An Audience-Based Approach in the Subtitling of Cultural Elements in Selected Iranian Films

Home , Azadi Square, Bahram Radan, Brittle (food), Chelow kabab, Enqelab Street, Ghamar (3D radar)

AN AUDIENCE-BASED APPROACH IN THE SUBTITLING OF CULTURAL ELEMENTS IN SELECTED IRANIAN FILMS

MOHAMMAD SADEGH KENEVISI

UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA 2017 AN AUDIENCE-BASED APPROACH IN THE SUBTITLING OF CULTURAL ELEMENTS IN SELECTED IRANIAN FILMS

MOHAMMAD SADEGH KENEVISI

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

August 2017

To My Much-loved Father, Mother, Wife & Daughter

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to my supervisor,

Associate Professor Dr. Hasuria Che Omar, whose academic supports, encouragements and her invaluable counselling and advice helped me in the course of accomplishment of the present research. I am also indebted to Dr. Aniswal Abdol

Ghani, whose critical viewpoint shaped my initial understanding of the required capabilities in doing a Ph.D. I would also like to especially thank my proposal examiner, Dr. Leelany Ayob, whose comments paved the way for finding the better path in carrying out the present study. My deepest thanks also extend to Dr. Ali Jalalian

Daghigh whose support helped me carry out this research.

I would also like to express my special gratitude to my beloved father and mother, whose patience, support and care supported me during these years of separation.

Lastly, I would like to extend my warmest thanks to my much-loved wife and daughter whose presence and patience were incredibly compassionate for me and enabled me in carrying out this research.

TABLE OF CONTENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………… ii

TABLE OF CONTENT…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. iii

LIST OF TABLES…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. x

LIST OF FIGURES…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. xii

LIST OF PHOTOS…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. xv

LIST OF SYMBOLS…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. xvi

ABSTRAK…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………. xvii

ABSTRACT…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. xix

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

1. Introduction…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1

1.1 Background to the Study…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………. 2

1.2 Statement of the Problem…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4

1.3 Objectives of the Study…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 15

1.4 Research Questions of the Study…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 16

1.5 Working Definitions…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 16

1.6 Scope of the Study…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 19

1.7 Significance of the Study…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 20

1.8 Organization of the Chapters…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 21

CHAPTER 2 - REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

2. Introduction…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 23

2.1 Iranian Cinema…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 23

2.1.1 Pre-revolutionary Iranian Cinema…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 24

2.1.2 Post-revolutionary Iranian Cinema…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………… 25

2.1.2(a) From 1979 to 1990…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 26

2.1.2(b) Post-1990s…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………… 28

2.1.3 Factors in Globalization of Iranian Cinema…………….……………………………………………………….…………………………………………… 30

2.1.3(a) Ideological-Political Factors…………….………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………… 30

2.1.3(b) Financial Factors…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………………… 32

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2.1.3(c) Cultural Factors…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………… 33

2.2 Film Translation…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 34

2.2.1 Film as a Multimodal Text…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 35

2.2.2 Modes of Film Translation…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………… 37

2.2.2(a) Subtitling…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………… 37

2.2.2(b) Constraint Nature of Subtitling…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 38

2.2.2(c) Pros and Cons of Subtitling…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 40

2.3 Translation of Iranian Films…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 43

2.3.1 Subtitling of Foreign Language Programmes…………….………………………………………………………………….…………………………… 43

2.3.2 Subtitling for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 44

2.3.3 Subtitling for Non-Iranian Audience…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 44

2.4 Polysystem Theory…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 45

2.4.1 Polysystem in AVT…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 50

2.5 Notions of Foreignization and Domestication …………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 52

2.6 Cultural Elements (CEs) …………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 60

2.6.1 CEs as Translation Problems…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 62

2.6.2 Different Categories of CEs…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 64

2.6.3 Different Classification of Procedures…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 66

2.7 Target Audience…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 76

2.8 Summary…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 80

CHAPTER 3 - THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY

3. Introduction…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 82

3.1 Theoretical Framework…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 82

3.1.1 Classification of CEs…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 82

3.1.1(a) Newmark (1988) …………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 83

3.1.1(b) Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007) …………….…………………………………………………………………………………………….………………… 83

3.1.1(c) Pedersen (2011) …………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 83

3.1.2 Classification of Procedures…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 86

3.1.2(a) Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 87

3.1.2(b) Pedersen (2011) …………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 87

3.1.3 Even-Zohar Polysystem Theory…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 88

3.1.4 Venuti’s Domestication/Foreignization…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 90

3.2 Methodology…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 90

3.2.1 Procedures…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 90

3.2.2 Corpus of the Study…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 92

3.2.2(a) Justification of the Corpus…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 92

3.2.2(b) The Films…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 93

3.2.3 Collecting the Survey Data…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...... 94

3.2.3(a) Developing the Questionnaire…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 95

3.2.3(b) Validity and Reliability…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...... 96

3.2.3(c) Conducting the Questionnaire…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 100

3.2.4 Subjects of the Study…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 101

3.2.5 Data Analysis …………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 103

CHAPTER 4 - THE POSITION OF IRANIAN, CULTURAL ELEMENTS AND TRANSLATION PROCEDURES

4. Introduction…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 105

4.1 Position of Iranian Films in the Global Film Polysystem…………….……………………………………………………………………. 106

4.1.1 Number of Feature Films Produced in Iran…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 106

4.1.2 Global Position of Iranian Films during 2005-2013…………….………………………………………………………………….. 107

4.1.2(a) Total Number of National Feature Films Produced…………….………………………………... 108

4.1.2(b) Language of the Films…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 111

4.1.2(c) Box Office of the Films…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 113

4.1.3 Discussion of the Position of Iranian Films…………….…………………………………………………………..………………………………………… 116

4.2 Classification of CEs…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 118

4.2.1 Geographical and Historical References…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 119

4.2.1(a) Historical periods…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 119

4.2.1(b) Endemic plants, animals, fruits and geological objects…………….………………… 120

4.2.1(c) Name of places…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 122

4.2.1(c)(i) Cities and provinces…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 122

4.2.1(c)(ii) Geographical and tourist attraction areas…………….………………………….. 124

4.2.1(c)(iii) Shops, parks, agencies, etc. …………….………………………………………………………………………. 126

4.2.1(c)(iv) Streets and localities…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 128

4.2.1(c)(v) Houses and residence…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 130

4.2.2 Personal Names and Epithets…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 132

4.2.2(a) Film and animation characters…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 132

4.2.2(b) Historical figures…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 135

4.2.2(c) Literary figures…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 135

4.2.2(d) Celebrity figures…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 138

4.2.2(e) Political figures…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 139

4.2.2(f) Religious figures…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 141

4.2.2(g) Social figures…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 143

4.2.3 Daily Life References…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...... 145

4.2.3(a) Appliances: Objects from Daily Life…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………… 145

4.2.3(b) Clothings…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 147

4.2.3(c) Food and beverages …………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 150

4.2.3(d) Transportation…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 153

4.2.3(e) Brand names…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 154

4.2.3(f) Measurements…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 156

4.2.3(f)(i) Currency…………….……………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 156

4.2.3(f)(ii) Distance…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………. 157

4.2.3(f)(iii) Grading Systems…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………... 158

4.2.3(f)(iv) Solar/Lunar Years and Months…………….……………………………………………..…………………… 158

4.2.4 Literary, Artistic and Educational References…………….………………………………………………………………………………………….. 161

4.2.4(a) Literature…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 161

4.2.4(a)(i) Folklore songs…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………. 162

4.2.4(a)(ii) Literary style terms…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………….. 163

4.2.4(a)(iii) Literary works…………….………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………… 164

4.2.4(a)(iv) Religious transcripts…………….………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………… 166

4.2.4(b) Education…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 168

4.2.4(b)(i) Levels and stages…………….………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………….. 168

4.2.4(b)(ii) Educational places…………….……………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………….. 170

4.2.4(b)(iii) Examinations/Assessment…………….…..……………………………………………………………………………...... 170

4.2.4(b)(iv) Pupils…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………... 171

4.2.4(c) Art and Music…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 172

4.2.4(c)(i) Musical instruments…………….………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………. 172

4.2.4(c)(ii) Terms and styles…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………... 173

4.2.5 Kinship References…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...... 175

4.2.5(a) Descent and language…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 175

4.2.5(b) Family relations (lineage) …………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 177

4.2.6 Social and Religious References…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 179

4.2.6(a) Religious elements…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 179

4.2.6(a)(i) Beliefs and sects…………….………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………… 179

4.2.6(a)(ii) Islamic sharia…………….…………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………….. 181

4.2.6(a)(iii) Phrases, blessings and prayers…………….………………………………………………………..…………. 183

4.2.6(a)(iv) Religious ceremonies and rituals…………….……………………………………………..………….. 185

4.2.6(b) Social cultures…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 186

4.2.6(b)(i) Games and entertainments…………….………………………………………………..………………………………………. 186

4.2.6(b)(ii) Rituals, festivals and ceremonies…………….……………………………………………..…………… 188

4.2.6(b)(iii) Social habits and beliefs…………….…………………………………………………………………..……………………….. 190

4.2.6(c) Honorifics…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...... 192

4.2.7 Institutional Organizations and Professional References…………….……………………………………………… 194

4.2.7(a) Governmental, private and military institutions…………….……………………………………………….. 194

4.2.7(b) Professional references…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 196

4.2.7(b)(i) Professional and careers…………….……………………………………………………..…………………………………………... 196

4.2.7(b)(ii) Professional titles…………….………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………… 198

4.2.7(b)(iii) Military and religious ranks…………….………………………………………………………………..…………… 199

4.3 Classification of the Subtitling Procedures of CEs…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………. 201

4.3.1 Retention…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...... 202

4.3.1(a) Isolated Retention…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...... 202

4.3.1(b) Explicated Retention…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 206

4.3.2 Direct Translation…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 208

4.3.2(a) Calque…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...... 208

4.3.2(b) Literal…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 209

4.3.3 Cultural Substitution…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...... 210

4.3.3(a) Source Culture (SC) Substitution…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………...... 210

4.3.3(b) Target Culture (TC) Substitution…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 212

4.3.4 Semantic Substitution…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 214

4.3.4(a) Hypernym…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 215

4.3.4(b) Hyponym…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 216

4.3.5 Restatement…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 217

4.3.5(a) Rewording…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 217

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4.3.5(b) Description…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 220

4.3.6 Indirect Translation…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 222

4.3.6(a) Co-Text…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 222

4.3.6(b) Function-based Translation…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 224

4.3.7 Elimination…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 226

4.3.7(a) Omission…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 227

4.3.7(b) Semantic Manipulation…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 228

4.4 Summary…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 230

CHAPTER 5 - INTERNATIONAL AUDIENCE PREFERENCES

5. Introduction…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 232

5.1 Analysis of the Audience Preference…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 232

5.1.1 Iran’s Currency: Toman…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 234

5.1.2 Honorific Title: Hajagha…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….... 238

5.1.3 The Solar Hijri Calendar…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 241

5.1.4 Islamic Sharia: Halal/ Haram…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 244

5.1.5 Religious Phrases, Blessings and Prayers: InshaAllah…………….………………………………………………………... 248

5.1.6 Religious Phrases, Blessings, and Prayers: Alhamdulillah…………….……………………………………….. 251

5.1.7 Food: Ghorme Sabzi…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 254

5.1.8 Institutions: Police Number 110…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 257

5.1.9 Careers and Professions: Akhound…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 260

5.1.10 Institutions: Hawza Ilmiyya…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………... 263

5.2 Summary…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 266

CHAPTER 6 - FINDINGS, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

6. Introduction…………….………………………………………..…………….………………………………………..…………….………………………………………..…………….………………………………………..…………….………………………………………. 268

6.1 A Brief Review of the Research Process…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...... 268

6.2 Responses to the Research Questions…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………. 270 6.2.1 RQ 1: What are the CEs in Iranian films and how can they be

classified? …………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………… 270 6.2.2 RQ2: What procedures with what frequency are used in the English

official subtitling of Persian CEs in Iranian films? …………….………………………………………………………………………. 275

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6.2.3 RQ 3: What are the international audience’s preferences towards the Foreignizing and Domesticating official English subtitling of Persian

CEs in Iranian Films? …………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………… 281

6.3 Summary of the Main Findings…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………… 293

6.4 Contributions of the Study…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 295

6.5 Recommendations for Further Research…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 297

REFERENCES…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 299

APPENDICES

LIST OF TABLES

Page

in the subtitles of some حاج آقا Table 1.1 Strategies used in the translation of

Iranian films…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...………………..………………………. 13

Table 2.1 Polysemiotic nature of an audiovisual product by Chiaro (2009) .… 36

Table 2.2 Three types of constraints in subtitling by Guardini (1998) ………………..…………... 39

Table 3.1 The three classifications of Newmark (1988), Diaz Cintas and

Remael (2007) and Pedersen (2011) …………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………..……….. 84

Table 4.1 Total Number of National Feature Films Produced in Iran from

2005-2013. UNESCO: Institute for Statistics (2016) …………….……………………..………………… 107

Table 4.2 Language of Top 10 Movies by Region in 2009…………….………………………….………………………………… 112

Table 4.3 Language of Top 10 Movies Europe and North America in 2009…….. 112

Table 4.4 Total Box Office of Films Produced in the World until 2016.

Unesco: Institute for Statistics (2016)…………….………………………………….…………………………………………………………………. 114

Table 5.1 The Analysis of the QOA, Toman…………….….…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 234

Table 5.2 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Toman,

(Fireworks Wednesday, Asghar Farhadi, 2006) …………….……………………………………………….…………... 237

Table 5.3 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Toman, (A

Separation, Asghar Farhadi, 2011) …………….……………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………. 238

Table 5.4 The Analysis of the QOA, Hajagha…………….………………………………………………………………………..………………………....…………….. 239

Table 5.5 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Hajagha, (A

Separation, Asghar Farhadi, 2011) …………….………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………… 240

Table 5.6 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Hajagha, (The

Song of Sparrows, Majid Majidi, 2008) …………….……..…………………………………………………………………………………… 241

Table 5.7 The Analysis of the QOA, Solar Hijri Calendar…………….………………………………………….…………………… 242

Table 5.8 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Solar Hijri

Calendar, (Sensitive Floor, Kamal Tabrizi, 2013) …………….……………………………………….………… 243

Table 5.9 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Solar Hijri

Calendar, (Taste of Cherry, Abbas Kiarostami, 1997) …………….……………..…….…………… 244

Table 5.10 The Analysis of the QOA, Halal / Haram…………….……….………………………………………………………………………………... 245

Table 5.11 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Halal/

Haram, (A cube of Sugar, Reza Mirkarimi, 2011) …………….……….…………………….…………………… 246

Table 5.12 The Analysis of the audience preferences towards the subtitling

of Halal / Haram, (A Separation, Asghar Farhadi, 2011) …………….……………….……… 247

Table 5.13 The Analysis of the QOA, InshaAllah…………….…………….………………………………………………………………………………………. 248

Table 5.14 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of InshaAllah,

(Facing Mirrors, Negar Azarbayjani, 2011) …………….…………………………………………….…………………………… 249

Table 5.15 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of InshaAllah,

(The Snow on the Pines, Peyman Mo’adi, 2012) …………….…………………………....………………….………… 250

Table 5.16 The Analysis of the QOA, Alhamdulillah…………….……………….……………………………………………………………………... 251

Table 5.17 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of

Alhamdulillah, (Here without Me, Bahram Tavakkoli, 2011) ………….……. 252

Table 5.18 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of

Alhamdulillah, (Facing Mirrors, Negar Azarbayjani, 2011) ….……...…….……. 253

Table 5.19 The Analysis of the QOA, Ghorme Sabzi…………….…………………………..………………………………………….………………. 254

Table 5.20 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Gorme Sabzi,

(Sensitive Floor, Kamal Tabrizi, 2013) …………….………………………………………………………………….…………………………... 255

Table 5.21 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Gorme Sabzi,

(Snow on the Pines, Peyman Mo’adi, 2012) …………….…………………………………………………………………………... 256

Table 5.22 The Analysis of the QOA, Police 110…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 257

Table 5.23 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Police 110, (A

Separation, Asghar Farhadi, 2011) …………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 258

Table 5.24 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Police 110,

(Facing Mirrors, Negar Azarbayjani, 2011) …………….………………………………………………………….…………… 259

Table 5.25 The Analysis of the QOA, Akhoond…………….…………………………………………………………………....………..……………………………... 260

Table 5.26 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Akhoond,

(The Lizard, Kamal Tabrizi, 2004) …………….……………………………………………………………………………………....………………………... 261

Table 5.27 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Akhoond,

(Under the Moonlight, Reza Mirkarimi, 2001) …………….……………………………………………………….………. 262

Table 5.28 The Analysis of the QOA, Hawza Ilmiyya…………….……………………………………………………………………..……………… 264

Table 5.29 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Hawza

Ilmiyya, (Taste of Cherry, Abbas Kiarostami, 1997) …………….……………………………….………... 265

Table 5.30 The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Hawza

Ilmiyya, (Under the Moonlight, Reza Mirkarimi, 2001) …………………….………….……….. 266

Table 6.1 The classification of Cultural References in Iranian films…………….………….………… 271

Table 6.2 The classification of strategies in Iranian Films…………….……………………………….…………………………….. 277

Table 6.3 Audience preferences towards the Foreignizing and

Domesticating strategies……………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………...... 291

xii

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 2.1 The scale of the translation strategies in the translation of Culture-

specific Items. Franco Aixela (1996) …………….…………………...…………..…………….………………………………………………………………….. 69

Figure 2.2 The degree of cultural transposition of the CR and text procedure

on a scale. Olk (2013) …………….…………………………………………………………………………………..………..…………….………………………………………………………………….. 71

Figure 2.3 Taxonomy of ECR transfer strategies, Pedersen (2011: 75) …………….…….…………….. 74

Figure 2.4 Typical progression of procedures of the translation strategies,

Ramiere (2006) …………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………….. 75

Figure 4.1 The Classifications of Historical & Geographical References……………...………….. 131

Figure 4.2 Classifications of Personal Names and Epithets……………….………………………………………………………………….. 145

Figure 4.3 Daily Life References…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………….. 161

Figure 4.4 Literary, Artistic & Educational References…………….………………………………..………………………………………………….. 175

Figure 4.5 Kinship References…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………….. 179

Figure 4.6 Social and Religious References…………….…………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………….. 194

Figure 4.7 Institutional Organizations ans Professional References…………….……………………...………….. 201

Figure 6.1 The frequency of the applied techniques in Iranian films…………….…………………….………….. 278

xiii

LIST OF PHOTOS

Page

Photo 3.1 Page detector and Instruction sentences of the questionnaire…………….…. 98

Photo 5.1 Cultural Element Toman and the potential subtitles…………….……………………..…….………….. 236

xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AD…………….……………………..…….…………..…………….……………………..…….…………..……………..…….……………………..… Audio Description

AVT…………….……………………..…….…………..…………….……………………..…….…………..……………..…….………………… Audiovisual Translation

CEs…………….……………………..…….…………..…………….……………………..…….…………..……………..…….…………………….. Cultural Elements

ECR…………….……………………..…….…………..…………….……………………..…….…………..……………..…….………………….. Extralinguistic Culture-bound Reference

CSIs…………….……………………..…….…………..…………….……………………..…….…………..……………..…….………………….. Culture-Specific Items

KP…………….……………………..…….…………..…………….……………………..…….…………..……………..…….……………………..…... Key Phrase

MCIG…………….……………………..…….…………..…………….……………………..…….…………..……………..…….…………... Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance

MMT…………….……………………..…….…………..…………….……………………..…….…………..……………..…….……………... Multimedia Translation

PN…………….……………………..…….…………..…………….……………………..……....…………..……………..…….……………………..… Proper Name

QOA…………….……………………....………..…………....……………………..…….…………..……………..…….……………………..… Question of Awareness

SC…………….……………………..…….…………..……………....……………………..…….…………..……………..…….……………………..… Source Culture

SDH…………….……………………..…………..…………….……………………..…….…………..……………..…….……………………..… Subtitling for the deaf and hard-of-hearing

ST…………….……………………..…….…………..…………….………………………..…….…………..……………..…….……………………..… Source Text

SL…………….……………………..…….…………..…………….………………………..…….…………..……………..…….……………………..… Source Language

TC…………….……………………..…….…………..……………....……………………..…….…………..……………..…….……………………..… Target Culture

TT…………….……………………..…….…………..……...……….……………………..…….…………..……………..…….……………………..… Target text

TL…………….……………………..…….…………..……...……….……………………..…….…………..……………..…….……………………..… Target Language

TS…………….……………………..…….……………..…………….……………………..…….…………..……………..…….……………………..… Translation Studies

UKIFF…………….……………………..…….………....……………………..…….…………..……………..…….……………………..… The United Kingdom Iranian Film festival

LIST OF SYMBOLS

Persian Symbol Phone Alphabet aa ɑː آ b B ب p P پ t T ت s S ث j dʒ ج ch tʃ چ h h ح

voiceless x خ velar fricative

d d د z z ذ r r ر z z ز s s س sh ʃ ش s s ص z z ض t t ط z z ظ a a ع

gh voiced velar غ fricative f f ف

gh/q voiced velar ق fricative k k ک g g گ l l ل m m م n n ن v v و h h ه y j ی

xvi

PENDEKATAN BERASASKAN AUDIENS DALAM PENYARIKATAAN

ELEMEN BUDAYA DALAM FILEM IRAN TERPILIH

ABSTRAK

Kajian ini meneliti pilihan audiens antarabangsa filem Iran terhadap penyarikataan Elemen Budaya dalam filem-filem yang dikaji. Pertama sekali, Elemen

Budaya dalam filem yang dipilih, diteliti dan dikelaskan. Seterusnya prosedur terjemahan dan kekerapan penggunaannya diteliti dan dibincang berdasarkan kedudukan filem-filem ini dalam polisistem global. Kajian ini turut meneliti sama ada kedudukan filem dalam polisistem global mempengaruhi prosedur terjemahan yang telah digunakan. Pilihan audiens terhadap strategi foreignizing dan domesticating kemudiannya diteliti berdasarkan kedudukan filem Iran dalam polisistem global.

Akhir sekali, sejauh mana pilihan kegemaran audiens bertembung dengan prosedur yang dipraktik oleh penyari kata juga akan dinilai. Dalam kajian ini, klasifikasi dan taksonomi budaya yang digagaskan oleh Newmark (1988), Pederson (2011) serta

Diaz-Cintas dan Ramael (2007) akan dimanfaatkan untuk mengenal pasti dan mengelaskan Elemen Budaya dalam filem yang dikaji. Idea Teori Polisistem oleh Even

Zohar (1990) dan Foreignization dan Domestication oleh Venuti (1995/2008) digunakan sebagai kerangka teori untuk analisis data. Menerusi analisis kualitatif, 31 filem Iran dikaji untuk menentukan elemen budaya dan prosedur terjemahan yang digunakan. Analisis kuantitatif pula digunakan untuk menentukan pilihan kegemaran audiens, yang dilaksanakan menerusi 223 maklum balas responden terhadap soal selidik yang diedarkan melalui Facebook, dan yang diedarkan di festival filem antarabangsa di London, Sydney, Melbourne dan Kuala Lumpur pada 2015. Korpus data terdiri daripada filem yang tercalon untuk anugerah Oscar dan ditayangkan di festival filem Antarabangsa. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa filem dan perfileman Iran adalah pada kedudukan periferi dalam konteks polisistem filem global.

Dapatan ini disokong oleh dominasi and kecenderungan prosedur domestication oleh

xvii penyari kata dan dapatan ini bertepatan dengan pilihan audiens. Selain itu, dapatan kajian turut menunjukkan bahawa selain domestication, pendekatan foreignizing juga turut menyediakan peluang untuk bahasa dan budaya minoriti ditonjolkan dan pada masa yang sama dapat memenuhi citarasa audiens dengan lebih luas.

xviii

AN AUDIENCE-BASED APPROACH IN THE SUBTITLING OF

CULTURAL ELEMENTS IN SELECTED IRANIAN FILMS

ABSTRACT

The current study examines the preferences of the international audience of

Iranian films towards the subtitling of Cultural Elements (CEs) in selected films. First, the CEs used in the films are examined and classified. Next, the translation procedures and their frequency are investigated and discussed based on the position of the Iranian films in the global film polysystem. Accordingly, the study examines whether the position of these films in the polysystem has influenced the translation strategies.

Subsequently, the audience preferences towards the Foreignizing and Domesticating strategies used in the subtitling of CEs is examined based on the position of the Iranian films in the global film polysystem. Lastly, the extent to which the audience preferences coincides with the procedures adopted by the subtitlers is examined. For this purpose, the classifications and taxonomies proposed by Newmark (1988),

Pederson (2011) and Diaz-Cintas and Ramael (2007) are used to identify and classify the CEs. The notion of Polysystem Theory by Even Zohar (1990) and Venuti’s

(1995/2008) ideas of Foreignization and Domestication are also adopted as the framework for the data analysis. In this mixed method study, 31 Iranian films are qualitatively analysed for the CEs and the translation procedures. The audience preferences is analysed quantitatively through 223 responses gathered from the questionnaires distributed through Facebook, and at international film festivals in

London, Sydney, Melbourne and Kuala Lumpur in 2015. The corpus is built from those films nominated for Oscars and the films screened in International film festivals.

The findings of the study reveal that Iranian films and cinemas are in peripheral position within the global film polysystem. This is further supported by the dominancy and inclination of domestication procedures employed by the subtitlers and the outcome coincides with the preferences of the audience. In this context, the findings

xix also show that besides domestication, foreignizing approach will also likely to provide opportunity for minor languages and cultures to become both visible, as well as to cater wider audience preferences.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1. Introduction

The history of cinema and films, not regarding the history of moving pictures in human’s course of life, goes back to closing years of 19th century. However, the evolution of movies in the course of just a hundred years into a complex form of artistic representation and communication has turned films into “a hugely influential, widely profitable, global industry and a modern art- the most popular art from today” which is thoroughly integrated into our daily life (Barsam 2007: 2). The path through which this industry become accessible to different nations with diverse languages and cultures is what is known today as Audiovisual Translation (AVT). AVT is one of the umbrella terms, according to Chiaro (2009), which includes such methods as subtitling, dubbing, and surtitling.

Subtitling of Iranian films for an international audience is one of the less explored spheres of translation of the films in Iran (Naficy 2012). Translation of

Cultural Elements (hereafter refers to CEs) is of particular significance too. The current study, utilising Even-Zohar’s (1990) Polysystem theory and Venuti’s

(1995/2008) notions of Foreignization and Domestication, is an attempt to examine the position of Iranian films in the global film polysystem. The study also tries to investigate the consequence of this position on English subtitles of the films.

Additionally, the preferences of the international audience towards official subtitling of CEs in Iranian films are examined. To this end, firstly, the position of the Iranian films is established in the global film polysystem. Next, CEs are recognised in the corpus of the study, and accordingly, a categorization of the cultural elements is

proposed. Subsequently, the CEs are analysed as couple pairs to their English translations in the subtitles and applying a domestication/foreignization approach, the procedures and strategies used in subtitling of CEs are identified and discussed.

Finally, the audience’s responses, gathered through a questionnaire, are examined and discussed, and their preferences towards domesticating or foreignizing strategies are determined.

This chapter includes a general review of the importance of subtitling as the background to the study. Next, the problems in the translation of CEs for the non-

Iranian audience are discussed. The objectives of the study and the research questions are formulated subsequently. Three research questions are developed based on the objectives of the study. Following the research questions, the significance of the study is presented. Finally, the delimitations of the study are discussed, and the boundaries and the scope of the research are specified.

1.1 Background to the Study

The demand for AVT has been strongly notable in the last few decades. Numerous conditions have intensified this need. Several researchers (Luyken et al. 1991;

Gambier and Gottlieb 2001; Diaz Cintas and Anderman 2009) have drawn attention to these conditions. For instance, the rapid rise of TV programmes is considered as one of the principal factors. As a result, there has been an upsurge in the number of

TV channels. Hamilton and Stevenson (2005) refer to double rise in the number of channels produced by corporations such as the BBC and ITV in the UK and also to the rapid emergence of 277 new channels since 2004 and in excess of 200 in 2005 in the television channels in Europe (cited in Diaz Cintas and Anderman 2009: 1).

Moreover, democratic societies are also making audiovisual programmes accessible

for the deaf and hard-of-hearing in the form of subtitling (SDH) and for blinds and partially sighted people in the form of audio description (AD).

Numerous countries around the world import their television programmes from foreign-language countries. The appeal for AVT, for example in Western

Europe for the years 1992 and 2000, had seen a growth of approximately 5-7% per annum (Luyken et al. 1991: 17). According to Gambier (2006: 5), over 2 million subtitles are broadcasted every year in two public television channels of Finland which can be compared to 120 novels of 300 pages each. Diaz-Cintas and Anderman

(2009) also discuss this rise and maintain how subtitling has become the favoured approach in AVT in the world of media and have come hand in hand with globalization. The importance of translation for cinema is also emphasised since it is a channel through which different cultures find contacts with each other and, hence, considerable cross-cultural exchange occurs.

In this process of globalization of cultures, international film festivals play an important role. The festivals have traditionally been considered as a platform for non-American and non-European films and directors to be acknowledged in the world. As examples, the Japanese director Akira Kurosawa and the Indian director

Satyajit Ray gained international appreciation in the 1950s through the Cannes Film

Festival (Farahmand 2002). Similarly, Iranian films are globally recognised in international film festivals in the last two decades (Dabashi 2001, 2007; Tapper

2002; Elena 2005; Mottahedeh 2008; Zeydabadi-Nejad 2010; Naficy 2012). The reputation of Iranian films grew in the 1990s when Iranian filmmakers, especially

Abbas Kiarostami’s 1997 Palme d’Or at Cannes, were acclaimed in international film festivals (Farahmand 2002; Naficy 2011). The number of Iranian films screened in European and American countries has also increased. For example, thirteen 3

Iranian films were screened at the most prestigious film festival, Cannes, in 1992

(Naficy 2011: 256). In 2000, three top awards of Jury Prize, Golden Camera, and the

International Film Critics Award at Cannes were won by three Iranian films (Naficy

2011). The achievements continued until it reached its pinnacle in 2012 by winning the Oscar for the Best Foreign Language Film in the 84th Academy Award by A

Separation (2011) directed by Asghar Farhadi.

