kept within the family friends “we look after our own round here.” is never clearer than in the closing scene of the film. Jenn, thinking she has found Conclusion: And the Road Leads to salvation in a house, realises that she is in Nowhere? the home of one of the teenagers, and his The cinematic white trash body is a figure family will now kill her to protect him. The that is mutable, albeit always with an characterisation of the chav family echoes underlying theme of pollution. I have based the eugenicists’ concept of hereditary my reading of the white trash monster in criminality, a sub-human class of animalistic rural horror around the fear that the poor beings, pre-destined to immoral and white bodies’ polluted identity is contagious, criminal behaviour. which stems from the unfounded beliefs of the eugenics movement.This article has examined the ways in which etiquette-based boundaries feature in both American and British rural horror, noting the ways in which these boundaries have begun to shift in post- millennial horror, no longer the sole Jenny is held captive by the families of the chav gang, highlighting the assumed hereditary degradation that preserve of the upper classes, the lower- eugenicists claimed of the lower classes. class whites have now begun to value their In both American rural horror andEden boundary lines too. It is in the poor white Lake, it is only when the protagonists put rural character’s move transnationally into aside or lose their civilised trappings and the figure of the chav, however, that we become more rural and savage that they are begin to see how ferociously protective of able to defeat their tormentors. Jenn and their territory the poor white monster has Steve have only to lose their mobile phones, become. satellite navigation, and car to become completely isolated and immersed in this In closing, it is important to note that community and landscape that is alien to whereas the films I have examined present them. It is only when Jenn puts aside her the rural or underclass character in an etiquette as a teacher, becomes as savage as antagonistic role, there has been subsequent the youths, and begins hurting and killing movement towards reclaiming both the rural children that she gains a brief upper hand. white and the chav character. InAttack the The families of the teenagers eventually Block (Cornish, 2011) for example, a group murder Jenn, partly for revenge because of chavs are first presented as the Jenn killed one of the gang and partly to antagonists of the narrative, as they mug a

50 young woman at knifepoint. Their dialogue, It is the white trash body’s simultaneous clothing and attitude firmly places them in sameness to and difference from the the same characterisation as the feral youth normative white protagonists that holds the ofEden Lake. However, when aliens attack key to their threat and longevity in the their estate, they become the heroes of the horror genre, a monster that is similar to, but film. Similarly, the premise of horror- different from, the heroes. The idea of a comedy Tucker and Dale vs. Evil (Craig, polluted poor white identity, with poisoned 2010) centres on a group of college blood that will infect future generations, has students, who have assumed that Tucker and been carried from the Eugenics Records Dale are murdering hillbillies because of Office through to a British counterpart in the their appearance and domicile. The comedic chav. This has resulted in the quality of the white trash figure is tempered characterisation of a polluted body that somewhat however by other contemporary needs to be kept separate from the populace white trash horror narratives that involve a by way of exclusion from executive homes more serious and dramatic treatment of the in gated communities, for fear of figure. Rob Zombie’s films, includingHouse contamination by monstrous poverty. of a 1000 Corpses (2003),The Devil’s Rejects (2005),Halloween (2007), and Halloween 2 (2009) for example, all use characters coded as white trash antagonists.

1Rose, J. (1992)Marie Stopes and the Sexual Revolution. 9Hartigan Jr., J. (2005)Odd Tribes: Toward a Cultural London: Faber and Faber. History of White People. London: Duke University Press. 62. 2Stopes, M. (2013)Radiant Motherhood: A Book for Those 10Abbott, J. (1860) South and North; or, Impressions Who Are Creating the Future. London: Forgotten Books Received During a Trip to Cuba and the South. New (originally published 1921). 247. York: Abbey and Abbot. 148. 3Porter, D. (1999)“Eugenics and the sterilization debate in 11Abbott, J. (1860)South and North. 150. Sweden and Britain before World War II”, Scandanavian 12www.cshl.edu Journal of History. 24 (2). 145-162. 13Estabrook, A. & Davenport, C. (1912) TheNam Family: 4 Dugdale, R. (1877)The Jukes: A Study in Crime, A Study in Cacogenics. New Era Printing Company. Pauperism, Disease and Heredity. New York: G. P. 14Examples of these are available from http://www. Putnam’s Sons. 54. eugenicsarchive.org 5 Galton, F. (1869)Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry Into its 15Laughlin, H. (1922)Eugenical Sterilization in the United Laws and Consequences. London: MacMillan. 1. States. Chicago: Psychopathic Laboratory of The 6Stone, D. (2001) “Race in British Eugenics”,European Municipal Court of Chicago. Available from: http:// History Quarterly, 31 (3), 397-425. 398. alexwellerstein.com/laughlin/Laughlin_Model Law.pdf. 7Quoted in Yudell, M. (2014)Race Unmasked: Biology and Accessed 10/08/17) Race in the Twentieth Century. New York: Columbia 16Galton, F. (1909) “Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope and University Press. 36. Aims”, The American Journal of Sociology. Vol. X. 36-37. 8An in-depth account of this case is Lombardo, P.A (2010) 17Weismann, A. (1893)Germ-plasm: A Theory of Heredity. Three Generations, No Imbeciles: Eugenics, the Supreme New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Court, and Buck v. Bell. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.

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18Stoddard, L. (1922)The Revolt Against Civilisation: The 29Newsnight [Television programme], United Kingdom: Menace of the Under Man. New York: Charles Scribner’s BBC2. Broadcast: 12/08/11. 30 mins. Sons. 6. 30Gentleman, A. (31st March 2010) Is Britain Broken?The 19Sweeney, G. (2001) “The Trashing of White Trash: Guardian. Available from http://theguardian.com/society/ Natural Born Killers and the appropriation of the white 2010/mar/31/is-britain-broken (Accessed: 10/08/17). trash aesthetic”, Quarterly Review of Film and Video, 18 31Duncan, C. (2000)Worlds Apart: Why Poverty Persists in (2), 143-155. 143 Rural America. Connecticut: Yale University Press. 7. 20 Quote from The Last House on the Left (Wes Craven, 1972). 32Sergeant, H. (19th September 2009) Feral Youths: How a 21Clover, C. (1992)Men, Women and Chain Saws: Gender Generation of violent, illiterate young men are living in Modern Horror Film. New Jersey: Princeton outside the boundaries of civilised society.The Daily University Press. 126. Mail. Available from: http://www.thedailymail.co.uk/ debate/article-1214549/Feral-youths-How-generation- 22Dugdale, R. (1877)The Jukes: A Study in Crime, violent-illiterate-young-men-living-outside-boundaries- Pauperism, Disease and Heredity. New York: G. P. civilised-society.html (Accessed: 10/08/17). Putnam’s Sons. 54. 33Goad, J. (1997)The Redneck Manifesto: How Hillbillies, 23Williamson, J. W. (1995)Hillbillyland: What the Movies Hicks and White Trash Became America’s Scapegoats. Did to the Mountains and what the Mountains Did to the New York: Simon and Schuster. 98. Movies. North Carolina: North Carolina University Press. 6. 34Plan B (2012) Ill Manors,Ill Manors [CD]. 24Douglas, M. (1966)Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Atlantic Records. Concepts of Pollution and Taboo. London: Routledge. 13. 35Hess, A. (29th October 2014) Eden Lake: The film that 25Douglas, M. (1966)Purity and Danger. 118-122. frightened me most. The Guardian. Available from: http:// 26 Newitz, A. (1997)White Trash: Race and Class in www.theguardian.com/film/2014/oct/29/eden-lake-the- America. London: Routledge. 33. film-that-frightened-me-most (Accessed: 30/09/17). 27 Hartigan Jr., J. (2005) Odd Tribes:Toward a Cultural 36Graham, J. (5th November 2009) Hoodies strike fear in History of White People. London: Duke University British cinema. The Guardian. Available from: http:// Press. 69. www.theguardian.com/film/2009/nov/05/british-hoodie- 28Hurley, K. (2004)The Gothic Body: Sexuality, films (Accessed: 30/09/17). Materialism and Degeneration at the Fin De Siècle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 68.

52 53 Bad S**t, Killer Worms and Deadly Dawns: The Cult Cinema and Rural Excess of Jeff Lieberman Jon Towlson

Abstract The films of Jeff Lieberman are celebrated for their quirky originality and allegorical themes that critique dominant ideologies. This article investigates his films,Just Before Dawn and Blue Sunshine as cult texts. Squirm is examined in relation to the ‘revenge of nature’ cycle of the 1970s; whilstJust Before Dawn is considered primarily in terms of its feminist subversion of rural horror tropes.Blue Sunshine is interrogated as an intertextual blending of 50s invasion-metamorphosis science fiction narrative, 60s psychedelic drug movie and 70s conspiracy thriller. It is argued that Lieberman’s films have extended and enriched sub-genres within horror cinema and can be seen as crucial contributions to ‘The American Nightmare’ cycle of the 1970s/80s apocalyptic horror film originally identified by Robin Wood. The article considers the ways in which increased access to his work, especially to lesser-known titles (such asRemote Control), active on-line presence, and personal appearances at events such as Cine Excess have helped to raise Lieberman’s cult status as horror auteur in the digital age.

Keywords: cult film; rural horror; ‘The American Nightmare’; Jeff Lieberman;Blue Sunshine; Squirm; Just Before Dawn.

Introduction initially here, with consideration given Discussing the recent discovery in a Seattle afterwards toBlue Sunshine. Lieberman was warehouse of the lost negative of his 1978 Guest of Honour at 2014’sCine Excess VIII; film, Blue Sunshine, writer-director Jeff I conclude this essay with a reflection on Lieberman commented: “Of the five Lieberman’s festival Q&A, and his features I’ve made,Sunshine is definitely participation in the industry panel,Cult the most certified ‘cult’ movie, by critics Crowdfunders: New Audiences, New and cinema writers anyway.” The reason Funders and the Cult Indie Scene. Before Lieberman cites for this: “It’s the one most that, however, by way of introduction to ‘time-stamped’ to represent a very specific Lieberman’s work, a brief consideration of time in American culture.”1 With respect to Lieberman’s cult status may indeed serve Lieberman, we might nonetheless attribute useful. A broader discussion of what the term ‘cult’ to at least two more of his constitutes cult cinema is beyond the scope films, Squirm (1976) andJust Before Dawn of this piece, so my analysis will necessarily (1981). It is those films that I will focus on rely on some common definitions.

54 Jeff Lieberman as Cult Auteur InBlue Sunshine we have the murderous Although not as widely recognised as, say, baby sitter stalking her young charges with a Romero, Craven or Cronenberg, Lieberman’s large knife; her invasion-metamorphosis is films have extended and enriched sub-genres signified by her bizarrely bald head, her within horror cinema.Squirm is considered ‘possession’by the visual reference to one of the best of the 70s cycle of ecological Rosemary’s Baby (1968). InJust Before horror films derived from Hitchcock’sThe Dawn, Lieberman’s heroine fends off her Birds (1963);Blue Sunshine spans the backwoods attacker by thrusting her fist zombie-satire gap between Cronenberg’s down his throat – a gender subversion of the Shivers (1975) and Romero’sDawn of the rape/violation imagery redolent of the Dead (1978);Just Before Dawn (1981) urbanoia film (most notably the gun-in the- develops and subverts the tropes of Hooper’s woman’s-mouth scene inThe Hills Have The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974) and Eyes [1977]). InSquirm , we have three such Craven’sThe Hills Have Eyes (1977); in its iconic moments, neatly encapsulating the depiction of videotape as modern folk devil, three stages of narrative progression in the Remote Control (1988) invites comparisons apocalyptic horror film as identified by with Cronenberg’sVideodrome (1983); and Charles Derry inDark Dreams 2.0: A Satan’s Little Helper (2003) riffs intriguingly Psychological History of the Modern on Carpenter’sHalloween (1978). Horror Film2: proliferation – the scene Lieberman has the ability to crystallise the where worms infest the face of the essence of a horror sub-genre in a single antagonist, Roger;besiegement – where the striking iconographic image: worms threaten to erupt from a showerhead on to the heroine (also, a sly nod toPsycho [1960] – linking viaThe Birds to Hitchcock); andannihilation – when the worms invade the house and finally engulf Roger, who sinks into them like a man disappearing into quicksand.

The limited availability of his films in the UK in the days before home video and DVD conversely helped cement Lieberman’s cult status in this country in the 70s/80s. While Squirm was a hit (one particular cinema in London’s Piccadilly Circus played it for an Striking up a cult image: the cinema of Jeff entire year),Blue Sunshine andJust Before Lieberman

55 BAD S**T, KILLER WORMS AND DEADLY DAWNS

Dawn both suffered distribution problems in movie”. By contrast, bothSquirm andJust Britain on first release. The Rank Before Dawn, in their depictions of Organisation keptJust Before Dawn sitting backwood rural communities, are more on the shelf for over a year before burying it precariously balanced between mocking and in a double-bill with Tyburn’sThe Ghoul reinforcing cultural prejudices. “I am a baby (1975).Blue Sunshine was never shown in boomer,” Lieberman stated in an interview UK cinemas, or on VHS PALvideo or, as of with Rue Morgue magazine in 2011: yet, on UK-region DVD/Blu-ray (Warner Brothers own the domestic rights). I was in the drug culture of Meanwhile, Lieberman was championed by the ‘60s and I saw everything the likes of Alan Jones and Kim Newman, first hand. I was at House of Hammer, Starburst andFangoria ; Woodstock. I did acid. and film tie-in novelisations ofSquirm and Marched against the war in Blue Sunshine proved popular with horror Vietnam. Saw Easy Rider. I fans even while access to the films was immersed in all that in themselves remained limited. However, NewYork. I was at the right Lieberman’s films now enjoy repertory place at the right time, at the screenings in cultural hubs such as London’s vanguard of all that stuff. ICA and the New Beverly Cinema (owned However, I have an innate and programmed by Quentin Tarantino) in cynicism so I don’t ever really Santa Monica; and Lieberman himself is a buy into anything.³ regular guest of honour at horror film festivals internationally, participating in Lieberman’s films are markedly intertextual. Q&As in person or via Skype, helping to They invite comparisons with other films in expose more fans of the genre to his films the genre, consciously play with and subvert through his personal appearances at such genre tropes and reference and/or invoke events. We can thus see Lieberman’s cultural myths (Blue Sunshine, for example, currency as a cult auteur continuing into the satirises 1970s anti-drug hysteria; Remote digital age, with his films considerably less Control sends up the 1980s video ‘rare’ but still ‘specialist’. revolution.) As commented in 1977 by Edgar Lansbury and Joseph Beruh, the Lieberman’s work is often celebrated for its producers ofSquirm andBlue Sunshine: quirky originality and allegorical themes “Lieberman has a good grasp of the genre that critique dominant ideologies. This may andgreat respect for it.”4 Whereas Just be why the director himself attributesBlue Before Dawn offers a spin on the survivalist Sunshine as his “most certified ‘cult’ tropes of Deliverance (1972),Squirm and

56 Blue Sunshine belong firmly in the canon of operandi, stating that the atomic age seventies apocalyptic horror identified by anxieties of the 1950s gave way to Robin Wood in his seminal 1979 essay, ‘The government-induced fears of the effects of American Nightmare’.5 Wood considers the LSD in the early 1970s and then later the American horror films to have entered its effects of environmental pollution. apocalyptic phase after 1968, reflecting the Throughout the years he has continued to ideological crisis and destabilisation that employ the basic story telling formulae of beset America during the time of the the early sci-fi ‘radiation movies’, whilst Vietnam War and leading to Nixon’s simultaneously challenging the messages of resignation following the Watergate scandal those movies and adapting them to the in 1974. According to Wood, the revenge of changing times. nature film (of whichSquirm is a distinguished example) forms a tangential Squirm subgenre within apocalyptic horror. It The fear of ecological disaster underpins speaks of anxieties concerning the rape of Squirm - albeit in a satirical way. In the film, the environment by corporate-capitalism, an electricity pylon collapses and and its generic roots can be found in the ‘electrifies’ a harvest of carnivorous cold war monsters-caused-by-radiation of bloodworms which go on to crawl amok 1950s science fiction. through a backwoods Southern town, feasting on the various inhabitants. Radiation Movies Lieberman wrote the script in a frenzied six Lieberman’s films, including Squirm,are weeks, after putting it off for two years due heavily influenced by 50s sci-fi. “As a kid, I to family commitments. He sold the script thought I was shrinking”, he has recalled of immediately to producers Lansbury and seeing Jack Arnold’s classicThe Incredible Beruh, who, on the strength of the script, Shrinking Man (1957), “because allowed him to direct. Lieberman considers government was instilling this fear of Squirm to be his ‘on the job training’ in radiation – you can’t imagine how they directing, and learned to makeSquirm ,ashe frightened my generation with this said, “one shot at a time”.7 It became his radiation”.6 Lieberman’s project can be crash course in the exigencies of low budget identified as subverting the ideology of the film-making. Squirm cost $420,000 to make 1950s sci-fi movie as defined by its outward and was shot in 25 days. projection of fears instilled by governments. In his lecture, ‘Radiation Movies’, given at theMiskatonic Institute of Horror Studies in 2011, Lieberman outlined his modus

57 ersatz-Tennessee Williams in Squirm. (Intriguingly, the film was originally set in New England, which perhaps explains the film’s rather Lovecraftian US poster; Lieberman changed the locale at the behest of the producers.) The repression within Geri’s family, characterised by her neurotic mother, and in the townsfolk generally, evokes the Southern Gothic of Williams, but also: the worms themselves represent the eruption of that all-consuming repression, Earth worms meets eugenics in Squirm which is brought to a head by Mick’s arrival. A crucial moment in the film Many reviewers rightly identifySquirm as concerns Roger, the ‘hick’ who is secretly character-led, that the revenge of nature plot smitten by Geri and therefore resentful and motif is secondary to a portrait of small- jealous of Mick.After a scuffle on board a town tensions. Reminiscent of the Melanie- boat where he tries to kiss Geri, Roger falls Mitch subplot inThe Birds, events in into a box of bait worms which burrow into Squirm are kicked off by the arrival of a his face. Later, Roger is literally consumed stranger in Fly Creek who arouses the by the worms when they infest the house. In suspicion of the locals. Played by Don the same scene, Geri’s mother is shown to Scardino, Mick is a nerdish city-slicker, have been consumed also, with only the visiting his girlfriend Geri who lives on the shell of her body left. Repressing the writing outskirts of town. When bodies of worm ofSquirm for two years due to family victims are found, distrust falls – commitments may well be one of the things implausibly - on Mick. He and Geri are that helped to give the film its queasy forced to investigate the killings themselves power:Squirm feels very much like an and then try to save the disbelieving outpouring of the young director’s own townsfolk from the marauding polychaetes. stifled creativity. Finally it is the small-mindedness of the townsfolk, as much as the threat from the Critics have commented on the film’s often worms, which brings about the demise of sardonic representation of class, social the town. mobility and North/South difference. Mick, an antiques dealer, is also in Fly Creek to With its Georgia setting and its broad buy up the townsfolk’s family heirlooms, Southern accents, there is more than a little invoking the resentment of the locals who

58 are loath to see their riches go into the Squirm was a huge financial success thanks pockets of a city boy outsider. In the words to the distributor, American International of reviewer, Frank Collins, Mick is a Pictures, promoting it as a creature feature. “capitalist Yankee ransacking the remains of Although not the first of the 70s ‘nature the South”.8 Naturally the young people - attacks’ films –Frogs (1972),Night of the Mick, Geri and her liberal pot-smoking Lepus (1972),Phase IV (1974) andBug sister, Alma - face antagonism from the (1975), among others, preceded it – local right-wing sheriff as they attempt to Squirm’s primacy revived this flagging cycle solve the mystery inScooby-Doo fashion. in the mid-70s and inspired numerous Lieberman both plays up to and undercuts imitators – The Savage Bees (1976) ,Day of these stereotypes. Roger is a pathetic figure the Animals (1977),Empire of the Ants as he tries to win Geri’s affection through (1977),Kingdom of the Spiders (1977). misguided displays of his white, working Although he described the revenge of nature class masculinity, which is starkly contrasted films as generally less interesting and by Mick’s middle-class preppy-ness. productive than other types of apocalyptic Squirm’s representation of Southern small- horror, Robin Wood praisedSquirm for its town folk is complicated by the fact that underlying familial and sexual tensions à la Lieberman switched the locale of the story The Birds, and Lieberman freely before filming commenced, necessitating a acknowledges his debt to Hitchcock in quick script rewrite, leading perhaps, to its this respect. heightened sense of pastiche. Lieberman’s characters are written, and played, as broad. Just Before Dawn This may, of course, also be part of the Just Before Dawn came into being when, in film’s cult attraction. Squirm certainly does 1980, Lieberman received a phone call from not fall into the ‘so bad it’s good’ category Czech producer, Doro Vlado Hreljanovic, of cult cinema – on the whole the film is offering him a script calledThe Last Ritual. competently made and acted – however, Lieberman agreed to direct on the proviso there are sufficient elements of ‘badness’ in that he be allowed to completely rewrite the it to help position it as cult viewing. R. A. screenplay (under the pseudonym Gregg Dow’s performance as Roger, for example, Irving), retaining only the names of the like that of Zalman King as Jerry Zipkin in characters and the basic ‘kids in the woods Blue Sunshine, is excessive. Of course, it is with a murderer’ premise. Just Before important to note that Lieberman deliberately Dawn, then, can be seen as an attempt to approachesSquirm as a comedy. Its tongue work within, and to some extent subvert, the is firmly in cheek, and this suggests that, as conventions of the 70s urbanoia film, and a representation of the South, it should not, Lieberman brings his customary intelligence in the final analysis, be taken too seriously. and genre savvy to its run-of-the-mill

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premise. In the film, campers in the wild are Just Before Dawn is often compared toThe terrorised by a family of machete-wielding Texas Chain Saw Massacre andThe Hills killers; only one of them survives, by Have Eyes as an urbanoia text, but in many drawing on her own animal instincts. ways can be seen as a riposte to the rape/ violation imagery of those films. InChain Lieberman’s film highlights the survivalist Saw Pam and Sally are symbolically aspects of the story, emphasising the penetrated by meat hook and chainsaw; in conversion from passive victim to savage The Hills Have EyesBrenda is forced to her survivor of the female character. In his knees and orally violated with a handgun. foreword to my book,Subversive Horror Just Before Dawn both references and Cinema, Lieberman discusses Just Before subverts this type of iconography in Dawn’s gender subversion in the following Connie’s final fatal oral fisting of her terms: backwoods attacker. Lieberman presents the action from the point of view of the male It was my homage to onlooker – played by Greg Henry – whose Deliverance (1972), which gaze mirrors that of the film’s audience had a similar impact on me as witnessing the audacious gender reversal. Lord of The Flies (1963), and The sequence stuns the contemporary dealt with very similar socio- viewer because the usual trope of male political issues. I set out to violator/violated female found in 70s make the Jon Voight character urbanoia is turned on its head. Despite its fromDeliverance a woman, radical sexual politics, however, the film’s ‘Connie,’who would make representation of the hillbillies is the same character arc from ambivalent, generally lacking the tongue-in- helpless milquetoast to cheek factors that characterisedSquirm . animalistic survivor. So my political statement if you will Just Before Dawn andUrbanoia was a radically feminist one, James Rose usefully defines the urbanoia to show that when humans are film in Beyond Hammer: British Horror reduced to their animalistic Cinema Since 1970.10 Urbanoia, according genetic baseline, there was to Rose, deals explicitly with the conflict little difference between male between present and past, rural and urban. or female. Connie became the The arrival of a group or family of white ultimate ‘final girl,’ long middle class characters into the wilderness before that term was coined.9 sets off a collision between cultures.