In these cases, subtitling of Iranian films has been the channel through which non-Persian speakers have access to the source dialogues of the films. This is because Iranian films are mainly subtitled in international festivals. Conversely, the subtitling of Iranian films for a non-Iranian audience has been neglected to a great extent (Naficy 2012). Moreover, the majority of the studies so far have also overlooked the audience preferences in subtitling, and as mentioned by various scholars (e.g. Gambier 2006; Diaz Cintas 1999), most of the research in AVT focus on linguistic aspects which require a revisited approach in Translation Studies (TS).

This revision set forth by the “Cultural Turn” (Bassnett and Lefevere 1998: xxi) which describes the transformation in TS. By this transformation, translation is no longer regarded as an accumulation of mere strings of discrete linguistic signs, but rather as a cultural entity that is the outcome of two possibly divergent cultural repertoires. This view towards TS builds the foundation of the current study in which culture and the preference of the audience towards how culture is represented in the translation of Iranian films become crucial.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Contrary to the linguistic approach, by the advents of Cultural Turn (Bassnett and

Lefevere 1990) in TS, the target audience and their expectations were emphasised by

several scholars. For example, according to Nord (2005), the expectation and communicative needs of the audience are among one of the most vital factors that inspires translators’ purpose in Skopos theory. The audience’s preference and its consideration by translators have also been highlighted by Leppihalme (1997) when choosing the translation strategies. According to Wills (1996: 41, cited in Lee 2002), a translator should attempt “to produce a translation in accordance with the TT readers’ expectations.” Schaffner (1999) and Chesterman (1997) both refer to the expectation of the audience as important factors when translating. Gottlieb (2009) also maintains that the reception of AVT output is not only about the cultural assumption, allusions or proper names, but also about the audience expectations. The audience is so important that Venuti (2004) views translation as the invention of new readerships for a foreign text whose interests and expectations are considered by the translator. Farghal and Al-Masri (2000) also posit that audience’s response, can be deemed as a deciding criterion for the success and validation of translation.

Despite the status of audience, their preferences have been principally unexplored (Nord 1997; Lee 2002). According to Nord (2005: 57) “there is no other factor which is neglected so frequently in translation practice.” Gottlieb (2009) also refers to this negligence as a paradox and points out that little has been done on the profile of the audience and the target groups. This can also be extended to the subtitling of Iranian films for the non-Iranian audience. According to Naficy (2002), subtitling of Iranian films has been an under-studied side of Iranian cinema. As mentioned by Naficy (2012), the majority of Iranian films are subtitled inside Iran by

Iranian subtitlers and local subtitling studios. This raises a number of questions on whether non-Iranian audience and their preferences are considered by the subtitlers when subtitling. Thus, it can be argued that if subtitlers are not well aware of the

preference of the international audience, this will influence the quality of the subtitles from the audience’s perspective.

Importantly, Iranian films are filled with CEs which have become a potential source of crisis for subtitlers. The translation of CEs has been so perplexing that some scholars have interpreted them as untranslatable (e.g. Catford 1965; Cornu

1983; Arson 1988, cited in Ramiere 2006). These ‘Translation Crisis Points’

(Pedersen 2005) or what he later called as ‘translation problems’ (Pedersen 2011) are elements which entail problem-solving in translation. This is predominantly due to the distance of the languages and cultures in questions; in the current study, Iranian society as a Persian-Islamic culture in the Middle-East and target cultures, such as the Western societies. As two heterogeneous cultures, there is a big cultural gap between the two. This lays emphasis on the significance of subtitling CEs for the international viewers in such cultures.

As stated above, subtitling of Iranian films is carried out inside Iran by subtitlers who may not be well aware of the best strategy that realises the preference of the audience. This lack of knowledge has possibly led to variations in the translations of CEs in the subtitles (see Table 1.1). Pedersen (2011), for instance, refers to the varied and symptomatic treatment of Extra-linguistic Culture-bound

References (ECRs) by the subtitlers and their significance as very serious translation problems. Regarding the different variations in subtitling Iranian films, as it has been observed in the present research, there are cases in which the same CE has been translated in over five ways, ranging from the most domesticated to the most foreignized strategies. This indicates that, while the international audience will experience Iranian culture in foreignization strategies, part of the meaning may vanish. On the other hand, while the meaning is conveyed in domesticated subtitles, 6

the audience may be deprived of experiencing the culture. This is what is called

Foreignization/Domestication by Venuti (1995). In foreignized strategies, local colour is preserved, and culture is maintained, but comprehension is hindered.

Domesticated strategies, although do not have the source elements’ pragmatic effect, eliminate the culture, emphasise the message and increase the comprehensibility.

Consequently, at the end points of the scale, target readers are confined in one way or another. If the translator attempts more for the comprehension of the cultural word, the colour of the source culture would be lost; while seeking the culture of the source community would lead to less comprehension. However, rather than merely a linguistic standpoint, there is a socio-cultural basis lying behind the selection of either of the approaches. This is to say that, according to Venuti (1995), domestication is an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to [Anglo-American] target-language cultural values which are assumed to occur where there is a colonial force exerted on the weaker cultures. The polysystem theory (Even-Zohar 1990) also indicates that while domesticating strategies and accordingly producing superficially fluent translations are more likely to be applied by translators in a strong literary polysystem, foreignizing strategies prevail in a weak culture. Thus, what is intended in this research is an analysis of the position of Iranian films in the global film polysystem and the investigation of its influence on the strategies used in the subtitling of the films. Additionally, there is the question of which strategy, the foreignized or the domesticated one, is preferred by the audience. Other questions that are raised refer to whether the opted strategies by the subtitlers coincide the preferences of the non-Iranian audience or not, and, to what extend the subtitlers consider the preferences of the audience.

In addition, what reinforces the accomplishment of this study is that although many researches have examined the translation of CEs in literary translation and subtitling (e.g. Ivir 1987; Florin 1993; Nedergaard Larsen 1993; Newmark 1995;

Franco Aixela 1996; Maihac 1996; Tomaszkiewicz 2001; Ramiere 2006; Pedersen

2011; Olk 2013), they have scarcely examined two remote cultures and, as argued by

Gambier, the scope has largely “remained European” and mostly from just a linguistic point of view (Gambier 2009: 40; Gambier 2006: 2; my emphasis).

Moreover, many researches have explored the strategies from English as the source language (SL) and culture to a second language as the target language (TL) and culture. By the same token, most of the studies on the translation of CEs in subtitling in Iran, have been carried out from a linguistic angle and from English to Persian and not the opposite direction. As mentioned by Naficy (2012), the subtitling of Iranian films has been an interesting but less investigated quality of the cross-cultural translation, and there are still problems and concerns about subtitling of Iranian films for an international audience. One of the complications, as discussed above, is the variations in the subtitling of CEs with a consideration of the audience. The study of

Iranian films’ subtitling cannot be devoid of bearing in mind the audience. However, the audience has hardly been taken into account in the literature. This advocates the importance of research in dealing with the approximately neglected areas in AVT and Iranian cinema, namely the translation of CEs in the subtitles of Iranian cinema from both a polysystemic and target audience perspective.

The following examples demonstrate how the CEs have created “moments of residence” (Ramiere 2006: 152) or crisis points (Pedersen 2005) for the translator to work out the translation problems vigorously. The translations are inconsistent.

Subtitlers have applied different procedures to translate the same CE. The subtitles

range from more foreignizing or source-oriented strategies to more domesticating or target-oriented ones. The examples here are only given to show the different procedures applied by the subtitlers.

haaj aaghaa/. It is an honorific/ حاج آقا The first example is the honorific title title that is granted to a Muslim man who has made a pilgrimage to Mecca during the certain lunar month (the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary: 2016 online). In

Iranian culture, to show veneration to older adults, they are also addressed in a similar way, supposedly that they have made the pilgrimage. It also refers to the

Iranian Muslim Clergymen. It is extensively used to address religious people too.

The shots below all illustrate the use of this honorific title in Iranian films.

In A Separation (2011) directed by Asghar Farhadi, a couple is sitting in a court appealing for divorce. The couple and other actors in the film constantly

haaj aaghaa/. The below examples show the subtitling of / حاج آقا address the judge as this CE:

Example (1)

چرا حاضر نیست حاج آقا؟ بگه چرا حاضر نیست. Persian Soundtrack Gloss /why/ /accept/ /doesn’t he/ /Hajagha/ /?/ /tell he/ /why/ /accept/ /doesn’t he/. English Subtitle -Why not, your honour?

There are diverse influences that need to be measured before the translator decides to

The translator needs to consider such issues .حاج آقا translate the Persian CE; Hajagha

as the transculturality of the CE (the extent towhich the audience are aware of it due to their encyclopaedic knowledge) or how central the CE is in accordance to both the macro and micro-levels (how much it is important in conveying the message)

(Pedersen 2011). As can be seen in example 1, the translator has decided to substitute this CE with a target equivalent word in the Target culture and decrease the foreignness of the item.

Different strategies in the translation of the same CE has been used in the same movie. In the second example, Hojjat, whose unborn child is aborted, accuses the judge of being biased and warns him to fear God. Hojjat addresses the judge as

In the third example, Hojjat yells at the judge, and the judge decides .حاج آقا Hajagha to send him to jail. His wife, Marzieh, begs the judge to forgive him and addresses

.حاج آقا the judge by the same honorific Hajagha

(2) (3)

Example (2)

حاج آقا تو برادر بزرگشی Persian Soundtrack Gloss /Hajagha/ /you/ /brother/ /older are you/ English Subtitle Sir, you’re his elder

Example (3)

من زندگیم رو باختم حاج آقا. منو ازحبس میترسونی؟ Persian Soundtrack Gloss /I/ /my life/ /lost I/ /Hajagha/. /me/ /from/ /jail/ /fear you/ /?/ English Subtitle I’ve lost everything. You think I fear jail?

In these two scenes of the same film, the subtitler uses different procedures in the

In the first shot, the CE .حاج آقا transference of the Persian honorific CE Hajagha

is translated to as ‘Sir.' It is, however, totally omitted in the second حاج آقا Hajagha shot.

Other subtitlers in two other films have translated the same term differently.

In Santoori (The Musician) (2007) directed by Dariush Mehrjoui, a clergyman is invited to the house of a bride and a groom to recite the ritual verse from the Quran and announce them as husband and wife. The couple addresses the clergyman by the

As mentioned earlier, this honorific is also .حاج آقا culture specific honorific Hajagha used to refer to the Iranian Muslim clergymen in Iran.

Example (4)

سالم حاج آقا Persian Soundtrack Gloss /hello/ /Hajagha/ English Subtitle Hello, Haj Agha!

The subtitler has decided to retain the CE honorific title completely and to transfer it into the TL intact. Here, the foreignness of the CE is retained which is different from the previous three examples.

These are not the only procedures used in the translation of the CE Hajagha

In one scene from the film The Song of Sparrows (2008) directed by Majid .حاج آقا

Majidi, two people are on a motorbike. The one at the back, who is a hypocrite (he tells lies and pretends to be in a religious city for a pilgrimage while in Tehran doing

business), is shown to be talking on the phone and addresses the person on the line

and requests him to arrange some works حاج آقا by the cultural honorific title Hajagha for him:

Example (5)

حاج اقا اگه میشه این کار ما رم راه بندازین Persian Soundtrack Gloss /Hajagha/ /if/ /possible/ /this/ /work/ /my/ /also/ /do/ English Subtitle Hajji, please do something for me.

to ‘Hajji’ which is a حاج آقا In this films, the subtitler has translated the word Hajagha

is حاج آقا more commonly used word in Muslim communities. The term Hajagha

means) آقا Haj: Pilgrimage to Mecca) and) حاج :made up of two separate words

Mister in Persian). In this case, while the translator has retained the CE in the target culture, s/he has chosen a more commonly used item in a wider community.

The following table shows the different strategies used in the translation of

into English in the official subtitles حاج آقا the culture specific honorific title Hajagha of some Iranian films:

in the subtitles of some Iranian films حاج آقا Table 1.1. Strategies used in the translation of

N O SHOT MOVIE PERSIAN ENGLISH TYPE OF STRATEG . SOUNDTRACK SUBTITLE CE Y VENUTI (1988) why not, Religious Domestica چرا حاضر نیست حاج A 1 your Honorific -tion آقا؟ بگه چرا حاضر Separation ?honour نیست /why/ /accept/ /doesn’t he/ /Hajagha/ /?/ /tell he/ /why/ /accept/ /doesn’t he/ Sir, you're Religious Domestica حاج آقا تو برادر A 2 his elder. Honorific -tion بزرگشی Separation /Hajagha/ /you/ /brother/ /older are you/

I've lost Religious Domestica من زندگیم رو باختم A 3 everything. Honorific -tion حاج آقا. منو از حبس Separation You think میترسونی؟ /I/ /my life/ /lost I fear jail? I/ /Hajagha/. /me/ /from/ /jail/ /fear you/ /?/ Hello Haj Religious Foreigniza سالم حاج آقا Santoori 4 (The /hello/ /Hajagha/ Agha! Honorific -tion Musician)

Hajji, Religious Foreigniza حاج آقا اگه میشه این The Song 5 please do Honorific -tion کار ما رم راه بندازین of Sparrows /Hajagha/ /if/ something /possible/ /this/ for me. /work/ /my/ /also/ /do/

has been translated in five حاج اقا As can be seen in Table 1, the Persian honorific different ways. The translations vary from complete retention to substitution and omission.

To summarize, various procedures have been applied by subtitlers in the translation of the CEs in the subtitles of Iranian films. The procedures diverge from the most foreignized to the most domesticated ones. Nonetheless, a study on the analysis of the strategies used in the subtitling of CEs between two remote cultures

(Middle Eastern Islamic-Western Secular/Christian), from the viewers’ viewpoint is 13

still missing. This indicates that what is important is a sociocultural examination, rather than merely a linguistic account of the foreignized and domesticated strategies.

This cultural analysis of the translations further becomes important in light of polysystem perspectives. This approach incorporates the sociocultural context into the analysis of translation. Accordingly, translation can no longer be regarded as an accumulation of mere strings of discrete linguistic signs, rather as a cultural entity that is the outcome of two possibly divergent cultural repertoires. Polysystem Theory

(Even-zohar 1990) sees culture as a complex network of related systems, of which literature is one. As an internally related and dynamic polysystem, literature forms a network of relations called “literary” (Even-Zohar 1990: 27-45). These relations are composed of the canonized or “central” and non-canonized or “peripheral” strata

(Even-Zohar 1990). In other words, while one literature may occupy a secondary position in the literary polysystem and scarcely affect the polysystem’s central configuration, another literature may come to dominate the centre and develop into canonical. According to Even-Zohar (2000), a peripheral position is assumed for translated literature. As maintained by Diaz-Cintas (2004: 23), polysystem theory is a sufficiently flexible concept and accordingly, can be used to describe a film polysystem. Thus, the polysystem used in the current study refers to the global film polysystem, in which the researcher attempts to position Iranian film in the polysystem. As stated by Venuti (2008), since the canon of foreign literature in

English, including the Iranian movies in this study, is assumed to be formed based on the Western ideology, fluency, and naturalness, i.e. domestication, it may have dominantly played an important role in translation. Nonetheless, as could be seen in the examples above, these seem to be various approaches opted by the subtitler and

there is no study to have deeply examine the position of Iranian films in the English world and its impact on the strategies used by the subtitlers.

Therefore, the present study aims at investigating the position of the Iranian films, the classification of CEs as a problematic area in the films, the applied procedures by the subtitlers and the International audience’s preferences towards the translation of the CEs in the corpus of the study.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The following objectives have been sought to be achieved in the present study:

1. To examine and classify the CEs used in Iranian films;

2. To investigate the translation procedures and their frequency in the English

official subtitling of Persian CEs in Iranian films;

 To examine if the position of Iranian films in the global film polysystem has

influenced the procedures used in subtitling the CEs in the films;

3. To determine the audience’s preference towards the Foreignizing and

Domesticating strategies in English official subtitling of Persian CEs in Iranian

films.

 To examine if the position of Iranian films in the global film polysystem

has influenced the audience’s preferences towards the foreignized or the

domesticated strategies applied to subtitle the Persian CEs;

 To examine the extent to which the international audience’s preferences

match the applied procedures by the subtitlers?

1.4 Research Questions of the Study

To achieve the objectives of the study, the researcher will attempt to resolve the following questions:

1. What are the CEs in Iranian films and how can they be classified?

2. What procedures with what frequency are used in the English official subtitling

of Persian CEs in Iranian films?

 How has the position of Iranian films in the global film polysystem

influenced the procedures applied in subtitling CEs in the films?

3. What are the international audience’s preferences towards the Foreignizing and

Domesticating official English subtitling of Persian CEs in Iranian films?

 How has the position of Iranian films in the global film polysystem

influenced the audience’s preferences towards the foreignized or the

domesticated strategies applied to subtitle the Persian CEs?

 To what extent do the international audience’s preferences match the applied

procedures by the subtitlers?

1.5 Working Definitions

The working and operational definitions of the key terms and concepts applied in the current study are provided in the following:

Official Subtitles: in contrast with fansubs which are created and disseminated by fans and individuals on the Internet, official subtitles are carried out by subtitling and dubbing studios by a team of professional translators, editors, etc. to be used as the official subtitle of a film for the purpose of screening in cinemas or film festivals.

Cultural Elements (CEs): refers to extralinguistic elements which are prototypically attributed to a particular culture or community. The extralinguistic aspect indicates the exclusion of such linguistic elements as proverbs and idioms. However, due to the less arbitrary, as well the great cultural gap between the languages and cultures examined in the current study, a more flexible approach has been applied in the determination of CEs which includes such elements as certain honorific titles or religious prayers.

International Audience: refers to the Western non-Iranian, as well as non-Persian speaker audience of Iranian films who have watched the films with English subtitles.

This is to say that, the term “audience” here indicates that the viewers have already watched at least one Iranian films before the study. The other characteristic of the international audience in the present study is based on the nature of the study which examines English subtitles of the films. Thus, the audience is included in the present research if they had watched the films with English subtitles.

Film Polysystem: drawing on Even-Zohar’s (1990) Polysystem Theory, film polysystem refers to the network of global industry of cinema in which certain cinemas and films are canonized, while others are placed in secondary positions. It includes both domestic and international films which are screened in their source soundtrack, in a target language subtitle or dubbed. In the current study, the three factors in determining the position of a cinema in the film polysystem are the number of films produced, the language of the produced films, as well as their box office.

One thing that needs to be made clear is the difference between the terms strategy, procedure, and technique. It seems that there is no agreement on how the three can be differentiated. Bardaji (2009: 161) raises his concern on this

heterogeneity of the terms and calls them operations, “[…] these operations have been researched from a wide range of perspectives and have been assigned a multitude of labels, among which we have procedures, techniques, strategies, processes, methods […].” According to Wotjak (1997), the problems which may arise for a translator are varied, and that is why it is not easy to propose clear-cut terms to refer to the operations.

In the current study the three terms of strategy, procedure and technique are defined as the followings.

Strategies: Strategy is perceived as a method, i.e. “developing a given translation process governed by certain principles that are consistent with the translator’s objective” (Hurtado Albir 2001: 249). It is a translation behavior that, according to

Chesterman 1997: 89), are applied based on the “desired relationship between the text and the source text”, which is in turn determined by such factors as the readers and socio-ideological issues. Hence, by using this term, the researcher shall refer to the dichotomies of domestication and foreignization as identified by Venuti (1995/

2008). Therefore, two strategies are defined in the current study. While the strategy of domestication is the overall method and approach of the subtitlers which is perceived as “an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values, bringing the author back home” (Venuti 1995: 305-306), the foreignizing strategy is considered as “an ethno-deviant pressure on those (cultural) values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad” (p. 20).

Procedures: The term is used to refer to the operations of the translators to prepare subtitles of the CEs of the Iranian Films into English. These operations are

considered to be the ways the macro approaches of translators, i.e. the two strategies of domestication and foreignization, are textually applied to translate and render the

Persian CEs into the English subtitles of Iranian films.

Technique: the term technique, in the current study, provides more details on using the procedures by the translators. That is, how the procedures are specifically applied. Therefore, as discussed by Hurtado Albir (2001: 249), the term technique is considered as “the specific application which can be observed in the product and affects the minor zones of the text”. Thus, term technique describes the operations of the Iranian translators more specifically compared to the procedures.

1.6 Scope of the Study

There are a number of limitations that narrow down the scope of the study. Firstly, the language direction is from the Persian language to English language direction.

This indicates that the other directions, as well as other languages, are not taken into account.

The size of the corpus, i.e. the subtitled Iranian films, also needs to be considered. Not all of the Iranian films that are subtitled are included in the study.

This is because not all subtitled Iranian films are screened in international festivals.

In other words, the corpus of the present research is mainly constituted from those

Iranian films that are screened at International film festivals in English subtitles.

The films have also been selected from those that are made in Iran. This means that those Iranian films which are shot and made outside Iran, even by Iranian directors, are excluded in the corpus.

Among the subtitled Iranian films for international festivals, there are also films that have not been accessible to the researcher. In these cases, it is impracticable to find the official English subtitles of movies and the researcher would be compelled to rule them out from the study.

Not all of the available English subtitles are done officially too. In other words, fansubbed films will be disqualified from the analysis.

The researcher is also constrained by the size of the audience as the subjects of the research. Questionnaire is utilised as the means for the extraction and analysis of the preferences of non-Iranian audience of Iranian films. Since finding a sufficient number of subjects is an arduous task, miscellaneous methods will be exploited by the researcher to dispense the questionnaires: through emails, in person at Iranian film festivals, international film festivals, and Facebook.

1.7 Significance of the Study

The main purpose of this research is to study how films in general, and Iranian films in particular, are subtitled in the global film polysystem. This sheds light on one of the less studied aspects of translation studies: subtitling of CEs in the films from a cultural perspective. The study also investigates CEs used in Iranian films. The study demonstrates how the gap between two languages and cultures have resulted in a totally different classification of CEs, in comparison to the classifications proposed.

This is to say that while the majority of the research in the area has examined close cultures and languages, the present research extensively investigated two culturally distant languages and cultures and accordingly broadened the knowledge in a less explored area in TS. Additionally, translators and subtitlers, as well as researchers, is also informed about CEs in Iranian films, as a problematic area in translation. The

examination of the position of Iranian films in the global film polysystem is of high importance too. This highlights the importance of the position of a language, a cinema and culture in the polysystem and the way this position may influence and impact the extent a culture can manifest and demonstrate itself in other cultures. As one of the less studied factors in translation studies, the expectations and preferences of the audience are also investigated which per se would provide information, as well as inform subtitlers to become aware of the preferences of their viewers and, accordingly, to opt for the best procedure in translating CEs.

1.8 Organization of the Chapters

A general overview of the importance of subtitling and the problems of translating

CEs, particularly, in the case of Iranian films, are discussed in chapter one.

Subsequently, the objectives of the study and the research questions are presented, and the significance, as well as the delimitation of the study, are discussed.

The review of the related literature is presented in chapter two. This includes an overview of Iranian films, Audiovisual Translation, Even-Zohar’s Polysystem theory and Venuti’s notions of domestication and foreignization as the two main theories of the current study. Subsequently, Cultural Elements (CEs), their definitions, selections, translations, categories, and classifications are discussed.

Lastly, a review of the status and the importance of the target audience in translation is reviewed.

The methodology, theoretical and conceptual framework of the study are presented in chapter three. The Iranian films as the corpus, as well as the justification of the corpus are presented. Subsequently, the development and administration of the questionnaire as the tool in the determination of international viewers’ preferences

towards the subtitling of CEs are discussed. Lastly, the subjects of the study and the data analysis procedures are described.

Chapter four investigates the position of Iranian films and cinema in the global film polysystem. The position of Iranian films in the global film polysystem is considered through the examination of the cinema from the perspectives of the total number of feature films, the language of the films, and the total box office of the films in the world. Subsequently, the classification of Cultural Elements (CEs) in the official subtitles of the Iranian films is provided. The broad classes, as well as the categories and sub-categories of the CEs which were identified in the source text are presented. Next, the procedures employed by the Iranian subtitlers are offered and discussed. These procedures are discussed based on a comparison between the identified CEs to their translations in the official subtitles of the films.

Chapter five offers an analysis of the data gathered from the administration of the questionnaire on the preferences of the international audience of Iranian films towards the subtitling of CEs in Iranian films.

Chapter six presents the findings and conclusion of the study which are linked and compared with the literature, so as to highlight the contributions of the study. The research questions are responded and discussed based on the obtained results and the theoretical framework of the study. Lastly, the conclusion and recommendation for further research are presented.

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

2. Introduction

The present chapter reviews the previous studies carried out on the key notions of this study. First Iranian cinema is overviewed from historical perspectives of pre- revolutionary and post-revolutionary cinema. Subsequently, the impact of different factors and their influence in the globalization of Iranian films are discussed.

Subsequently, Audiovisual Translation (AVT), in general, and subtitling as the focus of the study, in particular, are looked at. Polysystem theory proposed by Even-Zohar

(1990) as one of the main theories of this research is reviewed. Next, the notions of domestication and foreignization as the strategies opted by the subtitlers and the basis for classification of the procedure are looked into. Cultural Elements (CEs), as the problematic area in subtitling of Iranian films are reviewed in detail, and their definitions, selections, translations, categories, and classifications are discussed.

Lastly, a review of the status and the importance of the target audience in translation is presented.

2.1 Iranian Cinema

It was around 1900 that Iranian cinema set off its oscillating course of life. In regard to technicality, idea, and products, it was massively reliant on the West during the first seventy years. This relationship involved the exchange of ideas, narrative forms, and procedures of film production, technical knowledge and expertise, and marketing and film distributions (Naficy 2011). However, this one-way highway continued up until the last decade before the outbreak of Islamic Revolution of Iran in 1979 when

the cinema went through substantial ideological transformations. Thus, the Islamic

Revolution is deemed as a chapter in driving a wedge between two general eras: pre- revolutionary and post-revolutionary cinema. In the pre-revolutionary era, up until a few years before the Islamic revolution, Western films were imported to Iranian cinema in large numbers; one of the main incentives of which, according to Naficy

(2011), was the immersion of Pahlavi’s Dynasty with the production of documentaries, which were aimed at improving the underdeveloped appearance and status of the country in the world. Following the Revolution, fundamental changes occurred. Therefore, two periods can be distinguished in the cinema of post- revolutionary Iran: from 1979 to 1990 and from 1990 up to date. While during the former stage, little achievements were attained, the latter period witnessed a recognition of Iranian films on the global stage.

2.1.1 Pre-revolutionary Iranian Cinema

It was in the 1970s that the one-way highway of importing Western media products into the Iranian cinema was transformed into a two-way flow. As remarked on by

Roy Arms (1987: 91), this transformation began by the appearance of “New Iranian

Cinema” by an almost heterogeneous group of young intellectuals. What is indicated is that Iranian cinema began its importance before the Islamic Revolution of Iran in

1979. Naficy (2011) also mentions these factors and argues that there is primarily a two-sided push for this change of flow: the involvement of Pahlavi’s Dynasty with the production of documentaries to improve the underdeveloped image of the country in the world and the support of the New Wave Movement in the Iranian cinema. This condition gave rise to the production of a handful of significant films. Two influential fiction films before the Revolution were Qaisar (1969) directed by Masud

Kimiai and The Cow (1970) by Dariush Mehrjui, which as stated by Naficy (2011),

paved the way for the New Wave cinema. The impact of international film festivals needs to be also noted after The Cow (Mehrjui 1970) was both sponsored and banned by the state. Pahlavi’s Dynasty suspected the film to destroy the image of Iran as a developed country. Nonetheless, the film’s screening and the winning of a top award in Venice International Film Festival forced the state to lift the ban (Naficy 2011).

Issa (2004) also refers to some influential pre-revolutionary films which were made in the 1960s and the 1970s such as the short documentary The House Is Black (1962) directed by the late feminist poet Forough Farrokhzad, the documentary feature The

Night Is Rained (1967) directed by Kamran Shirdel, the black and white Still Life

(1973), A Simple Event (1974) directed by the late Sohrab Shahid Saless. Probably, however, the most influential and the pioneer in this path is Abbas Kiarostami with the trilogy Where Is The House Of My Friend (1987), And Life Goes On (1992) and

Through The Olive Trees (1994).

Hence, as mentioned above, the status of Iranian cinema in the world is originated and begun before the Islamic Revolution. Although the achievements are diminutive and not comparable to the post-revolutionary cinema, the influence of the pre-revolutionary cinema of Iran should not be disregarded. The next section focuses on the cinema of the country after the Revolution.

2.1.2 Post-revolutionary Iranian Cinema

Two periods have been distinguished in the post-revolutionary cinema of Iran in the present study. These periods are from 1979 when the Revolution took place to 1990 and from 1990 until the present.

2.1.2(a) From 1979 to 1990

After the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran, the cinema of the country entered a new phase. This decade witnessed a series of disasters for the country: the takeover of the

American Embassy and the American hostage crisis in 1979; a bomb explosion in

1981 killing several members of Majlis-e Shoray-e Eslami (Islamic Republic of

Iran’s Parliament); a few coup attempts by the army; decrease in the oil price, and the eight-year war with Iraq (Sadr 2006). All of these conditions resulted in tough conditions for the cinema and the filmmakers. Thus, in the beginning years of the

Revolution, the cinema encountered many difficulties. The formation of Islamic rules, as the basis of the reforms, influenced the society as well. Cinema was not an exception too, and it went through the same reforms. In a sense, the cinema was, according to Esfandiary (2012: 71), “purified” from so-called “immoral and corrupt” pre-revolutionary elements such as nudity and sexually oriented scenes. In this situation of rapid ideological changes, nearly 180 cinemas were ruined and burnt by

1980 (Naficy 1992: 183). Several experts expressed their worries about the future of

Iranian cinema and not a good future was predicted for it. Moreover, the Council for

Determining the Political Direction of National Culture in which cinema had three representatives was cancelled (Sadr 2006: 169). The period from 1978 to 1982 is, according to most critics, the most uncertain age of Iranian cinema which is characterized by the production of “empty and superficial” films (Sadr 2006: 169), which was also due to the lack of criteria for film production in the early years of the

Revolution and consequently the confusion of film producers and filmmakers (Sadr

2006).

However, Esfandiary (2012: 71) recalls the influential phrase of Ayatollah

Khomeini after the revolution: “We are not against cinema, we are against

decadence.” Naficy (1992: 125) also refers to the declaration of the leader of the

Islamic Revolution that the revolution was not against cinema but against what he called the misuse of cinema. This declaration led to the supporting of those films which were in line with the values of the new government of Iran. In regard to the new cultural policy, the government took control of TV and radio through the supervision of the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance (MCIG) (Tapper 2002).

This directed the filmmakers to contribute to the establishment of a cinema which enjoyed being both Islamic and revolutionary. This conditions resulted in an anti-

Hollywood wave in Iran:

A discussion of cultural domination took place. The newspapers, radio and television informed the populace about the various forms of western exploitation of Third world nations: namely colonialism, neo- colonialism and imperialism. Unlike ‘classical’ colonialism, the public was told […] neo-colonialism ensured continued dependence through cultural means. Imperialism was considered a continuation of colonialism in Iran, and was defined as the unequal, oppressive relationship between strong and weak nations (Sadr 2006: 172-173).

Gradually, by the elapse of time, and during the eight-year war between Iran and

Iraq, an important genre of film emerged. This genre was called the War film and is important since Iranian films were produced in a larger quantity. According to Sadr

(2006: 196), two subcategories can be distinguished within the War film genre: “the prisoner-of-war film” and “the special-mission film.” A further group is also determined by Sadr (2006): action combat film which was popular among the young audience. A number of successful films in the 1980s such as Payegah-e Jahanami (A

Military Base in Hell, 1982) directed by Akbar Sadeghi, Oghabha (Eagles, 1984) directed by Samuel Khachikian, and Gozargah (Passage, 1986) directed by Shahriar

Bahrani particularly belong to this group. From among the directors in the War genre, such notable filmmakers as Ebrahim Hatamikia, Rasul Molagholipur, Hossein

Ghasemi-Jami, Kamal Tabrizi, Jamal Shurjeh and Javad Shamaghdari can be 27

mentioned, all of whom directed their war films based on their own first-hand experiences of the war (Sadr 2006: 198). Martyrdom was the basic theme of the films by this group of filmmakers. One of the results of which was the support of films by the government. The reason lied in the inline ideology of the films with the

Revolutions’ ideology as “the repeated message in the media was: ‘We are not fighting with Iraq, we are fighting the enemies of the Revolution.’” (Sadr 2006: 195).

Accordingly, the Cinematic Institute of Holy Defence was established in the early

1990s, “specially designed towns were built, and the army was used for shooting war scenes, with the government providing special assistance” (Sadr 2006: 199). From then, contrary to what was expected, Iranian cinema have been able to represent itself more successfully in international film festivals. From this standpoint, filmmakers such as Abbas Kiarostami, Bahram Beizai, Masoud Kimiai, Darioush Mehrjoui,

Mohsen Makhmalbaf, Seyyed Morteza Avini, and Amir Naderi can be mentioned.

2.1.2(b) Post-1990s

In the 1990s, Iranian cinema was more screened in international film festivals. Its best days seems to have been started when it was celebrated for being “preeminent” and “most exciting” by the Toronto International Film Festival and the New York

Film Festival (Naficy 2002: 53; Naficy 2011: 261). Based on Naficy (2011), three styles of cinemas developed in the 1990s. The categories are what he terms as

“Official Cinema,” “Populist Cinema” and “Art Cinema” (Naficy 2011: 261). The former type, financially funded by the government, was at the service of the state’s values and ideologies. The middle type, although financially supported, it did not stick as explicitly as the former to the state’s values. However, it was the latter type of cinema which obtained a critical stand and position globally. Despite its least number of production compared to the other two types, possibly 10 to 15 percent of

the total, it was the most significant one in terms of quality and international achievements (Naficy 2011: 261-262).

This period is the time that the exchange of Iranian cinema and the West turned into a new phase: from being one-sided and static into a mutual, dynamic and financially notable one. For instance, considering the low cost of Iranian films, less than $200,000, by the end of 1999 the Taste of Cherry (1997), directed by

Kiarostami (distributed by Zeitgeist Films), and after four months Children of

Heaven (1997), by Majidi (distributed in U.S. by Miramax Films), generated

$340,658 and over $1,000,000 in the United States and Hong Kong respectively

(Naficy 2012: 248; Naficy 2011: 266). As another example, The Colour of Paradise

(1999), directed by Majidi (distributed by Sony Classic Pictures), can also be mentioned as it grossed $714,442 in just after nine weeks of screening in the USA

(Yahoo, May 30, 2000, cited in Naficy 2011: 266). This stage is characterized by the presence of noticeable filmmakers such as Abbas Kiarostami, Kinanoush Ayari,

Rakhshan Banietemad, Jafar Panahi, Bahman Ghobadi, Mohsen Makhmalbaaf,

Samira Makhmalbaf, Parviz Shahbazi, Hossein Shahabi, Asghar Farhadi, and Hamid

Nematollah.

In recent years, international film festivals have also witnessed a new filmmaker from Iranian cinema. The two well-praised movies directed by Asghar

Farhadi are About Elly (2009) and A Separation (2011) which were both celebrated inside and outside Iran both by international and local critics which was not the case with many previously Iranian films. In other words, there have always been critics inside Iran who have had skeptical attitudes towards the international awards given to particular Iranian movies (Dabashi 2007; Elena 2005).

2.1.3 Factors in Globalization of Iranian Cinema

Different factors have been deliberated by specialists concerning the underlying grounds for the internationally well-received and acclaimed recognition of the

Iranian post-revolutionary cinema. Three factors can be stated as the most important and influential ones: ideological and political factors, financial factors, and cultural factors.

2.1.3(a) Ideological-Political Factors

Following the Islamic revolution, the battle against the so-called perverted cinema of the West, through the banning of foreign films import and the monopolization of it by the government, turned out to be positively counter-effective on the national cinema (Naficy 2002; Dabashi 2008). Although the lack of screening criteria in the early years of the Revolution resulted in chaos in film production area, the decline in the number of Hollywood films which were imported to the country gave way to the promotion and development of the local cinema. Moreover, Egan (2005) refers to the more freedom following the Iran-Iraq war, as well as the government’s desire to promote its relationship with the Western World as the other influential elements.

According to him, Iranian government’ intention to re-establish its relationship with the West, as well as its desire to deconstruct Iran’s pre-revolutionary image in the

West are the reasons which led to “officially sanctioned” promotion of the cinema in festivals and art-film circuit (Ega 2005: 119, cited in Esfandiary 2012: 73).

Some critics also remark on the interventions of Iranian authorities as the achievement of certain films. Farahmand (2002: 95) gives the example of Taste of

Cherry (1996) directed by Abbas Kiarostami, the success of which in Cannes Film

Festival, according to her, was due to the negotiation of the incumbent Iranian

Foreign Minister at the time, Ali Akbar Velayati: “[He] came to realize that the

film’s presence at Cannes would have a good impact outside Iran. He, therefore, mediated its entry in the festival through negotiation with Gilles Jacob, the festival director”. However, Esfandiari (2012) believes otherwise and argues that since the film was banned from being sent to Cannes due to its theme of suicide, this claim seems far-fetched. Farahmand (2002: 99) also argues the politically oriented selection of Iranian films by international festivals through which more political and critical films are excluded from being selected and the films and filmmakers that are out of the “circle of perturbation,” a term used by Iranian cultural authorities, are preferred.

Another factor has been the state’s control and manipulation in the film industry. According to Jamshid Akrami (cited in Farahmand 2000: 88), first attempts to control and censorship in Iran dates back to the 1920s. One of the direct consequences has been the selection of dubbing as approximately the only form of audiovisual translation for imported films. These tight conditions for filmmakers in

Iran have always been considered as a motivation for them to invent indirect means of expressing the opinions which some believe (e.g. Farahmand 2000), has led to the creativity in Iranian films.

Furthermore, Zeydabadi-Nejad (2010) states the government’s abandonment of its monopoly on supporting and distributing films. Saeed-Vafa (2002), however, argues that the most successful films are mainly among those that fulfil the Western expectations of a third-world political cinema. She points out films such as Sohrab

Shahid-Saless’s A simple Event (1973) and Still life (1975), Bashu, The Little

Stranger (1988) directed by Bahram Beyzai, and The Runner (1986) by Amir Naderi, as well as films by directors such as Kiarostami, Jafar Panahi, Mahmood Kalari,

Jalili, Majidi and Samira Makhmalbaf as her claim (Saeed-Vafa 2002: 203). 31

2.1.3(b) Financial Factors

Before the Islamic revolution of Iran in 1979, the economic condition of Iranian cinema had been degraded to its misery. This was due to the import of cheap foreign films and the rise of taxes on films which were locally produced which led to the small number of film productions, that was only 11 films in 1978 (Esfandiary 2012:

69). By the Islamic revolution in Iran, however, the situation rehabilitated economically. The more involvement of the governmental agencies and organizations in film productions, increasing the foreign film taxes and decreasing taxes on national movies, allocation of loans for domestic filmmakers and the new policies in ticket fees are the significant factors referred to by Naficy (cited in

Esfandiary 2012). Egan (2005: 2) also points out the foundation of an appropriate industrial and economic base in which approximately 50 films were capable of annually being produced. Furthermore, the low cost of film production in Iran, remaining between 100-200 thousand U.S dollars, which has reassured foreign film companies to contribute to Iranian cinema, has also been of use (Naficy 2011: 264).

For instance, since the mid-1990s, a number of American and European countries such as France, Switzerland, Canada and Italy have become involved in co- production of films by Iranian filmmakers (Zeydabadi-Nejad 2010). Farahmand

(2002) also advocates economic rather than cultural impetuses for the European companies’ investment in the Iranian cinema. The other related factor has been the unstable and deteriorating economic conditions of the country because of factors such as the eight-year war between Iran and Iraq which encouraged local filmmakers to glance at the international markets for their future production funding.

2.1.3(c) Cultural Factors

Cultural factors have also been central in catching the attention of the non-Iranian audience to Iranian films. For instance, the locations and settings employed in

Iranian films can be alluded to as one of the appealing aspects. Saeed-Vafa (2002) maintains the belief that watching Iranian movies can be a free tour of the country and help the non-Iranian audience to construct a mental image of Iran sometimes as an exotic land of mystery and sometimes misery. They can obtain facts about the country, the people, customs and culture, the architecture of the cities and villages, the political and social situations and women’s lives. These elements led to the significant presence of Iranian films in the 1990s. As stated by Naficy (2011), a rough estimate by press shows that numerous theatres had screened Iranian films around the world in 1998.

To sum up, so far the history and the underlying reasons for the success of

Iranian films have been reviewed. As it was mentioned earlier in this section, despite the radical changes and reformations that occurred after the Islamic revolution, the cinema of Iran has been able to present itself successfully on the international stage.

Filmmakers have learned how to make films which do not cross the lines of the newly established values in Iran. Factors such as ideological, political, economic and cultural aspects have also been influential in the success of Iranian films.

In the following sections, film translation and Audiovisual Translation (AVT) will be reviewed. Moreover, subtitling as the focus of the present study will be further scrutinized in more details.

2.2 Film Translation

Different terms have been devised and used in Translation Studies to refer to the translation of recorded texts composing of both visual and acoustic channels. ‘Screen

Translation’, ‘Film Translation’, ‘(Multi) media Translation’ and ‘Audiovisual

Translation’ are but some of the instances. However, the usage of the terms and the boundaries they may insinuate are not so clear cut. For example, according to

Karamitroglu (2000: 1-2), while Film Translation may advocate that silent movies are not encompassed due to lack of the verbal-acoustic channel, the presence of the nonverbal-acoustic (music) and nonverbal-visual channels (picture) necessitates their inclusion back as Film translation. Besides, the presence of verbal-visual channel

(e.g. a newspaper headline) further stand up for this argument.

However, different scholars give preference to using specific terms. While

Karamitroglu (2000), for example, prefers Audiovisual Translation to lay emphasis on both audio and video channels, Gambier and Gottlieb (2001) makes a distinction between Audiovisual and multimedia translation and assert that the latter term will encompass the translation of Webs or CD-ROMs as well. Cattrysse (2001: 2), yet, chooses both terms. He believes that these terms have numerous advantages such as potential to integrate the linguistic translational aspect of the message into the global audiovisual communication, as well as to scrutinise the common and exclusive aspects of verbal and nonverbal translation.

What is important to notice, however, is that although devising all-inclusive terms such as AVT, MMT or Screen translation will be constructive in delineating the boundaries of the fields, applying specialized and focused terms will be also indispensable to be used for specific studies. For example, while the term Film

translation does not incorporate all the areas in Translation Studies, nonetheless, it will be favourable for exclusive researches such as the present study which focuses entirely on subtitling of Iranian films and not on other audio-visual programmes. To be precise, inclusive terms should not lead to the rejection of more focused terms. To accord the uniqueness of the research, each study should avail itself of the terms prudently depending on its own settings. In the this study, hence, while Audiovisual

Translation (AVT) will be largely drawn on to denote audio-visual programmes in general, Film Translation (FT) will be extensively employed to signify translation of films as opposed to other forms of programmes such as advertisements or documentaries.

2.2.1 Film as a Multimodal Text

Contrary to literature and poetry which are usually “mono-modal” or “mono- semiotic” texts, films are both a multimodal and dynamic text in which different collections of images, sounds, gestures, visual transitivity frames, genre, time, kinesics actions, language and texts, etc. are displayed in a complex system of relations at different levels (Baldry and Thibault 2006: 48). In view of that, scholars such as Diaz-Cintas (1999: 31) and Gottlieb (1997: 309) refer to film as a “unique semiotic” and a “polysemiotic” system, respectively. Consequently, Chiaro (2008) argues this as the reason why such overlapping terms as Audiovisual Translation,

Film Translation and Multimodal Translation are so interconnected and at times interchangeably utilized.

According to Gottlieb’s (1994: 265, cited in Guardini 1998: 99) classification, the interrelated layers in an audiovisual text can be classified into four channels: verbal-visual (e.g. captions and written signs), non-verbal visual (e.g. pictures), verbal-acoustic (e.g. dialogues, voices in the background, and lyrics), and

non-verbal acoustic (e.g. music and sound effects). In other words, considering film translation only from the verbal-acoustic perspective, does not take into account the non-verbal information. For instance, the importance of music in communication of meaning in an audiovisual text is such that it may outweigh both picture and words.

An example could be the sense of menace in a horror film which is predominantly passed on by the music mode of the film.

Therefore, Films as audiovisual texts are polysemiotic in which numerous codes interact to produce and convey a whole meaning. So, an audiovisual text is both seen and heard by viewers. The codes and nature, or the polysemiotic nature of audiovisual products are provided by Chiaro (2009) which comes in the following:

Table 2.1. Polysemiotic nature of an audiovisual product by Chiaro (2009)

VISUAL ACOUSTIC

SCENERY, LIGHTING, MUSIC, BACKGROUND NOISE, SOUND COSTUMES, PROPS, etc. EFFECTS, etc. NON- Also: Also: VERBAL GESTURE, FACIAL LAUGHTER; CRYING; HUMMING; EXPRESSIONS; BODY BODY SOUNDS (breathing; coughing, MOVEMENT, etc. etc.)

STREET SIGNS, SHOP SIGNS; DIALOGUES; SONG-LYRICS; POEMS, VERBAL WRITTEN REALIA etc. (newspapers; letters; headlines; notes, etc.)

However, the transmitted information through these channels does not acts autonomously and distinctively. Explicitly, there is always an extent of, what is called “intersemiotic redundancy” by Gottlieb (2001: 21). This intersemiotic redundancy is substantially considerable since, as regards the temporal and spatial constraints, as well as the additive nature of subtitling, the subtitler is restricted in transferring all of the original soundtrack in the subtitle. To be precise, the subtitler is in an endless decision making process to resolve the volume of the information to transfer. An example is when an object is visibly discernable in both the nonverbal- 36

visual (picture) channel and the original dialogue. The subtitler can draw on

“Generalization” (Pedersen, 2011) and transfer it with a pronoun in the subtitle. This reveals the extent to which the subtitler is confined both by the spatial and temporal limitations of subtitling, as well as the degree to which s/he can benefit from the intersemiotic redundancy of the text.

2.2.2 Modes of Film Translation

Various modes of language transfer on screen such as subtitling, dubbing, voice over, narration, interpreting and surtitling have emerged in AVT. Mainly, they can be categorized under two broad categories: (1) retaining the original dialogue as spoken

(revoicing); or (2) transforming it into written form (subtitling). In revoicing, the replacement of the original soundtrack can be either total as in lip sync dubbing and narration or partial as in voice-over and interpreting (Diaz-Cintas and Anderman

2009: 4). A third technique, ‘simultaneous interpreting’, has also been mentioned by

Diaz-Cintas (1999: 31) which is confined to special occasions such as film festivals where time plays a pivotal role. In what follows, subtitling as the focus of the present study, will be reviewed and conferred in more detail.

2.2.2(a) Subtitling

Much have been written about subtitling as one of the most commonly opted modes of AVT. It can be described as a linguistic transfer through which a written text become accessible on screen. The main objective of subtitling can be perceived as conveying the dialogues, the iconic elements or other material on the soundtrack such as a song on the screen (Diaz-Cintas 2003, cited in Hernandez and Mendiluce

2005). Subtitles can be located in diverse positions on the screen. Yet, they are habitually inserted at the bottom part of the screen (Gottlieb 1994; Luyken et al.

1991; Delabastia 1989; cited in Karamitroglu 2000). According to Gottlieb (2000:

15), it is the only mode of translation that is a “prepared communication using written language acting as an additive and synchronous semiotic channel as part of a transient and polysemiotic text” (italics in original). Gottlieb (2004) later categorized subtitles based on the number of languages involved: (1) intralingual/vertical; or (2) interlingual/diagonal subtitles. The former refers to subtitling where the source soundtrack (or the written source text) is identified as the subtitled Target Language

(TL). In interlingual or diagonal subtitles, the Source Language (SL) is decoded to a new language. This is the bilingual subtitling or ‘translation proper’ in Jacobson’s

(1959) terms which is the focus of the present study. There are advantages and disadvantages mentioned for subtitling in the literature. In what follows, these benefits and shortcomings are reviewed.

2.2.2(b) Constraint Nature of Subtitling

Subtitling is linguistic transfer which can be classified as “constrained translation”

(Diaz-Cintas, 1999: 32). According to Diaz-Cintas (1999), this term was coined to remove the negative connotation of ‘adaptation’ used by some scholars. It is constrained from different perspectives. Mayoral et al (1988, cited in Diaz-Cintas,

1999: 32-33) offered a systematic gradation of the constraints based on the medium through which the message is coded. A decisive term is ‘synchrony’ which is the

“agreement between signals emitted for the purpose of communicating the same message” (p. 32-33). Their taxonomy determines at most six types of synchrony which were connected to the axioms of time, space, music, image, phonetics and spoken language. Subtitling and dubbing will be typified by 3-4 and 4-5 degree constraints. The difference (3-4 or 4-5) lies in the synchrony of music which is not a constant feature of a film. Subtitling and dubbing are constrained in the translational 38

parameters of image and time (p. 32-33). Since a film represents a reality, “what is being said or projected should not contradict what the characters are performing” and

“the delivery of the translated message […] should coincide with that of the speech act” (p. 32-33).

The structure of the utterances, the changes of the frame which diverts viewers’ attention, the medium of language transfer which differs in video and television subtitling (size fonts and consequently number of characters), and the reading speed of the viewers are also the constraining factors in subtitling. These constraints have been categorized into three classes by Guardini (1998): (a) technical, (b) textual and (c) linguistic:

Table 2.2. Three types of constraints in subtitling by Guardini (1998)

Technical Time and space of presentation, imposed by the original work Constraints The presence of the visual and verbal elements of the original, the spatial Textual Constraints constraints implying the reduction of the original, and, the change in medium; Intra-Linguistic, due to differences in syntax and grammar between the two Linguistic languages; Extra-Linguistic, i.e. "problems referring to the surrounding Constraints reality.

Technically, subtitles’ presentation time is influenced by the length of the source dialogue, the reading speed of the viewers, the visual information, and the way the film is edited. Space in the technical constrains refers to the number of the lines that can be presented on the screen. Textually, with respects to the presence of visual component, visual component and the original soundtrack are presented simultaneously. The picture can be analysed from verbal-visual (captions and written signs), non-verbal visual (the picture), verbal-acoustic (the dialogues, voices in the background, and lyrics), and non-verbal acoustic (music and sound effects) channels

(Gottlieb 1994: 265, cited in Guardini, 1998: 99). What happens in subtitling is the

shift of the dialogue or the verbal acoustic channel to a written text or the verbal visual channel. The balance between the visual and verbal channels of the source text needs to be preserved in subtitling. In subtitling the verbal text shifts from the oral mode to the written mode. Since the written mode is more explicit compared to oral mode and it does not enjoy the same suprasegmental features for conveying a character’s mood and intention, the change in the medium requires some adjustments.

2.2.2(c) Pros and Cons of Subtitling

Similar other modes of language transfer, subtitling has its benefits and drawbacks.

For instance, Mailhac (2000) suggests such advantages as the preservation of cultural coherence through the presence of SL, the supplementary nature of subtitle for viewers with a degree of knowledge in SL, the preserve of the link between speech and body language and the instructive nature of subtitling in second language acquisition for subtitling. Conversely, Mailhac (2000) set forth the surplus effort by the viewers to stick to the subtitle, the blend of fixed text with some dynamic camera shots which may distress the filmic effect, blurring of the screen with the written text, the condensation of subtitle in comparison to the original soundtrack and the evaluation of translation by SL competent audience as the drawbacks of this method.

This latter concern has been referred to what is discussed as offering the viewers with “pure essence of translation” and turned subtitling to “vulnerable translation” by

Diaz-Cintas (1999: 34). However, this vulnerability has a constructive facet: an educational significance in second or foreign language learning. In this respect,

Koolstra et al. (2002) mentioned four advantages and weaknesses concerning the viewers’ text processing (reading and listening) and the availability of the original voices. They were discussed under the topics of reading development facilitation, 40

acquisition of vocabularies in the viewer’s mother tongue, acquisition of a foreign language and barbarism (Koolstra et al. 2002). It can be argued that subtitled programmes facilitate (foreign) language learning and skills. However, there is the possibility for the first language to be contaminated by the foreign language

(Koolstra et al. 2002). Secondly, Koolstra et al. (2002) discussed 12 advantages and disadvantages for subtitling from the information processing standpoint. The first three are condensation, conciseness, and adjustment to speech duration which refer to the fact that the translation is required to be adapted to the information in the picture.

The next four are redundancy, manipulation, and censorship, ease of adaptation and limited view which refer to the removal of part of the picture. The last five are the distraction of attention, concurrent activities, noise in the environment, mental effort and efficacy which argue the need of the viewers to read the text. However, what they concluded was that viewers could adequately process the subtitled programmes and the condensation of the original soundtrack does not cause the loss of information. The viewers are not also distracted when they read the subtitled text.

Information processing is also efficient in subtitled programmes since reading is faster than listening (Koolstra et al. 2002). Nevertheless, subtitling requires a certain degree of literacy of the audience which adds to the burden of viewers’ understanding and may distract them from the image and lessen the enjoyment of the film. The continuous appearance and vanishing of the captions, the white or light background colour of the picture and the necessary adjustment of the colour of the captions are the examples. The hindering of a part of the original picture (usually the bottom of the screen) and the different reading speed of the viewers in order to come up with the subtitle can be added (Diaz-Cintas 1999).

There is also a psychological facet to subtitling. Diaz-Cintaz (1999) mentions the obligatory shift of the medium. This may distract the audience and cause them to lose complete participation in the emotional dimension. There are also socio- economic, cultural and political factors. The advantages of subtitling can be revealed by reviewing the use of dubbing as the competing method. Danan (1991) states the use of dubbing in different eras as a means of expressing nationalism in countries such as Italy, Spain, and Germany. It served two goals: to act as a national language in opposition to regional languages and to censor the source text covertly. Guardini

(1998) also refers to the advance of dubbing in Italy and points out to the national law of the country. The law postulates dubbing as the ideal mode of translation since the original soundtrack was entirely replaced by the target language dialogues.

Danan (1991) suggests dubbing as a way of asserting the supremacy of the national language inside the boundaries of a country from political, economic and cultural perspectives. However, as discussed by Koolstra et al. (2002), since the original soundtrack is totally removed there is more chance of censorship. These drawbacks are the results of replacing the SL with TL which is not the case for subtitling. From a different viewpoint, Mailhac (2000) argues a rather dangerous influence of the systematic use of subtitles which is the possibility of the subtitle to be represented as

“a form of linguistic and cultural imperialism” and consequently as a threat for the target culture (p. 131). This is to say that the rise and use of English as the dominant language of communication in general, and the systematic use of the language in subtitling films in this case, can lead to the further impose of English on the target language and culture, which would hinder the target language to be manifested as a means in translating films in that particular culture.

From an aesthetic viewpoint, Koolstra et al. (2002) discuss seven issues.

These issues are argued under the labels of authenticity, familiarity, picture overlapping, the unity of picture and sound, tortuous translations caused by the requirement of lip-synchronicity and caused by condensation and unnaturalness caused by asynchronicity (Koolstra et al. 2002). The first two discuss the preservation of the original soundtrack, the next two the coverage of part of the picture by the subtitle and the last three to the adjustment of the information presented in the picture. Aesthetically, dubbed the unity of picture and sound is maintained since there is no text projected on the screen. In addition as viewers hear their own language they feel the programme to be more familiar. However the original voices are removed and in the case of inadequacy in lip-synchronization a feeling of unnaturalness is experienced by viewers. Subtitled programmes preserve the original soundtrack “but the screen is ‘polluted’ with lines of texts” (Koolstra et al. 2002: 339, emphasis in original).

2.3 Translation of Iranian Films

Two main modes of translation can be identified for the translation of films in Iran: dubbing and subtitling. While dubbing is the dominant mode of translation of the imported and foreign language films in the country, the prevailing mode of translation of Iranian films for screening in foreign countries is subtitling. Subtitling of films in Iran will be discussed in more detail in the next sections.

2.3.1 Subtitling of Foreign Language Programmes

Foreign language films are generally dubbed by the national television of Iran. The programmes that are subtitled are mostly non-fiction or documentaries and news

(Hajmohammadi 2004). An increasing inclination towards watching subtitled films

can be noticed among Iranian youths which may be mainly, among other aesthetic advantages, due to a foreign language learning desire in them. According to

Hajmohammadi (2004), foreign language films in Iran are available on DVDs; many of which are labelled in Persian for a better command of English.

2.3.2 Subtitling for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing

SDH has been recently considered in Iran to make the movies and films available for deaf and hard of hearing people and their families. So far it has been only practiced in certain cinemas and in particular show times, as well as in DVDs. It is supported by the Welfare Organization of Iran. According to Fars News Agency (2009), About

Elly (2009) directed by Asghar Farhadi has been the first movie to be subtitled in the

Persian language for the deaf and hard-of-hearing. There have even been some campaigns in Iran supporting the idea of forcing film production and distribution companies to prepare the subtitles for the deaf. The deaf portal in Iran also provides the subtitles of many films and movies on their website and reminds the advantage of having subtitles to improve the deaf social understanding and entertainment in a democratic society.

2.3.3 Subtitling of Iranian Films for Non-Iranian Audience

Iranian films are generally subtitled for non-Iranian viewers. Regarding the translators of Iranian films, according to Naficy (2002), most of the subtitling of

Iranian films into English, in particular, and into western languages, in general, is carried out inside the country by persons whose first language is not English.

According to British Film Institute, Iranian films as subtitled foreign language films are categorized into the category of specialized films (BFI Statistical Yearbook 2013;

2012; 2011; 2010; 2009). Those Iranian films that are subtitled for the non-Iranian

audience are mostly subtitled inside Iran by local subtitling studios and agencies

(Naficy 2002). Contrary to dubbing, which is a target language-oriented mode of language transfer (Guardini 1998), subtitling is a source language-oriented method since it preserves the original soundtrack in its entirety available and accessible to the target viewers. The expectation and preference of the viewers need to be considered when the films are subtitled. As was mentioned (cf. 1.2), there are variations in the subtitling of CEs in the subtitles of Iranian films. This is to say that even the same

CE, and even when the subtitler has not been constrained by the temporal and spatial constraints of subtitling, translated in various and different ways ranging from more source-oriented to more target-oriented approaches. Hence, it is significant to investigate and study the preference of the audience, i.e. whether the non-Iranian audience of the films prefer the subtitles of the CEs in the more source-oriented or more target-oriented approach.

2.4 Polysystem Theory

Polysystem theory and the notion of translation as a cultural entity was first set forth by a translation scholar, Itamar Even-Zohar, in the 1970s. According to this theory and model, “the polysystem is conceived as a heterogeneous, hierarchized conglomerate (or system) of systems which interact to bring about an ongoing, dynamic process of evolution within the polysystem as a whole” (Baker and

Saldanha 2009: 176). Based on this definition, it can be argued that there are different layers in the polysystem. This is to say that the macro sociocultural polysystem of a country is made up of various smaller polysystem, in which the polysystem of that country’s national literature is regarded as one of the elements.