60 This culture clash instigates the events that follow as the group or family are hunted down and killed one by one by their backwoods antagonists as they plunge deeper into the unfamiliar wilderness. As the number of survivors from the urban group diminishes, it is the seemingly weakest group member who finds him or herself galvanised into violent action, drawing on inner resources and animal cunning to outwit and finally hunt down the hunters.

InJust Before Dawn the backwoods clan is stereotypically portrayed as impoverished, primitive, inbred and morally degenerate. Country conflicts:Just Before Dawn Incest has resulted in many instances of congenital freakishness, including the killer The campers in Just Before Dawn trail their hillbillies who are revealed in the film as urban sensibilities into the wilderness: they identical twins. A group of white middle travel in an expensive Winnebago that class campers intrude on the wilderness allows them their material comforts, family’s domain, here to visit land inherited Blondie’sHeart of Glassblaring on the from their parents. Rose further defines the radio; all the trappings of modernity. One of conflict between the wilderness clan and the the characters aims his camera at twin girls urban group in urbanoia texts as agrarian who play in the wreck of a car at the side of versus capitalist; the hillbilly figure in these the road. Dressed in rags, these are, by films is presented both as a savage aggressor contrast, children of the historically against the white middle class urban dispossessed, evoking Dorothea Lange’s intruders and victim of the economic famous portraits of rural poverty in the inequality that exists between city and Great Depression. Immediately the group hit countryside. The rural ‘have-nots’, in a deer, and this foreshadows the events to urbanoia tales, are eventually exterminated come; their intrusion into the wilderness by the urban ‘haves’for daring to rise up constitutes, in the words of George Kennedy against the privileged class. in the film, a “shock to nature’s delicate

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balance”. To underline this theme, and glistening waterfalls of the Oregon Lieberman cuts to a close up of a frightened mountains, but we are all too aware of the horse seemingly unsettled by the unwelcome horrors that lurk beneath the canopy of the presence of the campers. Kennedy’s forest woods and under the surface of Silver ranger is a familiar figure in urbanoia, a Creek. Lieberman’s final message seems to harbinger and intermediary between be that Mother Nature, despite her beauty, is civilisation and the wilderness. His warnings cold, brutal and primordial, and those who to the youngsters, of course, go unheeded. seek her solace must be willing to locate the primal within themselves. An urbanoia film, according to Rose, “usually ends with the death of the Blue Sunshine wilderness patriarch, leaving the sole Blue Sunshine takes its title from the survivor of modernity to stumble back to the fictitious strain of LSD which, in the film, city, bloody and traumatised.”¹¹ InJust turns its users into bald-headed psychotic Before Dawn, Connie bears the signs of zombie killers a decade after it is taken. A traumatic rebirth despite her new found further example of Lieberman’s ‘radiation empowerment, and through her abjection cinema’, Blue Sunshine draws on the same she ultimately becomes at the end of the government-instilled anti-drug hysteria of film both warrior and matriarch. The final the early 1970s that promptedThe Ringer, symbolic image of Just Before Dawn takes Lieberman’s public information film place at sunrise: Connie stands triumphant sponsored by the Coca Cola company in over the body of the hillbilly she has 1972. defeated, while her terrified boyfriend clings to her like a weeping child. Blue Sunshine is first and foremost socio- political satire playing on the paranoia of Lieberman uses the Oregon locations post-Watergate America. It amalgamates masterfully to build suspense and create elements of 70s conspiracy thriller atmosphere. The landscape exterior is an (Executive Action [1973],The Parallax essential part of the urbanoia film, as Rose View [1974],Three Days of the Condor points out: its narrative function to “place [1975]), 60s-type psychedelic drug movie à the protagonists within a space that initially la Corman’s The Trip (1967), and the offers them an escape from their daily invasion-metamorphosis narratives of 50s experience but eventually isolates them science fiction (the seminal text here being from any sense of modern society in the Invasion of the Body Snatchers [1956]). In face of mounting terror”.¹² Lieberman Blue Sunshine the protagonist, Jerry Zipkin, imbues Just Before Dawn with the sheer goes on the lam after becoming the prime beauty of nature in the lush, verdant forests suspect in a murder committed by a friend

62 suffering the psychotic effects of the drug. Lieberman had originally set the film in Investigating the crime himself with the New York, with elaborate flashback help of his girlfriend Alicia, Zipkin sequences showing the characters’ college discovers that old college associate Ed days; however, for budgetary reasons he Flemming, now a politician, is trying to ended up cutting those scenes and cover up his past as the drug dealer who transposing the story to Los Angeles. In sold his friends the experimental ‘Blue many ways that transposition helps the film. Sunshine’. The film builds to a confrontation InShivers andRabid (1976) Cronenberg between Zipkin and Flemming’s bald and emphasises the brutalist architecture of berserk henchman, Mulligan, in a Montreal as a dehumanising influence on discotheque and shopping mall, symbolising the characters; inBlue Sunshine Lieberman the new age of rampant consumerism that uses the sterile modernity of Los Angeles, the baby-boomers - having compromised with its endless shopping centres and the ideals of the 1960s for their own gain – boutique malls, to similar effect, providing have helped to usher in. an ironic backdrop to the drug burn-out narrative. Indeed the intertexuality of the Cronenberg films and Blue Sunshine is underlined by the similarity of several key scenes in the work of both directors: inBlue Sunshine, Jerry anxiously watches his friend, Dr Blume - whom he thinks might be LSD-‘infected’– perform surgery on a woman with cancer. The suspense is partly generated by Lieberman’s playing on the audience’s genre expectations: a similar scene appears inRabid , in which a surgeon succumbs to the rabies virus while working on a patient and turns homicidal in the operating theatre.

Blue Sunshine’s central suspense sequence with the murderous babysitter, references Shivers: the apartment complex setting is strikingly similar to Starliner Towers, even down to the residents, including the geriatric couple who ride the elevators. By the same Acid rage: Jeff Lieberman’s Blue Sunshine token,Blue Sunshine anticipates Romero’s

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Dawn of the Dead in striking ways: there is Dead) – a working through of the issues a gun store scene very similar to that of collectively - as each delves deeper into the Dawn of the Dead, in which Zipkin arms nature of the ‘apocalypse’ facing the society himself in defence against Mulligan; and of its time. their final showdown takes place in a shopping mall, in which the bald-headed But whereas the early films of Hooper and showroom dummies are easily mistaken for Craven were unwilling to move beyond the zombies (indeed Lieberman’s film ends with apocalyptic, the work of Cronenberg, a zombie-Mulligan being gunned down in a Lieberman and Romero in the 70s moved shopping mall). towards the possibility of a new order. Shivers offered a vision of sexual revolution The key apocalyptic horror films of the 70s based on the writings of Freudian represent a sustained and developing psychologist, Norman O. Brown that was enquiry into the breakdown of American deeply ambivalent. In its portrayal of the society, locating its pathology in the very 1970s as a consumerist dystopia whose ‘frontier spirit’ that underlies the American revolutionary ideals have been replaced by Way. The interplay between genre and mass psychosis (zombie-ism),Blue authorship can be seen in the remarkable Sunshine bridges the ideological gap intertextuality of these films: a direct result between Shivers and Dawn of the Dead.All of the cultural interaction and exchange three films critique the consumer-capitalist between horror directors in their richest impasse of the 1970s butBlue Sunshine period of achievement. Further example provides the crucial transition between the would be the continuity of theme inThe ambivalent sexual politics ofShivers and Texas Chainsaw Massacre, The Hills Have Dawn of the Dead’s tacit observation of Eyes andJust Before Dawn. This can be alternative ideologies and countercultural partly attributed to the genre savvy of the values. In this respect Lieberman’s films - film-makers but also to their continuing Blue Sunshine, especially - are important sense of shared enquiry into the dark heart but often overlooked contributions to The of the American pioneer myth, with each American Nightmare cycle that began with film building upon theme successively. One Night of the Living Dead. gets the sense of a baton being passed back and forth within 1970s horror – from Blue Sunshine places itself, then, firmly Romero (Night of the Living Dead) to alongsideShivers andDawn of the Dead in Craven (Last House on the Left) to Hooper the ‘invasion-metamorphosis’ sci-fi/horror (The Texas Chainsaw Massacre) to subgenre as described by critic Andrew Cronenberg (Shivers) to Lieberman (Blue Tudor: “collectively, we have become Sunshine) and back to Romero (Dawn of the potential victims, to be transformed into

64 zombies, gibbering maniacs or diseased Accordingly,Blue Sunshine’s protagonist, wrecks,” writes Tudor inMonsters and Mad Jerry Zipkin, is defined as a counterculture Scientists: A Cultural History of the figure, an ‘un-reconstituted hippie’. Early in Horror Movie: the story, it is revealed that, in the words of the detective following the case, Jerry is (y)et however vast its scale, “erratic as hell”. He graduated from Cornell the heart of this narrative lies but now, ten years later, “hasn’t got a pot to in the emphatically internal piss in”. He has gone through a number of quality of its threat. It is not jobs. “He quit his last one”, we are told, simply that we may be “because the firm wouldn’t hire enough destroyed, as we might have women”. Zipkin, because of his integrity, been by a score of traditional his adherence to the progressive values of movie monsters. It is also that his youth, his refusal to sell out, has become we will be fundamentally labelled a social misfit. Hence, he is altered in the process; that our fingered as the immediate suspect in the humanity itself is at risk.¹³ murder investigation. Jerry seems immune to the psychosis spreading through the Intriguingly, the invasion-metamorphosis erstwhile peace and love generation (which narrative that Tudor describes, perhaps is itself a metaphor for their selling out to because of its emphasis on human materialistic values); although at times transformation as allegory of social and Lieberman asks us to question this immunity, political change, seems to form the basis of as Jerry’s own behaviour becomes the more optimistic horror films of the increasingly erratic (Lieberman attempts to 1970s. Whereas the savagery/civilisation play on our paranoia in a number of scenes, contradiction ofLast House on the Left, The making us think that Jerry might be starting Texas Chain Saw Massacre and The Hills to suffer the effects of the drug, however Have Eyes (derived largely from the Zalman King’s idiosyncratic performance American revisionist western) seems makes this work less effectively than it impassable – it is presented as essentially might otherwise have). two sides of the same coin – the living/dead dichotomy of Blue SunshineandDawn of Zipkin’s nemesis is Ed Flemming, the dealer the Dead is surpassable, although, turned politician. “We have lost a trust,” admittedly, it requires a fundamental shift in Flemming announces in his campaign the values of society – which the films speech, “a trust in ourselves, a trust in our suggest nothing short of a countercultural fellow Americans and a trust in the revolution can bring about. leadership of our government”. Flemming is depicted as a hypocrite and self-serving

65 BAD S**T, KILLER WORMS AND DEADLY DAWNS

parasite, part of the corruption that consumer goods, past televisions blaring out besmirched 60s counterculture. Fittingly, his Flemming’s campaign: “it’s time to make election campaign rally is held at Shopper’s America good again!” We need more people World, a large mall, which also houses a like Zipkin, the film seems to be saying in discotheque, thus closely aligning his values its sardonic way, people who are immune to with those of consumerism. Disco, inBlue the lure of consumerism. Lieberman cannot Sunshine, is seen as part of the ideological resist a final irony, however, informing us in superstructure of 1970s consumerism, a title card that “two hundred and fifty-five further evidence of the kind of commodified doses of ‘Blue Sunshine’ still remain sexual freedom/ Marcusean repressive unaccounted for”. The immediate threat desublimation exemplified by the Starliner may have been fended off, but the wider Towers complex in Cronenberg’sShivers . crisis remains. Incidentally, Lieberman attributesBlue Sunshine’s popularity among the late 70s The On-Going Auteur: Jeff Lieberman at American punk music scene (where the film Cine Excess VIII was regularly screened as background Lieberman’s appearance as Guest of Honour visuals in New York’s music clubs) to its at 2014’sCine Excess VIII speaks to the discotheque sequences which, according to continuous market value of his films, and his Lieberman, “shit over disco”.14 lasting presence as a cult filmmaker. His reputation has continued to grow in recent The conclusion ofBlue Sunshine remains years as a result of his active on-line optimistic: ultimately, Zipkin (who has presence; his use of social media and retained his basic integrity from his college dedicated website to maintain contact with days and not sold out like his contemporaries) fans; an increasing awareness of his work prevails and he is vindicated. His defeat of on fan sites and cult movie forums; regular Mulligan in the shopping mall is the repertory screenings of his films; and the triumph of integrity over corruption, of steady reissue since 2002 of Lieberman’s 1960s counterculture values prevailing in back catalogue on DVD, Blu-ray and the age of consumerism; perhaps even the streaming media, as well as the release, in start of a backlash against the capitalist 2003, of his most recent film,Satan’s Little ‘reality’of the 1970s in favour of a return to Helper. flower-power idealism. Lieberman invites us to consider these possibilities as the camera tracks away from Jerry and the unconscious Mulligan, to retreat through the aisle of

66 enabled Lieberman to similarly re-master that title in 4K for screenings at cinemas committed to cult programming, such as the Silent Movie Theater in Los Angeles and the Alamo Drafthouse Yonkers, and for eventual Blu-ray release and streaming in America. Lieberman thus remains very much a part of the cult film community through events such as Cine Excess, regularly attending Jeff Lierberman directing Satan’s Little Helper screenings of his films and making them available to new audiences in upgraded In conversation, and during his participation digital formats. in the industry panel on crowdfunding and the horror film, Lieberman reflected on being a cult director in the digital age. He has responded to horror fandom in a number of interesting ways.

Demand for his work led him to set up a distribution website forRemote Control,so that the film can be sent direct to fans on limited edition DVD and Blu-ray. Although

Remote Control receives TV airings outside Reflexive cult commentary in Remote Control the US by Studio Canal, in the United States and the UK it had remained unseen since its A number of films by Lieberman’s horror VHS release in 1988. The domestic rights contemporaries have, of course, been were owned by Carolco whose bankruptcy remade (eg. The Texas Chain Saw Massacre had tied up the film (and other titles) since [2003],Dawn of the Dead[2004]), The 1995. Eventually Lieberman received the Hills Have Eyes [2006]), and the reactions green light from former Carolco executive of critics and fans to these remakes have Andrew Vajna to release the film himself been generally negative. Nevertheless, after spending a year trying to buy back the Lieberman remains open to his own films rights. He personally oversaw the 2K HD being ‘reimagined’. When asked about the transfer from a good quality print that he proposed remake ofSquirm , Lieberman found in Paris and had shipped over to the expressed enthusiasm for the possibilities of States. More recently, the discovery of the CGI in delivering what he believes could be lost negative toBlue Sunshine in 2015 has an improved version of the original.

67 BAD S**T, KILLER WORMS AND DEADLY DAWNS

Although venerated by fans for its special On the subject of crowdfunding for feature make up effects by Rick Baker, Lieberman films, Lieberman has mixed feelings. He regards the shortcomings ofSquirm in terms admits that it is difficult for independent of its budgetary limitations: “to get that one filmmakers to secure funding, and remains worm going up the side of the face was such open to the possibilities for a production on a big deal and a budget breaker. It took half a low budget (Satan’s Little Helper was shot a day to achieve that one make-up effect”.15 on HD with a small cast and crew). Lieberman necessarily scaled back the Generally, however, he disagrees with the effects sequences ofSquirm in order to meet sense of entitlement that crowdfunding can the tight budget. CGI would enable him to embody for first time filmmakers: “You’re achieve a film that he feels would therefore basically asking the public for money just be closer to his original scripted vision, because you want to make a film.”17 giving the film more of the ‘yukkie-stuff’ Gatekeepers may be a necessary evil, (the film’s title, of course, signals the film’s ensuring a certain level of quality. Making intended bodily affect). Similarly, reference toSquirm , he comments: “I wrote Lieberman contends that the mooted remake a script that was good enough for two ofBlue Sunshine (currently in development producers to want to make.” Having said with Vincent Newman as producer and Peter this, Lieberman admits that his own cult Webber directing), in terms of its theme of status means that crowdfunding may “decisions we made in our youth coming become a viable option for him if a project back to haunt us in horrific ways as adults”, is “inherently cheap so that it can be made would “resonate well with Millennials”.16 In on a low budget”. The prospect, for cult film this way Lieberman challenges those fans fans, is certainly intriguing. As Lieberman and critics predisposed against the remaking quipped during the panel discussion, “If the of sacred horror film texts; while there is a fans really want it that badly, and they’re tendency for cult movie fans to canonise willing to put money into it, who am I to directors for their past achievements, it is blow against the wind.” important to acknowledge Lieberman’s authorship in terms of a career and ‘oeuvre’ that is on-going and evolving.

1Alexander, C. ‘Interview: Director Jeff Lieberman Talks 3Andrews,S. Rue Morgue Podcast, June 22, 2011.http:// BLUE SUNSHINE 4K Restoration’.Shock Till You Drop. www.rue-morgue.com/2011/06/rue-morgue-podcast-jeff- http://www.shocktillyoudrop.com /news/features/ 389261- lieberman interview-director-jeff-lieberman- talks-blue-sunshine-4k- 4Quoted in Crawley, T. (1977) ‘Blue Sunshine’,House of restoration/ Hammer, 2, (3), 16. 2 Derry, C. (2009) Dark Dreams 2.0:A Psychological 5Wood, R. (2003) Hollywood fromVietnam to Reagan History of the Modern Horror Film from the 1950s to the …And Beyond. New York: Columbia University 21st Century. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Press, 63-84. Company, 55-87

68 6Rue Morgue Podcast 14Harding, B. ‘The Monsters Chat with Jeff Lieberman.’ 7Rue Morgue Podcast http://www.monstersatplay.com/features/interviews/jeff- chat.php 8Collins, F. ‘Squirm’.Cathode Ray Tube. http:// 15 www.cathoderaytube.co.uk/2013/09/squirm-dual-dvd-and- Squirm Q&A, November 14, 2014.Cine Excess VIII: ‘Are you Ready for the Country: Cult Cinema and Rural blu-ray-edition.html Excess’. 9See Towlson, J. (2014)Subversive Horror Cinema: 16McNary, D. Horror Film. ‘‘Blue Sunshine’ Gets Remake Countercultural Messages of Films from Frankenstein to From ‘We’re the Millers’ Producer’.Variety , October 24, the Present. Jefferson, N.C: McFarland & Co, 1. 2014. http://variety.com/2014/film/news/blue-sunshine- 10Rose, J. (2009)Beyond Hammer: British Horror Cinema remake-vincent-newman-1201338371/# Since 1970. Leighton Buzzard: Auteur Publishing, 17‘Cult Crowdfunders: New Audiences, New Funders and 137-139. the Cult Indie Scene’, Q&A, November 14, 2014.Cine 11Rose 2009, 138 Excess VIII: ‘Are you Ready for the Country: Cult 12Rose 2009, 139 Cinema and Rural Excess’. 13Tudor, A. (1989)Monsters and Mad Scientists: A Cultural History of the Horror Film. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 97.

69 Out of the Blue (Sunshine): An Interview With Director Jeff Lieberman Conducted by Xavier Mendik

springboard for Lieberman’s feature length directorial debut:Squirm (1976).