This theory enables us to perceive culture as a complex network of related systems and to examine literature within this cultural system. Likewise, literary systems, as 45

an important part of culture, are deemed to be internally related, stratified and dynamic. That is, the literary system can be seen as forming a network of relations or activities called “literary” which are themselves regulated by the network (Even-

Zohar 1990). The essential notion to the theory of polysystem is the competing nature of the various strata and subdivisions of the polysystem to get to the central i.e. the dominant position in that polysystem. This tension and competition for the dominant position between the different strata has led to the introduction of two positions, namely the canonical and the peripheral positions. This specifies that, while specific literatures are positioned in a secondary and peripheral position in the literary polysystem, certain other literatures reside in the centre and acquire a canonical position. Therefore, canonized literature puts forward “those literary norms and works (i.e. both models and text) which are accepted as legitimate by the dominating circles within a culture and whose conspicuous products are preserved by the community to become part of its historical heritage” (Even-Zohar 1990: 10-11).

On the other hand, peripheral, or non-canonized literature specifies “those norms and texts which are rejected by the said circles as illegitimate and whose products are often forgotten in the long run by the community (unless they change their status”

(Even-Zohar 1990: 10-11). Therefore, it has been argued by Even-Zohar that the pivotal premise of polysystem theory is the dichotomous distinction between canonized and non-canonized literature or the postulation of the hierarchical positions of “central” and “peripheral” for literary systems (Even-Zohar 1990). In other words, while specific literature occupies a secondary and peripheral position in the literary polysystem and as a result, their repertoire hardly shapes the polysystem’s central position, other particular literatures dominate the centre and develop into canonical. Even-Zohar (1990: 131) gives the examples of children’s

literature as one peripheral and secondary literary system. Thus, canonized literature signifies “those literary norms and works (i.e. both models and text) which are accepted as legitimate by the dominating circles within a culture and whose conspicuous products are preserved by the community to become part of its historical heritage” (Even-Zohar 1990: 15). One the other hand, peripheral, secondary or non- canonized literature implies “those norms and texts which are rejected by the said circles as illegitimate and whose products are often forgotten in the long run by the community (unless they change their status” (Even-Zohar 1990: 15). It needs to be noticed, however, that “canonicity” is neither characteristically passed to a text or a literature, nor it is a value judgment benchmark for evaluating a particular literature as superior or inferior (Even-Zohar 1990: 10-11).

Regarding the translated literature as an imported cultural repertoire, they are presumed to be transferred as goods firstly and then to be transformed into tools maybe later; thus to occupy a peripheral position in the polysystem (Even-Zohar

2000). However, the dynamicity of the literary system results in the uncertain and evolving position of the translated literature to centralize themselves in certain conditions (Even-Zohar 2000). Three conditions are to be hypothesized if translated texts find their way to the canon of the system and become canonized: (1) when a polysystem is nascent; (2) when a literature is weak or in peripheral position; (3) when a literature is in vacuum or crisis (Even-Zohar 1990).

Working on a descriptive study of the translation of children’s fantasy fiction,

Harry Potter phenomenon, in Taiwan, Liang (2007: 95) adds one more situation in which translations can occupy the central position: “when translated texts constitute what becomes the most active literary system in a given literary polysystem.”

According to Tamaki (2009), to examine the position of translated literature in a 47

particular context, that literature can be examined via a comparison between the number of book production to book translation in that culture.

Chang (2015) explored literary translation introduced by the source culture, the case of the translation of Chinese literature into English planned by the Chinese government, in the polysystem theory. According to Chang (2015), while, in the

1950s, a number of Chinese weights and measures were converted into the British elements, the translations done since the 1970s show the increasing conservation of the Chinese elements. The elements were tended to be retained when translating from

English into Chinese but converted in the opposite direction initiated by the target culture. Chang (2015), discussed the correlation of the norms governing the source- oriented translation to the source culture’s auto-image as a possible explanation.

According to a study by Torresi (2013), the Joyce's Ulysses was censored in the Anglo-American world for over a decade which was mainly due to the purportedly obscene content of the book. However, Torresi (2013) mentioned the canonical position of the book in the world’s polysystem and attempted to explore the issues of marginality/centrality in the postcolonial sense through the interpretation provided by the polysystem theory and discussed such notions as “the classic,” “the canon” and “centrality” within the polysystem. The role translators and institutions in promoting the position of Ulysses from a peripheral to a central position were also discussed.

Drawing on polysystem theory, Kruger (2012) investigated the production and reception of translated children’s literature in the postcolonial polysystem of

South Africa with a particular focus on language and power and post and neocolonial hybridity. In this study, the forces and pressures that have an impact on the use of

translation in producing children’s literature were examined. Kruger (2012) also showed that how such factors as the central or the peripheral of a literature would result in a faster selection, production, and reception of the books.

In another study by Alves (2011), a polysystemic analysis was opted for the analysis of the balance of power and representation of different countries on the best books list published by the periodical Folha de Sao Paulo (1999) and The Guardian

(2002). The study attempted to identify the balance of the powers that backgrounds the elaboration processes of the lists. The nationality and representativeness of the countries in the lists were also discussed. Based on the analysis, it was shown that almost 50% of the books on the list are from only four countries of England, France,

United States and Italy which suggest the centrality of the countries in the literary polysystem.

In a study on the translation of Andrea Camilleri’s Il cane di terracotta,

Briguglia (2011), compared two polysystems and discussed the divergent strategies used by translators in the two different polysystems as the factors in the completion of a translation. Briguglia (2011) reviewed the general challenges encountered by the

Catalan and Spanish translators as translating in two dissimilar societies. The study demonstrated that the linguistic and stylistic features of the novel were explained to make it read as within the source culture’s polysystem.

In a study on polysystem, Chang (2011), revisited the complexities of polysystem theory and attempted to clear up some misunderstandings from such aspects as the position of the translated literature, dynamics, heterogeneity, the probabilistic law, neutrality, and objectivity. The concepts of ‘adequacy’ and

‘acceptability’ given by Gideon Toury were also discussed. As a result, Chang

(2011) offered a revised version of the polysystem theory and explained where the translated literature is likely to be centrally positioned. According to the study, cultural theories and the polysystem theory can be mutually complementary and enriching.

Examining the children’s literature, Kruger (2011) explored the perception of norms in the postcolonial polysystems in South Africa. The reason for the tensions between the source text and the translation were particularly described in relation to different language groups in South Africa. In addition, the perception of the domesticating and foreignizing strategies used by the role players were also explored. Kruger (2011) argued that a systematic relation can be observed between different types of literary text which are written in different languages for children.

The perception of the preliminary norms was also focused.

In another study on the initial reception and translation of Madame Bovary in

Korea, Park (2010) drew on polysystem theory and explored the realization of

Flaubert’s novel under the particular historical, political, and social situations of the target community after being received in Korea and the possible connections between the translations’ birth and other polysystems’ interference before and after the 1950s were examined.

2.4.1 Polysystem in AVT

Polysystem theory has also been applied in AVT. As maintained by Diaz-Cintas

(2004), the term polysystem is flexible enough to be applied in AVT and accordingly, allows the researchers to analyse different modes of AVT in a film polysystem. According to him, the “film polysystem is made up of the national

products and the translated ones – dubbed or subtitled – and deals with the relationships that are established among all of them” (Diaz-Cintas 2004: 23).

Chmiel (2010) investigated the translation of postmodern networks of cultural associations in the Polish dubbed version of Shrek. She discussed voiceover as to the type of screen translation in Poland for a long time. The Polish dubbed version of

Shrek (2001), according to her, impacted the general perception of dubbing in the country. To investigate the networks of cultural associations which were created by the original American culture-oriented and the dubbed version of the film, which was a Polish culture-oriented, Chmiel (2010) analysed the context of screen translation in

Poland, as well as the Polish film polysystem.

In another study on the norms in interlingual subtitling, Mubenga (2010) adopted a systemic functional approach and discussed the challenges encountered by the subtitlers, the norms in audiovisual translation, as well as interlingual subtitling.

Similar to Mubenga (2010), Canuelo Sarrion (2008) investigated the transfer norms in film adaptations. She studied the norms in the Spanish-German context.

In her doctoral dissertation, Canuelo Sarrion (2010), investigated the cultural reception of a corpus of Spanish film adaptations in Germany between 1975 to 2000.

Applying Polysystem Theory as an epistemological framework to the study, Sarrion

(2010) aimed at analysing the Spanish-German intercultural relationships which took place through translated literature and translated cinema. According to her, when a literary work is transferred to the screen, and subsequently they are both translated into another language and culture, different types of transfer forms such as literary and audiovisual translations, as well as film adaptation, take place. Accordingly,

these transfer forms result in intercultural connection between the source and target languages and cultures.

2.5 Notions of Foreignization and Domestication

Venuti (1995/2008) proposed the notions of domestication and foreignization as two fundamental linguistic and cultural strategies in translation. According to Venuti

(1995), while domestication is observed as an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target language cultural values and so to bring the author back home, the latter refers to an ethnodeviant pressure on those (cultural) values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad. In general, domestication describes a transparent and fluent translation through the application of which the strangeness of the text is minimized. On the other hand, foreignization refers to the deliberate deviation from the target language and culture conventions through the retention of the foreignness of source text (Shuttleworth and Cowie

1997). The view on these notions is regarded to be a politically based on the impact of globalization on translation. According to Venuti “the colonization of the

Americas, Asia, and Africa could not have occurred without interpreters, both native and colonial, nor without the translation of effective texts, religious, legal, educational” (Venuti 2013: 64). Venuti (1998) also asserts that similar European colonializing ways can be seen for translation practices enlisted by transnational corporations.

Although the terms had long been used from a linguistic-oriented perspective in translation studies, it was not until the advent of cultural turn in the 1970s that the dispute over the domestication and foreignization was shaped around the social, cultural and historical perspectives. As it is mentioned by Wang Dongfeng (2002)

rather than just viewing these approaches as the time-worn controversy over free translation and literal translation, the conflict between these two approaches should be regarded as having cultural and political reasons. In other words, free and literal translations are not comparable and synonymous to domestication and foreignization.

This is to say that while foreignness of a text can be considered as criteria for assessing a translation to be foreignized or domesticated, the linguistic free and literal techniques in translation assume to deal with linguistic forms in transcoding language. Equally, domestication and foreignization mainly concern cultures and cultural differences between different languages and cultures.

Considering the Anglo-American monolingual cultural background, Venuti

(2008) believes in the presence of violence for the very purpose of domestication.

This is because domestication is, according to Venuti (1995), an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to [Anglo-American] target-language cultural values.

According to him, the solution to this reduction of the foreign text is foreignization or the strategy of resistant translation through which such a foreign text and a method of translation are opted by the translator to exclude the dominant cultural values of the target culture (Venuti 2008). As it was discussed (see 2.1), polysystem theory also indicates that while domesticating strategies and accordingly producing superficially fluent translations are more likely to be applied by translators in a strong literary polysystem, foreignizing strategies prevail in a weak culture.

Bassnett and Lefever’s (1990) cultural studies offered a new perspective on domestication and foreignization of texts in translations. Generally, they agreed on the complete naturalness of expression proposed by Nida (1964) and attached a high importance to the reader and audience of the text. Moreover, the adoption of different translation norms in accordance with different historical periods has also been 53

maintained. That is, the adopted strategy, whether domestication or foreignization, reflect and determine the social and cultural tendency of that particular contemporary society.

Domestication or foreignization have also been viewed from the skopos theory proposed by Hans J. Vermeer (1970). According to Vermeer (1987: 29), translation denotes the production of a text “in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances.” Thus, the skopos rule, as the top- ranking rule for any translation action, is intended to solve the problem of free vs. faithful, domestication vs. foreignization, etc. translation. In other words, this is the skopos of the translation action that determines whether the translator is required to opt for a domesticating or a foreignizing translation or anything between the two extremes.

Several studies have applied these notions in their investigation of translations. For example, in a study by Gonzalez-Vera (2015), the Spanish translations of American cultural elements found in the animated film The Princess and the Frog (2009) were examined. Drawing on the theory of domestication and foreignization, the study intended to explore if the text was domesticated or foreignized, as well as whether any significant loss of the cultural richness of the film happened in the Spanish translation of the film.

Moreover, Seyhan (2015), investigating the translation of German academic culture in Turkish exile, discusses that the power involvement issues in the politics of translation may highlight the economy of equitable exchange among the minor and dominant languages. Accordingly, the minor languages’ vulnerability tends to be misappropriated, domesticated, and depleted, when they were translated into

dominated languages and cultures. The study also maintained that the translation of a canonical language into a peripheral one, in the context of exile, can safeguard a banished intellectual culture.

Shureteh (2015) contrasted Venuti and Nida in translation theory, and attempted to demonstrate how Nida’s theoretical approach to translation and the concepts of “dynamic equivalence”, “naturalness of expression” (Nida 1964: 159), as well as the concept of “equivalence effect” (de Waard and Nida 1986: 9) are challenged by Venuti’s viewpoint on the notions of domestication and foreignization in practice.

Castano (2014) focused on the purpose of translation, the target audience and the strategies used in the translation of Libro de la Rethorica in two parts. First, she examined the process of cultural translation of the work in Nahuatl. In the second part of the study, the main strategies of foreignization and domestication used in the

Spanish translation of the work were examined. Zornetta (2014) inspected the reception of the translation of Darcy Ribeiro’s novel Maíra into Italian. Applying a

Descriptive study and Venuti’s concepts of domestication and foreignization, the study attempted to emphasize the translational strategies used in the translation of the novel. Emmerich (2013), grounding on Venuti’s concepts of domestication and foreignization, reviewed the studies on the visibility and invisibility of translators in translation studies.

In another study, Garcia (2013) examined the translation of such elements as adjectival, nominal and verbal collocations from English to Brazilian Portuguese in the short story The invisible man (1911) and demonstrated how the foreignization and domestication strategies had been co-occurred to solve translation problems

imposed by the collocations. The study revealed that different factors including the translator, the editorial policies, the linguistic interference, and the style of the author had influenced the option of foreignized and domesticated strategies.

Kruger (2013) studied the processing of foreignized elements in the translated

South African picture books among children and adult readers. She discussed how the tension between foreignizing and domesticating strategies is more apparently felt in the translation of children’s literature. Kruger (2013), maintained the lack of empirical research on the children and adult responses to foreignized elements in translation. Accordingly, using an eye-tracking technique, the study attempted to investigate South African’s children and adult readers’ processing and response to foreignized elements in translated children’s picture books in regard to the background of postcolonial/neocolonial linguistic and cultural hybridity in the country.

Investigating the translation of cultural references, Olk (2013) argued that selective analysis and description of translators’ approach as foreignization and domestication may give undue weight to the examination of the selected examples while ignore other elements. Olk, therefore, discussed that the use of more comprehensive quantitative data could enhance the studies particularly those studies that feature comparative elements.

Bennett (2012), assessed the impact of translation on Portuguese historiographical discourse. According to the study, the syntactic, poetic, etc. complexity of Portuguese historiographical discourse has always made it challenging for translators and accordingly forced the translators to make extensive reformulation to make it acceptable to an Anglophone reader. Bennett (2012) argues that, however,

a more quantity of clearer and simpler texts are currently produced by younger scholars which are more similar to the hegemonic discourse familiar to the English historians. It is argued that the present context of globalization has led the English to

Portuguese translators, as opposed to the translators translating in the opposite direction, to not to feel the need to domesticate the text extensively.

Jing and He (2012) studied the way naturalization is adopted as a strategy in translating four English texts to Chinese. The study shows how naturalization of the texts has resulted in domestication and accordingly the reduction of foreignness and strangeness of the English texts to the Chinese readers. The study maintained naturalization as an important strategy in the translation of target CEs from the source text, the application of which is decided by the context of the target culture, as well as the translator’s knowledge system.

Katan (2012), discussed the several cultural approaches based on the several definitions proposed for the two concepts of culture and translation, both of which, according to the study, revolve around differences. Accordingly, approaches to culture and translation are divided based on the differences between self and other in translation. In other words, the concepts of “translating from” and “translating for cultures” should be managed and explained. Katan (2012) discussed that in translating for cultures, domestication or foreignization as approaches through which the differences are reduced or highlighted might occur.

Lin (2012) examined the translation of Shimizu Hiroshi’s film Sayon’s Bell in colonial Taiwan and looked into the ways the primitivity of the colonized is rendered in the film. Drawing on Venuti’s domestication and foreignization notions, the study considered the dissemination of Japanese colonial discourse in the translations.

Moreover, in Lee (2011), the application of Venuti’s notions of domestication and foreignization were discussed. The study maintained that Venuti’s notions are frequently used by Korean researchers in analyzing translation practices, in the application of which three aspects should be considered by the translators. First, domestication should be regarded as a translation reality rather than the choice of the translator. Secondly, the researchers should not consider the notions merely from a linguistic perspective and third that the Korean history and market of translation ought to be considered and observed by the researchers too. Applying the theory to extensively diverse socio-cultural contexts is likely to result in inaccurate analysis and unfitting domestication.

In a study on the translation of textual reflexes of sociocultural norms in a children’s book, the Norwegian children’s novel Nattfuglene, into Arabic, Mejdell

(2011) investigated the adaptations in the forms of domestication and foreignization made by the translators. The study addressed such issues as the notions of domestication and foreignization, the importance of the relay version, and the concept of ‘culture context adaptations. These issues were analysed and observed in regards to sensitive issues the Arab culture as the target language and culture.

Ozbot (2011) studied the translation of literature from minor languages and cultures to the high-impact ones. Focusing on the Slovene literature in contemporary

Italy, the study discussed if the translation of literature from limited-diffusion languages and low-impact cultures may have an impact on the notions of domestication and foreignization to be opted by the translator in translating them into languages of high-impact cultures. Four factors were discussed in this study.

According to Ozbot (2011), the extra-textual setting of the target language, source text’s literary and genre-related features, the competence of the translator, as well as 58

the translation strategies adopted need to be considered. The study suggested that a positive reception of secondary literature in a canonical setting would determine the consistently target-oriented approach in the translation.

Pham (2011), considering the English-Vietnamese translation of Annie

Proulx’s Brokeback Mountain and homosexuality elements, maintained a peripheral position for translated literature in the Vietnamese literary system. According to the study, translation in Vietnam is alienated as the Western Other. In other words, translating homosexuality from English into Vietnamese has gone through a radical domestication techniques which has allowed the translated text not to be regarded or read as a cultural product of the other, but rather to be recognized as a condition within the US.

Pound (2011) investigated the choice between domestication and foreignization in translating for children. The study discussed and demonstrated the extent to which contrastive discourse analysis of the adaptations in the form of domestication and foreignization used in the translation of children literature is of help for translators to perceive and become aware of such issues as the relationship between parent and child, as well as the expressive choices underlining such ideas.

Also drawing on Venuti’s (1998) notions of domestication and foreignization,

Thawabteh (2011) investigated lexical borrowing in Arabic and demonstrated that meanings in the source language strongly disagree with the meanings in the target language. According to the study, lexical borrowing happens as a result of a cultural transfer in intercultural communications. While the borrowing may be considered as an injustice to the source language, it might be regarded as a gain for the target language.

2.6 Cultural Elements (CEs)

To better understand the meaning of CEs, culture and its relationship to language needs to be first defined. There are researchers who view language as a component of culture (e.g. Aixela 1996; Ramiere 2006). However, Newmark (1988) maintains that even though language includes all kinds of cultural deposits, it is not a component of culture itself. He defines culture as a community’s particular lifestyle and its manifestation (Newmark 1988). Translation problems exist when, due to this specific lifestyle and its manifestation, a particular community focuses more on some phenomenon other than others or as termed by Newmark (1988: 94) there is a

“cultural focus” which causes a “gap” or a “distance” between the languages. These cultural focus areas are generally referred to as Culture-specific Items (CSIs), or

Cultural Elements (CEs) in the current study.

From a linguistic standpoint, CEs are further subdivided into two groups:

Extralinguistic and Intralinguistic (Leppihalme 1977; Pedersen 2011). Extralinguistic

CEs are often expressed as the lexical problems of whether there exists an equivalent in the TL for a particular feature of the SL world (Leppihalme 1997). On the other hand, intralinguistic CEs includes such elements as idioms, puns, wordplays, and forms of address which often involve implicit connotations of how SL element can be presented to the TL receivers “if just translating it turns out to be inadequate”

(Leppihalme 1997: 3, italics in original).

Concerning the former type, as the focus of this study, Pedersen (2011: 43) defines an extralinguistic culture-bound reference (ECR) as a:

Reference that is attempted by means of any cultural linguistic expression, which refers to an Extralinguistic entity or process. The referent of the said expression may prototypically be assumed to be 60

identifiable to a relevant audience as this referent is within the encyclopaedic knowledge of this audience.

ECRs are the references to “places, people, institutions, customs, food, etc.” that someone out of the source community and culture may not know even if s/he knows the language (Pedersen 2011: 44). However, the existence of more or less arbitrary elements in language which can be explained through the intercultural gap between the two languages, appeal for a wider and more flexible definition of CEs.

A third approach in which the concepts of ‘extralinguistic’ and ‘cultural’ are included is required. The ‘encyclopaedic knowledge,’ as well as the ‘cultural’ criterion, need to be considered (Pedersen 2011). So, an ‘extralinguistic item’ refers to an item for the understanding of which both the knowledge of the language and the understanding of the culture is required. However, translation and intercultural relationship are rather dynamic than static. Therefore, any definition of CEs for translation purposes requires an appropriate determination of the intercultural relationship between the two linguistic cultures. As it is stated by Snell-Hornby

(1988: 42):

[…] the problems do not depend on the source text itself, but on the significance of the translated text for its readers as members of a certain culture, or of a sub-group within that culture, with the constellation of knowledge, judgment and perception they have developed from it.

A CE can then be defined as “the result of a conflict arising from any linguistically represented reference in a source text which, when transferred to a target language, poses a translation problem due to the nonexistence or to the different value […] of the given item in the target language culture.” (Aixela 1996: 57).

Those textually actualized items whose function and connotations in a source text involve a translation problem in their transference to a

target text, whenever this problem is a product of the nonexistence of the referred item or of its different intertextual status in the cultural system of the readers of the target text. (Aixela 1996: 58).

Through this definition, any linguistic element, providing the required conditions, is capable of being treated as a CE. Aixela (1996) gives the example of translating the biblical word ‘lamb’ from Hebrew into the language of Eskimos where the concept does not exist, and into Spanish or English. He states that while the biblical word constitutes an instance of CE in the former, it is not the case in the latter languages.

So it is not the linguistic element itself, but its function and status in the target language and culture that determines whether an item is culture specific or not. Not only this flexibility is important, but it is desirable if we consider translation as a dynamic intercultural phenomenon.

Pedersen (2011) posits that individuals’ intuitions can be used for the detection of most of the ECRs. Still, since the boundaries between culture and language are not clear cut, as discussed by Pedersen (2011: 49), there remains room for interpretation:

[…] as all of the criteria are very general and leave room for interpretation, and as the criteria work with converses rather than complements (i.e. degree of culturality, rather than cultural/not cultural), there are bound to be grey areas.

The next section discusses the challenges and problems in the translation of CEs.

2.6.1 CEs as Translation Problems

According to Pym (2004: 1), because of relatively not ideal conditions, cross-cultural communication includes a high level of effort for the reduction of the complexities, a high degree of transaction cost, a low level of mutual trust between the communicators, and the existence of “points of high-risk discourse.” Translation, as

a cross-cultural activity, is no exception. To deal with this unideal condition,

Lorscher (1991: 88) opts for two types of approaches: “strategic” and “nonstrategic.” Strategic translation requires problem-solving on the part of the translator.

In nonstrategic translation, however, the translation process is characterized as a problem free and automatic action (Lorscher 1991). Since there is a confrontation between the cultural deposits of two languages and cultures, it is so confusing to translate CEs that some scholars have viewed them as untranslatable (Catford 1965;

Cornu 1983; Arson 1988, cited in Ramiere 2006). As stated by Pedersen (2005: 1), these “translation crisis points” (TCPs) or what he later referred to as “translation problems” (Pedersen 2011) are elements which entail problem-solving in translation.

Hence, it can be argued that CEs demand strategic translation.

The situation is even more demanding when subtitling films. For films to reach an international audience, the linguistic difference needs to be properly dealt:

In this process of internationalization, linguistic difference is one of the major obstacles, and translation for the cinema […] has thus taken on major economic and social importance, […] translators obviously do not translate individual words deprived of context, but whole texts which are culturally embedded and based on a community of references predictably shared by most members of the source culture – thus creating “moments of resistance” for translation. Since it brings cultures into contact with one another, translation for the cinema in particular, and the audiovisual world in general, raises considerable cross-cultural issues. Disregarding them may lead to a translated programme which is unintelligible for the target viewers (Ramiere 2006: 152-153).

A distinction can be made between monocultural and transcultural CEs (Pedersen

2005; Pedersen 2011). While monocultural CEs are known to the source audience and unknown to the target cultures, transcultural CEs stands in opposition to the monocultural and refers to those that are relatively known to both audience. If we put

these two types of CEs in the sides of a continuum, the translation of the former type, or monocultural ECRs, would require more of the translator’s conscientious effort and manipulation. This indicates that, the more the CEs embed in the source culture, the less they are accessible to the target audience. Hence, the translator will be required to make decisions and select the best strategy, among the different available strategies at hand, to properly transfer the CE.

2.6.2 Different Categories of CEs

Different categories for the classification of CEs have been proposed. Newmark

(1988: 95) offered a detailed classification of five categories: (1) Ecology, (2)

Material culture (artefacts) which is subdivided into (a) food, (b) clothes, (c) houses and towns, and (d) transport, (3) Social culture (work and leisure), (4) Organizations, customs, activities, procedures, concepts which are subdivided into (a) political and administrative, (b) religious, (c) artistic, and (5) Gestures and habits. Newmark’s

(1988) classification makes no distinction between proper nouns and other expressions in the language. Hence, although a detailed classification is provided, lack of distinction between nouns and other levels of language such as phrases and even clauses seems to be a potential drawback of this classification.

However, unlike Newmark (1988), Leppihalme (1977) makes a distinction between proper-name (PN) and key-phrase (KP) allusions. According to Leppihalme

(1977: 78), the reason is the nature of PN which is often possible to be retained while a KP needs a rewording. Similarly, Aixela (1996) differentiates between two categories of CEs: proper nouns and common expressions. The latter category is used to refer to objects, institutions, habits, and opinions particular to a community and culture. The proper nouns are themselves grouped into two classes of “conventional”

and “loaded” nouns (Aixela 1996: 59). While the former type constitutes the

“unmotivated” a meaningless proper nouns, the latter type comprises the “motivated” proper nouns ranging from “suggestive” to “expressive” names, as well as those names that are loaded with certain historical or cultural associations (Aixela 1996:

59). The distinction between proper nouns and common expressions makes it more feasible for researchers to systematically study CEs at the level of both nouns and expressions. The other merit of Aixela’s (1996) classification is the division of proper nouns into two classes. This sorting preferably enables the researcher in selecting the favoured CEs based on the peculiarities of the study to study the preferred type of CE.

Yunxing (1998), opted for a broader classification of CEs. He identifies three linguistic forms in which CEs are manifested: culture-specific expressions, image confrontations, and discourse patterns (Yunxing 1998). Culture-specific expressions, based on Yunxing (1998), originate from cultural language, social life and political- economic system, and philosophical, religious, medicinal, and athletic traditions.

Image acceptability derives from the coherence of image sequences, parts of the human body, the usage of animals in metaphors and similes. The highest level at which cultural deposits can be found are the discourse patterns.

Based on Grit (1997), Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007) proposed a rather detailed classification of CEs. According to them, the most challenging situation arises when there is a lack of similar element in the target language or culture. This indicates that the target audience’s unfamiliarity with a CE results in a more challenging and problematic situation for the subtitler or translator when encountering a CE. This is referred to by Rabadan (1991: 164) as “referential vacuums.” This vacuum state is considered by Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007) to be 65

manifested as culture-bound terms under three broad categories of 1) Geographical references, 2) Ethnographic references, and 3) Socio-political references. Each of these categories is further subdivided into more classes. Geographical references are divided into three subclasses of a) objects from physical geography, b) geographical objects, and c) endemic animal and plant species. The second broad category,

Ethnographic references, are divided into five sub-classes of a) objects from daily life, b) references to work, c) references to art and culture, d) references to descent, and e) measures. The last broad category, Socio-political references, is subdivided into a) references to administrative or territorial units, b) references to institutions and functions, c) references to socio-cultural life, and d) references to military institutions and objects.

The other detailed category of CEs is the one offered by Pedersen (2011).

Based on a corpus of Scandinavian subtitles, Pedersen (2011) presented a domain of

12 categories of Extralinguistic Culture-bound References (ECRs). These categories are 1) Weights and measures, 2) Proper names which are subdivided into a) personal names, b) geographical names, c) institutional names, d) brand names, 3)

Professional titles, 4) Food and Beverages, 5) Literature, 6) Government, 7)

Entertainment, 8) Education, 9) Sports, 10) Currency, 11) Technical material, and

12) Other.Next section is a discussion of the taxonomies and typologies proposed by translation scholars in the translation of cultural items and mainly in the context of

AVT.

2.6.3 Different Classifications of Procedures

According to Newmark (1988: 96), translation of cultural words can be explained on a scale of procedures the two ends of which are “transference” and “componential

analyses.” In the former, the local colour is preserved, and the culture is emphasised.

However, it hinders comprehension. The latter does not have the source elements’ pragmatic effect, excludes the culture and emphasises the message and increase the comprehensibility. Therefore, at the end points of the scale, target readers are constrained in one way or another. In other words, if the translator seeks more comprehension of the cultural word, the colour of the source culture will be lost, while seeking the culture of the source community will lead to less comprehension.