This film (which is discussed by Jon Towlson in his contribution to this edition of the Cine-Excess journal), is often classified as part of the so-called ‘revolt of nature’ cycle popular during the 1970s,Squirm uses the theme of earthworms running amok in rural Georgia to cleverly knit together longstanding phobias surrounding the American rural space with more contemporary ecological fears surrounding the monstrous disruption of the animal kingdom. Featuring early SFX from Rick Baker, Squirm remained decidedly ‘old

Cult indie director Jeff Lieberman school’ in the treatment of its unsettling subject matter. Jeff Lieberman remains one of the most important American indie directors to Devoid of any CGI to create the monstrous emerge from the 1970s, and his work assault of the creatures, Lieberman instead consistently been interpreted as combining relied on thousands of live earthworms, shock value with social commentary. which adds an additional element of grisly Initially hailing from the New York film realism to some of the film’s most school scene, Jeff Lieberman’s interests disquieting scenes. While the emphasis is spanned both fiction and documentary film clearly on stomach churning shocks,Squirm practice, with his 1972 short film The Ringer also featured Jeff Lieberman’s eye for (1972) demonstrating an early ability to fuse incisive social commentary, which the multiple lines of quasi realist narrative director would later go on to explore in action around a single act of criminality. other celebrated cult productions. In Other formative entries included particular, by divesting the film’s attention screenwriting duties on the early serial killer between earthworms and the rural thrillerBlade (1973), which provided the dispossessed,Squirm remains as much a

70 eugenic study as it does an exploitation and zippies in the corporate culture of exposé 1970s.As we also discover in the movie, Zippy has been sacked from his job after It was a critique of ‘radicalism’ rather than questioning his employer’s attitude to the rural that dominated Lieberman’s next female employees, and this highlights the production:Blue Sunshine (1978). Widely extent to which fractured gender relations regarded as the director’s most political also haunt the film and Jeff Lieberman’s production to date, Blue Sunshine casts a wider cinema. Indeed, One of the more critical eye over the declining interesting, but less discussed aspects of the counterculture in the new corporate friendly film remains the markedly de-sexualised culture of late 1970s America. The film relationship between Zipkin and the central focuses on the plight of Gerry ‘Zippy’ female lead Alicia Sweeney (Deborah Zipkin, (Zalman King), a drop out finding it Winters), which also points to an interest in hard to adjust to the changing social values conflicted heterosexual bonds that runs and social scene facing former radicals in through many of the director’s works. the post-hippy era. Zipkin discovers that a random and violent killing spree is being This theme was particularly marked in Just committed by former hipsters who Before Dawn, Lieberman’s rural horror consumed a batch of bad acid during the entry from 1981. Released during at the summer of love. Ten years after taking the height of the home video boom, the film drug, all of its consumers suffer from offers an indie redux ofDeliverance (1972), violent headaches, a sudden and dramatic while also providing a much needed loss of hair and homicidal outbursts. feminist corrective to the stalk and slash craze popular during the period.Just Before As the bodies begin to pile up, Zipkin Dawn deals with a group of young city discover a crucial link between the murders dwellers stalked and dispatched by and Edward Flemming (Mark Goddard), a hideously deformed mountain dwellers former dope dealer turned politician, who is before the surviving heroine Constance running for congress on a morality ticket. (Deborah Benson) enacts her own form of By combining pulp politics with on-screen primitive retribution in the film’s startling carnage, Blue Sunshine remains a closely finale. Although now seen as a seminal observed critique of the changing cult and backwoods horror entry Just Before Dawn cultural trends of the 1970s. By naming his suffered from uneven distribution, often disenchanted male lead as ‘Zippy’, circulating in alternate versions, which Lieberman signals the character’s added to its cult status. connection to 1960s counterculture and the fate that befell groups such as the hippies

71 OUT OF THE BLUE (SUNSHINE)

Although Jeff Lieberman’s genre output Angeles. I attended The School of Visual since the early 1980s has been less frequent, Arts which was foremost an art school and titles such as Remote Control(1988) and the film department was only two years old Satan’s Little Helper (2004) saw the director when I signed on. There was no particular taking self-reflexive swipes at both the US emphasis on anything, just teaching us the domestic video scene and moral panics nuts and bolts of the craft. But being in NYC surrounding video game violence. As well at that time certainly exposed us to the as being the noted screenwriter for the 1994 notorious filmmakers of that time. franchise entry Never Ending Story III, he also won an EMMY award for his 1995 Xavier Mendik:As a genre filmmaker, we documentarySonny Liston: The Mysterious do associate you with that classic era of Life and Death of a Champion (HBO), and 1970s horror cinema, and some of your most recently brought his own distinctive most notable productions were made in this and satirical stance to ‘Til Death Do Us era. What are your memories of working in Part: a TV series about murderous spouses this decade? (2006-2007). Jeff Lieberman: The 70s seem to be a big In the following interview Jeff Lieberman focus right now – I guess they ran out of discusses his key film entries, as well as the clichés in the endless glamorizing of the theme of rural excess relevant to the wider 60s! I didn’t have any relationships with theme of the current journal issue. In his fellow filmmakers of that time in NY and own unique style, he also dissects the rights only got to meet them way later when our and wrongs of interpreting the cinema of films were known to each other, so as far as Jeff Lieberman. my story goes, there was no NY ‘scene’as it were. Funny how to this day I have yet to Xavier Mendik: Your route into make a movie that’s set in NY!Blue filmmaking came through the New York Sunshine was supposed to take place in NY Film School, with its emphasis on film but was moved to LA for budgetary reasons. experimentation and cinema as a political tool. What were your memories of those Xavier Mendik: Many people talk about formative years of film training at the tail the ‘exploitation’ element of your 1970s end of the 1960s? movies, other people have commented on their thematic and stylistic excess. One Jeff Lieberman:The whole idea of film aspect that often does not get discussed is schools was just coming into its own at that the economics of your films from the 1970S. time, with NYU leading the way in New York How were they funded, who invested in and UCLA and SC the leaders in Los

72 them and how did this kind of finance affect excess that are covered in this edition of the the types of production that were created? Cine-Excess journal. Why you feel the theme of debased rural development remains such Jeff Lieberman: My first two movies were a potent theme to American horror? financed by the same producers, Edgar Lansbury and Joe Beruh. They were big Jeff Lieberman: I can only speak for broadway producers at the time and were myself, but I think first and foremost it is the able to tap into their financing resources sense of isolation that you can’t get in even from the theatre. There were no ‘min- a small city. An unspoken sense of whatever majors’back then so anything not financed happens, you’re on your own out here. “In by a studio had to be done with private Squirm was actually set in a New England money. Once the movie was completed, the seaport town with a slant toward a hope was to attract major studio Lovecraft feel. But by the time the financing distribution, which is what happened with was put together we’d have to shoot in the Squirm and AIP who snapped up all world winter months and wanted wall to wall rights and put the producers into profit greenery to give the movie not only that immediately. sense of isolation but to hide whatever could be lurking right behind those bushes or Xavier Mendik: To what extent do you trees. think your films from that era reflected the wider tensions in 1970s American society? Xavier Mendik: What are your memories of the production ofSquirm ? Jeff Lieberman: I don’t think they reflected their times any more than in any other era. Jeff Lieberman: Being my first feature I Far as tensions goes, there was a hell of lot sure didn’t allow myself to have any fun more going on than that in the 70s.The that’s for sure. Four weeks of actors and one Godfather (1972),Star Wars (1977)Jaws week of worms! And the worm effects were (1974) all definitive movies of the era had by and large hit and miss right there on the nothing at all to do with any particular location, just trying out techniques and if tensions of the 70s. Unless you count the they seemed to work, bam, they went on the fear of sharks! But even that wasn’t shot list schedule. Everyone working on the particular to the 70s. movie seemed to feel it would be successful, but they had an entirely different point of Xavier Mendik: OK, well one film that view than I did which was just to somehow could be seen as embodying the tensions of get it all in the can and hope that I was right the culture that has created it isSquirm , way more than I was wrong when it’s all cut which embodies all of the features of rural together. Guess I was.

73 OUT OF THE BLUE (SUNSHINE)

Xavier Mendik: Squirm proved a big hit on Squirm, it never occurred to me that it’d be the 1970s cinema circuit, both in the US and part of some bigger category. Funny how all the UK. Why do you feel the film was so those categories emerged at the beginning successful? of the 80s – ‘slashers’‘kids in the woods’ and in music ‘heavy metal’ ‘punk’ etc. I like Jeff Lieberman: Well, by definition it’s an shitmuch better when there were no labels. ‘evergreen’ in that the fear of snakes and Each thing stood on its own merits – even if worms is pretty universal and there’s it was trying to cash in on someone else’s nothing in the movie that really dates it. I hit. think there’s only one car in the whole movie. And nobody’s talking on those old Xavier Mendik: You followedSquirm , with phones because all the power is out. But I the 1978 releaseBlue Sunshine, which you think much of the success comes from the have stated represented very specific issues characters interactions with each other and in American society. What were the key their ability to make such an absurd story elements you were seeking to discuss here? seem real. Then of course there are the special FX which have become iconic over the years, mainly because they’re referred to as ‘practical FX’as opposed to CGI.

Xavier Mendik: The film is often viewed as part of the 1970s revenge of nature cycle, and I wonder if you seeSquirm as somehow distinct from this cinematic trend? LSD traumas in Blue Sunshine

Jeff Lieberman: When I made the movie in Jeff Lieberman: My inspiration for the the fall of ’75, there was no ‘nature runs movie came from my youth in the 1950s. amuck’ trend. Jaws was certainly a stand- Specifically, the government’s fear campaign alone horror thriller book, not intended to against ‘The Russians’and the inevitable cash in on any trend when written. My atomic war with them. I was inundated with inspiration wasThe Birds (1963), which propaganda fear campaigns of what atomic again, wasn’t part of any trend. Certainly a radiation did to the survivors of Hiroshima trend did develop afterJaws , with writers and what’s it going to do to us. This was all asking which other of God’s creatures can bullshit to unite my country against the we turn against mankind?Grizzly (1976), dreaded ‘red’ Russia and in turn justify Willard (1971),Slugs (1988),Cujo (1983) more billions to make more of our own and on and on. But when I got the idea for mutant forming bombs. Hollywood realized

74 the govt. was spending millions scaring the government, special interest money, big crap out our youth so why not cash in on labour and pharma where hallmarks of the that fear?The Incredible Shrinking Man Obama years and Hillary Clinton promised (1957),Day the World Ended (1955),The to carry that same mantle if elected. To me, Amazing Colossal Man, Them (1954) and one of the biggest overlooked ironies of the on and on – we went to see those movies ‘16 election is that the majority of Trump already sold on the horror of nuclear war supporters echoed the very same frustrations and scared shitless about it and actually of the disenfranchised baby boomers of the believed the stories could happen. After all, 1960s and 70s! They felt left out, that our govt. wouldn’t lie to us, would they? So government was there only to take their in the 60s and into the 70s, the govt did the money and serve a status quo they weren’t a same thing with a huge drug fear campaign. part of. So of course they embraced an And top of the list was LSD, which they outsider who voiced their frustrations. And portrayed as the demon of all drugs. And boy did the establishment hate getting their just like with radiation they made incredible boat rocked. And it’s still rockin.’ claims about DNA mutations without any proof at all. So I figured, why not do what Xavier Mendik: By ranging lead character the Hollywood people did back in the 50s ‘Zippy’ Zipkin against this corrupt new right with radiation, make a movie that will tap wing class, you seem to be explicitly into that fear the govt is selling, even though proclaiming yourself as a political horror I meant it as a satirical statement. director. Was this your intension?

Xavier Mendik: Blue Sunshine seems to Jeff Lieberman: The Ed Flemming offer a very melancholic assessment of the character was a long haired hippie freak death of the so-called 1960s radical back in college and sold drugs to help pay movement. Was this your intention? his way just like so many others of his (my) generation. The fact that he went ‘straight’ Jeff Lieberman: My intention was to like the others and in his case chose politics illustrate what the ‘baby boomer’ doesn’t in any way make him any more generation had become, the very ‘straight’ ‘right wing’ than the other characters in the members of society they rallied against movie who joined the straight world, like when they didn’t have to face the realities of Dr. Blum played by Robert Walden. Bill the real world. Once they did, they Clinton was a draft dodger against the conformed pretty much in the same way as Vietnam war, smoked pot in college but then generations before them. They not only when he ran for office he claimed he never joined the ‘establishment’ but strongly inhaled it. To me that makes him just supported it. The entrenched big another bullshit politician but not ‘right

75 OUT OF THE BLUE (SUNSHINE)

wing’in any way. This is a prime example of Jeff Lieberman: He was very difficult to how all these labels have been rendered work with because he really wasn’t a trained meaningless – Flemming was the ‘bad guy’ actor, although he believed he was better so therefore he must be ‘right wing.’The than some very famous trained ones. So it speeches Mark Goddard makes as was a battle all the way. Flemming in the movie were lifted from Kennedy and Eisenhower. His rallying line Xavier Mendik: One of the most ‘It’s time to make America great again’ was interesting aspects ofBlue Sunshine is its pure Kennedy of decades ago, not Trump’s. gender politics, and all of your films do Zipkin’s character’s ago, not Trump’s. seem to promote atypical and strong female characters, and I wonder what attracts you Zipkin’s character’s back story of standing to this theme? up for feminist causes made him more sympathetic but those values were never Jeff Lieberman: I’m a feminist at heart. I attacked by Flemming, it only confirmed he totally relate to women and what they have was a ‘trouble maker.’ So the only thing to endure from asshole men, me being one of Flemming had that against Zipkin was that them of course. I had great empathy for the he might expose Flemming’s past and kill ‘Wendy’ character who was dumped by her his chances of getting elected. Flemming is husband and left with two young children so just trying to save his political ass just like he could pursue his ego trip in politics. And Bill Clinton did when he declared he ‘did if that wasn’t bad enough, he left her the gift not have sex with that woman.’So if that keeps on giving, genetic damage from illustrating how a politician can lie to cover his special brand of LSD! up his or her past for political gain makes me a political horror director, then so be it. But I’ll target left wing and right wing equally as it fits the narrative of the movie.

Xavier Mendik: Zippy Zipkin as we know was wonderfully underplayed by actor/ director Zalman King, who later went on to become one of America’s most acclaimed erotic film creators. What were your Just before filming: Jess Lieberman onset with Deborah Benson and Chris Lemmon memories of working with him?

76 Xavier Mendik: One of your most strident adding some silly sound effects to goose it heroines came with the figure of Constance up. My original cut was shown in theatres (Deborah Benson), in the 1981 filmJust by Rank in the UK. And that’s the cut I Before Dawn, and I wander what your recommend of course. memories are of this film?

Jeff Lieberman: Film critic Walter Chow introduced the movie as ‘the first feminist horror movie’ back when I was there for a screening at Alamo Denver a few years ago. And when I heard those words I had to agree with him. Connie is a ‘final girl’ – she’s not a victim. Tapping into her primal female nature, the root of the feminine self, Jeff Lieberman directing Arthur Kennedy in she transforms into a dangerous wild Just Before Dawn animal who can fell a beast three times her size with her bare hands. Well… her fist! Xavier Mendik: The film did indeed come out at the height of the so-called slasher Xavier Mendik: Just Before Dawn seemed boom, but seemed to be more of a to circulate with differing cuts and ended up backwoods survival horror movie. What do being a very different movie that the you feel the true source of the inspiration producers had intended. In what ways was was for the film? this a troubled production? Jeff Lieberman: Deliverance (1972), plain Jeff Lieberman: Actually, the production and simple, with a bit ofLord of the Flies itself was not troubled at all. But while I thrown in for good measure. There was no was making the movieFriday The 13th other movie that inspired me at all, slasher (1980) came out and did huge business. So boom or no. the producers wanted to transform the movie into that – which is what would later Xavier Mendik: How do you see the film be called a ‘slasher.’Of course that was not as an evolution of the trope rural horror as the movie I shot so they took the original cut represented by other rural themed horror and paired it down to focus less on releases such asThe Texas Chain Saw character and more on the violence, also Massacre (1974)?

77 OUT OF THE BLUE (SUNSHINE)

Jeff Lieberman: I’ve stated many times had changed at all. In fact, Reagan used to that althoughDeliverance was my key be president of the screen actors guild at the inspiration, to this day I’ve never even seen height of the McCarthy era, and was Texas Chain Saw Massacre.NorThe Hills labelled a communist himself for it. He was Have Eyes (1977). But that hasn’t stopped very pro Hollywood and friend of the countless critics and fans of the genre from creative community. Hollywood was run by assuming I was doing some version of those liberals in the 80s just like in the 70s and movies. Where it fits in in that evolution I the movies of the 80s still by and large had have no idea. I only relate it toDeliverance the same overall left wing slants focusing on and a gender flip on its main theme. racism, bigotry, the have nots portrayed as the good guys against the evil rich. Xavier Mendik: The production ofJust Before Dawn began in the late 1970s, but Xavier Mendik: Contemporary horror was released in 1981, by which time cinema remains dominated by remakes of American society and its film industry 1970s horror classics, and you have often appeared to be adopting a more conservative spoken of an ambition to remakeSquirm . stance than in the previous decade. Did you What would your ideal reimagining of this feel any shift to the right in that 1980s production involve? decade, and did you in anyway feel inhibited by it? Jeff Lieberman: I do have a very unique spin on it, but if I tell you I have to kill you. Jeff Lieberman: Just because a Republican Along with anyone reading this! – Ronald Reagan – was elected president, didn’t mean that anything in entertainment

78 79 AMonster of our Very Own:Razorback , Howling III: The Marsupials and the Australian Outback Renee Middlemost

Abstract Images of the Outback permeate Australian cinema as a visual representation of national identity. Filmic representations of Australia routinely portray the land in terms of its bucolic splendour, but also as an empty, sinister space; this in turn spawns rural excess as well as monsters, both man and beast. This article examines two films highlighted as part of the so- called ‘Ozploitation’ movement –Razorback (1984) andHowling III: The Marsupials (1987) - and will argue that their depictions of Australian ‘monsters’ reflect anxieties about national character and the local film industry. Despite their commercial entertainment impetus, Ozploitation films have been able to critique aspects of the national character that official film bodies ignore, through the metaphor of the horrific outback and the monsters that dwell within. By examiningRazorback andHowling III: The Marsupials in terms of their unexpected rebranding as Ozploitation films, I suggest that the omission of genre film from the ‘official’ history of Australian film, and the continuing lack of financial support is indicative of the angst surrounding the local industry regarding quality, nationalism and cultural cringe.

Key Words: Ozploitation; Australian film; Australian outback; National identity;Razorback ; Howling III: The Marsupials.

“Australia. What fresh hell is this?” (The this in turn spawns rural excess as well as Proposition, 2005) monsters, both man and beast. This article Images of the Outback permeate Australian examines two films highlighted as part of cinema as a visual representation of national the so-called Ozploitation movement – identity. Despite operating to connote Razorback (1984) andHowling III: The ‘Australianness’, the rural landscape has Marsupials (1987) - and will argue that the often been depicted as one of extreme portrayal of Australian ‘monsters’ are a contrasts: either an idyll or a place of reflection of anxieties about national character horror.¹ Replicating the 1970s trend of and the local film industry. The filmic horror classics that highlight the portrayal of the Outback as a place of horror consequences of unrestrained rural idyll, has often been described as ‘Australian filmic depictions of Australia routinely Gothic’2 but despite the association of portray the land as an empty, sinister space; ‘monster movies’ with the cannon of

80 exploitation or cult film, Australian films are of the Australian film industry and its rarely described as such. relationship to national identity can be achieved. Following the success of the documentary Not Quite Hollywood(Hartley, 2008), The Outback and ‘Australian Gothic’ ‘Ozploitation’ has entered the common The Outback is a ubiquitous presence in lexicon as a label for Australian genre films Australian film; indeed, Gibson’s research produced during the 1970s-80s. However, shows that the majority of Australian Ozploitation films do not share the traits features have been about landscape.5 He attributed to classical exploitation film such discusses how funding policy during the as the emphasis on poor production values, 1970s and 80s required filmmakers to and use of stock footage.³ Further articulate a cohesive national character on consideration suggests thatRazorback and screen, and the simplest route to typify this Howling III: The Marsupials do not merely elusive character was the use of the share a nod to camp horror tropes, and a Australian landscape. By utilising the knowing humour, but they also endured landscape as a signifier of Australianness, harsh criticism centring on the legitimacy of the image of the Outback becomes intrinsic tax concessions for filmmakers, and to the designation of Australian identity. For conflicting discourses of how to render a Gibson, “in such national myths, the cohesive national identity on screen.4 Whilst landscape becomes the projective screen for the spectacle of the monstrous drives these a persistent national neurosis deriving from narratives, the problematic national identity the fear and fascination of the … continent”6. at the heart of earlier Australian Gothic By projecting the landscape as a character in films remains. ‘Ozploitation’ has gained its own right, national anxieties regarding a traction in the popular press and the cohesive Australian identity are in turn academy as an umbrella term for Australian enacted through the ‘character’ of the land. genre films, and yet, as a distinct type, genre This anxiety is amplified in bothRazorback films have been omitted from discussions andThe Howling III, via a double regarding the Australian film industry at transgression. By activating the generic large. This absence is indicative of the angst tropes of horror, coupled with the about the performance of the Australian film ‘projective screen’ of the landscape, the industry relative to financial investment, monsters that dwell within personify particularly in terms of quality, nationalism anxieties about national character that are and cultural cringe. By examining these then unleashed on unsuspecting intruders. films in the context of their production and their unexpected revival as Ozploitation Turner has noted that images of the films, a deeper cognisance of the intricacy Australian Outback have evoked the dual

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nature of the bush legend in which “…the alters subtly from film to film, outback is a land of beauty and freedom as but its otherness is a given. For well as danger, exile, and hardship”.7 The the unsuspecting outsiders who bush legend operates alongside the venture by chance or accident problematic concept of a cohesive into its confines, the insularity of ‘Australian identity’ focused on the backwater town is a cause representations of white, Anglo-Saxon men, rather than a symptom of fatal to the exclusion of all others. In their difference. The perversity of discussion ofWolf Creek (2005), Scott and rural townships and their Biron take the concept of duality a step residents forms the basis of further, observing that the Australian rural gothic texts.10 landscape more recently has been represented as either a place of idyll, or a Wake in Fright offers a more robust critique place of horror.8 During the 1970s, the of Australian national character than is unrestrained rural idyll was a recurring typically sanctioned by industry or critics. theme exemplified by horror staples such as In spite of its depiction of rural Australian Straw Dogs (1971),The Wicker Man (1973) life revolving around excessive drinking and andThe Texas Chain Saw Massacre(1974). gambling, casual racism, sexual assault, Mimicking this trend, filmic depictions of exclusion of women, random acts of the Australian Outback during this period violence, this film is now lauded as one of portrayed the land as an empty, sinister the great triumphs of Australian cinema. At space, which spawns rural excess (such as the time of its release, critical and the racism, sexism and troubling international reception of the film was masculinity found inWake in Fright (1971). positive, yet the domestic box office was poor. Screenwriter Evan Jones believes the In his discussion of Australian Gothic, Australian audience misinterpretedWake in Rayner establishesWake in Fright as the Frightas a “… gratuitous attack on parent of the genre, with its “… relentless Australia”.¹¹ Jones’ reflection corresponds gaze centring on the debasement of the with reports that during an early screening population of an isolated town, whose of the film: decline into barbarism is viewed and paralleled by an outsider”.9 Whilst his One audience member stood up account discusses numerous Australian and yelled ‘That’s not us!’; The productions, as he states: response of Jack Thompson (Dick the kangaroo hunter in the The nature of the rural film) was blunt: ‘Sit down, community’s secret depravity mate. It is us’ [In fact, director

82 Ted Kotcheff has always] been their ability to be at once transgressive and keen to stress that the ‘us’ the recuperative, in other words, to reclaim film examines is man in general, what they seem to violate”.¹³ In line with without the definition of my assertion regarding the aesthetic geographical borders.¹² ‘quality’ ofWake in Fright, the subject matter of Razorback andHowling III only The steadfast refusal to accept critical becomes problematic, when paired with the portrayals of national character continues in tropes of genre film. By operating in this recent Australian films such asDown Under mode, both films perform a double (2016) andAustralia Day (2017), both of transgression, which cannot be recuperated. which addressed systematic racism, and Razorback and theHowling III both use the have only been screened in limited release. camp spectacle of the monstrous to embody their critique of national character– and yet, It seems that the aesthetic framing of Wake the same feature that counters the severity in Fright as ‘quality’or ‘art house’in of their appraisal is that which garnered opposition to the camp aesthetics of negative reviews centred on the films’ Ozploitation films allows for the exposition perceived lack of quality, and taste. of national character, despite its strident critique. After thirty years as a lost film, and Whilst the spectacle of the monstrous four years of digital restoration,Wake in remains at the forefront of these narratives, Fright was released on DVD in 2009, and the underlying issue of rural excess at the enjoyed: “a rapturous cinematic run at the heart of earlier Australian gothic films such Sydney Film Festival” (Scott, 2009, 1). It as Wake in Fright andLong Weekend appears that the DVD release has remains. For Laseur analysing the “… rehabilitated its image to the mainstream competing discourses [that pit] the audience, and wider availability has commercial prospects of a product [against] elevated Wake in Fright to its rightful its claims to cultural value” is an essential position of one of Australia’s finest films. step towards a diverse and flourishing Australian film culture.”14 The case study of The same problematic features of national Ozploitation films provides a valuable character that are highlighted inWake in reminder of how “… a simple genre Fright feature inRazorback , and to a lesser definition [remains] the site of cultural extendHowling III. All three films criticise struggles regarding value”.15 national identity and stereotypes, but according to B.K. Grant “what these movies By existing on the fringe of generic more precisely have in common, what acceptability, Ozploitation films can remark essentially makes these movies cultish, is upon the preoccupation with Australian

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identity, by playing with traditional wildlife for inclusion in their product. stereotypes and fears about the Outback. Following the tip, Beth drives to the factory Australian monsters such as the killer boar, alone hoping for an expose; when she and psychotic brothers inRazorback ,orthe trespasses on the property she encounters human/marsupial hybrids inHowling III: two of the plant workers, psychotic brothers, The Marsupials operate as a metaphor for Benny (Chris Haywood) and Dicko (David fears about national character, cultural Argue). Beth manages to escape their cringe, and status of the local film industry. lecherous threats at the factory, however her Retrospective examination of the reception return to town is thwarted when she is of these films can tell us much about current ambushed and run off the road by the debates in the Australian film industry brothers, who then rape her. The assault is regarding funding, and the insistence of interrupted by the arrival of the giant boar; government policy that films contain Benny and Dicko escape and leave Beth for “Significant Australian Content”16 dead, and the razorback then kills her. After Beth’s disappearance, her husband Carl Razorback and funding considerations (Gregory Harrison) arrives to search for his Razorback (1984) opens with Jake Cullen wife, as he has been informed only that she (Bill Kerr) babysitting his grandson at his is missing. As local authorities have not home, ‘somewhere’ in the Australian located her body, only the wreckage of her outback. This image of rural idyll is soon car, Beth is assumed to have accidently disrupted by the frenzied attack of a giant fallen down a mineshaft. Carl meets Jake in razorback boar, who destroys his home, and town, and after hearing about the death of eats his grandson alive. Jake is then tried for his grandson, suspects that Beth may have murder, and despite his tale about the befallen the same fate. The rest of the film is razorback, he is believed to be guilty, yet occupied with Carl’s search for the truth acquitted for lack of evidence. Jake is about his wife, and revenge against the consumed with the idea of avenging his murderous brothers, and the wild pig. grandson’s death, and vows to kill the razorback. Several years later, American Policy developments in the Australian film journalist and animal rights enthusiast, Beth industry provide a valuable context for the Winters (Judy Morris), travels to Australia reception of, in particular, genre films. to report on kangaroo extinction. Upon Razorback was released during the peak of arrival, she attempts to interview some of the 10BA tax laws to promote investment in the locals and receives a hostile response, Australian film. Under this scheme, screen emphasising her outsider status. Beth then producers were able to claim a tax receives a tip that the local pet food- deduction for eligible film production – a processing factory is involved in hunting production subsidy. The initial deduction

84 rate was set at 150 per cent in June 1981, genre films to flourish, along with their subtle before being reduced to 133% in 1983, and questioning of the rigid parameters enforced finally remaining set at 100% for the rest of by policy makers in terms of taste, quality, its duration between 1987- 2007.17 The 10BA and representations of ‘Australianness’. rebates were successful in sparking a boom in film production (334 features were made Howling III: Outback Intrusion during the 1980s) – but they also provoked a Howling III shares several key features with debate about the quality of many of the films Razorback, most notably the intrusion of produced. Some commentators believed too outsiders into rural communities. The film many films were rushed into production to follows Harry Beckmeyer (Barry Otto), an meet financial deadlines, and imported actors anthropologist continuing his late father’s were being cast over Australian performers research on werewolves, believing the death in order to meet marketing requirements.18 is somehow linked to his work. The However, most of the debate centred on intersecting story follows Jerboa (Imogen preferential taste cultures and the admission Annesley) who flees from the rural town of of key policy makers that: “… many of us Flow (‘wolf’ spelled backwards) to escape were very snobby about genre films, there’s the physical and sexual abuse of her no question about that. We didn’t approve of stepfather, Thylo (Max Fairchild), who them”.19 For Jacka, alongside the obvious wishes to marry her. Jerboa is a young problem of defining quality Australian female marsupial werewolf; later in the cinema: narrative we are told this hybrid resulted from breeding between a human, and the … it gradually became clear that phantom spirit of the Tasmanian wolf the 10BA film concessions did (Tasmanian tiger, or Thylacine – a marsupial not necessarily give an outcome carnivore). that was desirable in cultural or aesthetic terms … there was no Jerboa escapes to Sydney, where she mechanism intended to ensure quickly meets, falls in love with, and is that projects funded were impregnated by Donny (Lee Biolos), an ‘quality’ projects.20 American working on the set of a horror film. The director quickly hires Jerboa to For policy makers, the release ofHowling play the starring role, but at the party for the III: The Marsupials embodied fears film’s completion she begins to change into regarding the quality of the Australian film a werewolf after exposure to strobe lights. industry, in its satirical rendering of the In her haste to leave the party, she is hit by a monstrous and the Outback. The 10BA tax car and taken to hospital. Whilst concessions provided the conditions for unconscious the hospital staff discover

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Jerboa’s unusual metabolism, as well as her which is now surrounded by police. They marsupial pouch. They also deduce that she find Jerboa, Donny and their baby seeking is pregnant. Professor Beckmeyer is refuge in the bush; Kendi says he will summoned to the hospital but arrives too protect them by summoning the spirit of the late; Jerboa’s sisters have tracked her to the great phantom wolf.A rival pack of hospital and force her to return to Flow. Indigenous trackers is following the group Unsure of where to search, Beckmeyer and with the intent to capture them; Kendi, in his associate Professor Sharp (Ralph grease-painted werewolf form, ambushes Cotterill) attend the rehearsal of a visiting the trackers, and is fatally wounded. Jerboa Russian ballet troupe, where the lead dancer, and Donny find Kendi and attempt to give Olga (Dagmar Blahova), changes into a him a traditional funeral ceremony; werewolf onstage. Olga is obsessed with the however, the smoke from his cremation idea of meeting, and mating with Thylo, alerts the hunters to their location. That Jerboa’s stepfather, but she is captured by evening, Thylo dons traditional grease-paint the professors, and taken to their lab. Olga and also performs the ceremony to invoke escapes and makes her way to Flow to find the great wolf; he too is killed by the Thylo, who accepts her as his mate. hunters, allowing Beckmeyer and Olga to Meanwhile Jerboa has her baby, and soon pursue a relationship. Sharp returns to after Donny arrives in Flow to meet his America to inform the President that child. Beckmeyer and Sharp track Olga to Beckmeyer and Olga, along with Jerboa and Flow, and meet Kendi (Burnham Burnham), Donny and their child, have chosen seek an Indigenous elder who is a mentor to refuge in the bush, and live in peace. After Jerboa and the pack. Alerted by Sharp, several years, Jerboa and Donny leave Flow armed soldiers arrive at the camp; Jerboa, with their child and move back to the city, Donny, and baby escape to the bush, while pursuing their careers in show business Beckmeyer manages to convince Olga and under assumed names. Many years later, Thylo to accompany him to his lab so he Beckmeyer and Olga are informed by Sharp can observe them. that they have been granted leave to return to the city as well, with no danger of During experiments with flashing lights that capture. The final scenes show Beckmeyer hypnotise Olga and Thylo, Beckmeyer lecturing at university, where he encounters learns the origin of the marsupial species a familiar young man. It is Jerboa and from Thylo; he also learns of the Donny’s son, Zack. He tells Beckmeyer that government plans to exterminate all his mother is nominated for a prestigious werewolves as they pose a threat to society. acting award that evening. The film ends Beckmeyer’s growing infatuation with Olga with Jerboa on stage accepting her Best leads him to aid their escape back to Flow, Actress award, when the flashing of cameras

86 forces her change into a werewolf on live operate within the generic framework of eco television. horror; represent the sacred rituals and relationship between Australian Indigenous Howling III is not explicitly about the people, animals and the land; and allude to monstrous nature of the human characters, the continued impasse of how Indigenous yet it does touch upon some of the themes customs might be reconciled with present within many outback horror films, contemporary Australian culture. particularly the idea of intrusion. The consequence of trespass on Indigenous land Rural or natural eco horror films featuring is a recurring theme in Australian rural monstrous creatures are typical within the horror. For Simpson Australian ‘eco horror’ canon of cult film, but remarkably, the films films are concerned with the ownership of discussed here have not routinely been the land, and she notes that the death of described as Australian ‘cult’. This omission tourists and outsiders in the Outback: “… is curious for a number of reasons, however enables the Australian locals to … claim a it is closely linked to ongoing policy greater sense of belonging, if only through discussions regarding the purpose of the ‘knowing’about the dangers in the Australian film industry, government landscape”.²¹ In the examples cited by funding, quality and taste. Laseur has Simpson, the Australian locals who espouse observed that the pleasure ofHowling III: expert knowledge are all of white European “…may well be precisely situated in the origin, exposing another deep cultural recognition of its satirical parody of a anxiety around the invasion and pompous high cultural (bourgeois) set of dispossession of Indigenous land, and aesthetic proclamations. The notion of declaration of ‘terra nullius’ (or ‘land intentional B-gradeness is often overlooked belonging to no one’). While the threatened by critics and reviewers”.²² So whilst werewolf marsupials of Flow are seemingly audiences seemed to be ‘critical insiders’²³ all of white European origin, the trespass for whom the film’s parody and ‘intentional and attempted capture of the werewolves by badness’ increases the enjoyment, Australian police comes to ‘stand in’ for the trespass of funding bodies ignored these factors and white Australians upon Indigenous lands. interpreted genre films as exploitative for The intrusion upon Indigenous land is the generous tax concessions they received. mentioned parenthetically, through the As a result of industry backlash against the sacred relationship between Kendi, and lack of ‘quality’ films being produced, by spirit of the Thylacine in the film’s climax, the end of the 1980s the 10BAtax scheme which references Indigenous storytelling began to be wound back.As Ryan notes, the and legends of the Dreamtime. Howling III: finance ceiling resulting from the Australian The Marsupials manages to simultaneously government again becoming the principal

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source of funding for film prohibited the Patrick (1978) director Richard Franklin as production of more expensive genres such a favourite, and admitted that the spitting as action, fantasy, and science fiction.24 The scene in Kill Bill was a direct reference to reversal of the 10BA tax concessions meant the film. This anecdote, illustrating that Australia fell back into what I term Australians’ lack of appreciation for their ‘safe default mode’– funding a small range own films (until praised by a Hollywood of films intended to be what Dermody and director) speaks to the level of ‘cultural Jacka25 labelled the cultural flagships of the cringe’ still apparent towards Australian nation, rather than taking a chance on films. Arthur Angel Phillips first coined the unknown new directors or popular term ‘cultural cringe’ in the 1950 essay of entertainment genres. This has been the the same name. The essay described story of the Australian film industry since ‘cultural cringe’ as “… the tendency of the 1970’s, and as such has resulted in an Australians to be embarrassed by their own industry that exists in a perpetual state of artistic endeavours, and to feel that any boom or bust.26 work by Americans and the British is automatically superior to anything we can ‘Quality’, genre, and Ozploitation do”.29 As cult films also attract a ‘cringe’ of Arguments regarding the ‘quality’ of sorts, an unexpected link can be made Australian genre films produced in this era between Australian films and examples of are the key concern of Hartley’s cult film. Thus, cultural cringe connects the documentary,Not Quite Hollywood. Until hostile reception towards Ozploitation films the documentary’s release many Australians (includingRazorback andThe Howling)for were unaware of the nation’s tradition of their apparent lack of quality, with ongoing genre film making, and the documentary anxieties about Australian films being “… has become a phenomenon, reviving, or viewed as inferior, monstrous, or ‘Other’. perhaps creating, worldwide interest in a largely forgotten and unacknowledged Based on the assumptions raised in Not filmmaking culture.”27 This documentary Quite Hollywood regarding Ozploitation, received extensive publicity for featuring and my own qualitative research,30 I believe interviews with Quentin Tarantino there is an opportunity to rearticulate proclaiming his love for Australian film, as Australian genre films as ‘cult’ for both their he had also done during the promotional aesthetic qualities, and limited following tour forKill Bill (2003). On that tour, amongst enthusiasts. Interviews with Tarantino named Brian Trenchard-Smith as organisers of cult events in Australia reveal one of his favourite directors: “… before unexpected insights about how genre films being surprised to learn he is not exactly a fit into the national tradition. Cult film household name here”.28 He also named organisers suggested that since the release

88 ofNot Quite Hollywood enabled increased This rewriting of history audience awareness, and access (due to the completely disregarded the re-release of many of the featured films on significant financial success of DVD), Australian genre films such as Turkey films like Patrick, Harlequin Shoot (1981) andDead End DriveIn (1986) (1980) andTurkey Shoot in the could be elevated to the level of ‘cult film’. international and US markets, They also highlighted the fact that even so- let alone the roller coaster mega called ‘mainstream’Australian films often achievements of the Mad Max have B-grade scripts and production values, trilogy.³² despite the preoccupation of policy makers with ‘quality’.Not Quite Hollywood Qualitative research carried out with demonstrates the strong similarity between Australian audiences proves that their Australian genre films made during the relationship with national cinema is more 1970s – 1980s and the aesthetic qualities complicated than policy makers, or the press often attributed to cult films. The re- release attest. Whilst audiences wish to support of the films featured in Not Quite Hollywood Australian cinema, they often feel a strong offers Australian genre films the opportunity sense of cultural cringe when it comes to to gain the audience following essential to mainstream Australian films, and the creating a cult film. constant reproduction of national stereotypes. They suggest establishing a tradition of By reading Australian films as cult texts, the regularly screening Australian genre films as official history of Australian cinema and its midnight movies in order to build a following, deliberate exclusion of genre films can be but more importantly, a sense of affection for scrutinised. Reflecting upon the poor record Australian films. It is apparent that a major of Australian films at domestic cinemas in restructuring of film funding in Australia, to 2008, President of the Screen Producers support several distinct types of film is Association (and key figure in the necessary for the diversification and growth Ozploitation movement) Antony Ginnane, of multiple forms of filmic expression. This stated that “Australian filmmakers don’t is a view supported by academics such as deserve government funding while they Verhoeven who states that “… it is not just continue to churn out movies no one wants anecdotal evidence that suggests Australian to see”.³¹ Ginnane’s opinion is clearly cinema has a ‘brand’ problem”³³; therefore, informed by his stated commitment to genre the way that policy makers consider the cinema as entertainment, as he observes: function of national cinema in relation to the projects they fund, requires reconsideration if it is to meet its stated aims of representing the nation on screen.

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More recently, the reception ofWolf Creek cultural cringe is not a barrier to possible in the Australian press illustrates our success. An examination of Australian ongoing discomfort when facing monsters horror filmThe Babadook (2014) supports residing in the dark heart of the Outback. the hypothesis that a lack of support for The backlash from the media was swift. genre films not only by funding bodies, but Conservative commentators made strong also by the unwillingness of large cinema renunciations of the portrayal of graphic chains to take a risk, severely impedes the violence and disturbing themes, with claims likelihood of domestic box office success. that the film would reduce tourist numbers The Babadook was initially screened at the because of its frightening and realistic Sundance film festival in 2014 where it content; proclamations such as “(t)he film received an enthusiastic reception. However, does for the area whatJaws did for the the release strategy in Australia accentuates water - you'll never want to get into it the inadequacy of funding for effective again” were common.34 The moral panic marketing campaigns, but more significantly over the fictionalisation of some of the most the idea of cultural cringe for Australian horrific disappearances and murders in made genre films. In Australia the film was Australian history was refuted by Ryan and released to only 13 screens nationwide, as Blackwood35, as well as local tourist local multiplexes decided the film was too operators who commented on the increase in ‘art house’for the big screen; in visitors to theWolfe Creek Crater in the lead comparison, it was released on 147 screens up to the release ofWolf Creek 2 (2014). across the UK, and earned the same amount Blackwood (2014) believes this increase is on its opening weekend as its entire because films with a ‘negative’ storyline Australian theatrical run. The film has also often attract young people out of a sense of made more money in Thailand and France adventure and fun; particularly those who, than at home and due to word of mouth in this case would be likely to go spread, an increasing ‘cult’ following can be backpacking to central Australia. observed online.37 The film’s cult following has flourished in the online space, with the Ryan states that “Australian cinema has emergence of the Babadook character as an experienced a mini genre renaissance in icon of the LGBTI community at Pride recent years” with substantial growth in parades across the United States in 2017. genre films, particularly horror titles being Ongoing film inspired ‘Babadiscourse’ on produced during the period of his research Tumblr about the character’s sexuality, and (2000- 2008).36 It is clear that there is a the appearance of the film in the ‘LGBT niche market interest in genre (particularly interest’ category on US Netflix38 has been horror) films in Australia, but the primary attributed with the creation of a second life consumers of these films are abroad – where for the iconic character. Films such asThe

90 Babadook are turning away from traditional anxiety surrounding the film industry strategies centring on a theatrical release regarding quality, nationalism and cultural and maximising their potential reach by cringe. In conclusion, I propose a multi- accessing Video on Demand as an pronged approach in order to restructure the alternative mode of distribution. It is clear Australian film industry and foster diversity that talent exists within Australia for amongst productions; firstly, the reclamation creating genre films (particularly horror) of these films as a source of pride rather with commercial appeal –by mobilising than shame. Thomas has spoken of how appropriate financial resources, supporting Ozploitation has been mobilised as a genre films provides a pathway for the marketing term to promote a wide range of Australian film industry to increase genre films from the 10BA era.39 Cinematic audience appeal in both the domestic and pride could be encouraged with regular international market. public screenings of Australian genre films to build a cult following, a trend which Conclusion occurred to a limited extent following the While horror films likeRazorback and DVD re-release of films featured inNot Howling III: The Marsupials are typical Quite Hollywood. Secondly, funding films within the canon of exploitation or cult film, via differing steams is essential in order to Australian films are rarely described in these build a robust film culture; instead of terms. Although the spectacle of the funding films only with ‘significant monstrous remains at the forefront of these Australian content’ we must support diverse narratives, the underlying issues of rural styles of film, particularly genre films with excess at the heart of earlier Australian commercial appeal. Further research with Gothic films remains. Despite the both international and Australian (cult) emergence of the term Ozploitation to audiences is essential in order to understand describe Australian genre films of the 1970s the reception of Australian genre films, so and 1980s, the term ‘Australian cult film’ is support for future films can be better invisible from discussions of the industry at assessed and mobilised. A deeper large. Ozploitation, and more recent genre understanding of the appeal of genre films films such as Wolf Creek force audiences to for audience could assist in reconfiguring confront unsavoury aspects of the national financial distribution away from a fear- character through the metaphor of outback based policy of protectionism towards so monsters, both human and animal – that called ‘Australian values’. The revision of official film bodies would rather remain funding policy in tune with audience trends, invisible. Thus the absence of the term and the popularity of genre films worldwide ‘Australian cult film’from the discourse on could increase the visibility of our own Australian cinema is indicative of the monsters and in turn, our own cult films.