These approaches can be compared with the Venuti’s (1988) scale of foreignization/domestication. While ‘transference’ resembles Venuti’s (1988)

‘foreignization,’ ‘componential analysis’ is more similar to ‘domestication.’ What makes these procedures particularly important in subtitling is that time and space play crucial roles for the translator and s/he is constrained by these factors. Thus, the subtitler is not that free compared to a translator of, for example, a novel.

In this respect, Gottlieb (1992) suggests 10 strategies in the context of subtitling and AVT: (1) Expansion, (2) paraphrase, (3) transfer, (4) imitation, (5) transcription, (6) dislocation, (7) condensation, (8) decimation, (9) deletion, and (10) resignation. The strategies of 1-7 provide the correspondent rendering of the source dialogue. Strategies 8 and 9 refer to those techniques in which the semantic or stylistic contents of the elements suffer in the process of subtitling. However, these strategies are usually used where there is a positive feedback from the nonverbal visual semiotic, i.e. image, of the audiovisual text. The last strategy, ‘Resignation,’ is usually applied in situations where the subtitler has to deal with tricky elements such as some idioms and culture/language specific elements and s/he is unable to render them due to the negative feedbacks from the non-verbal tracks (Gottlieb 1992). What makes his techniques less applicable for the translation of CEs is that they are

generally proposed as available ways for the subtitles to translate the source dialogue. In other words, they are not particularly derived out of a study on the translation of CEs in AV texts. Hence, a number of these strategies, such as

‘paraphrase,’ ‘transcription,’ ‘dislocation,’ and ‘resignation’ are vague or less helpful in applying them in the translation of CE.

Tomaszkiewicz (1993: 223-227, cited in Pettit 2009) studied the strategies in subtitling. In comparison to the classification of Gottlieb (1992), since

Tomaszkiewicz’s (1993) study is focused particularly on the subtitling of CEs, it provides a better understanding of the available strategies for dealing with CEs.

Eight strategies were identified. According to Tomaszkiewicz (1993), however, some

CEs are untranslatable. What needs to be considered is that more than one strategy may be operative in the translation of an item. The strategies are (cited in Zoe Pettit,

2009: 45): 1) Omission: whereby the cultural reference is omitted altogether; 2)

Literal Translation: where the solution in the target text matches the original as closely as possible; 3) Borrowing: where original terms from the source text are used in the target text; 4) Equivalence: where translation has a similar meaning and function in the target culture, 5) Adaptation: where the translation is adjusted to the target language and culture in an attempt to evoke similar connotations to the original, 6) Replacement of the cultural term with deictics: particularly when supported by an on-screen gesture or a visual clue, 7) Generalization: which might also be referred to as neutralization of the original, 8) Explicitation: which usually involves a paraphrase to explain the cultural term.

Although, Tomaszkiewicz’s (1993) classification give a general idea of the strategies used by subtitlers, since they are rather general they overlap to some extent. For example, there are cases where the subtitler borrows the CE, but s/he also 68

adjust it phonologically. This is an important sub-strategy of ‘borrowing’ discussed by researchers such as Pedersen (2011) and Aixela (1996). Furthermore, the overlapping nature of the strategies may result in some difficulties for researchers to distinguish certain strategies in a particular situation from others. As it is mentioned by Tomaszkiewicz (1993), the subtitler may apply more than one strategy at the same time for the translation of CEs.

Aixela (1996) proposed a scale from a lesser to a greater degree of intercultural manipulation. The strategies are ranged from the most conservative to the most substitutive.

repetition orthographic linguistic extratextual intratextual adaptation (non-cultural) gloss gloss

Conservative nature synonymy limited absolute naturalization deletion autonomous universalizatio universalization creation

Substitutive nature

Figure 2.1. The scale of the translation strategies in the translation of culture-specific items by Aixela (1996)

Considering the cultural gaps, a wide range of strategies from conservation to naturalization may be applied for the transference of CEs. This can be considered as an indicator of the extent of tolerance of the receiving language and community

(Aixela 1996). The classification of the procedures is detailed, and unlike Gottlieb’s

(1992) study, it is particularly focused on the translation of CEs. Since it is not proposed based on a study in the context of AVT, it suffers from certain drawbacks.

Although many of the strategies can be applied in the translation of CEs even in the context of AVT, due to the temporal and spatial constraints, there are strategies such as ‘external gloss’ and ‘internal gloss’ which rarely occur in subtitling. The other

drawback originates from the same reason: it is not based on a study in the context of

AVT. In other words, besides the strategies that are rarely applied in subtitling, there are also some strategies for the translation of CEs in the context of AVT that are not included in Aixela’s (1996) classification. An example is the usage of ‘deictics’ where the CE has been mentioned in the co-text or where it can be referred from the nonverbal visual information on the screen. In these situations, the subtitlers may consider the CE as visually redundant information and, hence, use deictics to save time and space.

The above-mentioned shortcomings can also be discussed for the other studies which have not been done based on the translation of CEs in the context of

AVT. For example, the studies carried out by Leppihalme (1997), Aubert and

Zavaglia (2005) and Olk (2013) can be mentioned. Although these studies are particularly on CEs, they suffer from the above-mentioned shortcomings.

In the study by Olk (2013), the translation of CEs was investigated using a selective and focused approach in which a framework for quantitative analysis of the translation of cultural references was proposed. The translation of cultural references were analysed, and seven procedures were identified for their translation: 1) transference of a cultural item, 2) transference + explicitation, 3) transference + explanation, 4) target-language expression referring to the source culture, 5) neutral explanation, 6) omission, 7) substitution of a CR with a cultural equivalent.

Following Mailhac’s (1996) model, Olk (2013: 9) puts forward a model of four text procedures: 1) Exoticism: text procedure is typically associated with a strong presence of the procedures ‘transference’ and ‘transference + explicitation’; 2)

Explained exoticism: text procedure is typically associated with a strong presence of the procedures ‘transference + explicitation’, ‘transference + explanation’ and ‘TL 70

expression referring to the source culture’; 3) Neutralization: text procedure is typically associated with a strong presence of the procedures ‘TL expression referring to the source culture’, ‘neutral explanation’ and ‘omission’; and 4) Cultural transplantation: text procedure typically associated with a strong presence of the procedures ‘omission’, ‘neutral explanation’ and ‘cultural substitution’.

Following the model of text procedures, Olk (2013) suggests the degree of cultural transposition of the CR and text procedure on a scale:

Figure 2.2. The degree of cultural transposition of the CR and text procedure on a scale. Olk (2013).

However, as mentioned earlier, these types of studies on the translation of CEs suffer from two kinds of shortcoming if they are used as a tool for studying CEs in the context of AVT. This is to say that since these classifications are proposed based on the translation of CEs not in the context of AVT, but on written source texts, the particularities of audiovisual texts have not been taken into account. Hence, the temporal and spatial specifications, as well as the multimodality nature of

audiovisual texts which have distinguished them from other types of texts, are neglected in the taxonomies. This has resulted in two shortcomings for utilizing these taxonomies of strategies for studying the translation of CEs in the context of AVT.

Firstly, some of the strategies such as Retention (Leppihalme 1997), Explicitation

(Aubert and Zavaglia 2005) and Transference + Explanation (Olk 2013) cannot be used, due to the constraint nature of AVT, in subtitling of CEs. Retention (c) in

Leppihalme (1997) is the addition of detailed information and references that give extra information, such as footnotes (Leppihalme 1997); Explicitation in Aubert and

Zavaglia (2005) refers to an explanation of the information in the target text that is implicit in the source text, usually in the form of an explanatory description integrated in the target text, parenthetic comments, appositions, footnotes, end-of- text glossaries, and the like. Transference + Explanation in Olk (2013) suggests that both transference of the ST-CR and a kind of explanation of the denotative meaning is provided by the translator. The explanation provided ranges from a simple generic term to detailed glosses. Hence, these strategies are not likely to be utilized by the subtitlers who are constrained by the available time and space.

Secondly, due to the same reason, there are strategies used by subtitlers that are not included. For example, none of the three above taxonomies have included the use of deictics as a strategy for the transference of CEs. This strategy is specifically used when the subtitler considers the CE as being used in the co-text, in the previously used dialogue, or being derived from the information in the visual mode or on the screen.

One of the classifications that are developed based on AV texts is the one proposed by Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007). Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007) set forth their classification based on Diaz-Cintas (2003) and Santamaria Guinot (2001). 72

Nine strategies have been established in this classification: 1) Loan, 2) Calque or literal translation, 3) Explicitation, 4) Substitution, 5) Transposition, 6) Lexical recreation, 7) Compensation, 8) Omission, 9) Addition. The loan is considered by

Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007) to occur when the CE in the source text is incorporated into the target language and text. The second procedure, or calque, refers to a literal translation. Explicitation refers to the attempt by the subtitler when the source element is either specified by the application of hyponymy, or it is generalized by means of a hypernym or superordinate term. Diaz-Cintas and Remael

(2007) consider the next procedure, substitution, as a variant of explicitation and is applied mainly when the spatial constraints of subtitling impedes the subtitler to insert a large text “even if it exists in the target culture and a hypernym or hyponym would therefore not really be required” (p. 204). The next procedure is transposition, through which the CE is replaced by another CE from another culture. In the case of lexical recreation, the subtitler draws on the invention of a neologism which is usually, according to Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007), placed between quotation marks. Compensation refers to the attempt of the subtitler to compensate for a translational loss “in one exchange by overtranslating or adding something in another” (Diaz-Cintas and Remael 2007: 206). The omission is the other procedure identified by Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007) in subtitling CEs. However, according to them, despite that omission does not indicate a translational strategy, there are cases in which it becomes unavoidable due to the spatial constraints or the nonexistence of the term in the target culture. The last procedure that is identified by

Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007) is addition which is likely to occur in the cases where understanding the programme is of high importance and where the CE may cause comprehension problems for the target audience.

Pedersen (2011) discusses the strategies based on the so-called “Venutian scale” and ranges the strategies from the most ‘foreignizing’ or as he chooses ‘SL- oriented’ to the most ‘domesticating’ or ‘TL-oriented’ (p. 3). What makes Pedersen’s

(2011) study distinctive is that the translations of CEs are investigated in the context of AV texts. The shortcomings of the previously discussed taxonomies are removed in his study. In other words, it is proposed based on both studying the translation of

CEs and in the context of AV texts and not written texts. The table below shows the strategies from the most foreignizing strategy or ‘Retention’ to the most

Domesticating strategy or ‘Substitution’, while ‘Direct Translation’ has been placed

on the two approaches.

Figure 2.3. Taxonomy of ECR transfer strategies, Pedersen (2011: 75).

In this taxonomy, ‘Official Equivalence,’ ‘Direct Translation,’ and ‘Omission’ are either not easily placed in the Venutian scale or need clarification. The reason for not placing ‘Official Equivalence’ in the foreignization/domestication scale is that it is not a linguistic but a bureaucratic process and, hence, the equivalence requires an official decision made by authorities. ‘Direct Translation’ is the other strategy that needs clarification. It is divided into two subcategories of ‘Calque’ and ‘Shifted.’

Since ‘Calque’ is the outcome of a literal translation of the SL elements, it appears

“exotic to the audience” (Pedersen 2011: 5) and, hence, regarded as a foreignizing strategy. On the other hand, since ‘Shifted Direct Translation’ occurs when some optional shifts are carried by the translator to make the ST ECR less obtrusive, it is more inclined to the target audience and, hence, more target oriented or domesticated

(Pedersen 2011). This is to say that ‘Direct Translation’ lies on the border of

Domestication and Foreignization; having both in its subcategories. The last strategy here is Omission. Although more inclined to domestication as the foreign ST ECR is omitted, since nothing replaces it, Pedersen prefers not to include it as a

Domesticating strategy.

Discussing the classification of the translation strategies from the most exoticising to the most domesticating, Ramiere (2006: 156) proposes the following typical progression of procedures studied in the literature:

Figure 2.4. Typical progression of procedures of the translation strategies; Ramiere (2006).

She then claims that there is always an implicit assumption made by the scholars who have investigated the translation of CEs that the translator always uses consistent strategies and accordingly creating norms in the translation of CEs

(Ramiere 2006). By contrast, Ramiere’s (2006) study seems to show a lack of consistency in the translation of CEs in the context of the film. This seems to be, however, due to the important roles played by contextual factors particularly in film

translation in which particular technical constraints and the presence of different semiotic resources are imposed in the meaning making procedure which needs to be considered when classifying the strategies.

To sum up, studies on the translation of CEs can mainly be placed on

Venutian scale of ‘foreignization’ and ‘domestication.’ The former attempts to retain the ‘otherness’ of the SC. On the other end of the scale, domestication, the familiarity of the target culture readers with the translated CE is sought (Venuti, 1998).

Different scholars have termed these orientations differently as ‘Conservative nature’ and ‘Substitutive nature’ by Aixela (1996), ‘exoticising’ and ‘naturalization’ by

Ramiere (2006), ‘SL-oriented’ and ‘TL-oriented’ by Pedersen (2011), and

‘exoticism’ and ‘cultural transplantation’ by Olk (2013). What is important is to notice that these are the most end points of the scale which indicate that there exist intermediate or transitional points in between. Most of the taxonomies have either been done based on the translation CEs in texts other than audiovisual texts (e.g.

Newmark 1988; Aixela 1996; Leppihalme 1997; Aubert and Zavaglia 2005; Olk

2013) or they have proposed the strategies in the context of subtitling in general and not particularly on CEs (e.g. Gottlieb 1992). Hence, it seems that new studies in the field are required. In the next section, the importance of audience will be reviewed.

2.7 Target Audience

When a translation is carried out, it has gone through some stages and processes.

According to Nord (1991: 4), it is often initiated by an initiator who approaches the translator because he needs a translation of a certain source text for a particular

“target addressee or recipient (TT-R).” Accordingly, the role that is played by TT recipient can be clearly seen in the chronologically essential factors in translation

given by Nord (1991): ST producer, ST sender, source text, ST recipient, initiator, translator, target text, TT recipient. Regarding these factors and constituents from a

Translatology point of view, all of the above factors are at work to make a certain message accessible to one particular group of people in the target text and culture:

Target Addressee or Recipient (TT-R). As Nida (1964) emphasizes the purpose of a translation will not be achieved if it is not read by the target reader.

Given that, the occurrence of some changes when a text is translated for the target audience is inevitable. This is because the source and the recipient audience, living in dissimilar communities, may have divergent cultural and linguistic repertoires and that this dissimilarity predictably leads to certain changes. This highlights the importance of the audience in regard to these adjustments.

In every translation then, the relationship between the translator and the target audience is complex and interrelated. Translators do not translate from their own perspectives and ideology, but they always look, at a great extent, to their target audience. However, various groups such as those with different socio-economic status, same educational backgrounds, and different age groups co-exist within a society which must always be considered by translators. So, translators need to know who the target receivers of their translations are. As it is discussed by Oittinen (2000) translators are always involved in a dialogic relationship with the author of the original, publishers, the illustrator and, the future readers of the translation. Li (2012) also maintains that a successful translation is the one that is translated in both the right place and of the right time. Nida (1964) has also put the emphasis on the importance of the purpose in translation and maintains that the purpose of a translation will not be achieved if it is not read. As a result, it is the target reader of the translation who makes the realisation of the purpose of translating possible. 77

Hence, if translators seek to achieve their purpose efficiently, having appropriate knowledge and understanding about their target audience and their expectations of the translation is vital and essential.

Nord (1991) mentions scholars such as Wilss (1997) who investigates the communicative role of the recipient, Thiel (1974, 1978, 1980) who studies his expectations, and his communicative background, Cartellieri (1979) who carried out research on the recipient’s sociological environment and his position regarding the subject matter of the text (cited in Nord 1991: 51).

The importance of a target audience approach to translation has also been mentioned by Venuti (2004) when he contends that translation is the invention of new readerships for a foreign text “who are aware that their interest in the translation is shared by other readers, foreign and domestic, even when those interests are incommensurable” (p. 495). However, the target audience can accept or reject the translation. That is, they are not totally passive factors whose attitudes and expectations should not be taken into considerations by the translator or other decisive factors such as initiators and commissioners in translation. As discussed by

Fish (1980: 407, cited in Li 2012: 128), it is the readers, not texts, who make meaning and “they do so by virtue of the theories or beliefs about meaning and about texts which they hold to be true.” Thus, translation is a kind of social practice “in the service of other people” which itself indicates that a translation can be evaluated as successful and valuable when it is transmitted and accepted by the target readers (Li

2012: 128-129). Hence, the target audience plays an un-negligible and central role in the realization of the true value of translation. As declared by Hermans (1999: 63), the life of a text, as an artefact, begins only when a reader responds to it.

Cronin (2013) also discuss that the emphasis that was given to the reader was the only most striking feature of translation norms after the Second World War. Prior to this time, norms in translation were determined in regard to the nature of the source language or the source language author. Cronin points to the widely published translator of French and Spanish literature who mentioned the vital role of the reader in his translation of ‘Don Quixote’ in 1950:

There is no doubt at all that the book improves as it progresses; the second part, published some ten years after the first, is by far and away the richer and the subtler. It is also more of a unity. For such digressions as there are do not take the form of separate tales, but are incorporated in the main body of the story. These digressions certainly offer an obstacle to the present-day reader; and my advice to anyone who finds himself bogged down by the goatherd’s tale in the twelfth chapter is to skip it judiciously. (Cohen 1950: 17, cited in Cronin 2013: 82)

Gutt (1991) has also contended that the translation should resemble the original only in those respects that that make the translation adequately relevant to the receptor language audience. He continues to refer to the different ways that translators have rendered a text at different times and suggests that this can be attributed to their target audience:

“[…] it is tempting to suggest that diachronically, too, the different ways in which people have translated at different times in history can be attributed to differences in what the translator believed to be relevant to his contemporary audience.” (Gutt, 1991: 390).

In a similar way, Venuti (2000) emphasizes the readership when he discusses the free translation of Sagan’s Bonjour Tristesse. According to him “Ash inscribed Sagan’s novel with a domestic intelligibility and interest, addressing a community that shared little of the foreign context where the novel first emerged” (Venutti 2000: 484). For him in serving domestic interests, a translation provides an ideological resolution for

the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text (Venutti 2000). Moreover, when talking about Ward’s new translation of L’Etranger, Rose (1997: 19, cited in

Chazal 2003: 16) emphasizes the consideration of the publishing house for the target audience when she mentions that “[H]is backers at Knopf must have assumed that

American readers were ready for Camus written with English words.”

From what has been discussed, it can be concluded that one of the most important criteria for evaluating a translation as being successful or not, is the audience’s responses to the translation. Hence, the audience can be considered as a yardstick for validating a translation (Farghal and Al-Masri 2000), and target audience of a translation must be highly considered by translators. Therefore, if not the most central factor, the audience is one the most essential factor in the analysis of a text from a Translatology perspective.

2.8 Summary

The present chapter starts with an account of Iranian cinema. Subsequently,

AVT and subtitling are looked into from different perspectives in the literature.

Translation of films and the advantages and disadvantages of subtitling are discussed under different criteria. Even-Zohar’s (1990) Polysystem Theory is explained in light with the perception of culture as comprising a complex network of related system.

Subsequently, different studies examining films and AVT in the polysystem are reviewed. Venuti’s (1995/2008) notions of domestication and foreignization are explained, and the related literature applying the notions are reviewed. Next, the importance of a cultural approach in TS and AVT in particular is discussed. This cultural approach demonstrates how the position of a literary in the polysystem, as well as the hegemony of a language and culture, are two important influences on

translation. This is of particular importance in films, and AVT, since cinema is a means through which the audience as members of different cultures have become able to contact with each other. Cultural Elements and their categorizations by different researchers are also reviewed. Lastly, the importance and status of the target audience is looked into.

CHAPTER 3

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY

3. Introduction

The theoretical and methodology of the study are presented in this chapter. Firstly, the CE classifications to be used as the basis for the identification and extraction of

CEs in the corpus of the study are offered. Secondly, the related taxonomies in the strategies applied in subtitling of CEs are presented. The classifications are employed as a foundation in specifying translation strategies used in subtitling of CEs in the

Iranian films. Subsequently, the notions of domestication and foreignization are presented. Lastly, the relevance of Polysystem theory to the current study is elaborated. The methodology of the study is presented next. The Iranian films as the corpus of the study and the justification of the corpus are presented. Following the discussion of the corpus, the development and administration of the questionnaire as the tool in the determination of international viewers’ preferences towards the subtitling of CEs are discussed. Lastly, the subjects of the study and the data analysis procedures are described.

3.1 Theoretical framework

3.1.1 Classification of CEs

Three classifications of CEs, namely by Newmark (1988), Pedersen (2011), and

Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007), are adopted as the basis for the identification and extraction of CEs. The researcher’s own classification of CEs found in the corpus of the study is proposed.

3.1.1(a) Newmark (1988)

The five categories proposed by Newmark (1988: 95) are (1) Ecology, (2) Material culture (artefacts) which is subdivided into (a) food, (b) clothes, (c) houses and towns, and (d) transport, (3) Social culture (work and leisure), (4) Organizations, customs, activities, procedures, concepts which are subdivided into (a) political and administrative, (b) religious, (c) artistic, and (5) Gestures and habits.

3.1.1(b) Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007)

Based on Grit (1997), Diaz Cintas and Remael (2007) proposed a rather detailed classification of CEs. The CEs are categorized under three broad categories of 1)

Geographical references, 2) Ethnographic references, and 3) Socio-political references. Each of these categories is further subdivided into more classes.

Geographical references are divided into three subclasses of a) objects from physical geography, b) geographical objects, and c) endemic animal and plant species. The second broad category, Ethnographic references, are divided into five sub-classes of a) objects from daily life, b) references to work, c) references to art and culture, d) references to descent, and e) measures. The last broad category, Socio-political references, is subdivided into a) references to administrative or territorial units, b) references to institutions and functions, c) references to socio-cultural life, and d) references to military institutions and objects.

3.1.1(c) Pedersen (2011)

The other category of CEs that is utilized in the current research is the one proposed by Pedersen (2011). Based on a corpus of Scandinavian subtitles, Pedersen (2011:

59) presented a domain of 12 categories of Extralinguistic Culture-bound References

(ECRs). These categories are 1) Weights and measures, 2) Proper names which per se is subdivided into a) personal names, b) geographical names, c) institutional names, d) brand names, 3) Professional titles, 4) Food and Beverages, 5) Literature,

6) Government, 7) Entertainment, 8) Education, 9) Sports, 10) Currency, 11)

Technical material, and 12) Other.

The three classifications of Newmark (1988), Diaz Cintas and Remael (2007) and Pedersen (2011) are presented in the following (table 3.1). These classifications will be mainly used for the extraction of the cultural element in the current study.

The criteria for the selection of these classifications lies on the detailed classifications of cultural elements by these taxonomies. Moreover, the classifications of Diaz Cintas and Remael (2007) and Pedersen (2011) are proposed in relation to the analysis of the translation of CEs in subtitling, which make them useful for the current study. In order to demonstrate the ways cultural elements are categorized by these classifications, they are comparatively presented in table 3.1.

Table 3.1. The three classifications of Newmark (1988), Diaz Cintas and Remael (2007) and Pedersen (2011)

NO Newmark (1988) Diaz Cintas and Remael (2007) Pedersen (2011) 1 Ecology: Flora, fauna, winds, Geographical references: objects Proper names: plains & hills from physical geography geographical names e.g. honeysuckle, downs, e.g. savannah, mistral, tornado e.g. The Allegheny sirocco, tundra, pampas, tabuleiros, plateau, selva, savanna, paddy fiels 2 Geographical references: geographical objects e.g. downs, plaza mayor 3 Geographical references: endemic animal and plant species e.g. sequoia, zebra 4 Material culture (artefacts): food Ethnographic references: objects Food and Beverages e.g. zabaglione, sake, from daily life e.g. Linzer Torts Kaiserschmarren e.g. tapas, trattoria, igloo 5 Material culture (artefacts): Ethnographic references: cloths references to work e.g. anorak, kanga, sarong, dhoti e.g. farmer, gaucho, machete, ranch 6 Material culture (artefacts): houses and towns 84

e.g. kampong, bourg, bourgade, chalet, low-rise, tower 7 Material culture (artefacts): transport e.g. bike, rickshaw, Moulton, cabriolet, tilbury, caleche 8 Social culture - work and leisure Entertainment e.g. ajah, amah, condottiere, e.g. Coney Island biwa, sithar, raga, reggae, rock 9 Sports e.g. the pitcher mound 10 Organizations, customs, Socio-political references: Proper names: activities, procedures, concepts: administrative or territorial units institutional names political and administrative e.g. county, bidonville, state e.g. National Health Services 11 Socio-political references: Government institutions and functions e.g. the Foreign Office e.g. Reichstag, sheriff, congress 12 Socio-political references: Professional titles military institutions and objects e.g. Detective e.g. Feldwebel, marines, Sergeant Smith & Wesson 13 Socio-political references: sociocultural life e.g. Ku Klux Klan, Prohibition, landed gentry 14 Organizations, customs, activities, procedures, concepts: religious e.g. dharma, karma, temple 15 Organizations, customs, Ethnographic references: Literature activities, procedures, concepts: references to art and culture e.g. “Never Love a artistic e.g. blues, Thanksgiving, Stranger” Romeo and Juliet 16 Gestures and habits e.g. Cock a snook, spitting 17 Ethnographic references: references to descent e.g. gringo, Cockney, Parisienne 18 Ethnographic references: Measures Weights and measures e.g. inch, ounce, euro, pound e.g. 100 yards 19 Proper names: personal names e.g. Truman Capote 20 Proper names: brand names e.g. Morris Minor 21 Education e.g. college degrees 22 Currency e.g. 2 billion dollars 23 Technical material e.g. a double Alberti feedback loop 24 Other

As can be seen in the table, Newmark (1988), Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007), and

Pedersen (2011) has made a distinction between 10, 12, and 15 categories of cultural

elements, respectively. While Pedersen (2011) has classified proper personal and brand names as separate and distinct classifications, the Newmark’s (1988), and

Diaz-Cintas and Remael’s (2007) classifications make no separate categories for personal and brand. On the other hand, Newmark’s (1988) includes separate categories for houses and towns and transport as subcategories of material culture

(artefacts), as well as gestures and habits which is particularly distinctive to his classification. Moreover, Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007) has included references to descent in their classification which is lacked in other two. Nevertheless, the researcher does not constrain the study to these classifications. In other words, following Aixela (1996: 57), a broader definition and classification of CEs is applied.

The reason lies in the existence of more or less arbitrary elements which can only be described through the intercultural gap between the two languages and cultures.

Hence, in the current study, any linguistic elements, postulating the required conditions, is capable of being considered as a CE. So, it is not the linguistic element per se, but its function and status in the target language and culture which settles on whether an item is deemed as cultural or not.

3.1.2 Classification of Procedures

From what has been discussed (see 2.6), there are four potential stipulations for the

CE to be transferred into the target language and culture: either (1) the source CE finds its way to the target culture intact or with minor changes, (2) the source culture element finds its way to the target culture through some explanations, (3) the source culture element does not enter the ST and it is either explained or replaced by some elements in the TT and (4) it is omitted. With this in mind, for the purpose of classifying of the strategies utilised in the subtitling of Persian CEs into English, two associated classifications are applied. These taxonomies are Diaz-Cintas and Remael 86

(2007) and Pedersen (2011). The motive for applying these two classifications is the much-related nature of the studies from which these categories and classifications have been drawn. In other words, unlike many other classifications which are proposed on the basis of the analysis of translation procedures in written texts, Diaz

Cintas and Remael (2007) and Pedersen (2011) put forward their classifications based on the analysis of the translation of CEs in subtitling, which make the classifications useful for the current study.

3.1.2(a) Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007)

The first classification that is used as the basis for identifying the procedures employed in the subtitling of CEs in Iranian films is the one proposed by Diaz Cintas and Remael (2007). Diaz Cintas and Remael (2007) set forth their classification based on Diaz Cintas (2003) and Santamaria Guinot (2001). The classification includes nine procedures, namely, 1) Loan, 2) Calque or literal translation, 3)

Explicitation, 4) Substitution, 5) Transposition, 6) Lexical recreation, 7)

Compensation, 8) Omission, 9) Addition.

3.1.2(b) Pedersen (2011)

Pedersen’s (2011) classification is used as the other classifications in the present research. Pedersen (2011), being concerned with the limitations of previous classifications, investigated the strategies applied in subtitling of CEs to English. His study, compared to the previous studies, provided a more comprehensive and detailed classification of the applied procedures (see 2.6.3).

However, since the previous classifications may not be specifically responding to subtitling of CEs in Iranian films into English, since they are two

remote cultures, the current research takes a descriptive-explanatory approach towards the data. In other words, the procedures applied in subtitling of CEs in

Iranian films are first compared and contrasted with the procedures proposed by

Pedersen (2011) and Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007), and then the classification of the procedures is proposed.

3.1.3 Even-Zohar’s Polysystem Theory

Polysystem theory and the notion of translation as a cultural entity were first set forth by Itamar Even-Zohar in the 1970s. This theory is applied in the current research to examine the extent to which the procedures applied by the subtitlers, as well as the preference of the international audience, are influenced by the position of Iranian films in the global film polysystem.

Polysystem perceives culture as related systems for which a bilateral function has been specified as goods and tools (Even-Zohar 2000: 389). Specific cultural goods may convert into canonized cultural tools which act as sources of powers that differentiate a cultural entity from another through which the “effectiveness of an established repertoire” is examined (Even-Zohar 2000:391-394).