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1Scott, J. and Biron, D. (2010) “Wolf Creek, rurality and 23Hodkinson, P. (2002)Goth: Identity, Style and the Australian gothic”. Continuum:Journal of Mediaand Subculture. Oxford: Berg. Cultural Studies. 24: 2, 307-322. 24Ryan, M. D. (2012) “A silver bullet for Australian 2Rayner, J. (2000)Contemporary Australian Cinema: An cinema? Genre movies and the audience debate”. Studies Introduction. Manchester: Man chesterUniversity Press. in Australasian Cinema. 6:2, 141-157.146. 3 Schaefer, E. (1999)Bold! Daring! Shocking! True!: A 25Dermody, S. and Jacka, E. (1987)The Screening of History of Exploitation Films, 1919-1959. Durham: Duke Australia, Volume 2. Sydney: Currency Press. University Press. 26Stratton, 1990. 4Ryan, M. D. (2010) “Towards an understanding of Australian genre cinema and entertainment: beyond the 27Ryan, 2010, 8. limitations of ‘Ozploitation’ discourse”.Continuum: 28Maddox, G. (2003) “The master’s schlock therapy can Journal of Media and Cultural Studies. 24 (6): 1-14. 6-7. revive forgotten classics”.Sydney Morning Herald. 5Gibson, R. (1994) “Formative Landscapes”, in Murray, S. ww.smh.com.au/articles/2003/10/21/1066631431735.html (ed.)Australian Cinema. St. Leonards: Australian Film (accessed 20/6/13). Commission/ Allen and Unwin. 45-61. 50. 29Dale, D. (2012) “The year of the cringe in Australian 6Gibson, 50. film”. Available At:www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/ society-and-culture/blogs/the-tribal-mind/the-year-of-the- 7Turner, G. (1993)National Fictions: Literature, Film and cringe-in-australian-film-201212229-2c0cl.html (accessed the Construction of the Australian Narrative. Sydney: 1/5/13). Allen and Unwin, 22. 30Middlemost, R. (2013) “Amongst Friends: The Australian 8Scott, M. (2009) “Film (1971)”.South China Morning Cult Film Experience”. PhD Thesis: University of Post. Available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ Wollongong, Australia. 20151005061809/http://www.scm.com/print/article/ 701747/film-1971 (accessed 27/8/17). 31Anon, (2008) “Aussie Films: ‘nobody goes to see them’”. Sydney Morning Herald. Available at: www.smh.com.au/ 9Rayner, 27. news/entertainment/film/aussie-films-nobody-goes-to-see- 10Rayner, 29. them/2008/11/12/1226318729492.html (accessed 11Burton, A. (2014) “Wake in Fright”. World Cinema 15/6/09). Guide.Available At:https://web.archive.org/web/ 32Bertram, D. (2009) “The Underground Australian movie 20161105110232/http://www.worldcinemaguide.com/ renaissance”. Institute of Public Affairs. Available masters-of-cinema-wake-in-fright/ (Accessed 28/8/17).2. at:https://ipa.org.au/publications/1697/the-underground- 12Burton, 2. australian-movie-renaissance (accessed 15/12/15). 33 13Grant, B.K. “Science Fiction Double Feature”, in Verhoeven, D. (2005) “The Crisis the Australian Film J.PTelotte (ed)The Cult Film: Beyond all Reason,1991. Industry Refuses to See”.The Age. Available at:http:// 124. www.theage.com.au/news/Opinion/Refusing-to-see-crisis/ 2005/02/06/1107625. 14Laseur, C. (1992) “Australian Exploitation film: the 34Purcell, C. (2005) “Up the Creek”.The Sydney Morning politics of bad taste.Continuum: The Australian Journal Herald. http://www.smh.com.au/news/film/up-the-creek/ of Media and Culture. 5: 2. 1-7. 1. 2005/10/27/1130367983912.html (accessed 15/12/15). 15 Laseur, 6. 35Blackwood, G. (2014) “Horror filmWolf Creek brings 16Screen Australia (2009) “Significant Australian tourists to the Outback”. ABC Radio. http:// Content”.Available at: http://www.screenaustralia.gov.au/ www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/bushtelegraph/ getmedia/86791e04-29f4-492b-956a-adb3bc1b7016/ horror-film-wolf-creek-brings-tourists-to-the-outback/ sac_guidance.pdf (accessed 19/5/15). 5265056 (Accessed 4/11/15). 17Burns, A. and Eltham, B. (2010) “Boom and Bust in 36Ryan 2010, 7 Australian Screen Policy: 10BA, The Film Finance 37Tan, M. (2014) “The Babadook’s monster UK box office Corporation and Hollywood’s ‘Race to the Bottom’”. success highlights problems at home”. The Guardian Media International Australia. No. 136, August 2010. Australia. http://www.theguardian.com/film/australia- 103-118. 105. culture-blog/2014/oct/29/the-babadooks-monster-uk-box- 18Stratton, D. (1990)The Avocado Plantation: Boom and office-success-highlights-problems-at-home (accessed Bust In The Australian Film Industry. Sydney: Pan B2/11/15). MacMillan. 38Orbey, A. (2017) “The Babadook is a Frightening, 19Adams, Not Quite Hollywood, 2008 Fabulous, New Gay Icon”. The New Yorker. June 17, 20Jacka, E. (1988) “Financing Australian Films”. In 2017. https://www.newyorker.com/culture/rabbit- Dermody, S. and Jacka, E. (eds) The Imaginary Industry: holes/the-babadook-is-a-frightening-fabulous-new-gay- Australian Film in the late 80s. North Ryde: AFTRS. 13. icon (Accessed 28/8/17). 39 21Simpson, C. (2010) “Australian eco-horror and Gaia’s Thomas, D. (2009) “Tarantino’s Two Thumbs Up: revenge: animals, eco-Nationalism and the ‘new nature’”. Ozploitation and the Reframing of the Aussie Genre Studies in Australasian Cinema. 4: 1, 43-54. 47. Film”. Metro 161 (June): 90-95 22Laseur, 4.

92 93 Entertaining the Villagers: Rural Audiences, Traveling Cinema and Exploitation Movies in Indonesia Ekky Imanjaya

Abstract During the dictatorship of Indonesia’s New Order regime (1966-1998), local exploitation films, layar tancap (traveling cinema) and its spectators were marginalised by legitimate culture. For example,layar tancap shows were framed to only operate in rural and suburban areas and were policed with several strict policies. Nonetheless, in this paper, I will demonstrate that layar tancap shows and their rural audiences are signs of cultural resistance which challenges legitimate culture, and that exploitation movies were a significant part of the process. By observing the New Order’s film policies as well as general and trade magazines, I will investigate why and how this kind of cinema operated as displays of classic Indonesian exploitation movies - the films the New Order was actually trying to eliminate - and how they generated a unique subculture of rural spectatorship. Here, I also want to highlight how various kinds of politics of taste - from the government to the rural spectators and thelayar tancap entrepreneurs - interplayed in relation with local exploitation films, its rural audiences, and its culture of exhibition.

Keywords: travelling cinema, Indonesian cinema, exploitation films, politics of tastes, rural spectatorship, New Order, distribution culture, exhibition culture.

culture in Indonesia’s New Order era (1966- 1998) were, and still are, marginalised both nationally and globally. It is important to note that, despite official attempts to regulate this kind of touring cinema within Indonesia, the three elements interplayed and developed their own characteristics as the opposite of official taste. Layar tancapbecame the

Layar tancap atmosphere: the annual Purbalingga Film outlets of local exploitation films and led Festival organised by CLC Purbalingga them to rural and suburban audiences who Introduction tended to reject state-approved products in The discourses of exploitation movies, rural favour of these disreputable forms. spectatorship andlayar tancap (traveling cinema) as a form of distribution/exhibition

94 In Indonesia, it is acknowledged that almost taste politics—from the government to the no discussion of the relationship between rural spectators and thelayar tancap popular genre films and rural spectatorship entrepreneurs - negotiate each other. should omit mention of the terms layar tancap orbioskop keliling. Layar tancap The New Order’s Politics of Taste literally means ‘screens stuck on the According to the French sociologist Pierre ground’, whereasbioskop keliling can be Bourdieu, tastes are socially and culturally translated as ‘travelling/mobile cinema constructed.4 Moreover, Bourdieu show’. The two terms are interchangeable. underlines that “… whereas the ideology of Commonly, as a business unit, this kind of charisma regards taste in legitimate culture touring cinema consists of a screen (layar), as a gift of nature, scientific observation a projector, and a few 16mm films, brought shows that cultural needs are the product of by a vehicle from a village to another upbringing and education…”5 Bourdieu remote area for exhibition. The journalist JB highlights that since taste categorises people Kristanto writes that these kinds of traveling and makes people distinguish themselves by cinemas play low quality exploitation films their distinctions6, taste must be defined in in response to the spectators’ demands.1 terms of class difference. As Henry Jenkins puts it: Layar tancap shows were in their golden era in the New Order period, notorious for its The boundaries of “good taste” emphasis on security, development, stability, … must constantly be policed; and state-control. In the film industry, the proper tastes must be separated government applied stringent censorship from improper tastes; those who and attempted to control all aspects of the possess the wrong tastes must be film industry,2 including layar tancap shows, distinguished from those whose exploitation films, and their rural audience.3 tastes conform more closely to our own expectations.7 This article will demonstrate that layar tancap shows and their rural audiences are signs of Thus, the Indonesian government and counterculture which challenge legitimate cultural elites framed film nasional (national culture. By observing the New Order’s film film) as a representation of the ‘true’ policies as well as general and trade Indonesian cultures. In this context, films magazines, I will investigate why and how should bekultural edukatif (containing this kind of cinema displayed Indonesian educational and cultural purposes) or exploitation films, and how they generated a represent the search for the “Indonesian face particular subculture of rural spectatorship. I on screen.”8 Thomas Barker highlights that also want to emphasise how various kinds of the concept offilm nasional can be

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considered as a form of legitimate culture: Exploitation Films in the New Order Era Global fans in the 2000s and beyond Film nasional as a national recognise the New Order’s exploitation cinema defined the parameters films as ‘Crazy Indonesia’ for their elements of nation and national culture of weirdness and exoticism. International and whose proponents distributors labelled them as ‘cult movies’.13 established a group of auteur The films includePrimitif (1978),Jaka directors as exemplary Artists Sembung (The Warrior, 1981), andLady whose works are canonized into Terminator (1989). film history.9 Nonetheless, in Indonesia, most of industry Distributors also play important roles in players, spectators, fans, critics and film taste contestation. Lobato writes that acts of academics were not familiar with the term distribution “… shape public taste as well as ‘cult movies’ and ‘exploitation cinema’ until reflect it, creating a feedback loop between the early 2000s, when the films being distribution and demand”.10 Lobato’s analysed were recirculated overseas and arguments can be applied to layar tancap’s gained global fans’ attention. However, companies. This phenomenon is in line with related to theories on exploitation films, the Heider’s claim on the situation of Indonesia idea of “…ethically dubious, industrially in the 1980s: marginal, and aesthetically bankrupt”14, “often dealt with forbidden topics, such as The forces of the marketplace sex, vice, drugs, nudity, and anything have an effect on shaping films considered to be in ‘bad taste’ and commonly as well. But at least in the case low-budget films”15, and “a film practice ‘in of scenes of sexuality and which the elements of plot and acting are violence, the audience’s subordinate to elements that can be demands pull filmmakers in the promoted”16 are suitable with the context of opposite direction from the New Order trashy films. Related to the censorship board.11 exhibition culture and spectators’ celebration, there is no strong tradition of Midnight However, spectators have their own politics Movies or Drive-in cinemas in Indonesia. of taste. Fans as John Fiske puts it, fans This is the main reason why I have decided “discriminate fiercely”12 by choosing to to discusslayar tancap as the outlet of this celebrate particular tastes and exclude others. kind of film which, despite few things being In this context, I argue that the New Order’s in common with midnight screenings, is rural audience acted as discriminating fans different from the tradition ofcult cinema in Fiske’s sense. practices in the West. I argue thatlayar

96 tancap is the Indonesian version of midnight widely and publicly, including inlayar movies, since the screenings commonly start tancap shows. from evening to midnight or even dawn. What is the difference between Indonesian In the local context, in their original country exploitation movies and other exploitation and time of production, Indonesian films? Here, I will modify Karl Heider’s exploitation films were not considered terms on genres and types of Indonesian ‘official’ representations of Indonesian films movies, into which most Indonesian films and culture17, as the films are simply the will fit comfortably.19 I argue that there are opposite of the concept of film nasional. two basic subgenres of Indonesian trashy Most of the films are very famous and films: first, ‘Indonesian genres’ (Legend and recognised by the famous movie stars, such Kumpeni), and second, Americanised as Barry Prima and Suzanna, yet remained exploitation genres (womensploitation, ‘industrially marginal’ as the films were mockbusters, and women-in-prison films, etc.). discriminated against by the Government and cultural elites. Related to film First, the Legend genre, is based on reception, most film critics, journalists, and traditional mythologies or folklore wherein scholars overlooked most exploitation films the heroes possess mystical powers used in from this era. The government also tried to fighting, transformations, and flying. This eradicate the films as they contained sexual includes costume dramas, historical legends, and sadistic scenes and, therefore, against or legendary history, all tell stories which the concept offilm nasional. are famous throughout Indonesia but rarely get much critical consideration.20 As the films are nationally famous, they became, as Barry Grant puts it, “Mass Cult” Kumpeni genre films are set in the time for local fans18. This is to say that they were when Kumpeni (Indonesian slang word for very popular in their era in their own colonial Dutch’s United East India original country, and that they also had cult Company/VOC) occupied the archipelago. followers nationwide until recently. In other These films tell of struggles between Dutch words, the “Mass Cult” status of the films and Indonesian superheroes, who again, shows that those films--although shunned usually have mystical knowledge (ilmu) and overlooked by the government, cultural taught by an Islamic Guru to defend the elites and film critics at that time--were not village dwellers. In some cases, the colonial marginalised by Indonesian mainstream soldiers hire a localdukun (black magician) audiences as the films were considered as to do battle with them. Sadistic sexuality is mainstream films and some of them became common in these works. box office hits. The films were also screened

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Another genre is Horror. In this context, similar with Legend genre, horror movies deal with mystical powers and are mostly about the invention of supernatural monsters who endanger human beings. The stories have a direct connection to traditional folktales and are mostly set in rural areas. Heider underlines that this genre has

“gruesome special effects” and presents A mobile cinema: The annual Purbalingga Film Festival “crudely sadistic sexuality”.21 organised by CLC Purbalingga A Brief History of Layar Tancap Other genres also have many similarities Layar tancap is older than indoor and with subgenres of Western exploitation permanent-building movie theatres. When, cinema. One example is the Japanese Period for the first time, a film was screened in a Genre which is set during the Japanese fixed building at Tanahabang, Kebonjae, occupation era (1942-1945). Films of this Jakarta (Batavia) on 5th December 1900, type concern an Indonesian woman being excited audiences compared it with a layar kidnapped and incarcerated by Japanese tancap cinema called Talbot (named after the soldiers; typically, a noble Japanese officer owner), in Gambir Market Field, in front of falls in love with her and tries to save her. Kota Station, and Lokasari (Manggabesar).23 These kinds of film have more sexual sadism scenes as well as female The owners ofBioskop Keliling founded a nakedness22, and are closely related to union called Perbiki orPersatuan Western women-in-prison films. Pengusaha Bioskop Keliling (Union of Operators of Mobile Movie Theatres) in The subgenres that I have elaborated upon April 1978. One of their missions was to above, particularly those first discussed, distribute domestic films throughout contain some key elements that formulate Indonesia, specifically to the remote areas24, the global definition of classic Indonesian the blank spots25, where there was little exploitation films: mystical powers, access to television, regular cinema or print supernatural heroes, local folklores. The media.26 Chairperson Perbiki, Major distinct nature of the films relies upon the General (Retired) Acup Zainal27 underlines exoticism (otherness, weirdness) of the that one of the purposes of the body was to subgenres, as elaborated by Karl Heider. develop the appreciation of domestic films within rural villager communities.28

98 In order to gain official acknowledgement, entertainment may be one of the Perbiki changed its name, since the word reasons why it had been mostly “bioskop” (cinema) in “bioskop Keliling” disregarded by the New Order refers to one specific style of cinema, and state. Before 1993, there had there was already an organisation that dealt been no specific government with “bioskop”, namely GPBSI (Gabungan policy for mobile cinema, nor Pengusaha Bioskop Seluruh Indonesia, the was it ever included in the Indonesian Association of Movie National Film Development Entrepreneurs). Therefore, on the 2nd of Programme.31 October 199129, PerfikiPersatuan ( Perusahaan Pertunjukan Film Keliling According to van Heeren, no explicit Indonesia, Association of Indonesian official policies were applied and no data Mobile Cinema Screening) was founded. was collected by The Indonesian Statistical Finally, the Minister of Education issued Bureau for this open-air cinema.32 The Ministerial Decree no. 130/1993 to Indonesian Statistical Bureau (PBS,Pusat legitimise Perfiki, as a film body that could Biro Statistik) only complied numbers from now enjoy equality with other existing film ordinary cinemas in the big cities.33 In organisations.30 contrast to van Heeren’s claims I will argue that Suharto’s government tried to control The official recognition of the institution is layar tancap long before the establishment significant. Katinka Van Heeren underlines of Perfiki in 1993, precisely because the that, since that 1993, the New Order started villagers (being the majority of the total to controllayar tancap, whereas previously Indonesian population) represented an the government did not pay attention to important asset. either the audiences or this mode of exhibition. She writes: Layar tancap shows commonly operate in rural and suburban areas. In Perbiki’s first The original mobile cinema congress, in 1983, an agreement was made organization was founded in between Perbiki and GBPSI, calledradius 1974 (sic) and before 1993, aksi (action radius), which regulated the when it was granted official distribution of these films.34 At that time, recognition as one of the New mobile cinema companies were accused of Order professional film stealing regular cinema’s audience and organizations,it was mostly disturbing the distribution and exhibition disregarded by the state….The circulation by screening new movies. In fact that mobile cinema was order to avoid this kind of ‘cannibalism’, seen as lower-class and rural there were some decisions made by and for

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Perbiki, including radius aksi, which decreed cinema - usually, the location was an that mobile cinema shows should be 5 km outdoor area such as a football field - or away from the nearest movie theatre. This immediately after the films were released. means Perbiki was now forced to run their Instead, they watched movies inlayar business in countryside or, at least, suburbs. tancap, two years after the films’ theatrical releases due to the restrictions for the shows The government also usedlayar tancapas to only screen re-censored outdated vehicles of propaganda and, in 1993, termed Indonesian films in 16mm, in order to avoid their unique distribution of domestic films the cannibalisation of regular movie- as a pagar budaya (cultural fence), to filter theatres.38 the villagers from the negative influence of global films. In February 1993, few months As mentioned by van Heeren, layar tancap’s before their official acknowledgement, the spectators came from lower or working- New Order regime formulated a concept class communities. The shows were called ‘Cultural Fence’ (Pagar Budaya)35, generally free, because the host would incur based on the new film law, UU no. 8/1992.36 the costs for private purposes, or even Van Heeren states that the purpose of political campaigns. But sometimes the ‘cultural fence’ concept is aimed to ‘diminish audience would contribute. Commonly, the the danger of contagion by the spread of villagers would invite thebioskop keliling information technologies caused by companies for weddings, circumcisions or globalization’. The New Order government any event that garnered familial pride, for believed that the villagers were not educated which the host would and pay all the enough to resist the bad negative influence expenses and to which the whole village of foreign cultures represented on the screen. would be invited39, and as a result thelayar Therefore, the purpose of this concept was tancap business grew rapidly.40 It was to protect the villagers from the values and estimated that around 80% of villages were behaviours embedded in global movies.37 visited bylayar tancap shows in the This policy is in line with the concept of late 1970s.41 film nasional where Indonesian films should represent ‘the real of Indonesian culture’ Related to viewing experiences, prominent andkultural edukatif. director and Perfiki’s Vice Chairperson Slamet Djarot writes of people coming in On Rural Audiences droves to watchlayar tancap because of Layar tancap spectators were considered ‘the instinct of togetherness’ (dorongan second-class citizens who consequently naluri kebersamaan) whereby the meaning received ‘second class’ entertainment. They oflayar tancap is extended to become a did not enjoy new films in a decent regular ‘joint ritual’ (upacara bersama).42 This

100 argument echoes Mark Jancovich43 and tancap companies to collaborate with the Bruce Kawin’s44 concepts of the cult Department of Education and Culture as screening as a ‘temple’ or ‘space of rituals’ well as Department of Agriculture in order for celebration. to disseminate short propaganda and educational films related to development It has been reported by many newspapers issues such as birth control, transmigration, and magazines that layar tancap shows— cooperatives, public health, and the Five- both the entrepreneurs and the audiences - Year Development Programme.47 Therefore, have developed their own dynamics: screening events co-organised by Perbiki screening uncensored films and exhibiting members and the Ministries were held. ‘immoral behavior’such as gang fights. Not Another significant collaboration with the only this, but the midnight screenings also government also happened in March 1986, created noise pollution.45 when the Department of Information, particularlyDirektorat Bina Film dan FramingLayar Tancap Rekaman Video (Directorate of Film and From the early years of the New Order, Video Recordings), gavelayar tancap layar tancap was directed in many ways, entrepreneurs eleven documentaries with a toward a political and economic means of promise of 400 similar films to come in the regulating the mode of exhibition, and thus next two years, produced by The many rules such as three-layer censors and Department of Transmigration, The 16mm policies were forced upon these Department of Agriculture, and The works. First,bioskop keliling shows became Department of Health. It is reported that at one of the political means of circulating the the inauguration day of this collaboration New Order programs to remote villages. For between the Department of Information and example, campaign programs by BKKBN Perfiki, there was a series of screenings, and (Badan Kordinasi Keluarga Berencana a transmigration-themed short movie, Nasional, National Family Planning Membangun Hari Esok (To Build Coordinating Board) starting in the 1970s46, Tomorrow) was shown as the opening film or even as part of political campaign of the for cult icon Rhoma Irama’s Satria Bergitar ruling political party, namelyGolongan (Guitar Warrior) at Pasekan District, Pacet, Karya (Golkar, The Functional Group) West Java. The 2,500 spectators responded during general elections. positively to the event.48

In fact, since the first year of Perbiki, 1983, It is reported that in 1982 Perbiki officially Vice President Adam Malik gave the green supported Golkar, Suharto’s ruling political light to the ‘Cinemas goes to the Villages’ vehicle to keep him in power, and became a plan, wherein the government askedlayar mouthpiece of the campaign in remote

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places.49 That is to say that Perbiki had supposed bad influence of foreign movies. already become a means of disseminating Suharto’s politics since 1977, and second, In this context, Acup Zainal, the chairperson that the rural audience, as representing the of Perbiki, was displeased with the majority of Indonesian citizens, were also regulation and made a strong statement: part of the political targets for the New “Why do you consider the villagers as Order during general election events. second-class citizens?”52 Zainal interpreted the ruling as an injustice because it In December 1983, in their first national discriminated against rural audiences, congress, Perbiki determined to make considering them to be ignorant and themselves the channel of the New Order’s uneducated.53 propaganda.50 Perbiki’s members were consequently prohibited from screening By applying the ‘cultural fence’ concept, foreign movies and were required to only layar tancap shows were expected to present films suitable for audiences of 12 become the spearhead (ujung tombak)of years old and above. If an unsuitable film national cinema by way of strengthening the was presented, it would be re-censored.51 distribution and exhibition network of One of the most assertive pre-Perfiki domestic films to the sub-districts policies onlayar tancap is ministerial (kecamatan). Additionally, by clearing the decree no. 120/1989 issued by Minister of way for domestic movies, it was hoped that Information. This regulation firmly stated layar tancap would strengthen national film that, for the purpose of mobile cinema audiences and thereby stimulate the screenings, all films should be re-censored emergence in small areas of 500 permanent at three levels: the film should not be cinema halls specialising in Indonesian screened until two years after the first time films.54 Thus, the policies of propaganda, they passed censorship for theatrical censorship, Indonesian-films-only, and releases, the films must be thematically radius aksi show that the New Order suitable for the villagers, and finally, the consideredlayar tancap ripe for their films should receiveSurat a Tanda Lulus political purposes and in need of discipline. Sensor (Sensor Graduate Certificate) from the Censorship Board - meaning that it Layar Tancap as Counterculture? should be re-censored forlayar tancap Crucially, however, these official measures purposes. This policy had a direct were partial failures. First, instead of relationship to the rural audiences. The screening Indonesian films that upheld government needed not only to police the national culture in accordance with the villagers, indoctrinating them into national ‘cultural fence’ notion, the movies they culture, but also to protect them from the showed were mostly exploitation fare,