Likewise, literary systems, as an important part of culture, are envisaged as forming a network of relations or activities called “literary” (Even-Zohar 1990). The essential principle of polysystem theory is the dichotomous distinction between canonized and non-canonized literatures, i.e. that of “central” and “peripheral.” This indicates that, while particular literatures reside in a secondary and peripheral position in the literary polysystem, other specific literatures occupy the centre and acquire a canonical position. Thus, canonized literature suggests “those literary norms and works (i.e. both models and text) which are accepted as legitimate by the

dominating circles within a culture and whose conspicuous products are preserved by the community to become part of its historical heritage” (Even-Zohar 1990: 15).

Conversely, peripheral, or non-canonized literature indicates “those norms and texts which are rejected by the said circles as illegitimate and whose products are often forgotten in the long run by the community (unless they change their status” (Even-

Zohar 1990: 15).

In regard to translated literature as an imported cultural repertoire, they occupy a peripheral position (Even-Zohar 2000: 196). As stated by Tamaki (2009:

122), to assess the situation of translated literature in a particular context, it can generally be examined through a comparison between the number of production to that of translation in a particular culture. In regards to films and their translations, as asserted by Diaz-Cintas (2004: 23), polysystem theory can be employed to designate a film polysystem in a particular setting. Accordingly, the polysystem used in the current search discusses the position of Iranian films and cinema in the global film polysystem. Moreover, polysystem also specifies that while domesticating strategies and translations are more expected to be useful by translators in a strong literary polysystem, foreignizing strategies occur in a weak culture and polysystem. Thus, the researcher, applying the Polysystem Theory, attempts to investigate the position of Iranian cinema and films in the global films polysystem and to explore if the position has influenced the strategies exploited in the subtitling of CEs in the films.

Polysystem theory is also applied to investigate the extent to which the preferences of the Western audience of Iranian films, whose films and cinema occupy a central position in the global film polysystem (see chapter 4), is in line with the approaches applied in subtitling of CEs in Iranian films.

3.1.4 Venuti’s Domestication/Foreignization

Lawrence Venuti’s (1995; 2008) notions of Domestication/Foreignization is applied to both categorise different strategies in the translation of CEs in the official English subtitles of Iranian films, as well as to discuss the sociocultural-related reasons behind the selection of these strategies. According to Venuti (1995; 2008), while domestication is demarcated as “an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values, bringing the author back home”, foreignization, or resistency (Venuti 1995: 305-306), is perceived as “an ethno-deviant pressure on those (cultural) values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad” (p. 20). These two concepts are applied in the current study to put the strategies in the translation of CEs of Iranian films from the most domesticated to the most foreignized on a continuum. The continuum reveals the extent to which the power relation between different languages and cultures has resulted in the CEs to be translated in a manner that makes them invisible and minimizes the foreignness of the Target Text or makes them visible and maximizes the foreignness of the Target Text.

3.2 Methodology

This section explains the procedures that are taken in the current research, the Iranian films as the corpus of the study, justification of the corpus of the study, the development and administration of the questionnaire, the international audience of

Iranian films as the subjects of the study and the analysis of the data.

3.2.1 Procedures

The current research is a mixed method study. Qualitative and quantitative approaches are applied to achieve the objectives of the study. Qualitatively, the

position of Iranian films and cinema are explored in the global film polysystem.

Subsequently, the categories of CEs that are used in the Iranian films are identified.

Following the identification of the CEs, they are extracted, and the procedures employed by subtitlers in the translation of the CEs are examined. The translation procedures are subsequently positioned on a scale of foreignization and domestication orientation. After the identification and categorization of the procedures used by Iranian subtitlers, the application of the procedures in the films are then discussed based on polysystem theory and the notions of domestication and foreignization. Quantitatively, a questionnaire is developed to enable the identification of the preference of the international audience towards domesticated and foreignized strategies. The questionnaire is disseminated to international audience through diverse ways and in several venues. The subjects are contacted both in international film festivals and through online social networks, such as

Facebook (see 3.2.4). The questionnaire is publicized in international Iranian film festivals through printing business cards, as well as through the distribution of hard copies of the questionnaire at the festivals to international audience. The subjects are asked to check their preferred option among the provided ones. After the distribution of the questionnaire and the collection of the data, the results are quantitatively analysed. SPSS 23 is used to analyse the results of the study.

Hence, the following steps are taken throughout the study:

1. The English subtitled Iranian films as the corpus of the study are gathered;

2. The position of Iranian films are identified in the global film polysystem;

3. Persian CEs are identified and categorized in the corpus;

4. CEs and their translations in the English official subtitles are extracted and

analysed;

5. The strategies are categorized based on the Foreignization/Domestication

strategies;

6. Representative items and their potential subtitles which are drawn from the

corpus are included in the online questionnaire for the subjects to express

their preferences towards the subtitling procedures applied in the films.

7. The results are both quantitatively and qualitatively analysed;

8. The findings are discussed from polysystemic and domesticating/

foreignizing perspectives.

3.2.2 Corpus of the Study

The corpus of the current study is built from the Iranian films which have been nominated as the representatives of the country in the Academy Award of Merit (The

Oscars), as well as those films screened at international film festivals with English subtitles. Reaching a saturated amount of data, 31 movies with their official subtitles are examined.

3.2.2(a) Justification of the Corpus

Several researches on AVT have been done based on case studies, and the corpus has consisted of only one film (Mattsson 2009: 55). However, the corpus of this research is beyond case studies and towards what has been desired by some scholars (e.g.

Gambier 2008). A number of researchers have attempted to go beyond the case studies. For example, Schroter (2005), Pedersen (2011) and Mattsson (2009) studied

18, 50, and 10 films respectively. Mattsson (2009) studied 10 American films each using up to four different translations which are nearly 40 subtitles. Therefore, the present research is also an attempt beyond case studies. Accordingly, 31 movies with their official English subtitles are selected from the films sent for Academy Award of

Merit (The Oscar), as well as from those films screened at international film festivals from the 1990s onward. The films are listed in Table 3.1 below. The reason for selecting this period is the dramatic growth in the presence of Iranian films in international film festivals from the 1990s up to date (see 4.1.2.2).

3.2.2(b) The Films

The films, selected based on the mentioned criteria (see 3.2.1.), are listed in Table

3.1. The title of the films, their production date, the name of the director, and the festivals they are screened are stated.

Table 3.2. The Films used as the corpus of the study.

No Film Title Date Director Festival/Awards 1 Sensitive floor 2014 Kamal Tabrizi Fajr International Film Festival 2014

2 Modest Reception 2012 Mani Haghighi Berlin International Film Festival 2012 Chicago International Film Festival 2012 3 I am a Mother 2012 Fereydoun Jeyrani London Iranian Film Festival 2013

4 The Snow on the 2012 Peyman Moaadi Vesoul Asian Film Festival Pines 5 Bitabi Bita 2011 Mehrdad Farid Fajr International Film Festival 2011

6 No Men Allowed 2011 Rambod Javan Boston Iranian Film Festival 2013

Fajr International Film Festival 2011 7 Ziba and I 2011 Fereidoun Fajr International Film Festival 2014 Hasanpour 8 A Separation 2011 Asghar Farhadi Academy Awards, USA 2012 Golden Globes, USA 2012 9 Facing Mirrors 2011 Negar Asia Pacific Screen Awards Azarbayjani 10 Gold and Copper 2011 Homayoun Fajr Film Festival Asadian 11 Here Without Me 2011 Bahram Tavakoli Montréal World Film Festival 2011

12 A Cube of Sugar 2011 Reza Mirkarimi Ibn Arabi International Film Festival 2012

Academy Awards, USA 2013 Kazan International Festival of Muslim Cinema 2013 13 Zanha 2010 Mehrdad farid Fajr International Film Festival 2010 Shegeftangizand

14 There Are Things 2010 Fardin Saheb- Karlovy Vary International Film You Don’t Know Zamani Festival 2010

15 About Elly 2009 Asghar Farhadi Brisbane International Film Festival 2009 European Union MEDIA Prize 2012 16 My Tehran For Sale 2009 Granaz Moussavi Fort Collins TriMedia Festival 2010 Best Feature Film 17 The Song of 2008 Majid Majidi Berlin International Film Festival 2008 Sparrows Asia Pacific Screen Awards 2008 18 Santouri 2007 Dariush Mehrjui Film festivals in South Korea, Japan and the Czech Republic and Canada and the United States. 19 Fireworks 2006 Asghar Farhadi Chicago International Film Wednesday Festival 2006 20 The Willow Tree 2005 Majid Majidi Fajr International Film Festival 2005

21 A piece of bread 2005 Kamal Tabrizi Fajr International Film Festival 2005

22 The Lizard 2004 Kamal Tabrizi Montréal World Film Festival 2004

23 Crimson Gold 2003 Jafar Panahi Cannes Film Festival 2003 Chicago International Film Festival 2003 24 Women’s Prison 2002 Manijeh Hekmat Bratislava International Film Festival 2002 25 Under the Skin of the 2001 Rakhshan Bani- Torino International Festival of Young City Etemad Cinema 2001 Moscow International Film Festival 2001 26 Under the Moonlight 2001 Reza Mirkarimi Cannes Film Festival 2001 Beirut International Film Festival 2001 Tokyo International Film Festival 2001 27 Sheyda 1999 Kamal Tabrizi Tokyo International Film Festival 2001

28 The Color of Paradise 1999 Majid Majidi Boston Society of Film Critics Awards 2000 London Critics Circle Film Awards 2001 29 May Lady 1998 Rakhshan Bani- Montréal World Film Festival 1998 Etemad Fajr Film Festival 1998 30 Taste of Cherry 1997 Abbas Kiarostami Cannes Film Festival 1997

31 Children of Heaven 1997 Majid Majidi Academy Awards, USA 1999

3.2.3 Collecting the Survey Data

The procedures and steps in collecting data through the administration of the questionnaire are explained in this section. The section includes the development, pilot testing, and the administration of the questionnaire as well.

3.2.3(a) Developing the Questionnaire

After classifying the procedures used by the Iranian subtitlers, an online questionnaire comprising selected representatives of the found CEs and their subtitles is developed. The CEs are selected based on their importance in regards to their frequency in Iranian films. The provided English subtitles as the options to be selected by the respondents include the official English subtitle of the film, as well as alternative subtitles in which the translation of the CE is replaced with another translation of that particular CE which itself was found in the corpus of the study. In other words, the alternative subtitling of the CEs are not translated by the researcher, but they are authentic translations done by official subtitlers found in the corpus of the study.

To gather as many responses as possible, the researcher attempts to construct and develop a questionnaire that is appealing, concise, and straightforward for the respondents to respond to (Greasley 2008). The possible subtitles from the most foreignized to the most domesticated strategies are randomly presented in different questions. The respondents are required to select and check their preferences according to the best subtitle that fits their preferences among the provided options.

To contextualise the use of CEs, each question incorporates a shot from the film accompanying with a description of the scene, which is called context. The respondents are provided with the original soundtrack of the subtitle and the gloss translation as well. To increase the response rate, a coherent and moderately conservative layout is chosen for the questionnaire to make it more respondent friendly. In the cases of no response, a reminder is also sent off to the emails or FB accounts of those respondents who had provided their emails to the researcher or the

researcher’s representative after ten days. This is done based on Langdridge and

Hagger-Johnson (2009: 97, cited in Saldanha and O’Brien 2013: 166).

3.2.3(b) Validity and Reliability

To ensure the content validity of the questionnaire (Gravetter and Forzano 2012), scholars and experts from Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) and some other universities are consulted. This includes Associate Professor Hasuria Che Omar from

Universiti Sains Malaysia, as the supervisor of the current study, Professor Behzad

Ghonsooly from the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, as well as advises from

Professor Jorge Diaz-Cintas from University College London through emails. Both the questions of the questionnaire, as well as the cover letter of the questionnaire are reviewed and revised by the experts above.

The face validity of the questionnaire is also ensured by constructing and developing the questionnaire through one of the most famous and recommended online survey development cloud-based software companies, namely,

SurveyMonkey. The monthly package is purchased. After the development of the online questionnaire, the language of the questionnaire is also checked and edited by two native speakers of English. In order to avoid any misunderstandings and mistakes, the researcher was personally present when the native editors were editing the language of the questionnaire. This is to ensure that the probable unclear meanings are clarified by the researcher himself to the editors. The confidentiality of the questionnaires is also guaranteed in the cover letter.

One of the influences that may threat the internal validity of the questionnaire is the Hawthorne effect which happens “when people alter (usually improve) their normal behaviour” (Saldanha and O’Brien 2013: 31). One of the ways to control this

effect, according to Saldanha and O’Brien (2013), is to select a sufficient number of participants, which control the modified behaviour of the participants. Accordingly, the data is gathered from 223 respondents which is large enough to conclude valid results (see 3.2.4).

Moreover, to ensure “measurement validity” (Saldanha and O’Brien 2013:

33), random sampling, i.e. probability sampling, is carried out for selection of the respondents. This method of sampling is named as “gold standard of sampling” by

Saldanha and O’Brien (2013: 33), and is considered as the ideal way to ensure that the participants have equal chance of being chosen. Therefore, the cards and the questionnaires are randomly distributed among the Western viewers of Iranian films in International Iranian film festivals. The participants are also randomly contacted through social networks.

To confirm on the reliability and construct validity of the questionnaire, it is pilot tested to a sample group of the population prior to the distribution. The first 20 respondents of the questionnaire are selected as the pilot respondents of the study.

The number of the selected piloting subjects is based on the suggestions of Gay et al.

(2011: 189). According to them, at least “having three or four individuals complete the questionnaire will help identify problems” (p. 189). The pilot test group made comments and stated suggestions about the survey which led to the determination of the potential deficiencies and the improvement of the validity and reliability of the questionnaire. Comments and suggestions which are provided by the pilot group are provided in the following.

Firstly, one of the first few problems that were detected by the researcher were the potential misunderstandings that may have occurred for the first few

respondents when responding to the questionnaire. This is because half of the first ten subjects provide answers only to the demographic data at the beginning of the questionnaire and they failed to proceed to the main section of the questionnaire.

This led the researcher to add a page detector for the questionnaire. Moreover, the researcher added two sentences, in red and underlined, which clearly ask the respondents to proceed to the next page:

Photo 3.1. Page detector and instruction sentence of the questionnaire.

As can be seen in photo 3.1, the page detector shows that the respondents are in the third page of the questionnaire and only 21% of the questionnaire is completed.

Additionally, the inclusion of two sentences, one in parentheses and partly coloured in red, and one above the page detector clearly remind the respondents that the questionnaire has not come to an end yet. The researcher also added sentences which gave the impression that there are still pages ahead of the subjects. As it is expected, these revisions in the questionnaire greatly improved the next responses, and the number of full responses to the questionnaire increased dramatically.

Secondly, a number of respondents from the pilot group suggested the addition of the pronunciation of the CEs in the questionnaire when it is defined. This resulted in the addition of the links of the pronunciation of the CEs to the website forvo.com (http://forvo.com/) with the voice of the researcher himself. This is one of the most common websites that allows access to the pronunciation of words in different languages. The website is based in Spain, and the users are able to add and create sounds on the website. The pronunciations added by the researcher are hyperlinked to the questionnaire in blue colours, and the respondents are able to click on the cultural word. This directs them to the pronunciation of the word in forvo.com.

Thirdly, a number of respondents from the pilot group expressed their confusion on the first page of the questionnaire. They precisely stated that they did not know what the criterion for choosing the subtitle is and how they are supposed to choose the correct subtitle. As a result, the researcher adds a sentence before each film shot which asks the respondents to check the subtitle that they prefer the most; the word prefer being written in red colour. This clarified it for the respondents that they are not supposed to check the correct answer as there are no right or wrong options, and that they were only required to choose the subtitle that they prefer.

Asking the respondents again, they stated that this technique has greatly improved the understanding of the way they are required to answer the questionnaire. These corrections also contributed to the improvement of the face validity of the questionnaire.

Moreover, Split-half method is used to assess and improve the internal consistency of the questionnaire which has a direct influence on the reliability and validity of the questionnaire. To this end, each CE is provided for the respondents 99

twice in the questionnaire; in two different scenes from two different films. In other words, the respondents demonstrated their preference over the translation of a particular CE two times. Using IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor 23, Spearman-

Brown Coefficient and Guttman Split-Half Coefficient are calculated for the items of the questionnaire to analyse the preference of the respondents towards the strategies.

The analyses yield the value of more than < +0.7 for the coefficients which indicates strong reliability of the questionnaire (Saldanha and O’Brien 2013: 160). This analysis of the responses ensures the consistency of the questionnaire.

3.2.3(c) Conducting the Questionnaire

The data is collected through the personal distribution of business cards, hard copy of the questionnaire, as well as contacting the subjects through social networks. To this purpose, business cards specifying the study and the link to the online questionnaire are distributed to the subjects in person by the researcher, or by the researcher’s representatives, at the international film festivals. The subjects of the study, the international audience of Iranian films, are requested to express their preferences on the subtitling of the cultural items in Iranian films by checking their preferred option on the questionnaire (see Appendix 1).

The approach which has been opted by the current study is the sample survey.

In other words, the researcher has attempted to infer information about the preferences of the sample, international audience of the Iranian films, towards the subtitling of the CEs. Specifically, the present study opts for a cross-sectional approach, i.e. the data is collected from the representative subjects at a single point in time. Hence, the study is effective for providing a snapshot of the current attitudes

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and preferences of the studied audience of the Iranian films towards the subtitling of the CEs.

3.2.4 Subjects of the Study

The subjects of the study are international audience of Iranian films. The 6th London

Iranian Film Festival (UKIFF) held from 30 Oct – 7 Nov 2015, Iranian Film Festival

Australia (IFFA) held from 9 Oct – 2 Nov 2015, as well as the Kuala Lumpur Eco

Film Festival (KLEFF), held from 16 Oct – 18 Oct 2015 are used as the venues to find the subjects. UKIFF has been held since 2010 in November every year. It is the only annual film festival that hosts and exhibits Iranian cinema in the UK. The

Festival aims at screening the best Iranian films in order to fascinate more audience for the Iranian cinema. This is also the same for IFFA. This festival has also been a prestigious festival screening Iranian films in different cities of Australia since 2011.

KLEFF was also selected since there was an Iranian film screened in the festival.

Although KLEFF did not specifically screen Iranian films, the presence of a film from Iran, as well as the presence of film lovers makes it a potential venue to find the suitable subjects for the study. The researcher distributed the business cards to the suitable subjects and requested them to fill up the questionnaire.

The other potentially ideal place to find and contact the subjects of the study is social networks. There is a Facebook page owing by the London Iranian Film

Festival (UKIFF). Up to the date of data collection, more than 30,000 people have liked the page. Many of the fans of the page are international audience who are interested in Iranian films. The researcher used the page to find the international audience of the films. The audience is contacted and asked if they are interested and

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would accept to participate in the study. The link of the questionnaires is sent to the interested subjects through the researcher’s Facebook account.

The researcher attempts to reach a sample size of 267 subjects with the confidence level and confidence interval of 95% and 6% respectively (The Survey

System 2016). The number of the population would ensure the confidence level of

95% with a confidence interval of 6. In other words, 95% confidence level expresses how often the true percentage of the population who would pick an answer lies within the confidence interval. The confidence interval or what is also known as margin of error is the plus-or-minus certainty of the study. The confidence interval of

6 in the present study means that if, for example, 80% of the participants choose an option, we could make sure that 80 (+/-6) % (74%-86%) of the rest of our general population would also choose the same option. However, according to Langdridge and Hagger-Johnson (2009: 57-58, cited in Saldanha and O’Brien 2013: 164), there is usually a trade-off between the available time and cost of the study and the size of the sample. This is what occurred in the present study too, and the researcher was able to find 223 acceptable responses through the distribution and promotion of the questionnaire. This means that the confidence interval in the current research is 7%.

In other words, when 80% of the participants preferred an option, we could ensure that 80 (+/-7) % (73% to 87%) of the rest of our general population would also select the same option.

Regarding the gender of the respondents, while 101 participants were female,

122 of the respondents were male from among the total number of 223 respondents.

The respondents were also from different age range, most of whom, i.e. 152 respondents (68%), were between 18 to 45 years old. The respondents are also mainly English, French and Spanish in terms of their first language. Regarding the 102

level of education of the respondents, most of them hold Bachelor’s and Master degree with the percentage of 41.7% and 24.7%, respectively. In regard to the respondents’ English competency, 142 of them (63.7%) are native speakers followed by 58 (26.0%) of the respondents in advanced level in English. On the other hand, regarding the respondents’ level of Persian language competency, the absolute majority of them (90.6%) expressed no knowledge in Persian language. The respondents also expressed their familiarity and interests in Iranian films. For detailed information about the respondents refer to Appendix 3.

3.2.5 Data Analysis

First, the data is analysed qualitatively. According to Merriam (2002) and Marshall and Rossman (2014), qualitative data analysis involves the classification of things, events, and people and the way they are categorized according to their properties.

Using the above classifications of CEs (see 3.1.1), the CEs are extracted from the

Persian soundtrack of the Iranian films and subsequently, are classified. The CEs of the ST are consequently transcribed comparatively with their corresponding English subtitles. However, as it emerged from the nature of the study, due to the direction of the languages, as well as the cultures involved, the selected categories did not accommodate the CEs in Iranian films inclusively. Therefore, the researcher is required to classify the found CEs in the corpus of the study into a new classification.

This results in the development of the classification which inspired the current study in the first place. Next, the procedures applied by the Iranian subtitlers are identified and specified on the Venutian scale of foreignization and domestication. Following this stage, the dominancy of each strategy is quantified statistically. This builds a solid foundation for the researcher to become able to develop the questionnaire as the instrument used to collect data about the preferences of the international audience 103

towards the subtitling of CEs in the Iranian films. Having conducted the survey, the preferences of the respondents are quantified and analysed. Using IBM SPSS

Statistics Data Editor 23, the awareness level of the respondents towards the CEs and their preferences towards the provided subtitles are statistically analysed. The Chi-

Square Test is carried out to examine what is the relationship between the level of familiarity, i.e. awareness, of the respondents of the asked CEs and their preference towards the domestication and foreignization strategies. A 95% confidence level and a %5 margin of error is determined for the Chi-Square Test, in which the volume of

푃−푣푎푙푢푒 < 0.05 indicates a relationship between the awareness level of the respondents and their preferences towards the foreignization or domestication strategies.

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CHAPTER 4

THE POSITION OF IRANIAN FILMS, CULTURAL ELEMENTS AND

TRANSLATION PROCEDURES

4. Introduction

The present chapter presents an analysis of the position of Iranian films and cinema in the global film polysystem. The position of Iranian films in the global film polysystem is discussed through the examination of the cinema from three perspectives, i.e., the total number of produced feature films, the language of the films, and the total box office of the films in the world. Subsequently, the classification of Cultural Elements (CEs) in the official subtitles of the Iranian films as the corpus of the study are investigated. The broad classes, as well as the categories and sub-categories of the CEs, which were identified in the source texts, are presented and elaborated in detail. Next, the procedures employed by the Iranian subtitlers are examined and discussed from the most foreignized to the most domesticated strategies. These procedures are offered based on a comparison between the identified CEs to their translations in the official subtitles of the films. The classification of the CEs and the procedures are developed based on the analysis of 31 Iranian films. In regard to the classification of CEs, the CEs in the corpus of the study are initially identified by referring to the three classifications proposed by

Newmark (1998), Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007), and Pedersen (2011) (see 3.1.1). This allowed the researcher to track and identify the potential CEs in the Iranian films more precisely. Similarly, to better identify the procedures applied by the Iranian subtitlers in translating the CEs, the proposed classification of the procedures in the current study

105 initially draws on the classification proposed by Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007), and

Pedersen (2011) (see 3.1.2).

4.1 Position of Iranian Films in the Global Film Polysystem

Generally speaking, film production is a flourishing industry in Iran. Internationally, as reviewed, the films have been acclaimed after the Islamic Revolution in the country.

However, merely the flourishing and acclaimed status of Iranian films does not indicate a canonical position in the global film polysystem. Therefore, to have an understanding of the position of Iranian films in the polysystem, investigating the films from different perspectives is required. According to Tamaki (2009), to study the position of translated literature in a polysystem, including films in the film polysystem in the present study, a comparison between the numbers of production to the translation of books, films, etc. would be much enlightening. Accordingly, drawing on the same approach, it can be argued that to explore the position of Iranian films in the global film polysystem, an examination of the quantity of film production in the world would be much informative.

Therefore, to get a better understanding of the position of Iranian films in the global film polysystem, the statistics on the total number of feature films produced in Iran and other countries, the language of the films produced in different regions of the world, and the total box office of the films are examined.

4.1.1 Number of Feature Films Produced in Iran

For identifying a concise number of film production in Iran, the UNESCO: Institute for

Statistics has been used as the main resource. Table 4.1, displays the total number of national feature films produced in Iran. As mentioned, the statistics are based on the

106 numbers revealed by UNESCO: Institute for Statistics (2016), for a period of nine years from 2005-2013.

Table 4.1 Total Number of National Feature Films Produced in Iran from 2005-2013. UNESCO: Institute for Statistics (2016).

Total Number of National Feature Films Produced in Iran

No. Country 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

IRAN 26 - 57 51 62 98 76 67 87

As can be seen in Table 4.1, the total number of 524 national feature films have been produced in Iran during the years of 2005-2013 (there is no data available in the

UNESCO: Institute for Statistics for the year 2006), the maximum number of films produced in 2010 (98 feature films) and the minimum number produced in 2005 (26 feature films). These films are all produced in the Persian language. Knowing the number of national feature films produced in Iran, it is required to compare it to those of other countries, and particularly English language films, to better understand the importance and status of film and cinema in other countries.

4.1.2 Global Position of Iranian Films during 2005-2013

The global position of Iranian films is discussed in regard to three aspects of the total number of national feature films produced in the world, the language of the produced films, and the total box office of the films worldwide.

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4.1.2(a) Total Number of National Feature Films Produced

This section discussed the total number of national feature films produced in different countries of the world. The statistics are provided by Unesco: Institute for Statistics

(2016) during the period of 9 years from 2005 to 2013.

Based on the statistics revealed by Unesco, India, the United States of America,

Japan, China, and France are the top five countries in regard to the total number of national feature films production in 2005. The United States of America, as the main

English language film producing country (c.f. 4.3.2.2), is placed in the second rank with the total number of 673 feature films after India. Following the United States of

America, such countries as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Canada, as other important English language film producing country (c.f. 4.3.2.2), are placed in 10th and

13th positions respectively. Iran, with a total number of 26 national feature films in 2005 is placed in the 34th position together with Hungary and Turkey. Almost the same positions can be seen for the top 5 countries in the world in 2006 which is occupied by

India, the United States of America, Japan, China, and France. Producing 673, 107, and

74 national feature films, the United States of America, the United Kingdom of Great

Britain and Canada are positioned in the 2nd, 10th, and 13th ranks respectively in 2006.

Unfortunately, no data was available for the number of films produced by Iran in 2006 and hence, its position cannot be compared to that of the world. In 2007, the Iran’s cinema has been able to upgrade its position. The number of films produced in the country reached to the total number of 57 feature films which positioned the country in the 20th place among the countries of the world. The United States of America with the total number of 789 feature films is placed in the 3rd position after India and Nigeria.

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The other two main English language film producing countries, the United Kingdom of

Great Britain and Canada with the total number of 124 and 99 feature films respectively, have remained in the 10th and 13th positions in 2007. Compared to the year 2007, the position of the Islamic Republic of Iran lowered to the 23rd place in 2008. The total number of feature films produced in the country is 51 films. Such main English language film producing countries as the United States of America, the United Kingdom of Great

Britain and Canada, having produced the total number of 773, 279 and 75 feature films are shown to be in the higher positions of the 3rd, 6th and 18th ranks respectively. In

2009, Iran’s cinema produced 62 feature films. This number positioned the country to the 22nd position in comparison to the countries of the world. The United States of

America retained it 3rd position by producing 751 feature films in the country. The number of films produced by the United Kingdom of Great Britain increased to 313 feature films which elevated its position to the 6th place as in 2008. Canada retained its

13th place by producing the total number of 81 feature films in this year. The year 2010 has been the year in which the cinema of Iran produced its maximum number of feature films within the period of 2005 to 2013. The total number of feature films produced in the Islamic Republic of Iran reached 98 films which elevated the position of Iran to the

14th position together with Canada. However, the United States of America and the

United Kingdom of Great Britain remained in the 3rd and 6th position through producing the total number of 792 and 346 feature films respectively. Compared to the year 2010, the total number of feature films produced in the Islamic Republic of Iran dropped to 76 films. This drop in the number of produced films consequently resulted to the drop in the position of Iranian film production from the 14th place in 2010 to the 18th rank among the other countries of the world in 2011. Similar to the previous years, the United States

109 of America retained its 3rd position with the production of the total number of 819 feature films after India and Nigeria. The United Kingdom of Great Britain also retained its 6th position with the production of a total number of 299 films. Canada, producing 86 feature films, stays in the 15th position in 2011. The total number of feature films produced in Iran in 2012 continued to decrease to the number of 67 feature films and the position of the country dropped to the 23rd in the same year. As can be seen in the table, there are also other changes in the top part of the list. Excluding Nigeria for which no data is provided in 2012, China is placed in the second position with the total number of

745 feature films and surpassed the United States of America with the total number of

738 feature films in this year. Producing the total number of 326 feature films, the

United Kingdom of Great Britain was placed the 5th position. The place of Canada for the year 2012 is elevated to the 14th position by producing the total number of 98 feature films in this year. Lastly, in 2013, the total number of feature films produced in Iran increased to 87 films. The position of the country, accordingly, elevated to the 17th rank among the countries of the world. Looking at the top countries in the list, the United

States of America can be seen to be in the second position with the production of the total number of 738 feature films in this year. Producing the total number of 241 and 93 films, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Canada are placed in the 6th and 16th places respectively.