102 which often imitated Western forms. Third, many of thelayar tancap owners, Second, the mobile companies screened both members and non-members of Perfiki, uncensored versions of the films to still screened the 35mm format instead of audiences of all ages.55 And in many cases, 16mm. Indeed, somelayar tancap they were reported to screen new local and companies argued that it was more global films instead of becoming a bastion expensive to make 16mm copies rather than of the officially sanctioned national 35mm ones61, their ultimate aim being to distribution network, including ‘no new discount 16mm versions which, having been movies’ policy.56 For example, as reported in heavily censored for all-age audiences, had Batara Weekly in 1989, some illegallayar only a few sexual and sadistic scenes. No tancap shows screened European, action was taken by security officers, police, Mandarin, and Indian films freely, including prosecutors, or village officials for violation Iron Eagle II (1988) starring Tom Cruise in of the rules. The official censorship the villages of Gandul, Sawangan, and institution established by the regents, Bogor to Krukut and Limo of West Java. TP2FV (Tim Pengawas Peredaran Film They also screened new films that were still Video, or Supervisory Team of Film playing at regular movie theatres such as Distribution and Video), also did not Tarzan Raja Rimba (Tarzan the Jungle function and take action properly due to the King, 1989) andSi Gobang Misteri Manusia violation of the regulation.62 Indeed,Pelita Bertopeng (Gobang, The Mystery of a Daily reported that there was no attempt Masked Man, 1988)57. It is also reported from officials to control the quality of the that, although they did try to screen dramas films, because they only needed a local or films full of propaganda, most of the permit from the local district, and in many films were exploitation movies, the cases, the owners deceived the officials and favourites being action films starring cult society, stating that the films were for all- icons Barry Prima and Advent Bangun58, ages (as required by the law), but in reality, and “mystical horrors”.59 Barata Weekly were soft-core pornography or dealt with underlines that illegal mobile cinemas sadistic images.63 screened ‘uneducated films’ such asRimba Panas (globally known asJungle Heat, Fourthly, instead of becoming the required 1988),Harga Sebuah Kejujuran (Forceful ‘cultural fence’, the shows were considered Impact, 1987), andJaringan Terlarang to result in an increasing amount of crime (Java Burn, 1987) in some places “…in and disorderly behavior among the which the villagers are not ready to accept audience. In the 1970s and the 1980s, some such kind of films”.60 newspapers reported cases of drunkenness, gambling, fights between villages, sexual misconduct and excessive noise.64

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For example, in early 1977,Waspada Daily, wrote that villagers did not need big-budget a local newspaper, wrote an analysis titled or complicated films: they just needed to be ‘The Influence of Traveling Cinema Shows entertained with simple and easy-to-digest towards Young Generation in Asahan’, movies.68 concluded thatlayar tancap shows in Asahan Districts (North Sumatera) I thus conclude that these cinematic significantly increased the number of inter- violations expressed the rural audience’s village gang fights and general unruliness tastes and needs. The villagers had their among youngsters, as well as disturbing the own attitudes due to the format changing peace since the screenings were held in the and re-censoring process. As mentioned middle of the night in the centre of the earlier, in some cases, related to the district where the mosques and public villagers’ tastes of exploitation films as well housing were located.65 Moreover, official as the needs for watching new films, many policies disadvantaged thelayar tancap spectators asked for 35mm. However, at that owners, with the result that many spectators time, it was more expensive and rare to find protested the shows, even in some instances 35mm copies which were still screened in uprooting the screen in revolt.66 Thus, it can regular cinemas. On the other hand, even if be argued thatlayar tancap generated its thelayar tancap screened 35mm, but if the own sub-culture among the rural films did not meet the spectators’ spectatorship, and exploitation movies were requirements (sexual and sadistic scenes), a significant part of it. These kinds of they will run amok, uproot the poles and attitude were the opposite of the official pelt stones at the projectors.69 purpose oflayar tancap as the ‘cultural fence’ of national culture. Despite the strict regulations, why did some layar tancap still display films containing The Layar Tancap Audience and the violence and sexually graphic scenes? There Politics of Taste are at least two reasons. First, the official All the four elements discussed above have Perfiki claimed that the phenomenon was a direct relation with the rural audience’s caused by non-members or, in other words, resistant tastes. In order to survive,layar illegal practices run by independent tancap owners needed to feed the rural entrepreneurs who were not part of the audiences’ demands and wants. In order to Perfiki regulations. Additionally, in many attract the villagers, but in defiance of state cases, the owners of illegallayar tancap policy, the shows screened films depicting used false names in order to avoid sexuality, violence and “rough romance”.67 “problems in the field”.70 Second, some The parliament member Djati Kusumo media outlets suggested that irresponsible

104 bureaucrats (“oknum”) from the Department case: layar tancap owners) have their own of Information had access to 35mm politics of tastes, with the result that the projectors and indulged in a side business as attempts of the New Order cultural policies 35mm projector sellers.71 often failed. The traveling cinema companies, both the legal and illegal ones, Conclusion frequently violated the rules by screening As indicated by Bourdieu and Jenkins, exploitation movies as well as new foreign governments and cultural elites attempt to films. In short,layar tancap screened trashy socially construct and police the tastes of films because audiences wanted them to: their people. In this case, the New Order layar tancap shows therefore became arenas regime freighted thelayar tancap with for taste battles between opposed interest many regulations in order to make it a groups. Here, as is so often the case, ‘cultural fence’ of Indonesia. However, exploitation films find themselves at the rural spectators and film distributors (in this centre of a struggle.

1Jufry, M., Burhanuddin, Pasaribu, W (Eds) (1992). 13Imanjaya, E (2009). “The Other Side of Indonesia: New Indonesian Film Panorama. Jakarta: Permanent Committee Order’s Indonesian Exploitation Cinema as Cult of the Indonesian Film Festival, 164. Films”.COLLOQUY text theory critique 18; Imanjaya, E 2Jufry, Burhanuddin, Pasaribu 1992 Heider, K (1991). (2014).“An Introduction: The Significance of Indonesian Indonesian Cinema: National Culture on Screen. Honolulu Cult, Exploitation, and B Movies”. Plaridel Vol. 11 No. 2, : University of Hawaii; Said, S (1991).Shadows on the August 2014. Silver Screen: A Social History of Indonesian Film. 14Schaefer, E (1999).Bold! Daring! Shocking! True! : A Jakarta: Lontar Foundation. History of Exploitation Films, 1919-1959. Durham: Duke 3Van Heeren, K (2012).Contemporary Indonesian Film: University Press. Spirits of Reform and Ghosts from the Past. Leiden: 15Mathijs, E, Sexton, J (2011).Cult Cinema: an KITVL, 2012, 33-34; Sen, K (1994). Indonesian Cinema, Introduction. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell, 147) Framing the New Order. London & New Jersey: Zed 16Watson, P (1997). “There’s No Accounting for Taste: Books Ltd, 72. Exploitation Cinema and the Limits of Film Theory.” 4Bourdieu, P (2010). Distinction:A Social Critique of the Trash Aesthetics: Popular Culture and Its Audience, Judgement of Taste. London and New York: Routledge, xxv edited by Cartmell, Deborah et al, London: Pluto Press, 5Bourdieu 2010, xxiv pp.66-87. 17 6Bourdieu 2010, xxx Jufry, Burhanuddin, Pasaribu 1992, 46-48; Tjasmadi, J 7 (2008).100 Tahun Sejarah Bioskop di Indonesia. Jenkins, H (1992).Textual Poachers: Television Fans and Bandung: Megindo Tunggal Sejahtera, 251-270; Participatory Culture. London and New York: Routledge, Sen1994; Said 1991. 16-17 18 8 Telotte, J (1991).The Cult Film Experience, Beyond All Barker, T (2010). “Historical Inheritance and Film Reason. Austin: University of Texas Press, 10. Nasional in post-Reformasi Indonesian Cinema”.Asian 19 Cinema. 21(2), 2010, 7-24. Heider 1991, 39-40. 20 9Barker, T (2011).A Cultural Economy of the Heider, 1991, 40 Contemporary Indonesian Film Industry. Singapore: 21Heider 1991, 43-44 Department of Sociology, National University of 22Heider 1991, 42 Singapore, 73 23Jufry, Burhanuddin, Pasaribu 199, 2, 5. 10 Lobato, R (2012).Shadow Economies of Cinema: 24 Mapping Informal Film Distribution. Palgrave Macmillan Pos Sore, 1977. ‘Pengusaha Bioskop Keliling Bentuk and British Film Institute, 16-18. Organisasi’.Pos Sore., 30 July. 25 11Heider 1991, 22. Tempo, 1986. ‘Menu tambahan untuk bioskop lapangan’. Tempo, 12 April. 12 Fiske, J (2007). “The Cultural Economy of Fandom”.The 26 Cult Film Reader, edited by Mathijs, Ernest and Xavier ‘Menu tambahan untuk bioskop lapangan’ Mendik, Open University Press, 446-448.

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27Acup Zainal was also known as “the father ofLayar 48‘Menu tambahan untuk bioskop lapangan.’ Tancap” who served as chairperson during three periods 49Humas Kongres III Perfiki 1993, 40. from 1983 to 1996) (Humas Kongres III Per?ki, 1993) 50’Menu tambahan untuk bioskop lapangan’ 28 Humas Kongres III Perfiki (1993).Mengenal Bioskop 51 Keliling Lebih Jauh. Jakarta: DPP Perfiki, 11. ‘Menu tambahan untuk bioskop lapangan’ 52 29Humas Kongres III Perfiki 1993, 35-36. Humas Kongres III Perfiki 1993, 65. 53 30Suara Karya (1996). ‘Program Perfiki Tinggal Kenangan’, Humas Kongres III Perfiki 1993. Suara Karya, 1 September. P5. 54Van Heeren 2012. 31Van Heeren 2012, 33-34. My emphasis. 55Humas Kongres III Perfiki 1993. 32Sen 1994 56Humas Kongres III Perfiki 1993 33Sen 1994, 72 57Barata, 1989. ‘Layar tancap Merusak Pengedaran Film Bioskop’.Barata, Week 1, September. 34Harian Ekonomi Neraca, 1994. ‘Perfiki dan Segmentasi Pasar Film’, Harian Ekonomi Neraca, 28 March. 58Humas Kongres III Perfiki, 1993, 56. 35Harian Ekonomi Neraca, 1993.Perfiki Harus Jadi Pagar 59Angkatan Bersenjata, 1989. ‘Menertibkan dan Budaya. Harian Ekonomi Neraca, 1 February. P7. Mendayagunakan BioskopLayar tancap’. Angkatan Bersenjata, 4 November. 36“Perfiki Harus Jadi Pagar Budaya”. 60’Layar tancap Merusak Pengedaran Film Bioskop’ 37Van Heeren 2012, 35 61 38 Pikiran Rakyat, 1993. ‘Perfiki, Hidup Enggan Mati Ta Van Heeren 2012, 37. Mau’.Pikiran Rakyat, 5 September. 39 Suara Karya, 1997. PersainganLayar tancap Makin Tak 62‘Layar tancap Merusak Pengedaran Film Bioskop’. Sehat. Suara Karya, 7 September. 63 40Humas Kongres III Perfiki 1993, 35 ’ Bioskop Keliling di Jabar’. 64 41Sen 1994,72 Pelita, 1977. ‘Bioskop Keliling di Jabar Merusak’.Pelita . 13 August; Berita Buana 1976, ‘Bioskop Keliling untuk 42 Humas Kongres III Perfiki 1993, 13. Menjangkau Pedesaan’,Berita Buana. 15 December. 43 Jancovich, M (2002). “Cult Fictions: Cult Movies, 65Waspada Medan, 1977. ‘Pengaruh Bioskop Keliling thd Subcultural Capital and the Production of Cultural Generasi Muda Asahan’.Waspada Medan, 25 January. Distinctions” inCultural Studies, Volume 16, Number 2, 66 1 March 2002, pp. 306-322. ‘MenanggapLayar tancap Murah Meriah’; ‘Persaingan Layar tancap Makin Tak Sehat’ 44Telotte 1991. 67’Pengaruh Bioskop Keliling thd Generasi Muda Asahan’. 45 Media Indonesia, 1989. “MenanggapLayar tancap 68 Murah Meriah”.Media Indonesia, 28 August. Humas Kongres III Perfiki 1993, 19. 69‘MenanggapLayar tancap Murah Meriah’ 46Berita Yudha, 1976.’ BKKBN Tingkatkan Pengadaan Film2 Penerangan KB’.Berita Yudha, 8 October. 70‘PersainganLayar tancap Makin Tak Sehat’ 47Pos Film, 1978.’ Wakil Presiden Sambut Program Film 71‘PersainganLayar tancap Makin Tak Sehat’ Nasional Masuk Desa: Bioskop Belum Mampu Beri Hiburan Buat Rakyat Kecil’.Pos Film, 16 July;Pos Sore, 1978. ‘Film Masuk Desa Direstui Wakil Presiden Adam Malik’.Pos Sore. 12 July.

106 107 Tim Burton’s Curious Bodies (The First International Conference on Twenty-First Century Film Directors) Carl Sweeney

The inaugural International Conference on Dr Frances Pheasant-Kelly (University of Twenty-First Century Film Directors, Wolverhampton) introduced proceedings, organised by The University of talking briefly about the origins of the event, Wolverhampton in conjunction with before Dr Samantha Moore (University of Redeemer University College, Ontario, Wolverhampton) delivered the day’s first focused on Tim Burton. The choice of keynote address. She discussed the various Burton as subject was an appealing one, as functions of metamorphosis in animation, his lengthy career has been varied, including defined as the fluid transformation of one such eclectic works asBeetlejuice (1988), body into another. Moore situated Ed Wood (1994) andCharlie and the metamorphosis historically as a subversive Chocolate Factory (2005). Though his films tool that serves to disrupt narrative structure have attracted attract large audiences and causal logic. Correspondingly, she (particularly 2010’sAlice in Wonderland, suggested that its use in animation is widely which grossed over a billion dollars at the regarded with scepticism, noting that the worldwide box-office), Burton’s productions technique does not feature in the ’12 Basic invariably display the hallmarks of his Principles of Animation’ developed by the idiosyncratic sensibilities. His oeuvre can be so-called ‘old men’ of Walt Disney Studios. analysed through any number of prisms, but Nonetheless, she observed that Burton, who this event specifically explored the theme of had a fraught time working for Disney in the ‘curious bodies’ in his films, many of which 1980s, exhibits a clear affinity for the are fantasy horrors featuring unusual beings spontaneity and chaos engendered by including ghosts, vampires and zombies. transformation. With reference to a range of Held at Light House Media Centre in films includingAlice in Wonderland, Moore Wolverhampton in February 2018, this one- claimed that metamorphic spatialities in day gathering brought together contributors Burton’s films are presented as far more from around the world in stimulating appealing locations than real-world ones, discussion that built on existing scholarship whilst his transformative characters, about Burton and challenged some existing including the eponymous figure inCorpse notions. Bride (2005), are particularly empathetic

108 ones within his canon. Moore’s presentation without a completed script. She suggested proved a compelling start to the day and, that the personnel of the storyboard fittingly, metamorphosis would emerge as a department were pivotal in getting the film’s reoccurring theme of the conference. plot ‘whipped into shape’, reflecting that Furthermore, Burton’s animated work Burton is primarily a visual filmmaker would be examined in a number of rather than a story-driven one. Mantell subsequent presentations. discussed the daily rituals of the artists working on the film, such as physical Indeed, the day’s first panel concentrated on embodiment, positing a key relationship animated bodies within Burton’s films. Dr between bodily creative processes and Christopher Holliday (King’s College, cognitive ones. With reference to exciting London) considered the issue of visual aids such as storyboards, she ‘unruliness’, a cultural label associated with engagingly explicated the unseen influences transgression. Specifically, he applied that affected the film’s script. Kathleen Rowe’s conception of the term to the body of the titular protagonist inCorpse Fragmented bodies were discussed in the Bride. More broadly, he remarked that second panel, which began with Elsa Burton himself appears to be an unruly Colombani (University of Paris-Nanterre) figure, whose visual style, characterised by scrutinising the influence ofFrankenstein expressionist tendencies, runs counter to (both Mary Shelley’s 1818 book and James most mainstream filmmaking. Finally, Whale’s 1931 film adaptation) on Burton. Holliday wondered, with reference to the By analysing a range of films, Colombani opening sequence of Frankenweenie (2012), contended that Burton sometimes inverts whether stop-motion itself, a visibly aspects of Shelley’s story, one example labouring form characterised by staccato being the elderly inventor played by Vincent and stuttering movements, constitutes a Price in Edward Scissorhands (1990), who fundamentally unruly type of animation. contrasts with the youthful figure of Victor This was a thought-provoking note on Frankenstein. However, as in Shelley’s which to finish, and Holloway’s incisive book, Burton’s creatures also bear the mark paper was one of the highlights of the day. of their manufactured nature. She identified He was followed by Emily Mantell repeated visual motifs that bolstered her (University of Wolverhampton), who case, such as Burton’s use of sutures and of worked as a crew member on Corpse Bride. broken mirrors, which expose fractures in She offered a fascinating insight into the his characters’ psyches. Recurrent themes film’s production, a process that began were also considered, including the themes

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of disintegration and rebirth that pervades role as Catwoman in Batman Returns Burton’s productions. Dr Rob Geal (1992). After highlighting the overlap (University of Wolverhampton) also drew between Southern Gothic literature and on Shelley’sFrankenstein in his Burton’s films, namely the shared presentation. Noting that contemporary celebration of the grotesque, Piatkowski adaptation studies suggests that texts mutate observed the ways in which Burton to reflect the cultures in which they are manipulates Pfeiffer’s attractive star image rewritten, he argued that Burton celebrates to convey Catwoman’s breakdown, as her the monstrous in his films, thus displacing physicality fragments in conjunction with Shelley’s proto-feminist critique of male her mental collapse. He also reflected on the creation in a manner that is reductive. In contemporary resonance of the film, Burton films includingFrankenweenie situating Max Shreck (Christopher Walken) (2012), Geal claimed, male creation is as a Donald Trump analogue, and finding presented as benevolent, unlike its female the narrative to be a vivid illustration of the equivalent, which Burton appears to destructive powers of misogyny and associate with banality. Visual synecdoches unchecked privilege. Overall, Piatkowski’s in Burton’s work provided the focus for a paper added to the fascinating ways in paper by Dr Helena Bassil-Morozow which representations of corporeal (Glasgow Caledonian University), who paid disintegration were considered in this panel. particular attention to the symbolism in films including Edward Scissorhands and Monstrosity and embodiment were the focal Big Eyes (2014). For instance, she suggested points of the first afternoon session in which that Edward’s damaged hands represent Ana Rita Martins and José Duarte creativity in the former film, as does the (University of Lisbon) again located depiction of exaggerated eyes in the latter. Shelley’sFrankenstein as a key antecedent She also applied the attributes of the of Burton’s films. However, they suggested Jungian archetype of the child to Burton’s that for contemporary audiences physical work, identifying a range of ‘child’figures disfigurement may no longer constitute a in his films, including monsters and necessary aspect of monstrous figures, citing superheroes. Bassil-Morozow noted that the eponymous characters of the successful characters with pertinent childlike traits in television seriesDexter (2006-2013) and these films never become the hero, even Hannibal (2013-2015) as examples. those that adopt ostensibly heroic guises, Therefore, they posited that contemporary such as Batman. The Caped Crusader was scholars should think about monsters also relevant to the panel’s final paper, in through the effect of their actions, offering a which Peter Piatkowski (Independent persuasive reading ofFrankenweenie to Scholar) reflected on Michelle Pfeiffer’s make their case. They argued that the film

110 may represent Burton’s most personal work, incarnations of the character in comics, as it reflects many of his aesthetic and television and film since 1940. He thematic obsessions, in addition to depicting favourably compared Michelle Pfeiffer’s a range of different bodily forms. portrayal to other notable onscreen Ultimately, its narrative implies that true personifications, including those of Eartha monstrosity lies within as opposed to being Kitt, Julie Newmar and Halle Berry. primarily a set of physical characteristics, Though Sanna noted that the villainess Martins and Duarte suggesting that this may typically embodies certain characteristics be Burton’s salient contribution to the including ambition, dynamism and ongoing discussion about what it means to capriciousness, he claimed that the be monstrous. Cath Davies (Cardiff popularity of Burton’s Catwoman can be Metropolitan University) noted that attributed to persuasive feminist readings of previous papers had touched upon the visual the character, which he deftly motif of stitching, before delivering her contextualised. He also remarked on accessible and engaging disquisition about Catwoman’s apparent supernatural powers, the relationship between embodiment and a trait almost exclusive to Burton’s clothing in Burton’s films. She referred to personification of Batman’s feline foe. In the self-fashioning figure of Jack the next presentation, Alexandra Hackett Skellington inThe Nightmare Before (Sheffield Hallam University) observed that Christmas (1993) to demonstrate that fabric sexuality and social anxiety are attributes is related to subjectivity and acts as a not often associated with key Burton conduit for character, supporting this claim characters, arguing that their misunderstood with examples from Corpse Bride.She ways of communicating who they are is contended that dissolution and deterioration more important to making them ‘peculiar’ are the key conceptual factors that shape than their physical appearances. To support this aspect of Burton’s work, and the this case, she utilised the prism of Freud’s identification of fabric’s mediating effect on stages of psychosexual development to posit somatic instability inspired lively exchanges Edward Scissorhands as an asexual figure, in the question and answer session that offering a detailed reading of the constituent immediately followed the panel. parts of Johnny Depp’s performance, especially in relation to figure movement. The final session of the event showcased Hackett subsequently examined Edward’s two papers that were related in their sense of self through Lacan’s notion of the consideration of gender and sexuality. mirror stage, her paper situating one of Firstly, Dr Antonio Sanna (Independent Burton’s most iconic characters in a Scholar) talked about the history of stimulating way. She also considered ‘Catwoman’, referring to the differing Barnabas Collins, the protagonist inDark

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Shadows (2012), also played by Depp, directors rounded off the lecture, and was finding that he exhibits similar behaviour followed suitably by the launch ofA Critical to Scissorhands. Companion to Tim Burton (2017). The book was edited by Barkman and fellow References to Batman (1989) occurred conference contributor Antonio Sanna, and regularly throughout the day, so it was is intended to be the first in a series focusing appropriate that the second keynote address on auteur filmmakers. Miss Peregrine’s also focused on the Dark Knight. DrAdam Home for Peculiar Children (2016) was Barkman (Redeemer University College) screened in the venue’s main cinema, the surveyed Burton’s contribution to the family adventure being an apt choice, as its identity of Batman, his analysis quirky mystery story about youngsters with acknowledging that the various iterations of special powers encapsulates many of the the character present inconsistencies that are ideas that had previously been discussed. impossible to fully unite. He remarked on areas in which Burton was relatively Finally, a conference dinner brought a close unsuccessful in embodying Bob Kane’s to the day, which had been a success. The character, one example being the director’s variety of topics, issues and themes touched unconvincing depiction of Bruce Wayne upon made for invigorating listening, and (played by Michael Keaton in bothBatman served as a reminder of the diverse andBatman Returns) as a socialite. scholarship required to properly appraise Barkman reflected more positively on the Burton’s work. The standard of psychological complexity Keaton brings to presentations was high, and the question and the character, and on Burton’s emphasis on answer sessions generally elicited lively villains. He argued that The Joker (Jack conversation. Also welcome was the Nicholson) plays a crucial role in inclusion of a number of speakers with illuminating Batman’s darkness, praising filmmaking experience, as this helped Burton’s decision to tighten the duality ensure that a wide range of perspectives between the two characters. Ultimately, were represented. Therefore, the first Barkman concluded that the filmmaker’s International Conference on Twenty-First considerable contribution to the character’s Century Film Directors promised significant mythology paved the way for Christopher potential for future iterations of the Nolan’s subsequent trilogy. This reference conference, with the 2019 event scheduled to Burton’s influence on subsequent to focus on the films of Kathryn Bigelow.

112 113 I Spit on Your Grave: Dialogue and Book Reviewby Martin Barker and David Maguire

gang who abused her, I Spit on Your Grave not only reflected these wider ‘hicksploitation’ trends but also provided a formative rape and revenge template that provoked more than two decades of controversy from cultural critics and state censors alike. While the film’s unflinching scenes of sexual violence led to it being banned or heavily cut in many territories, its construction of the brutalised but powerful lone survivor Jennifer Hills (played by Camille Keaton) remains one of the text’s most memorable features. This female character not only inspired indirect renditions and rip-offs, but also provided the template for an unofficial sequelSavage Vengeance (Donald Farmer, 1993), in which Keaton also appeared.

While this straight to video release was For a journal issue devoted to cult cinema’s deemed ill-judged and incoherent, it was the representations of debased rurality, it seems 2010 remake of I Spit on Your Grave by more than appropriate to include the Steven R. Monroe that generated new following critical dialogue and book review audience awareness of the original film and dedicated to Meir Zarchi’s 1978 film I Spit its controversial legacy. In his remake, on Your Grave (AKADay of the Woman). Monroe offers a near-faithful update of The film was released during a decade-long Zarchi’s foundational premise, which again cinematic obsession with America’s ranges the character of Jennifer Hills dispossessed rural poor that not only (played here by Sarah Butler) against a gang encompassed horror, drama and comedic of rural misfits who invade her isolated formats, but even spawned sexploitation writing retreat with disturbing cycles devoted to the licentious drives of consequences. While most of the character countryside inhabitants. With its theme of a types from the 2010 redux closely resemble sophisticated urban female writer who those established by Meir Zarchi, the exacts her revenge against the all-male rural introduction of the new figure of sheriff

114 Storch (Andrew Howard) functions to the vengeful wife of a murdered gang manipulate prior audience awareness of the member, allowing the sequel retain its rural 1978 release in order to generate further focus whilst also progressing along familial commentary on debased modes of rural and female-led lines. masculinity. With the later 2013 sequel I Spit on Your Grave 2, Monroe shifted from In the following dialogue and book review, rural to urban settings in a hard-hitting author David Maguire reflects upon the narrative that uses the abduction of an recent release of his Cultographies volume aspiring model (Jemma Dallender) to on I Spit on Your Grave1, which deals with consider contemporary issues of female Zarchi’s original and the subsequent tracking and sexual violation within an remakes. In the opening section of the Eastern European context. following review, Maguire recounts the motivation behind the research, While the 2015 release of I Spit on Your development and production of his book. Grave: Vengeance is Mine (directed by R. This is then followed by a more sustained D. Braunstein) reintroduced the original review of the volume undertaken by character of Jennifer Hills (again played by Professor Martin Barker, to which the Butler) as a damaged survivor continuing author then responds. We are delighted to her vengeance quest whilst in therapy, this conclude the review by including interviews entry was largely seen as failing to provide with I Spit on Your Grave: Déjà Vu lead the symmetry and closure expected from a performers Jamie Bernadette and Maria remake trilogy. Subsequently, it was left to Olsen, who further contextualise issues originator Meir Zarchi to provide a more raised in David Maguire’s volume, as well definitive further entry to the franchise as assessing why cult cinema remains through his 2019 release of I Spit on Your fixated on the figure of Jennifer Hills. Grave: Déjà Vu.With this title, Zarchi elides the narrative drive of the Monroe I Spit On Your Grave: The Motivation sequels to return to the original premise he (David Maguire) devised for the original release. Marketed as The desire to write this book was stoked by ‘the only direct sequel to the 1978 movie’, the research I did into I Spit On Your Grave Déjà Vu recasts original actress Camille for my MA dissertation, followed by a Keaton as Jennifer Hills and contemporises number of papers I did on the film/the rape- her struggles with the survivors of the rural revenge genre at conferences across the UK. gang that menaced her in the initial release. I was fascinated by how, 40 years on, it was In an interesting gender twist, the also film still able to strongly divide public opinion. ranges Hills’ daughter (played by Jamie While quite a lot of the notorious/low Bernadette) against Becky (Maria Olsen), budget/‘exploitation’/

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‘video nasty’films of the ’70s/80s have been surprising that the film has such a strong (and quite rightly I believe) consigned to the female following, as it allows a woman, on trashcan of time, Meir Zarchi’s film has screen, to redress the balance, albeit using found itself mythologised and revered by violence. While it is correct thatISOYG and the countless rape-revenge films that have the rape-revenge genre have been responsible followed in its wake. Despite being pretty for putting images of sexual violence and much universally condemned by critics, intimidation towards women up on celluloid, women’s groups, politicians etc. when it they have also conversely provided an was released and heavily cut or banned opportunity for identification with a fantasy around the world it has managed to spawn of strong female empowerment. official and unofficial franchises, countless imitators – and even, bizarrely, a spoof. I Spit On Your Grave: The Review (Professor Martin Barker) I was equally surprised that no one had This is unquestionably a book that needed to attempted to write a book about the film be written. I Spit On Your Grave (1978, before. As it was approaching its 40th henceforth,ISOYG ) has come to occupy a anniversary and I knew that Meir Zarchi had unique position as possibly the most long- a direct sequel in the works, and his son term reviled film of modern times. Subject Terry had a documentary on the film also on to more debate than almost any other, it is its way, now felt like the perfect time to re- capable of producing spitting rage in evaluate the film. And it couldn’t have been opponents, and (in the main) slightly more timely. As we were finalising the apologetic defences by those who try to book, the #metoo campaign exploded onto rescue it. To mention it is to summon up and the scene. This campaign has established a reactivate that angry debate. Given this state monumental shift towards listening to of affairs, any review of this book which is victims of rape and sexual harassment, with more than just a ‘notice’ is always going to the tables being turned on the perpetrators. be more than a review – it is quite likely to When you consider the protagonist in become part of the still ongoing debate Zarchi’s film, Jennifer Hills is effectively around this film. I’m happy to accept that harassed for the sole reason that she is a risk. young, beautiful, independent, intelligent career woman—and for this “crime” she is I have to come clean about my own history subjected to the most appalling degradation of involvement withISOYG .In1983I and destruction of her psychical and mental published a lead article in the then-magazine self by men who feel threatened by her. In New Society about the British controversy successfully enacting revenge on those of over the ‘video nasties’2 – of whichISOYG who have wronged her, it is not entirely became for many people the prime

116 exemplar. The starting point for my interest controversy, I became more generally and involvement was that I had just involved in ongoing research and debate published my book about the British ‘horror over the visual depiction of rape/sexual comics’ campaign of the 1950s, where I had violence, first in some opportunistic uncovered an untold story about the nature research onA Clockwork Orange,andStraw of the campaign against the comics – and Dogs, then in an ESRC-funded project on identified a strand of almost deliberate the highly controversialCrash , finally in misreading of the comics themselves, in some substantial commissioned research for order to mount a case that they were the British Board of Film Classification in ‘dangerous to children’. The campaign 2006 (research which they conveniently received its main intellectual justification failed to mention in their official response to from a book by Fredric Wertham, entitled Issue 1 of theCine-Excess Journal … how Seduction of the Innocent. Then in 1983, an strange …). In amongst all these, I had an article appeared in The Observer newspaper opportunity to meet and talk with (I can’t (by literary scholar David Holbrook) with really call it an interview) Meir Zarchi that exact title. Holbrook made the during a trip to the USA. connection between the two campaigns, evidently without knowing the real situation So, I don’t come innocent to this review. I about the 1950s campaign. I had to respond. am definitely an ‘interested party’ in this But New Society (rightly) insisted that I had continuing debate. And this will show in this to say something specific about at least one response to David Maguire’s very of the so-called ‘nasties’. After a hunt (and interesting and useful book. Maguire comes it wasn’t easy, despite all the rhetorics about from a very different background to me, easy access from the campaigners) I being currently a programmer for theLeeds managed to get my hands on a third- International Film Festival’s Fanomenon generation video copy ofISOYG ,and strand. His book does several main things. watched its grainy, grimy narrative. And It explores the film itself, of course: (some saw that same process of misleading of) the story of how the film came to be description writ large. British newspapers made, the decisions and strategies that called it a ‘glorification’ of rape, in which inform it as a piece of film-making, and the the ‘woman ends up enjoying it’. Bollocks. various, sometimes dodgy marketing Total bollocks. But, oh boy, effective. strategies used to circulate and sell it. It walks us through the intense debates which This was the start of my involvement, which have accompanied the film since then, continued with further close examinations including of course the intense academic of it in my (edited) collection The Video debates (especially but not only in feminist Nasties. Following the whole video nasties film circles) about the rape-revenge film

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genre. And it explores the many ways in using the same title – but with entirely whichISOYG has become a self-conscious, different narrative impulses – is a small gap if oddly distributed, ‘franchise’, spawning in its search for totality). It’s right that we multiple remakes, borrows, homages, and should hear about Thomas Koba’s (2000) rip-offs. All are carefully, thoroughly and I’ll Kill You … I’ll Bury You … And I’ll Spit thoughtfully done. But to my eye it does On Your Grave, and Chris Seaver’s (2008)I some of these better than others, and the Spit Chew On Your Grave – even if we are reasons are interesting, I believe. hardly likely ever to see the films themselves. Maguire is surely right to ISOYG and its ‘franchise’ first. Maguire suggest that the sheer range is significant, summarises the histories of many of the because of the confirmation of the iconic predecessors of Zarchi’s film, not just for status ofISOYG – although we might add the sake of proving that ‘nothing is entirely that the sheer obscurity of some of these is new’, but to ask an important question: how also indicative (because a number of the does it work that, while not entirely new, films almost look like garage productions). one film comes to stand as ‘ground zero’for On the more obvious side, it is notable that an entire sub-genre? It becomes an there have already been one licensed inevitable reference point, needing to be remake, and two sequels. acknowledged, referenced, ‘quoted’ from. Maguire cites Hitchcock’sPsycho (1960) as Maguire does ask (but does not really another example of the same process – a attempt to answer) an interesting question film which, despite having plenty of about this franchising. Given that none of precursors, established itself for many as the the follow-up films, as far as can be ‘first modern horror film’. Alongside this, ascertained, made money – indeed most of via an interview with Zarchi, as well as them seem to have lost it in large quantities using published sources, he tells the story of – what is it that drives the repeated re- the making of the film: the motives, the referencing and remaking of this ‘story’? I problems, the challenges, and so on. He then sense that his answer lies within the assiduously tracks down and recounts (with compass of the term ‘exploitation’, but that passing judgements on each) the many is a bit paradoxical. Standard definitions of follow-up versions. Some of these are ‘exploitation cinema’ all emphasise that it is downright obscure, and it is appropriate that cheaply-made, fast-buck attempts to coin a a contribution to the Cultographies series profit, by deploying sensationalist themes. If should show such devotion to locating and they show no signs of making money, why logging the details of such recherché persist? This is a problem I faced myself, materials (though not to have mentioned when researching the cycle of films that that there are French and German novels followed the invasion of Iraq: 23 in all.

118 Each one heralded before release as doomed Jennifer’s body as she is repeatedly to fail, they still kept on coming. This assaulted. He shows well the ways in which requires a better explanation than just bad the film undercuts what have been seen as financial judgement. various ‘rape myths’ (eg, that men get carried away and can’t help themselves, or The third task this book sets itself is to that women secretly enjoy it). But then he weave a course among the many debates cites without comment people still arguing and critiques (and also defences) ofISOYG . that it’s all a kind of pretence, and therefore This is a pretty monumental task, and still dangerous. He quotes people putting without doubt Maguire reaches out very forward frankly stupid arguments, and widely, across reviews, reconsiderations, doesn’t comment at all. My ‘favourite’ is his academic critiques, and the like. He visits a quotation from Luke Thompson: ‘defenders lot of cult websites for their takes on the of the film have argued that it is actually film (and its remakes). Some of the things pro-woman, due to the fact that the woman- he turns up I had missed – I didn’t know for lead wins in the end … is sort of like saying instance that radical feminist Julie Bindel, that cockfights are pro-rooster because who had damnedISOYG mightily when it there’s always one left standing’ first appeared, had recanted on her critique (RottenTomatoes review, cited p.37). That is of the film in recent years3 – although, a singularly stupid analogy, and should have visiting that to read it carefully revealed a been called out as such. Instead, it hovers complexity which isn’t caught in the book – ambivalently, like the author. more on this shortly. And this is where I return to Julie Bindel. But what bothers me about his coverage of Her ‘mea culpa’ is, when you read it, a very these debates is not his reach, rather, it is the strange one. She admits she has changed implied position from which it works. her mind. The film is not dangerous in the Overall a sense of unease about taking a way she used to think – but then almost position for or against recurs, caught immediately she follows this by saying that (among other places) when he writes: she nonetheless doesn’t regret having ‘althoughISOYG is exploitation, it does at picketed ‘video nasties’ of the period. How least attempt to tackle rape in an can this be? Which other ones has she not unflinchingly honest manner’(p. 70). re-viewed and recanted on? Not a word. Maguire can’t quite make up his mind about This is a cop-out – getting renewed present- the film. He acknowledges all the ways in day virtue without admitting anything in the which the film makes absolutely clear the past. An apologia, rather than an apology. I degrading and horrible nature of rape, and believe it is really important to say that its care not to create a camera eye on critics at the time lied about the film, or (if I

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am being generous) didn’t care that they and in particular for ‘feminist film theorists’, crudely misrepresented it and other such this is the ultimate criterion against which it films. And their misrepresentations must be measured. Is the film pro- or anti- mattered. As the book does mention, some feminist? I find this weird. Of course the others even lost their jobs for trying to ask feminist debates are very important. But alternative questions about it. But we’re not does that mean that no one other than supposed to say things of that kind, are we? feminists can be appalled at rape, and allowed to take a view on the way the film Of course, Maguire may respond that he is represents it? ‘Feminism’ is a site of huge simply capturing an ambivalence in the film, and evolving debates – including continuous in particular between its narrative and recourse to the worryingly ahistorical cinematic organisation and the category ‘patriarchy’ – but that is not the (‘exploitative’) way it was marketed. The only problem. What is it about this which term ‘exploitation’ does a lot of work in the makes this different from, say, someone book – sometimes rather oddly. Much is asserting that the only tradition to be cited in made of the film’s title-change from Day of relation to, say, homosexuality is the the Woman to ISOYG, when its distributor Christian/biblical tradition? Again, a major changed. And much is also made of its main history of evolving debates – but it issurely (iconic) poster, of the bruised and bloodied very unlikely, except for those already Jennifer walking away from us, her clothes operating within that faith tradition, that this torn half-revealingly and holding a knife. would be seen as the sole measure or criterion, Clearly there are questions about the the ultimate determinant of possible semiotics of this poster, and what may have attitudes. It says a lot about the current made it so iconic – though it seems odd to position of feminism within radical debates complain (as Maguire does, more than once) that it is so hard to put forward other ways that the image does not appear in the film – of condemning sexual violence towards think how many absolutely mainstream women (or anyone else, for that matter). films construct posters that bear no direct relation to any scene within them. Feminism looms large within the book, as something to be very careful about. He But I sense that there is something more – a spends a long time exploring how ‘feminist feeling that the film is up against a criterion film theory’ has interacted with it over the which means it simply can’t win. This is to years’(p.40). The trouble is that this be a measure of its ‘feminist leanings’ (this squashes work of incredibly different kinds wording p.36, but happening throughout the under this one umbrella term. The grandiose book). Apparently, because the film has theorising of Laura Mulvey gets set on the been such a fraught subject for feminists, same plane as the close textual

120 investigations of Isabel Pinedo, and the (rare, released:ISOYG: Déjà Vu. Rumours, pre- but for that reason incredibly important) reviews, guesses, forewarnings have been work on women as horror audiences by such circulating about what the film might be as Brigid Cherry. It is all ‘feminist film like, and Zarchi’s ‘motives’ for supporting theorising’, just arriving at different it. It will for sure be another small chapter in judgements. This allows it to remain the the ongoing history of this most misread privileged domain and the source of all the and mis-cited film. measures we can have for evaluating the film. So, the fact that ‘feminist film theory’ has to I Spit On Your Grave: The Response a considerable extent debated the pros and (David Maguire) cons ofISOYG in terms of its tendencies to First off, I’d like to thank Martin for his provoke or deny ‘identification’ with very thorough and frank review of my book. Jennifer or her assailants sets the terms of As he says in his review, Martin has a his investigation. The fact that there are vested personal interest in this film – its some – and yes, I am of course one of them reception 40 years ago, the sustained – who find the whole concept of controversy etc.; I was aware of this and so I ‘identification’ unclear, incoherent and won’t pretend to say I wasn’t a tad unhelpful simply isn’t noticed. apprehensive when I knew he was reviewing my book. If anyone knows this Perhaps inevitably I have focused on the film inside out – it’s Martin! points where I am unhappy with the direction and tenor of this book. It would be As Martin points out I’ve tried to encapsulate wrong to close on this. This is in so many as much as I could – in the limited amount ways a valuable contribution. Clear and of space available in the Wallflower Press thorough, it maps the territory of debates Cultographies series (which follow a set around this strange and persistent film in size/word count) – about the film, its ways that have not been done before. It does production history, the climate it was raise a lot of important questions about released in, the (global) response to it, its ISOYG’s filmic construction. And without antecedents, its imitators and the franchises getting lost in the debates about ‘cult’, it (both official and unofficial) that it has clearly enunciates the ways in which the spawned. Not an easy thing to do in such a film has set a close template for repeated small book – and with new sequel coming revisitings of this difficult topic of rape and out this year (alongside the documentary), revenge. The book closes by pointing to the there is scope for this chapter on the film ways the story is not finished yet.At some continuing well into the 21st century. point later this year, a new sequel, this time The main point I’d like to answer in relation with Zarchi’s own imprimatur, is due to be to Martin’s review is when he states that he

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feels there is an overall sense of unease – on evaluated academically as a powerful my part - about taking a position for or feminist text. So, going back to Martin’s against the film. This is a very valid review – and the fact that the lack of a observation which I’ll try to answer. I have position from me gives him cause for tried, as best I could, to give a balanced concern – I would argue that I can’t argue response to the two polarising views of the steadfastly for or against the film. I was film – those who view it as misogynistic asked at a conference recently where I was exploitation filth which pretends to be pro- giving a paper on the film why I liked the feminist, and those who argue that it is an film – and the question, albeit being a empowering, bold, piece of filmmaking singularly simple one, truly stumped. I had which many see as a key feminist text. to answer that I honestly wasn’t sure if I did Personally, I’m not sure which side of this like the film – because of all the reasons fence I actually sit on. While I see a lot of I’ve given above (and in the book the former arguments in the film, I see just hopefully). However, I cannot deny the fact as equally as many of the latter. I do not that I think it is a very powerful film, with think it is a great film; I do not think that it very powerful things to say, and some of the is a particularly likeable film – and my techniques Meir Zarchi uses to get those defence of that would be, should a film points across are truly compelling. For that about such a controversial subject matter, reason, regardless of people’s final views on which portrays the rape of a woman in such the film, I truly believe that this is a film that graphic unflinching unrelenting reality, be needs to be explored and re-evaluated in considered a likeable film? That said, I do great detail. come across countless female viewers of the film who categorically state that they absolutely love this movie. So while it is correct that I Spit On Your Grave and the rape-revenge genre have been responsible for putting images of sexual violence and intimidation towards women up on screen, they have also conversely provided an opportunity for identification with a fantasy of strong female empowerment. And if the film is as demeaning to women as many of its (initial) critics have complained, then this 1Maguire, D., 2018.I Spit On Your Grave. New York: Wallflower P. is complicated by the number of female 2Barker, M.,How nasty are thevideonasties? , New Society, viewers who champion the film – and November 1983, pp. 231-233. 3Bindel, J.,I was wrong about I Spit On Your Grave, equally the fact that it has now been re- Guardian, 19 January 2011 (available online).

122 123 Cult Film and Controversy: From Day of the Woman to Déjà vu An Interview with Jamie Bernadette and Maria Olsen Conducted by Xavier Mendik

trying to free herself, will glory in its carnage, thus ensuring its position as one of the most notorious horror films of all time.

Jamie Bernadette as Christy Hills in I Spit on Your Grave Déjà Vu (still courtesy of Déjà Vu, LLC) To close this review section on ISpiton Your Grave, we are delighted to host interviews with Jamie Bernadette and Maria Olsen, two of the lead performers from the recent Meir Zarchi sequel I Spit on Your Grave Déjà Vu. Here, both actresses reflect on some of the key issues raised by David Maguire’s book as well as considering the contested legacy of the I Spit on Your Grave franchise.

Xavier Mendik: Why do you think I Spit on Your Grave remains such an influential but divisive film?