In brief, the number of feature films produced in Iran are 26 in 2005 (the number is unknown for the year 2006) which have resulted Iranian cinema not to be included in the first 30 countries. However, from 2007, the number of feature films produced has increased to 57, 51, 62, 98, 76, 67, and 87 films for the years 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010,

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2011, 2012, and 2013 respectively. Accordingly, the statistics reveal a position for

Iranian films among the first 25 countries in the word. The positions are 20, 23, 22, 15,

18, 23 and 17 respectively which is an indication of the place of Iranian films in the middle position. Nevertheless, compared to the English language films produced by such countries as the United States of America, United Kingdom of Great Britain, and

Canada, the Iranian films are nevertheless, are in a peripheral position.

However, despite the peripheral position of Iranian films in terms of the number of feature film production, merely looking at the number of feature films produced by the countries will not give us a good understanding of the position of a cinema in the polysystem. In other words, to better perceive the position of Iranian films, it is also necessary to analyse it from other important perspectives. Therefore, the researcher also attempts to analyse the films from the language of the films and the total box office of them as well.

4.1.2(b) Language of the Films

In order to better perceive the importance of languages in shaping the global film polysystem, the language of the top 10 movies in different countries were given in 2009 as a sample year. The tables below demonstrate the language of the top 10 movies by region in 2009 in two tables. Table 4.2 shows the language of the top 10 movies based on the region in the Arab States and Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and the

Caribbean and Asia and Pacific. The second table (Table 4.3) demonstrates the language of the top 10 movies in Europe and North America in 2009 as a sample year.

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Table 4.2. Language of Top 10 Movies by Region in 2009

Table 4.3. Language of Top 10 Movies Europe and North America in 2009

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As can be seen in Tables 4.2 and 4.3, the countries in the ‘Arab States and Sub-Saharan

Africa’ table include South Africa, Lebanon, UA Emirates, Nigeria, Bahrain, and

Morocco. The Latin America and the Caribbean countries include Chile, Colombia,

Dominican Republic, Mexico, Peru, Venezuela, Argentina, Brazil, and Costa Rica.

Lastly, the Asia and Pacific countries include Australia, Singapore, Myanmar, China,

Japan, Republic of Korea, Georgia, and Pakistan. The countries analysed in the ‘Europe and North America’ table include Canada, Croatia, Estonia, Hungary, Ireland, Portugal,

Romania, Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States, Belgium, Finland,

Slovenia, Austria, France, Germany, Greece, Netherlands, Poland, Serbia, Czech

Republic, Italy, Slovakia, Belarus, Denmark, Sweden, Ukraine, Norway, Russia, and

Turkey.

As can be revealed in the above tables, English has been the dominant language in the top 10 movies in nearly all of the countries analysed. The tables demonstrate the prominence of the English language, which is the result of the dominance of Hollywood movies in the top ten globally (UNESCO: Institute for Statistics 2016). This analysis also demonstrates the central position of the English language movies in the world and their central and dominance over the Iranian films.

4.1.2(c) Box Office of the Films

The total box office of the films is one of the exceptionally central criteria in positioning the films of a particular country in the global film polysystem. In other words, this is a criterion through which we can perceive the extent to which a particular cinema, such as

Hollywood or Bollywood, is sold, welcomed and watched by the audience in the world.

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In regard to the box office of Iranian films in relation to the English language movies,

Iranian cinema is also positioned in a peripheral position. The below table demonstrates the first 60 production countries, the number of movies, the average production budget and the total worldwide box office of the movies.

Table 4.4. Total Box Office of Films Produced in the World until 2016. Unesco: Institute for Statistics (2016) Average Production Total Worldwide Box Production Countries NO. Budget Office 1 United States $38,248,299 $445,828,927,717 2 United Kingdom $31,573,994 $35,986,599,223 3 France $24,061,343 $12,614,319,952 4 China $30,390,968 $11,790,136,425 5 New Zealand $86,911,111 $7,046,645,650 6 Germany $32,587,557 $6,929,973,104 7 Japan $21,010,000 $5,266,221,651 8 Canada $16,526,000 $4,694,427,251 9 Australia $27,568,529 $4,096,370,745 10 Republic of Korea $18,716,667 $3,769,891,587 11 Hong Kong $25,804,348 $3,484,930,469 12 India $8,307,656 $3,125,973,577 13 Spain $21,965,628 $2,576,504,199 14 Italy $20,013,235 $2,458,619,188 15 Mexico $15,486,364 $1,381,655,168 16 Belgium $17,811,765 $865,987,479 17 Russian Federation $18,038,462 $821,102,649 18 Sweden $8,312,500 $521,341,815 19 United Arab Emirates $32,625,000 $518,061,091 20 Malta $150,000,000 $485,620,834 21 Taiwan $12,660,000 $481,445,228 22 Ireland $10,768,714 $474,723,065 23 Hungary $50,933,333 $445,163,707 24 Brazil $13,819,699 $387,479,347 25 Argentina $21,880,000 $382,155,185 26 Finland $39,250,000 $376,826,069 27 Netherlands $22,590,000 $324,736,435 28 Denmark $5,959,091 $303,130,626 29 Czech Republic $28,225,000 $299,269,908 30 Turkey $15,400,000 $285,149,387 31 Tunisia $35,000,000 $233,179,832 32 Morocco $38,966,667 $205,557,850 33 Switzerland $30,250,000 $195,112,456 34 South Africa $12,193,462 $178,275,520 35 Dominican Republic $67,750,000 $166,211,310

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36 Uruguay $135,000,000 $164,299,782 37 Paraguay $135,000,000 $163,873,191 38 Romania $9,933,600 $135,664,174 39 Thailand $6,833,333 $130,122,438 40 Poland $9,466,667 $123,427,987 41 Austria $18,000,000 $121,339,938 42 Slovakia $57,000,000 $110,365,042 43 Chile $25,000,000 $102,165,439 44 Kuwait $80,000,000 $96,148,711 45 Luxembourg $12,666,667 $85,903,269 46 Norway $3,878,571 $85,300,991 47 Israel $1,650,000 $76,396,899 48 Peru $1,200,000 $75,979,748 49 Iceland $31,500,000 $67,852,020 50 Cuba $0 $61,326,524 51 Greece $1,661,500 $46,971,976 52 Latvia $0 $44,747,760 53 Islamic Republic of Iran $626,667 $43,682,876 54 Malaysia $25,000,000 $40,440,313 55 Bahamas $57,000,000 $38,909,676 56 Singapore $0 $38,761,959 57 Ukraine $26,000,000 $37,872,199 58 Namibia $75,000,000 $34,009,180 59 Algeria $10,100,000 $27,572,036 60 Kazakhstan $29,000,000 $27,439,570

The above table demonstrates that, in regard to the box office, Iranian films and cinema, despite their flourishing and acclaimed state in the world, are ranked in the 53rd place and consequently in the peripheral position in the cinema polysystem of the world. On the other hand, English movies and English countries, placing the top position in the list are placed in the central and canonical position of the polysystem. A simple analysis shows that the box office of American films alone, which are mainly in English, is

102016 times greater than the box office of the films produced in Iran. This is not even including the box office of such countries as the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia as mainly English language countries.

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4.1.3 Discussion of the Position of Iranian Films

The statistics of the position of Iranian films in the global film polysystem was provided in regards to the total number of feature films produced in Iran and other countries of the world, the importance of English language in the production of the feature films in the world, and the total box office of the films. As is shown, it can be argued that Iranian cinema has been placed in the first 25 countries in terms of the total number of films produced during the 9-year period of 2005-2013. Although this seems to be a middle position for the cinema, when compared to the number of films produced by such countries as India, Nigeria, or English language films produced by such countries as the

United States of America, the United Kingdom, as well as other countries such as France and Spain, the number of films produced by Iran is rather minute and trivial. This is to say that, while for example the total number of 6772 films have been produced during the 9-year period of 2005-2013 by the United States of America, only about 8.3% of this number is produced by Iran (approximately 564 films). This percentage will further be diminished if we compare the film production in Iran to that of English language films produced. In other words, the production of Iranian films would be only 5.7% compared to the total number of 9871 films produced in English language countries of the United

States of America, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia during 2005 to 2013.

This number still does not include English language films produced in non-English speaking countries such as India or Nigeria. In terms of the total number of produced films, compared to non-English speaking films produced in such countries as India,

Nigeria, Japan, China, France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Korea, etc., Iranian film production is still in a peripheral position. In addition, despite the increasing reputation

116 of Iranian cinema, compared to such countries as the United States of America, the

United Kingdom of Great Britain, France, China, New Zealand, Germany, Japan,

Canada, Australia, Spain and the Republic of Korea whose total box office of their films and cinema have positioned them as the top ten countries with the highest amount of income worldwide, Iranian cinema is still regarded to be placed in a peripheral position.

In other words, for instance, while the total worldwide box office of such countries as the USA, the UK and France with the total box office of $445,828,927,717,

$35,986,599,223 and $12,614,319,952, respectively have placed them in the top three countries of the world, the total box office of Iranian cinema with $43,682,876 is just

0.0097%, 0.12% and 0.34% of the box office of the three top countries in the world.

This has placed Iranian cinema in the 53rd rank in the world. Moreover, as can be seen in

Table 4.2, the top two countries in the list, the USA, and the UK, produce English language films which indicates the importance and place of English language in the cinema of the world. Looking at the first 10 countries in the top of the list also demonstrates that 5 countries are mainly English language countries with, as mentioned, the Unites States of America and the United Kingdom of Great Britain as occupying the first and the second place. This peripheral and secondary position of Iranian films as compared to English language films assumes to have certainly influenced the translation of the Persian soundtracks of the films as English subtitles.

This is to say that, as discussed in polysystem theory, the film polysystem is deemed to be envisaged as forming a network of relations or activities called “literary” in which there is a distinction between canonized and non-canonized literatures or the postulation of the hierarchical positions of “central” and “peripheral” for literary

117 systems. In other words, while specific literatures, such as Iranian films and cinema, occupy a secondary and peripheral position in the literary or film polysystem and, consequently, their repertoire hardly mould the polysystem’s central position, other particular literatures, such as English language films mainly produced in the US and UK, dominate the centre and develop into canonical and as a rule postulated by polysystem theory, the central and canonical rules will be followed by the peripheral and secondary works. Regarding Foreignization and Domestication notions then, a domesticating strategy may be presumed for the translation of Iranian films into English. That is, an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values might be observed in the English subtitles of Iranian films. This assumption will be analysed in more detail in the following sections.

4.2 Classification of CEs

The CEs in the Iranian films are classified into seven broad classes, each into further categories and sub-classifications. As mentioned earlier, these classes are derived from the analysis of Persian soundtrack of 31 Iranian movies which, subsequently, yielded the researcher with approximately 1557 cultural elements. The seven classes of the CEs identified in the current study are: (1) Geographical and Historical References, (2)

Personal Names and Epithets, (3) Daily Life References, (4) Literary, Artistic and

Educational References, (5) Kinship References, (6) Social and Religious References, and (7) Institutional and Professional References. These seven classes, the categories, as well as the subcategories are presented and discussed in detail in the following.

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4.2.1 Geographical and Historical References

The first category includes the geographical and historical references. This category is per se subdivided into three subcategories of, a) Endemic plants, animals, fruits and geological objects, b) Name of places and c) Historical periods. The second subcategory, name of places, is per se subdivided into five elements of i) cities and countries, ii) geographical areas, iii) shops and parks and agencies, etc., iv) streets and localities, and v) house and residence. Each of the identified CEs is exemplified and elaborated in the following.

4.2.1(a) Historical periods

This subcategory of CEs includes the different historical stages in the course of the

Iran’s history. It can be referred to the divers ruling kingdoms and empires which were ruling the country in the ancient Persia.

sasaniyan/ which refers to the Sasanian Empire (224-651/ ساسانیان The example is

AD) during which Iran, the ancient Persia, was one of the leading powers in the world.

In A Separation (Asghar Farhadi, 2011), Termeh, [played by Sarina Farhadi], is doing a revision on her history book to get prepared for her school exam. In the scene from the film, she is shown to be memorizing how people were divided into two social classes during the Sasanian Dynasty.

Example 1. Historical Periods FILM A Separation (Asghar Farhadi, 2011) CHARACTER Termeh در زمان ساسانیان مردم به طبقه اشراف ، به دو طبقه تقسیم میشدند PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /in/ /era of/ /Sassanids/ /people/ /into/ /class of/ /nobles/, /into/ /two/ /class/ /were divided/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE "During the Sassanid period, people were divided into two classes,

119

As can be seen in Example 1, the source soundtrack of the film says how people were divided into social classes of aristocrats and [normal people] during the Sassanian1

Dynasty. Sassanid or Sassanian is related to “a dynasty that ruled Persian from the early

3rd century AD until the Arab Muslim conquest of 651 (Oxford Dictionaries, 2016).

4.2.1(b) Endemic plants, animals, fruits and geological objects

This subcategory of CEs includes the different types of plants, trees, fruits, animals or

بهارنارنج the precious stones typical of Iran. The first example of this class of CEs can be

/bahaar naaranj/, literally translated (hereafter referred to as LT) as The Spring Citrus.

bahaar naaranj/ refers to the blossom of citrus tree. This/ بهارنارنج The cultural item element is used in Sheida (Kamal Tabrizi, 1999) for several times. One scene of the film shows Farhad [Parsa Pirouzfar], a wounded soldier in the Iran-Iraq war2, to be falling in love with Sheida [Leila Hatami], a nurse in the hospital, from behind bandaged eyes.

Example 2. Endemic plants, animals, fruits and geological objects. FILM Sheida (Kamal Tabrizi, 1999) CHARACTER FARHAD آن هنگام که عطر بهارنارنج در آن کالم مقدس پیچید، من تو را از پشت چشمان بسته ام PERSIAN دیدم. SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /that/ /time/ /that/ /perfume of/ /Bahar Naranj/ /in/ /that/ /speech of/ /holy/ /twisted/, /I/ /you/ /from/ /behind/ /eyes/ /my closed/ /I saw/ ENGLISH At that moment, when the perfume of the orange flower filled the SUBTITLE holy word…

as a CE is the importance and connotation that it بهارنارنج The reason for considering bears in Iranian culture. The blossom of a citrus tree is highly regarded by many Iranians

1 They were the last Persian lineage of kings and rulers who had hegemony over a vast area and the majority of Western Asia before the Islamic army conquest the country. Sasanian dynasty gain power by the decline of the Parthian state after the Arsacid house royal house was overthrown in 224 CE. The Sasanian dynasty was established by Ardasir and ended with Yazdgerd. 2 By the invasion of Iraqi army, with the leadership of Saddam Hussein Abd Al-Majid Al-Tikriti, to Iran on 22 September 1980, an eight-year war commenced between the two countries. The war is referred to as “imposed war” (jang-e tahmili) by Iranian authorities. The war is considered “the longest conventional war of the 20th century,” with more that 1 million casualties and the cost of more than $1.19 trillion (Hiro 1989: 1-5, cited in Encyclopaedia Iranica 2016). The war was officially ended with the acceptance of the UN Security Council Resolution 598 on 20 July 1988 by the involved countries. 120 as the harbinger of spring and spring in the change of Solar year in Iran. There are also ceremonies and festivals held in different cities of Iran including Shiraz and Babol for

Baharnarenj juice production. The importance is such that there is a symbolic

Baharnarenj National Festival annually held in Babol city in the north of Iran and has become a source of tourist attraction of the country.

deraxt-e/ درخت مجنون The other example of this class of cultural elements here is majnoon/ (LT as The Devoted Willow Tree). In The Willow Tree (Majid Majidi, 2005),

Youssef [Parviz Parastoui] is a blind university lecturer who teaches literature. While he is in Paris to do a surgery for his back problem, the doctors coincidentally diagnose that there is a possibility for him to regain his vision power. In one scene of the film, Youssef is talking with Morteza [Reza Naji], an Iranian fellow in the same hospital, about the tree that he likes the most.

Example 3. Endemic plants, animals, fruits and geological objects. FILM The Willow Tree (Majid Majidi, 2005) CHARACTER -Youssef - Morteza – درخت مجنون چی؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK -نه مجنون که میوه نداره GLOSS -/tree of/ /Majnoon/ /what/? -/no/ /Majnoon/ /that/ /fruit/ /doesn’t/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE -What about willow trees? – Willow trees don’t have nuts!

bahaar naaranj/ as a CE also applies for the inclusion/ بهارنارنج The reason for including

deraxt-e majnoon/ as a type of tree in CEs. The scene shows Morteza/ درخت مجنون of taking Youssef to a garden on the other side of the hospital they are hospitalized in.

Youssef is blind, so he asks Morteza to describe the garden to him and asks if there are any Majnoon trees (willow trees). Morteza replies that there weren’t any Majnoon trees

121 since they are fruitless plants. The CE Majnoon3 (LT as Crazy or Possessed) and is symbolically used to represent mourning, grief-stricken love without happiness, a hopeless lover, and a lover who is burning in his love and does not attain his/her love.

4.2.1(c) Name of places

Name of places is one of the most used CEs in the Iranian films. This category of CEs is further divided into five further subcategories, namely (i) cities, provinces, and countries, (ii) geographical areas and tourist attractions, (iii) shops, parks, agencies, etc.,

(iv) streets and localities, and (v) house and residence.

4.2.1(c)(i) Cities and provinces

The first subcategory of names of places includes the names of cities and provinces. One

karbalaa/. In A Cube of Sugar (Reza Mirkarimi, 2011) Pasandideh/ کربال example is

[Negar Javaherian] is from a traditional Iranian family who is getting married to an old family friend’s grandson studying abroad in a Western country. In a scene from the film, her little nieces are talking about abroad and asking Pasandideh if the city of Karbala in

Iraq is also considered abroad.

3 Majnoon is one of the two characters in the most famous Islamic classic love story that is originated as poem in ancient Arabia and adopted by the Iranian poet Nizami Ganjavi in 584/1188. It is a narrative poem of about 4600 lines. This love story is considered as the ‘Romeo and Juliet of the East’. Like Romeo falling in love with Juliet, Majnoon falls in love with Leyla (or Leili) and become hapless and hopeless to reach his love. Although Leyla is married to a nobleman, she remains devoted to Majnoon. Finally, Leyla dies in grief. Majnoon follows the dead body of Leila to the grave and dies mourning at Leyla’s tomb. 122

Example 4. Name of places: Cities, and provinces FILM A Cube of Sugar (Reza Mirkarimi, 2011) CHARACTER - Pasandideh’s Niece - Pasandideh -خاله کربال! کربال خارجه؟ PERSIAN -خوب ازون خارجا نه خاله SOUNDTRACK GLOSS -/auntie/ /Karbala/! /Karbala/ /abroad is/? -/well/ /from those/ /abroad/ /no/ /auntie/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE -Karbala? What are you saying? -It’s not that kind of foreign, but … . Abroad) is usually used to refer to the Western and modern) خارج ,In Iranian culture countries by Iranians in their everyday conversations. That is why Pasandideh replies to the question as “not that kind of foreign.” According to Oxford Dictionaries (2016),

Karbala4 is “a city in southern Iraq; […] A holy city for Shiite Muslims, it is the site of the tomb of Husayn, grandson of Muhammad, who was killed there in AD 680”.

shalamche/. This city was mentioned/ شلمچه Another example of the city names is in Crimson Gold (Jafar Panahi, 2003). Hossain [Hossein Emadoddin] had been a soldier in the Iran-Iraq war5. He works as a pizza delivery man now. One night on delivery, he recognizes Hajj Agha Shayesteh [Mehran Rajabi], one of his former chief officers in the battlefield. Hossain introduces and reminds himself to Hajj Agha Shayesteh. Lastly, Hajj

Agha Shayesteh remembers Hossein and the place, Shalamche, they used to fight together in the war.

4 With the population of approximately 1.15 million people, the city of Karbala in located about 90 km Southwest of Baghdad, the capital city of Iraq. The city is regarded as one the four holy Shiite Shrine cities (with Najaf, Kazemayn, and Samarra) as the shrines of Hussain Ibn Ali, the grandson of Muslims’ Prophet and the third Imam of Shiite Muslims, and his half-brother Abbas, are located there. Hussain Ibn Ali and his companion were killed in Karbala in a battle called the Battle of Karbala and were buried there. The battle commenced as Hussain Ibn Ali refused to accept Yazid ibn Muawiyah’s demand for caliphate. Millions of Iranian Muslims pilgrims march to the city of Karbala every year to commemorate the day Hussain Ibn Ali was martyred in the battle. 5 see footnote 2 123

Example 5. Name of places: Cities, and provinces. FILM Crimson Gold (Jafar Panahi, 2003) CHARACTER Hajj Agha Shayesteh شلمچه. حسین. راست میگی. کانال ماهی. PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Shalamche/. /Hossein/. /right/ you say/. /channel of/ /fish/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Chalamche... Hussein... Of course, in communications.

Shalamcheh is a border town of Iran with Iraq which gains شلمچه The small town of significance because of its strategic status during the eight-year war between the two countries. This town was one of the main sites of the invasion of the army of Iraq and was conquered and occupied by the Iraqi army for more than six years. It is estimated that approximately more than 50000 Iranians were killed in this town, which caused to hold a war memorial for the killed people and soldiers in this town every year in Iran.

4.2.1(c)(ii) Geographical and tourist attraction areas

Geographical and tourist attraction areas in this classification signify mainly the outdoor and natural places in the country. They either refer to general geographical regions such

shomaal/ (LT as The North, referring to the north part of the country by the side/ شمال as

/aabshaar dogholoo/ آبشار دوقلو of the Caspian Sea), or to natural outdoor places such as

(LT as The Twin Waterfall).

In About Elly (Asghar Farhadi, 2009), a group of middle-class young friends travels to the shores of the Caspian Sea in the north part of Iran. The vacation does not go well and ends up in a catastrophe as Elly [Taraneh Alidoosti], one of the friends, drowns in the sea while she is trying to save another friend’s child from drowning. At first, nobody knows if Elly is drowned or she has returned to Tehran without any notice.

Being shocked and desperate of Elly’s lost, they started to quarrel and blaming each

124 other for what has happened. Amir [Mani Haghighi] is shown in one of the scenes to be blaming his wife Sepideh [Golshifteh Farahani] for arranging the trip to the north.

Example 6. Name of places: Geographical and tourist attraction areas FILM About Elly (Asghar Farhadi, 2009) CHARACTER Amir شمال میخوان برن سپیده! PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /North/ /they want/ /they go/ /Sepideh/! ENGLISH SUBTITLE You want to go to sea, ask Sepideh! .

shomaal/ (LT as The North) refers to the north part of the country by the side of the/ شمال

Caspian Sea. This word is metonymically used in Iran to refer to the holiday site and the shore and beach of the Caspian Sea. The region encompasses three provinces of

Golestan, Mazandaran, and Gilan. The area is covered with high mountains, dense forests, and incredible seashores. This region is a trendy spot and a tourist attraction area which attracts millions of mainly Iranian tourist every year.

aabshaar dogholoo/ (LT as The Twin Waterfall) is/ آبشار دوقلو ,In another example used in the film The Willow Tree (Majid Majidi, 2005).

Example 7. Name of places: Geographical and tourist attraction areas. FILM The Willow Tree (Majid Majidi, 2005) CHARACTER Youssef’s Uncle دایی جون یادت میاد با هم میرفتیم آبشار دوقلو PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /uncle/ /dear/ /remember you/ /together/ /we used to go/ /Abshar dogholou/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Do you remember we used to go to “twin Waterfalls”?

After gaining back his vision power, Youssef [Parviz Parastoui] is in a car with his uncle. The uncle reminds Youssef of the old memories they had when Youssef was a

Twin Waterfall) together. This waterfall) آبشار دوقلو child and how they would go to the is located in the northern area of the capital city of Iran, Tehran. The waterfall gained its name due to the divarication of the water stream at the point of its falling. The waterfall,

125 with an approximate height of 20 meters, is located at the 2700 m above the sea level and attracts many visitors throughout the year. The waterfall has also been painted by one of the most well-known Iranian painter, Kamal-ol-Molk6, in 1884.

4.2.1(c)(iii) Shops, parks, agencies, etc.

The third subcategory of names of places is those names referring to the names of shops, parks, agencies, cemeteries, etc. in the cities.

In the movie My Tehran for Sale (Granaz Moussavi, 2009), Marzieh [Marzieh

Vafamehr] is a young Iranian girl who intends to migrate to Australia with her boyfriend who is an Iranian citizen of Australia. Wandering around the streets of Tehran, they come to an old cemetery in which a number of Iranian poets and artists are buried.

Example 8. Name of places: Shops, parks, agencies, etc. FILM My Tehran for Sale (Granaz Moussavi, 2009) CHARACTER Marzieh اره. اینجا ظهیرالدوله ست دیگه PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /yep/. /here/ /zahiroddole/ /is/ /isn’t it/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE This is Zahirodoleh cemetery.

zahiroddoleh/ (The Zahiroddole Cemetery) is a small cemetery that is named/ ظهیرالدوله after Ali Khan-e Zahirodoleh (1864- 1904) who was an Iranian politician and religious figure. A number of Iranian artists including Iraj Mirza7 and Forough8, have been buried in this cemetery.

6 Mohammad Ghaffari, known as Kamal-ol-Molk, (1848-1940) was one of the well-known Iranian painters who was born in the city of Kashan in family with strong traditions in art. The title 'Kamal-ol- Molk' was given to him by Nasereddin Shah Qajar (1831-1896), the King of Iran during Qajar dynasty. He is well-known for painting important people, hunting grounds, nature, ladscapes, and different parts of royal palaces. 7 Iraj Mirza, Jalal-al-Mamalek (1874-1926) is one of the major Iranian poets and satirists. He lived during Qajar period and established a poetic style referred by some critics as ‘the journalistic style’, which is characterized by intimate, idiomatic, and conversational tone and mode of expression. He totally wrote 126

behesht-e zahraa/. LT as The Heaven of/ بهشت زهرا The second example is the CE

Zahra, this cultural element refers to cemeteries in general. I am a Mother (Fereydoun

Jeyrani, 2012) is the story of a young lady Ava [Taraneh Alidousti] who is being raped by a close family friend, Sa’eid [Habib Rezaei] in the film. In a scene from the film,

Sa’eid shown to be talking to Ava. Sa’eid inform Ava of her father’s calling and asking

.cemetery) immediately) بهشت زهرا them to go to the

Example 9. Name of places: Shops, parks, agencies, etc. FILM I am a Mother (Fereydoun Jeyrani, 2012) CHARACTER Saeed آوا جان! بابات همین االن زنگ زد گفتش که فوری باید بریم بهشت زهرا PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Ava/ /dear/! /your father/ /right/ /now/ /called he/ /said he/ /that/ /immediately/ /must/ /we go/ /Behesht-e Zahra/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Ava honey, your dad just called. We have to go to the cemetery.

T as The Heaven9 of Zahra, is composed of two main parts: Heaven and , بهشت زهرا

Zahra. As can be seen in example 9, this cultural element is translated to ‘cemetery’ in the English subtitle. The compound CE is referred to the graveyard where people are believed and hoped to go to heaven and become a companion to Zahra, the prophet of

Islam’s daughter, in the other world. Due to this reverence, cemeteries are called literally as the Heaven of Zahra in Iran.

Another example signifies the well-known palaces in Iran. The CE was found in the film The Song of Sparrows (Majid Majidi, 2008). Karim [Reza Naji] works on an

about 4000 verses in different styles of poetry including panegyric odes (qasida), lyrics (qhazal), and rhymed couplets (mathnavi) (Encyclopaedia Iranica 2016). 8 Forough-o Zamman Farrokhzad (1935-1967), usually known and referred to as Forough, is a Persian poet, film director and translator who was born in Tehran in a military family. Her poems are mainly characterized to be iconoclast and to be written from a feministic point of view, in which the restricted role of women in Iranian society is highlighted and criticized.

9 Zahra is an epithet of Fatima the “youngest daughter of the prophet Muhammad and the wife of the fourth caliph, Ali. The descendants of Muhammad trace their lineage through her.” (Oxford Dictionaries, 2016). 127 ostrich farm near the capital city of Tehran. Being fired from his workplace, Karim works with his motorbike, ferrying passengers and goods from one part of the city to another. In one scene from the film, he is shown to be giving a ride to a seemingly government officer. Karim overhears the government officer talking about delegates

سعدآباد from different countries and how they are going to accommodate them in

/sadaabaad/ palace.

Example 10. Name of places: Shops, parks, agencies, etc. FILM The Song of Sparrows (Majid Majidi, 2008) CHARACTER Politician Man فرانسوی ها مستقیم میرن سعداباد که ربطی به ما نداره PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /the French/ /straight/ /they go/ /Sa’dabad/ /that/ /realtion/ /to us/ /doesn’t have/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE The French go to the Palace directly. It’s not our concern.

Sa’dabad) Palace is a palace complex built by Qajar and Pahlavi monarchies in) سعدآباد

Tehran. It is a 300 hectare complex including natural forests, galleries, museums, etc.

During the Pahlavi Dynasty, the palace was used Reza Shah Pahlavi and later by his son

Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi as the Shahs of Iran’s house. After the Islamic

Revolution of Iran in 1979, the palace turned into a museum near which the official residence of the president of Iran is located.

4.2.1(c)(iv) Streets and localities

This subcategory includes such place names which bear the names of streets and neighbourhoods in cities and villages used in the Iranian films as the corpus of the study.

In Crimson Gold (Jafar Panahi, 2003), Hossein [Hossein Emadeddin], is shown to be working as a delivery pizza man who delivers pizzas to different localities in

128

Tehran. In one scene of the film, he is taking the delivery address from the pizza shop owner.

Example 11. Name of places: Streets and localities. FILM Crimson Gold (Jafar Panahi, 2003) CHARACTER The Pizza Shop Owner زعفرانیه. برج پردیس طبقه آخر PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Zaferanieh/. /tower/ /Pardis/ /floor/ /last/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Zaferanie, Building A, Top Floor. Want me to read the number?