Actress Jamie Bernadette Maria Olsen: Firstly, I think ISOYG remains in the public consciousness because Jamie Bernadette: I think that any work of no one who sees it can forget it. The visuals art that causes such ambivalent feelings of the rapes that Jennifer Hills is forced to tends to have an enduring impact on the endure - as well as those of the revenge she society for the simple fact that people try to takes - are just too graphic and disturbing prove the side that they are on and to ever be forgotten. Those who do not understand the other. People by nature love understand the film's specific origins, or a good debate. who choose to concentrate on the violence instead of on the narrative of a woman

124 Xavier Mendik: According to David was prolonged by police treatment that can Maguire’s 2018 book on the subject, I Spit only be described as incredibly lacking in on Your Grave is frequently associated with compassion and empathy. In order to try a wave of 1970s rape and revenge thrillers and deal with this experience, which that were seen as reflecting male fears impacted him greatly, Meir createdDay of around the emergence of the feminist the Woman, where his heroine, Jennifer movement. Do you see any historical Hills, emerges triumphant from her ordeal. connection to the film and wider social currents of the period? Xavier Mendik: Film theorists such as Martin Barker have discussed the ways in Jamie Bernadette: I do not believe that which the original distributor of ISpiton Meir Zarchi intentionally made the film to Your Grave not only changed the the title of represent the feminist movement. He told me the film, but also used exploitative himself how the idea came to him. He said advertising to highlight the film’s scenes of that he saw a woman come out of the woods sexual violence. Do think the film’s in New York naked and beaten after she had ‘exploitation’ tag altered the way in which been raped by two men. He picked her up press and critics reviewed the film? and drove her to the police station and later he imagined her getting revenge on the men. Jamie Bernadette: No. I think they Thus, the story was born. It just so happens would’ve viewed the film the same way after that the film was made during the time of the they saw it because back then, the nudity, feminist movement. That is a coincidence I sex, and violence were quite shocking. In believe. Perhaps Meir later, after thinking of today’s current age, we see it more often so the story, thought about how it coincided we are more desensitized to it. Audiences with the feminist movement and in writing back then saw it as morally debased I the script, perhaps he incorporated feminist believe, so it was very easy to attach the ideas at that stage. term “exploitation” to it.

Maria Olsen: The backstory to the creation Maria Olsen: ISOYG is often seen as an of the film is covered elsewhere in much exploitation film and, personally, I think this more detail, but suffice to say that Meir, is too simple a way to categorise it. Its while running a family errand, came across overall aim is NOT to exploit woman, but a naked and disoriented woman who had rather to show how one woman transcends just suffered an appalling attack. Although what was done to her and takes power back he took her to the nearest police station, she into her own hands. To my mind, the film was not given immediate relief, and he does not exploit women, it empowers them, watched while her incredible discomfort but I will grant that, to the casual viewer,

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this distinction may be lost. Is the on-screen they want to do it? It could be that this violence necessary to get the film's point mingled fascination and repulsion is one of across? Does the film empower or exploit the factors that make the rural-male-run- women? Is it a sincere attempt to showcase amok scenario so very attractive. a problem within society or is it just a way to cash in on others' misery? These are all Jamie Bernadette: I know exactly what you questions asked about the film, and they give are talking about when you ask this an idea of why this piece of art - because question, since I grew up in the country that's what, ultimately, it is - is so influential myself and the kind of agreement you see and divisive. between the rural men to rape this woman in the film I have seen agreements like this Xavier Mendik: Given its strong focus on between country boys to enact their regional perversity, it seems appropriate that perversions on children. What is it about the review of David Maguire’s book on I growing up in a rural setting that can lead Spit on Your Grave is being published in a to boys and men behaving this way? Or is it Cine-Excess e-journal edition devoted to the just that in the city people are more theme of rural horror. How important do you separated so it doesn’t seem as prevalent but think the theme of rural male violence is to it actually is but it is just hidden? In rural the film and American horror in general? areas, perhaps boys hang together in packs more often than in cities so you see sex Maria Olsen: FromDeliverance andThe crimes more often executed in groups? Hills Have Eyes to The Texas Chainsaw Massacre andThe House of 1,000 Corpses, I think it’s extremely important to make films rural male violence has always had a place like this to bring awareness to this issue. It’s in American horror. One interpretation of a real problem in our society. So many why this trope has become so important is children are molested and women are raped. that the unrestrained rural male could I’m from a family of nine and we were represent everyman's attraction to, and raised by our mother without a father. There simultaneous fear of, living an unrestrained were five girls in the family and we ran life, a life where people - men particularly - around the little country town that we were just take what they want. In any modern and raised in without any male figure to scare civilized society, it is, obviously, an anyone away. And the perverts were impossibility to live like that, and, generally, plentiful. So, knowing this first-hand, I people are brought up to abhor even the understand the extreme importance to thought of such a lifestyle. On the other making films likeI Spit on Your Grave. hand, who doesn't secretly want to be able to do anything they want to do whenever

126 Xavier Mendik: The film’s controversial Weak women feel empowered and want to images of rape split the critics, with stand up to their attackers. This film can have reviewers claiming that these scenes either these types of profound effects on women glorified violence against women or actually and I also want to point out—men as well. exposed male fears an emergent feminine Men can be victims of sexual violence also. power. What are your thoughts on these scenes and how they work within the Xavier Mendik: While much of the narrative? coverage of the film has focused around its controversial images, one of the more Maria Olsen: I think that if these scenes interesting aspects of I Spit on Your Grave had been shown any differently in the film - remains the realist mechanisms Zarchi used and for “differently” read "not as graphic to frame Jennifer’s plight. I wonder if you or violent" - it wouldn’t have been taken have any views on the stylistic aspects of quite so seriously. The viewer is shocked the film? and appalled by what happens to Jennifer Hills specifically because we see everything, and specifically because we see it over and over again. If these scenes had been glossed over, or romanticized in any way whatsoever, they would have lost their impact, and the full horror of what happens to her, and what fuels her desire for revenge, would have been lost. Actress Maria Olsen (second right), with Jonathan Peacy, Camille Keaton, Jamie Bernadette and Jeremy Ferdman on the set of I Spit Jamie Bernadette: I do not believe at all on Your Grave Déjà Vu that the scenes are glorifying violence Maria Olsen: One of my favourite aspects against women. They are traumatizing to of the film is actually the gritty realism of watch. I never thought when I first saw the how it's been shot. At some points it even film that they were exposing male fears of plays more like a home movie than a an emergent feminine power, but I can see commercial film, and this all goes towards how that could be. I felt like the scenes were planting it firmly in the real world where it exposing perverted men and the horrors that cannot be mistaken for anything but what it they are able to inflict on women in such a is: an actual slice of life and not a romantic way as to produce change in the society by Hollywood story. Personally, I believe that the sheer rawness with which the scenes are this is as much a product of the level of executed. People see this and want to do filmmaking available to Meir at the time of something about what was done to them. shooting and that now, 40 years later, the

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advances in shooting techniques will make Xavier Mendik: Stephen R. Monroe ISOYG Déjà Vu a very different movie. managed to reboot the original in 2010 with his remake to I Spit on Your Grave and the Another aspect that I simply love - and this later 2013 sequel. What are your views on will be repeated in Déjà Vu - is the absence the recent franchise of remakes? of a score. I firmly believe that random atmospheric music would have detracted Jamie Bernadette: There is a lot to admire fromISOYG ’s realism, and this absence about those films, for example, the went extremely well with the aforementioned cinematography in the 2010 remake is gritty shooting style. Whether its repeat in gorgeous. But, overall, I feel the original Déjà Vu will fare as well remains to be was more powerful because of the seen, as, whileDeja Vu will obviously believability of the rapes. They were raw benefit from the 40-year technological and real and so difficult to watch. I believe upgrade, a more glossier film might not pair that is the best way to depict a rape: not up as well with the lack of a score. glamorized in any way.

Xavier Mendik: Central to the impact of Xavier Mendik: Were you aware of the the film is Camille Keaton’s compelling original film and its reputation when Zarchi performance as Jennifer Hills. What approached you to star in the sequelI Spit qualities do you think she brought to on Your Grave Déjà Vu? Zarchi’s original film? Maria Olsen: I was definitely aware of the Maria Olsen: I think that Camille's Jennifer film - I had watched it for the first time a few Hills brought incredible bravery and heroism years before I auditioned forDéjà Vu - but, to the original film. It is, however, Camille at that time, I was not aware of the full herself who should be commended for impact that it had had on the film taking on the role of Hills, which has got to community and the general population. I rank as one of the most arduous in film or was aware that it was considered one of the television history. Acting is not easy under cult horror films from the ‘70s, and it was any circumstances, and the physical and that very fact that caused me to seek it out to mental strain that she must have worked watch it, but I was not aware that, for under to bring Hills to life must not be instance, it had been labelled as a “video underestimated. With her performance, nasty” or that it had been banned in several which is absolutely unforgettable, she claims countries. her place as one of the most impactful actresses ever on the stage or the screen.

128 Jamie Bernadette: Yes, I had seen the 1978 and immense sadness over the fact that her film before I ever auditioned so I definitely husband was taken from her and her knew it. I thought it was brilliant. I did not children's' father taken from them. Johnny know of the controversial reviews that it had and the others are driven by factors just as upon its release nor did I know that it had complex but diametrically opposed to what been banned and I didn’t know it was called Becky is experiencing. With approaching the a “video nasty”. character this way, I’m not trying to say that what Becky does is right - although SHE Xavier Mendik: Jamie, how does the believes that it is because she believes that sequel expand upon the thematic focus of Johnny and the others are innocent - I’m the original? just trying to find a point of connection between Becky and the film’s audience, Jamie Bernadette:The film has an older which is something that the villains of the style to it like the original and the story is original film just could not do given their told how Meir wants to tell it, without heed choices and their behavior. If just ONE to the short attention span that so many tend person watches what Becky does and thinks to have nowadays compared to people of that “under those circumstances I might yesteryear when there weren’t cell phones, have done the same thing”, then I've done video games, and the internet. So what you my job as an actor. are going to see is a similar theme told with patience and depth that delves into real Xavier Mendik: As well as being a noted character development and meticulously horror performer, you are also adding a crafted scenes. distinctive production voice to the genre through your company MOnsterworks66. Xavier Mendik: Maria, your character of What can you tell us about the project? Becky adds an interesting new angle to the concept of vendetta and revenge. How did Maria Olsen: Although MOnsterworks66 is you approach this performance? not operating at present - I've taken the decision to concentrate on my acting career Maria Olsen: As I do with the great at the moment - the company did co-produce majority of the characters that I create, I several wonderful films that have gone on to made Becky’s main motivator love - love for win awards on the festival circuit and obtain her husband and for her children. Every distribution. Chief among these features are day, one hears about great deeds committed Brandon Scullion'sConsumption , which for love, and Becky is just a woman who is won both Best Grindhouse Feature and Best driven to do certain things to try and Actress (Arielle Brachfeld) at the RIP assuage her feelings of abandonment, loss Horror Film Festival several years ago,

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Randal Kamradt'sFaraway , which has it is of a surge of interest in the rape-n- screened at several US and international revenge sub-genre of horror. I haven't yet festivals, and Eric Michael Kochmer'sWay seen Revenge,butThe Woman, starring the Down in Chinatown, which is available to brilliant Pollyanna McIntosh, and the Soska order on Amazon and other platforms. I sisters'American Mary, most definitely hope to produce again in future, but I'm not come to mind as examples of where the sure exactly when that will be. feminine finally decides it's had enough of the masculine and brutally reclaims its Xavier Mendik: To conclude,Déjà Vu’s freedom. With these types of films, horror is, recent release coincides with a recent wave as usual, on the cutting edge of societal of female oriented vendetta films including change, and the genre is one of the major Coralie Fargeat’s Revenge (2017). Why do areas where we can show pending societal you think there is this renewed interest in disruptions in their most extreme rape and revenge cinema by a new wave of incarnations. Horror is a metaphor for life, female cinema creatives? for facing the unknown, for coming to terms with our fears and for naming our demons, Jamie Bernadette: I think because of the and theI Spit on Your Grave franchise, and Me Too movement that is happening right all its spawn, does so with chilling clarity. now and I also think there’s a monetary vested interest. These films sell well. With thanks to Jamie Bernadette and Maria Olsen for their participation in this Maria Olsen: I think the movement is more review section. illustrative of the feminine stepping up and reclaiming its rightful place in society than

130 131 Notes on Contributors

Martin Barker is Emeritus Professor at visuality. She has published on amateur Aberystwyth University. Across a long pornography, exploitation/trash film and research career, he studied in particular: new (feminist) materialisms in Porn Studies, contemporary forms of racism; children’s Sexualities, Transatlantica – Revue d’études comics; censorship campaigns, their américaines, and other journals and edited histories, motives and claims about volumes. Together with Marietta Kesting, audiences; and forms and methods of film she has edited theFKW Zeitschrift für analysis. In the later stages of his career he Geschlechterforschung und visuelle Kultur focused in particular on the empirical study special issueDated Formats Now: Material of film and television audiences, from very Practices in Audiovisual Art(nr. 61 / 2017). small projects (eg onBeing John As Ana Threat/The Boiler, she records and Malkovich) to very large ones (eg onThe performs lo-fi hypno pop music. Lord of the Rings, The Hobbit,andGame of Thrones). In 2006 he undertook Joan Hawkinsis an Associate Professor in commissioned research into audience Cinema and Media Studiesat Indiana responses to screened sexual violence for University Bloomington. She is the author the British Board of Film Classification. He ofCutting Edge: Art Horror and the founded in 2003 and still edits the online Horrific Avant-gardeand has written journalParticipations .” extensively on horror cinema and the avant- garde. Her most recent book is a co-edited Carl Sweeney completed an MA in Film & (with Alex Wermer-Colan) anthology Screen at the University of Wolverhampton. William S. Burroughs Cutting Up the During the course, he has written about the Century (Indiana University Press,2019). Post-Western subgenre, spirituality inThe She is currently editing an anthology on X-Files, representations of terrorism in24 1968 and writing a monograph on and the portrayal of cinema-going in the Independent Horror. films of Woody Allen. Lindsay Hallam is a Senior Lecturer in Kristina Pia Hofer is a post-doc researcher Film at the University of East London. She with the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) is author of the booksScreening the supported projectA Matter of Historicity – Marquis de Sade: Pleasure Pain and the Material Practices in Audiovisual Art, based Transgressive Body in Film(McFarland, at the Department of Art History at the 2012) and a Devil's Advocates edition on University of Applied Arts Vienna, Austria. Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me (Auteur Her research interests are in film sound, Press, 2018). She has contributed to the gender/queer theory, and theories of audio/ collectionsTrauma, Media, Art: New

132 Perspectives (Cambridge Scholars David Maguire is the author of the 2018 Publishing, 2010),Dracula’s Daughters: Columbia University Press/Wallflower Press The Female Vampire on Film(Scarecrow bookI Spit on Your Grave.Heisalsoa Press, 2013),Fragmented Nightmares: programmer for the Leeds International Transnational Horror Across Visual Media Film Festival’s Fanomenon strand, the (Routledge, 2014),Critical Insights: largest programme section of the event, Violence in Literature(Salem Press, 2014), catering for fans of fantasy, horror, science and the journalsAsian Cinema, Senses of fiction and action/adventure, with an MA in Cinema, 16:9and Journal of Italian Cinema Film Studies from the University of and Media Studies. Bradford.

Ekky Imanjaya is a faculty member of Shellie McMurdo is a visiting lecturer at Film Program, Bina Nusantara University both the University of Hertfordshire and (Jakarta). He completed his PhD study in Roehampton University. Her most recent Film Studies at University of East Anglia. publications include an article on the true The title of his thesis is “The cultural traffic crime fandom and school shooters in the of Classic Indonesian Exploitation Cinema”. European Journal of American Culture,and The research was funded by DIKTI a co-written chapter on late phase torture Scholarship; Higher Education Directorate; horror with Dr. Wickham Clayton. Her Ministry of Research, Technology, and research interests include a specific focus on Higher Education; Republic of Indonesia. the cultural significance of the horror genre His scholarly papers were published in and its ability to communicate trauma, as journals, includingCinemaya , Asian well as extreme horror, cult film and Cinema, Plaridel, Jump Cut and television, and the true crime fandom. Cinematheque Quarterly. His popular articles were published in a variety of Xavier Mendik is Professor of Cult Cinema media, including Rolling Stone Indonesia, Studies at Birmingham City University, Catalogue of Taipei International Film where he also runs theCine-Excess Festival,andSüdostasien. In 2015, he guest International Film Festival (www.cine- edited a special issue titled “The Bad, The excess.co.uk). He is the author/editor/co- Worse, and The Worst: The Significance of editor of nine volumes on cult cinema Indonesian Cult, Exploitation, and B traditions, includingBodies of Desire and Movies” inPlaridel: A Philippine Journal Bodies in Distress: The Golden Age of of Communication, Media, and Society. Italian Cult Cinema (2015),Peep Shows: Email: [email protected] Cult Film and the Cine-Erotic (2012) and The Cult Film Reader (2008). He has also

133 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

completed a number of documentaries on publications in this area are: ‘Erweiterung cult film traditions, most recently The Quiet der Avantgardeforschung. Schlingensiefs Revolution: State, Society and the Canadian wissenschaftliche Aktionen Mü llfestspiele, Horror Film(201 9). 7x Universität und Erster Attaistischer Kongress’in: Lore Knapp and Sarah Pogoda Renee Middlemost is an early career (ed.):Christoph Schlingensief und die researcher and Lecturer in Communication Avantgarde (forthcoming Fink). and Media at the University of Wollongong, ‘Deutschland in den Sand setzen – The Australia. Her PhD Thesis entitled Transformative Metaphorology of Searching “Amongst Friends: The Australian Cult for Germany’in:Art of Wagnis :Christoph Film Experience”, examined the audience Schlingensief’s Crossing of Wagner and participation practices of cult film fans in Africa, ed. by Nadine Siegert, Fabian Australia. Her forthcoming publications Lehmann, Ulf Vierke, Vienna: Verlag fü r reflect her diverse research interests; these Moderne Kunst (2017). ‘Christoph include a chapter on cult film and nostalgia Schlingensiefs Grenzü berschreitungen. Die forThe Routledge Guide to Cult Cinema Wiener Aktion Bitte liebt Österreich. Erste (2019); a chapter on the star persona of österreichische Koalitionswoche und Jason Statham; and a co-authored chapter on Elfriede Jelineks Kasperlestü ck Ich liebe the finale ofDexter . Österreich’ (with Lore Knapp) in: Email: [email protected] Germanistische Mitteilungen. Zeitschrift fü r deutsche Sprache, Literatur und Kultur Sarah Pogoda is a Lecturer in German 41.1(2015), 75-89. Studies at Bangor University. After Webpage:https://www.bangor.ac.uk/ml/ receiving her Dr. phil. at theFreie staff/sarah-pogoda/en Universität Berlin she came to The University of Sheffield in 2012. Here, she Janet Staiger is William P. Hobby pursued her interest in the German Centennial Professor Emeritus in filmmaker, theatre director and actionist Communication at the University of Texas. artist Christoph Schlingensief (1960-2010) She particularly attends to questions about in research, teaching and art projects (for the situated and historical authorship, audiences latter see: www.bellotograph.jimdo.com).In and reception, and positionalities of gender 2016 she organised the interdisciplinary and sexuality. Among her books areThe conference “Christoph Schlingensief and the Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style Avant-Garde” at the ZIF Bielefeld and an and Mode of Production to 1960 (1985, co- edited volume on the respective subjects is authored),Interpreting Films (1992),Bad about to be published. Three further Women: Regulating Sexuality in Early

134 American Cinema (1995),Perverse Glenn Ward is Senior Lecturer in the Spectators (2000),Authorship and Film School of Humanities at the University of (2002, co-ed.),Media Reception Studies Brighton. He has published extensively on (2005), and Political Emotions (2010, co-ed.). cult cinema traditions, with particular reference to the films of the Spanish director Jon Towlson is a journalist & film critic. He Jesus Franco. He has had chapters published is author ofCandyman (Auteur/ Columbia in The Films of Jess Franco (2018), University Press, 2018),The Turn to Grindhouse: Cultural Exchange on 42nd Gruesomeness in American Horror films, Street, and Beyond(2016), The 1931-1936 (McFarland, 2016), Close Transnational Fantasies of Guilermo del Encounters of the Third Kind(Auteur/ Toro (2014) andLatsploitation, Latin Columbia University Press, 2016) and America and Exploitation cinemas.Beyond Subversive Horror Cinema: Countercultural these publications Glenn Ward has also Messages of Films from Frankenstein to the acted as Co-Director of theCine-Excess Present (McFarland, 2014). International Film Festival and Conference between 2014 and 2016.

135 Acknowledgements

The General Editor wishes to thank Joan organisation, and we offer thanks for Hawkins, Janet Staiger and Glenn Ward for allowing us to reproduce them here. The all of their work in completing this edition images of Eden Lakeused in the article“ We of theCine-Excess journal. I also extend my are Never Going in the Woods Again”: The sincere thanks to all of the writers who Horror of the Underclass White Monster in contributed so much hard work to the American and British Horror’ are courtesy production of this issue. I offer further of Courtesy of Rollercoaster Films/ thanks to Jeff Lieberman, Jamie Bernadette STUDIOCANAL, and we wish to offer and Maria Olsen for all their support and thanks to Massimo Moretti for allowing us assistance in compiling film resources and to reproduce them here. The images from the interview materials contained within Squirm, Blue Sunshine andJust Before this issue. Dawnused in the article ‘Bad S**T, Killer Worms and Deadly Dawns: The Cult Additionally, I would like to thank Paul Cinema and Rural Excess of Jeff Johnson for his work on compiling the web Lieberman’ are courtesy of Jeff Lierberman, platform edition of the journal and also who also provided the onset images Robert Sharl and Phil Vernon for designing reproduced here. We wish to thank Mr the e-book version of this issue. Further Lieberman for providing materials and thanks go to the peer-reviewers whose supporting their use in theCine-Excess advice further assisted with the completion journal. We further thank Jeff Lieberman for of this journal issue. providing additional images to accompany the article ‘Out of the Blue (Sunshine): An The film images reproduced fromLong Interview with Director Jeff Lieberman’. Weekend that feature in the article ‘Down The two images reproduced in the article Under Rises Up: Nature’s Revenge in ‘Entertaining the Villagers: Rural Audiences, Ozploitation Cinema’ are courtesy of Travelling Cinema and Exploitation Movies Umbrella Entertainment, and we offer in Indonesia’ were taken during the annual thanks to the company for allowing us to Purbalingga Film Festival organised by use them here. The images from The CLC Purbalingga, and are reproduced here German Chain Saw Massacre that appear in courtesy of the event organiser. the article ‘Germany is not Texas. Finding Reunified Germany in the Rural: Christoph In the conference/festivals section of the Schlingensief’sThe German Chain Saw journal, the still of the Cultographies Massacre’ are courtesy of FIlmgalerie 451. volume onI Spit on Your Graveis courtesy Further, the stills fromEgomania. Island of Columbia University Press and is without Hope are from the same provided here to promote the launch of the

136 volume. The publicity and onset images of The remainder of the images contained Jamie Bernadette and Maria Olsen were within this edition of the journal are the provided by the performers in support of property of the production and distribution promoting Meir Zarchi’s film I Spit on Your companies concerned. They are reproduced Grave: Déjà Vu. here in the spirit of publicity and the promotion of the films in question.

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