As can be seen in example 11, the pizza shop owner gives the address to Hossein, the

.locality زعفرانیه place to which Hossein is required to deliver the pizza is in the

Zaferaniyeh is one of the neighbourhoods in the capital city of Tehran in which affluent, rich and higher social class of families reside. Originally, the name Zaferaniye is related to saffron and literally, means Saffronia which indicates the saffron traders’ residence in the neighbourhood long time ago. On the other hand, there are localities in Tehran, such

shoush/, which are characterized as residing with the lower social class of/ شوش as people in the capital city. Such names and places are sometimes used in Iranian films when the social gap between the people in Iran is intended to be highlighted.

aazaadi/ LT as/ آزادی Another example is the reference to a square named

Freedom/Liberty Square10 in Tehran which was found in the film My Tehran for Sale

(Granaz Moussavi, 2009). The film has a critical tone towards the social laws implemented by the Islamic Republic of Iran’s government in the country. Marzieh, played by Marzieh Vafamehr, is taking a taxi in one of the movie’s scenes with his new boyfriend to Azadi Square.

10. Azadi Square referring to the pre-revolution Shahyad Square, LT as King Memorial Square, was built during the reign of the last Shah of Iran. It was renamed as Azadi (freedom/ liberty) square after the Islamic revolution of Iran in 1979. 129

Example 12. Name of places: Streets and localities. FILM My Tehran for Sale (Granaz Moussavi, 2009) CHARACTER Marzieh آزادی؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Azadi/? ENGLISH SUBTITLE Freedom Street?

Azadi, LT as Freedom or Liberty is used in the film My Tehran for Sale (Granaz

Moussavi, 2009) to critically criticize the policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran as opposing freedom in the country. It is used by Marzieh and her boyfriend in the scene where they are shown to be taking a taxi to Azadi. In the same scene, this usage is highlighted as another passenger tries to take the same taxi to Enghelab. Enghelab, LT as Revolution, seems to have been ironically used to oppose Revolution to Freedom.

4.2.1(c)(v) House and residence

The last sub-category of place names includes the names of living places and accommodations. The two examples provided here are references to particular rooms usually in a mosque. The Lizard (Kamal Tabrizi, 2004) is about an arrested thief who disguises as a clergyman to escape from prison. Reza Marmoulak [Parviz Parastoui] disguising as a Mullah, introduces himself as another clergyman and becomes the Imam of a mosque. On the first day of Reza Marmoulak’s presence in the village, Mr. Fazli

[Naghi Seif Jamali] and some other people of the village are shown to be showing different places and parts of the mosque to him. Two examples are demonstrated from the film in the following.

Example 13. Name of places: House and residence. FILM The Lizard (Kamal Tabrizi, 2004) CHARACTER Mr. Fazli چند تا حجره هم اطراف داریم PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /some/ /Hojreh/ /also/ /around/ /we have/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE We have a few chambers around here

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Example 14. Name of places: House and residence. FILM The Lizard (Kamal Tabrizi, 2004) CHARACTER Mr. Fazli مالحظه بفرمایید این شبستان مسجده مسجد اصلی اون طرفه PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /attention/ /you pay/ /this/ /Shabestan of/ /the mosques/ /the mosque of/ /the main/ /that/ /side is/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE As you see, this is the roofed summer time altar, the main section is on the other side

As can be seen in the examples 13 and 14, Mr. Fazli is telling Reza Marmoulak the

حجره shabestaan/. The CE/ شبستان hojreh/ and/ حجره different parts of the mosque such as

/hojreh/ refers to a room in a mosque or an Islamic school that is specified for the

shabestaan/ also refers to the underground space in a/ شبستان .students of Islamic schools mosque or a house in ancient times. It has also been used during the Sassanian Empire, as well as during the period of Islamic dynasties after Sassanian11 to refer to the inner sanctums of the Kings where they used as a concubines residence.

The following figure shows the different classifications of the category of CEs in the present research.

Historical and Geographical References

Historical Endemic plants and Name of periods animals and fruits and places geological objects

shops and geograph house and cities and parks and residence countries ical areas agencies, etc.

Figure 4.1. The classifications of Historical and Geographical References

11 See footnote 1

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4.2.2 Personal Names and Epithets

The second class of CEs identified in the current study includes the personal names and epithets found in the Iranian films. This class is per se subdivided into seven categories: a) film and animation characters, b) historical figures, c) literary figures, d) celebrity figures, e) political figures, f) religious figures, and g) social figures.

4.2.2(a) Film and animation characters

This is the most common type of CEs in the category of Personal Names and Epithets

References. It includes the first names, surnames or the epithets used for the characters in the films. It also includes the names of the characters of other films or animations that are mentioned in the films. This is to say that these names from other sources are intertextually used and can be referred to as allusions.

The first example is an instance of using the name of animation characters in the corpus. In A Cube of Sugar (Reza Mirkarimi, 2011), Haj Naser [Farhad Aslani] is one of the son-in-laws of the family who has recently become a father of twins and at times

./shangool-o mangool/ شنگول و منگول calls them as

Example 15. Personal Names and Epithet: Film and Animation Characters. FILM A Cube of Sugar (Reza Mirkarimi, 2011) CHARACTER Haj Naser سالم شنگول و منگول PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /hello/ /Shangool/ /and/ /Mangool/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Hello there, my babies!

shangool-o mangool/ are two characters of the Persian fairy tale story of/ شنگول و منگول

boz boz-e Ghandi/ (LT as The Sugar Goat). This fairy tale highly resembles the/ بزبز قندی

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English ‘The Wolf and the Seven Young Goats’12. The Sugar Goat is a popular folk story in Iran which is mainly told to children. Resembling the fairy tale The Wolf and the

Seven Young Goats, it is the story of a wolf trying to sneak into a goat’s house and eat up the children while the mother goat is away. The wolf succeeds to cheat the goat children and enters the house. He eats them up but the youngest one who will rescue her brothers and sisters later with the help of her mother.

maadar-e haaj/ مادر هاچ زنبور عسل The other example of this type is the use of zanboor-e asal/ (the mother of Hutch, the animation character in the Adventures of Hutch the Honeybee). In About Elly (Asghar Farhadi, 2009), some friends have come to

Shomal13 (the North) to the beach for a holiday. At night, they are shown playing pantomime game in which one person mimes an action without talking, and the others are supposed to guess what word or sentence the action represents. The answer to one of

maadar-e haaj zanboor-e asal/ which is guessed by Peyman/ عسل the game runs is

[Peyman Mo’adi].

Example 16. Personal Names and Epithet: Film and Animation Characters. FILM About Elly (Asghar Farhadi, 2009) CHARACTER Peyman مادر هاچ زنبور عسل PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /mother of/ /Hutch/ /bee of/ /honey/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE The mother of the honey bee!

As can be seen in the example, the answer to the pantomime game that is played by Elly

[Taraneh Alidousti] is The mother of Hutch the Honeybee. The Adventures of Hutch the

12 This is a fairy tale story collected by Brothers Grimm, in which seven little goat children, but the youngest one, are gobbled up by the Big Bad Wolf, while the mother goat is away to find food. The fairy tale has a strong resemblance to such other fairy tales as The Three Little Pigs or Little Red Riding Hood. At the end of the story, the mother goat, with the help of the youngest child, finds the wolf sleeping under a tree. They cut the wolf’s belly and take out the six goat children safe, and fill the wolf’s belly with rocks. When the wolf wakes up, he goes to the river to drink water and falls into the river and drowns. 13 See example 6. 133

Honeybee or Honeybee Hutch (as is translated in Iran), is an anime series about the son of a Queen Bee, Hutch who is separated from his mother and is searching to find her again. The series were translated and broadcasted in Iran in the 1980s and become very popular among people ever since.

The last example here is the use of film characters. This is a common subcategory since all of the analysed movies contain this type of element. The example here is, Ali known as Ali Santouri [Bahram Radan], the name of the main character of the film Santouri (Dariush Mehrjoui, 2007). He is an Iranian Santour player. In a scene from the film, Ali Santouri’s wife, Hanieh [Golshifteh Farahani] is shown to be complaining about all their problems and how Ali Santouri shockingly become addicted to opium.

Example 17. Personal Names and Epithet: Film and Animation Characters. FILM Santouri (Dariush Mehrjoui, 2007) CHARACTER Hanieh کی فکرش رو میکرد علی سنتوری PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /who/ /would think/ /Ali/ /Santouri/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Who would have thought that Santour Ali,

Santouri has a pun in the film. First, it is referred to one who plays Santour. Santour as a musical instrument is a hammered dulcimer. The name literary means ‘100 strings’ which indicates the high number of strings used to make this Iranian musical instrument.

The instrument is played by holding two oval-shaped mallets called Mezrab between one’s thumb and the index and middle fingers. Second, Santouri is also a metaphorical and indirect way of referring to injecting heroin into one’s veins, as it is shown in the film, Ali Santouri gets addicted to heroin.

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4.2.2(b) Historical figures

This category refers to the people who are historically related to the Iranian culture. The

yazid/. In Here without Me (2011, Bahram/ یزید example that was found in the corpus is

Tavakoli), Farideh [Fatemeh Motamedaria] is a single mother of a family with her daughter and son who works in a factory. In a scene from the film, she is shown to be in the factory and talking to a friend, Sarah. Sarah tells Farideh that she is having many guests these days and being tired of hosting too many guests, resembles them to the army.

Example 18. Personal Names and Epithet: Historical Figures. FILM Here without Me (2011, Bahram Tavakoli) CHARACTER Sarah مهمون چیه؟ بگو لشگر یزید! PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /what is/ /guest/? /you call/ /the army of/ /Yazid/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE What guests

yazid/ is the second Caliph of Umayyad Caliphate who ruled the Islamic territory/ یزید for three years from 680 CE to 683 CE had a big army. Yazid’s army in Iranian culture, as it is shown in the film, is used when suggesting to a large number of people.

4.2.2(c) Literary figures

Literary figures refer to the names and epithets of real or fictional people in the Iranian literature. It includes such names as the poets or fictional characters and heroes in the poems.

In No Men Allowed (Rambod Javan, 2011), Ms. Darabi [Vishka Asayesh] is a feminist, strict and conservative headmistress of a girl high school whose students are preparing for an upcoming Chemistry Olympiad exam. In one scene of the film, Ms.

Darabi is shown downgrading the importance of such school subjects as literature by

135 stating that studying literature is a waste of time. In response to this, the students and their literature teacher complain to Ms. Darabi and reminds her of such important love

./xosro-o shirin/ خسرو و شیرین leili-o majnoon/ and/ لیلی و مجنون stories as

Example 19. Personal Names and Epithet: Literary Figures. FILM No Men Allowed (Rambod Javan, 2011) CHARACTER LITERATURE TEACHER اوا خانم دارابی! پس این همه لیلی و مجنون، خسرو و شیرین! PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /oh/ /Ms/ /Darabi/! /then/ /this/ /also/ /Leili/ /and/ /Majnoon/, /Xosro/ /and/ /Shirin/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE What?! Then what about Romeo and Juliet?

leili-o majnoon/ (LT as Leili and Majnoon14)are the characters of the love/ لیلی و مجنون story originally initiated from ancient Arabia and then adopted by Persian poets like by

xosro-o shirin/ is also the name of a Persian/ خسرو و شیرین .(Nezami Ganjavi (1141-1209 tragic romance by Nezami Ganjavi (1141-1209). It is the story of the love of Khosrow, the king of Sasanian Dynasty15, and Shirin, the princess of Armenia. After falling in love with each other Shirin escapes from Armenia to find Khosrow in Iran. However, at the same time, Khosrow, being still a young Persian prince, escapes from his father court and goes to Armenia in search of Shirin. However, they do not reach each other after several romantic and heroic events.

The second example is from The Willow tree (Majid Majidi, 2005). The film is the story of Youssef [Parviz Parastoui], a blind professor of Persian literature who regains his vision power and accordingly his life totally changes. In one scene of the film, Youssef is writing a critique about Mowlavi.

14 See footnote 3 15 See footnote 1 136

Example 20. Personal Names and Epithet: Literary Figures. FILM The Willow tree (Majid Majidi, 2005) CHARACTER Youssef مولوی شدن مولوی در همین قمار عاشقانه است و همین گذشت بی توقع PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Mowlavi/ /to become/ /Mowlavi/ /in/ /this/ /gamble of/ /love/ /is/ /and/ /this/ /sacrifice of/ /no expectation/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE As for Rumi, he always bet on love and expected nothing in return

mowlavi/, Jalal ad-Din Mohammad Rumi, is the Persian poet, Sufi16 mystic and/ مولوی

Islamic scholar who is well known for his Masnavi Manawi and Divane Shams-e Tabrizi including his poetries. He is also well-known as Mowlana. He was born into a Persian speaker parents in the city of Balkh which is presently located in Afghanistan. As a mystic and Sufi poet, union with the Beloved is the main theme of his teachings.

Additionally, he strongly appreciated music, dance, and poetry as a path to achieving peace and reaching God.

ghamar/ are other two examples of literary figures/ قمر iraj mirzaa/ and/ ایرج میرزا as CEs found in the corpus of the study. My Tehran for Sale (Granaz Moussavi, 2009),

Marzieh [Marzieh Vafamehr] is a young Iranian actress who meets Saman [Amir

Chegini], an Iranian-Australian citizen. Saman, being away from Iran for a long time, spends time with Marzieh exploring different parts of the capital city of Tehran. In a scene from the film, they are standing at the closed door of Zahiroddoleh17 cemetery.

Marzieh is shown to be telling Saman about such Iranian masters of art and literature as

ghamar/ who are buried in the cemetery in which a/ قمر iraj mirzaa/ and/ ایرج میرزا

16 Sufism is considered as the mystical dimension of Islam, the followers of which are referred to as Sufis. Mowlana is one of the most influential Sufis. Sufis are characterized by their asceticism, as well as their habit in repeating the names of God. Sufis are also known for their simple life. 17 See example 8

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قمر iraj mirzaa/ and/ ایرج میرزا number of Iranian masters in art and literature, such as

/ghamar/ are buried.

Example 21. Personal Names and Epithet: Literary Figures. FILM My Tehran for Sale (Granaz Moussavi, 2009) CHARACTER MARZIEH قمر اینجاست. ایرج میرزا اینجاست PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Ghamar/ /here is/. /Iraj Mirza/ /here is/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Also Ghamar and Iraj Mirza.

iraj mirzaa/, Iraj Mirza (1878-1926), born in the city of Tabriz, is a famous/ ایرج میرزا and popular contemporary Iranian poet and translator whose works are associated with sarcastic criticism of traditions. His poetry is also well-known for being the first Persian poet who used colloquial and everyday language in his poems which are also characterized by pederastic, wittily and satirical tone. The other name mentioned in the

ghamar/. Qamar-ol-Molouk Vaziri (1905-1959), born in the city/ قمر scene of the film is of Takestan, was the first Iranian woman singer who is known as the queen of Persian music, at the time women were not allowed to sing. She is also known as to be the first women to perform without wearing hijab18 in front of men.

4.2.2(d) Celebrity figures

This subcategory refers to the contemporary celebrated and renowned people. The

shajariaan/. In A Separation (Asghar Farhadi, 2011), Simin [Leila/ شجریان example is

Hatami] is leaving her husband Nader [Peyman Moadi], to live with her parents since they have problems at home. While leaving, she picks up an audio CD, containing

Shajarian songs, and asks Nader if she could take the CD with her.

18 Hijab refer to the veil that is worn by Muslim women as a way of showing and observing Islamic standards of modesty. The veil is worn at the presence of adult males who are not immediately related to the woman. Hijab is mainly worn to cover women’s hair and body. 138

Example 22. Personal Names and Epithet: Celebrity Figures. FILM A Separation (Asghar Farhadi, 2011) CHARACTER Simin من این شجریان رو بردم PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /I/ /this/ /Shajarian/ /I took/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE I'm taking this CD.

Mohammad Reza Shajarian, born in Mashhad on 23 September 1940, is an internationally acclaimed popular classical singer and composer of Persian music. He is also highly revered for his social actions. As an instance, his project to help the people of the city of Bam, through performing a concert after the earthquake in 2003 can be mentioned. The songs that he also chooses contain social, political and cultural concerns of the current society of Iran which has turned him to become a popular and appreciated singer among many intellectuals in the country.

4.2.2(e) Political figures

This subcategory of CEs found in the Iranian films includes the Iranian, as well as non-

Iranian politicians who have played a role in the Iranian historical and socio-political

./saddaam/ صدام shah/ and/ شاه context. The examples found are

,shah/, was found in Women are Incredible (2010/ شاه ,The first example

Mehrdad Farid). The story of the film develops on Ardalan’s multiple marriages and how this secret of him is revealed to his three wives. In one scene from the film, his second wife [Bahareh Rahnama] is shown to be asking her brother Nader [Reza

Davoudnejad] if polygamy is allowed in Iran without one’s wife permission. Nader sarcastically addresses her naïve and explains that this was during Shah’s period that men needed permission and you just need bribe the judge and get the permission.

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Example 23. Personal Names and Epithet: Political Figures. FILM Women are Incredible (2010, Mehrdad Farid). CHARACTER Nader چقدر تو ساده ای! اون برای زمان شاه بود. االن فقط اجازه قاضی .... تمومه! قاضی هم که PERSIAN راضی کردنش کاری نداره. SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /how/ /you/ /simple are/! /that/ /for/ /time of/ /Shah/ /was/. /Now/ /just/ /permission of/ /judge/ … /done/! /judge/ /also/ /that/ /persuading him/ /work/ /no needed/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE You are so naïve. If you bribe the judge everything is possible

shah/ refers to Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi (26 October 1919- 27 July 1980) who/ شاه was the king of Iran before the Islamic revolution in 1979. Shah is a title that is given to kings of Iran, and it generally encompasses rulers of Iran, from the first Persian Empire of the Achaemenid dynasty to the Imperial house of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi.

After the Islamic Revolution of Iran in 1979, there is no Shah or dynasty in the country as Iran transformed from a Secular Monarchy to an Islamic Republic. Regarding this example, during the Mohammad Reza Pahlavi’s period, despite the fact that feminist political groups and independent NGOs were forcefully shut down, the government supported actions against such issues related to women’s right as polygamy. This seems to be the reason why Nader refers to the Shah’s period as when permission was required if one wanted to marry a second wife.

In Women’s Prison (Manije Hekmat, 2002), Sepide [Pegah Ahangarani] is a girl who is born in prison at the time of the bombardment of Tehran by Iraqi military aircraft during the eight-year-war between the two countries. While the baby is being born, a bomb explodes near the prison, causing the prisoners to yell in fear. One of the prisoners curses Saddam for imposing the war on Iran.

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Example 24. Personal Names and Epithet: Political Figures. FILM Women’s Prison (Manije hekmat, 2002) CHARACTER The Prisoner خیر نبینی صدام. گل اندام چی شد؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /good/ /don’t see you/ Saddam/. /Golandam/ /what happened she/? ENGLISH SUBTITLE Damn you Saddam. What happened to Golandam?

saddaam/, Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti, 28 April 1937 – 30 December/ صدام

2006, was the fifth president of Iraq who was in power from 16 July 1979 until 9 April

2003, when the coalition led by the U.S. invaded Iraq and deposed him for possessing weapons of mass destruction and having ties to al-Qaeda. Saddam is a much-hated figure among Iranians as he started a war with Iran which lasted for more than eight years19 and left millions of casualties and death.

4.2.2(f) Religious figures

This subcategory of CEs includes a wide range of names. As an Islamic country, the

Iranian culture is abundant with religious references. The names of religious figures have been used in different contexts in the films. They are used in such situations as when swearing to provide proof for one’s assertions, when going on pilgrimage to sacred places, and when talking about the religious figures in ceremonies.

Ziba and I (Fereidoun Hasanpour, 2011), is the story of Mousa [Parviz

Parastoui], an alcoholic person whose pregnant wife labours and dies before Mousa, being intoxicated, could get help. Musa blames himself for his wife’s death and devotes his life to their newborn son, Jafar [Shahab Hosseini]. During years, he goes through spiritual changes and develops hopes to repent for his deeds. In Musa’s belief, his repent

19 See footnote 2

141 would be accepted, and he would only be forgiven by God if he could lead a religious ceremony held for Imam Hossein20 every year in the village. In a scene from the film,

Jafar is shown to be trying to encourage the villagers to let his father lead the religious ceremony.

Example 25. Personal names and Epithet: Religious Figures. FILM Ziba and I (Fereidoun Hasanpour, 2011) CHARACTER Jafar میگه فقط از امام حسین میتونم شفاعت بگیرم PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /says he/ /only/ /from/ /Imam Hossein/ /I can/ /intercession/ /I get/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE He says just Emam Hossein can intercede him

Husayn ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib21 (625-680), or Imam Hossein is the third Iman of Iranian

Muslim who was killed and beheaded in the Battle of Karbala. He was the son of Ali ibn

Abi Talib22 and Fatimah Zahra23, the daughter of Prophet Muhammad. He is an important figure in Islam and many Iranian Muslims go on a pilgrimage to his tomb in

Iraq every year.

In the same movie, when the villagers refuse Mousa’s request to lead the ceremony, Jafar insists and tries to persuade them to only let Musa carry the symbolic horse of Imam Hossein, Zoljenah.

Example 26. Personal names and Epithet: Religious Figures. FILM Ziba and I (Fereidoun Hasanpour, 2011) CHARACTER Jafar اقلن بزارین تاسوعا آقاجانم افسار ذوالجناح رو بگیره PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /at least/ /you let/ /Tasoua/ /my dad/ /tether of/ /Zoljanah/ /he take/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Thus let my dad get tether of Zoljenah just one day before

20 See footnote 4 21 See footnote 4 22 The fourth caliph of Sunni Muslims and the first Imam in Shiite Muslims 23 See footnote 9 142

Zoljenah or Zuljenah was the horse of Hossein ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib. The horse has become a symbolic character in Battle of Karbala in Iran and among Iranian Muslims.

For instance, it can be mentioned that nowadays, in ceremonies held for the martyrdom of Hossein ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib, a horse is symbolically ornamented to represent the incident of the battle day.

4.2.2(g) Social figures

Social figures and epithets refer to a subcategory of CEs that includes the names and epithets of people who are socially, and not religiously or politically, known by the community. They can refer to both respectable, as well as wicked people.

In A Simple Reception (Mani Haghighi, 2012), a couple is shown to be driving to the poor mountain areas of the capital city of Tehran, handing out bags of money to poor people. In return, they ask the poor for unusual favours. In a scene from the film, while giving out a bag of money to a poor, elderly man, the poor man refuses to accept the money. Being shocked and filled with anger, the wife [Taraneh Alidousti] sarcastically and disdainfully asks the old man if he is a Darvish.

Example 27. Personal names and Epithet: Social Figures

FILM A Simple Reception (Mani Haghighi, 2012) CHARACTER The Woman خیلی درویشی؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /a lot/ /Darvish you are/? ENGLISH SUBTITLE You’re the spiritual type, right?

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In Iranian culture, Darvish24 refers to a Sufi Muslim ascetic who is well-known for choosing to live in extreme austerity and poverty, and the importance they give to the value of love and service. They practice the severe austerity and poverty as a path to leave the ego and the earthly belongings behind and to reach God. This has made them be revered in Iranian culture. In the movie, the wife also refers to the rejection of the money by the poor man as a sign of being Darvish.

In another example from the film Fireworks Wednesday (Asghar Farhadi, 2006), the husband of a family Morteza [Hamid Farrokh Nejad] is shown to be talking in the car to a maid Rouhi [Taraneh Alidousti] about the social safety in Iranian society. Ruhi complains about the safety of the society and mentions a chain killer epithet in Iran,

.LT as The Night Bat ,خفاش شب called

Example 28. Personal names and Epithet: Social Figures. FILM Fireworks Wednesday (Asghar Farhadi, 2006), CHARACTER Rouhi خفاش شب ؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /bat of/ /night/? ENGLISH SUBTITLE The Bat?

‘The Bat’ is a nickname of the well-known Iranian serial killer, Gholam Reza Khoshrou

Kouran Kordieh. He was executed in Tehran on 13 August 1997 for murdering nine women. He became well-known as one of the murders who had been able to escape the police and negatively impact security in the capital city of Tehran.

24 Dervish or Darvish is defined by the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2016, Online) as “a member of a Muslim religious whose members make a promise to stay poor and live without comforts or pleasures. They perform a fast lively dance as part of their worship”. Having appeared in the 12th century for the first time, they were identified as “dancing, whirling, or howling dervishes according to the practice of their order” (Oxford Dictionaries 2016, Online).

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From the study, it can be summarized that the cultural elements that consist of personal names and epithets in this data study can be classified in seven (7) categories as shown in Figure 4.2 below:

Personal Names and Epithets

Film and Religious Social animation Historical Literary Celebrity Political figures figures characters figures figures Figures figures

Figure 4.2. Classifications of Personal Names and Epithets

4.2.3 Daily Life References

Daily life references is the third class of CEs identified in the current research. This class refers to the objects that are used in daily life, foods consumed, and the names of products, as well as measuring criteria. These objects can be divided into six categories of a) Appliances: objects from daily life, b) Cloths, c) Foods and drinks, d)

Transportation, e) Brand names, and f) Measurements. The last category, Measurements, is per se divided into four subcategories of i) currency, ii) distance, iii) grading systems, and iv) solar/lunar year and months. The examples of each category are given below.

4.2.3(a) Appliances: object from daily life

Appliances can both refer to the objects that are used at home, as well as the objects that can be seen and used outdoors. The objects inside indicate that the CEs are used as home appliances.

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In The Lizard (Kamal Tabrizi, 2004), Reza Marmoolak [Parviz Parastoui] is bargaining with a forger on the price of a fake passport. While sitting at a table in a traditional café, the police forces raid the café to capture the offenders in the hangout.

Reza Marmoolak notices the police and runs into the toilet and disguises himself as a

Mullah. While coming out of the toilet, he bumps into the police chief and asks him if he wants to use the toilet. Reza Marmoolak warns the police chief to be careful about the

.Aftabeh آفتابه hygiene issues as there is no

Example 29. Daily Life References: Appliances: Objects from Daily life. FILM The Lizard (Kamal Tabrizi, 2004) CHARACTER Reza Marmoulak گالب به روتون قضای حاجت دیگه. فقط مراقب باشید اینجا آفتابه نداره PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Golab/ /to/ /your face/ /call of/ /nature/. /just/ /careful you be/ /here/ /Aftabeh/ /doesn’t have/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Answering natures call! But be careful, there are no ewers here

In Iranian culture, particularly in Islamic tradition, a Muslim’s clothes and body must be religiously clean when performing the prayers. So, in order for the body to be religiously

آفتابه .clean, Muslims are required to rinse their body with water after they go to the toilet

/aaftaabe/, Aftabeh, LT as Ewer, refers to a watering can or ewer that is used, less commonly available these days, in toilets for washing and cleaning.

In the film About Elly (Asghar Farhadi, 2009), after friends’ found out about

Elly’s [Taraneh Alidousti] drowning in the sea, they argue over whether to tell the truth to Elly’s fiancé or not. This is because they had brought Elly to the holiday to introduce her to another male friend, Ahmad [Shahab Hosseini], without Elly’s fiancé’s knowing.

While quarrelling over the issue, Amir [Mani Haghighi] suggests that they should not tell the truth as Elly’s fiancé wouldn’t believe them and everything they did during the

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Sandoogh-e صندوق صدقات ,holiday, even the money they donated to the charity box

Sadaghat, would be regarded as a corrupt deed in Elly’s fiancé’s view.

Example 30. Daily Life References: Appliances: Objects from Daily life. FILM About Elly (Asghar Farhadi, 2009) CHARACTER Amir از پول انداختن تو صندوق صدقات بگیر تا PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /from/ /money/ /to drop/ /in/ /Sandough-e Sadaghat/ /you take/ /to/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE From the money she has given

sandoogh-e sadaghaat/, LT as Charity Box, is donation or charity box/ صندوق صدقات

Imam)25 کمیته امداد امام خمینی placed in different parts of cities and villages in Iran by

Khomeini Relief Foundation). This metal box is used by people to cast their money as charity and benevolence voluntarily. In the Quran, the holy book of Muslims, the word

Sadaghe, the plural form of which is Sadaghat, denotes voluntary offering which leads to the purification of the benefactor. It is also believed that, as it is written on these boxes, Sadaghe would repulse and protect the benefactor from 70 misadventures. In the

Iranian culture, as a mainly Muslim country, the emphasis that is given to donation and

Sadaghe has resulted in many people to cast money to these boxes frequently to both purify themselves from sins, as well as to protect themselves from accidents and calamities.

4.2.3(b) Clothings

This category includes the clothes worn by Iranians as members of the Middle East and a Muslim country. The examples of the clothes that were found in the corpus of the

25 The institution was founded after the Islamic revolution in 1979 as an organization for charity deeds. The foundation provides, mainly, financial supports for the poor families both inside Iran, as well as outside the country to the poor in such countries as Afghanistan, Pakistan, Somalia, Palestine, Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iraq etc. 147 study are varied and are worn due to religion, rules, and regulations of the country, and regional culture.

In the film Fireworks Wednesday (Asghar Farhadi, 2006), the maid Rouhi

[Tarane Alidousti] asks her employer Morteza [Hamid Farrokhnejad] whether she has

.Chador in his apartment چادر left her

Example 31. Daily Life References: Clothings. FILM Fireworks Wednesday (Asghar Farhadi, 2006) CHARACTER Rouhi من چادرمو خونه ی شما جا نذاشتم؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /I/ /my Chador/ /home of/ /you/ /haven’t left/? ENGLISH SUBTITLE Have you seen my chador?

chaador/, Chador is defined by Oxford Dictionaries (2016, Online) as “[A] large/ چادر piece of cloth that is wrapped around the head and upper body leaving only the face exposed, worn especially by Muslim women.” It is the traditional long garment of many

Muslim women worn in public and outdoors. It is usually in black colour and covers the entire body but the face.

Another example refers to clothes worn by clergymen or by other people in religious events. In the film Under the Moonlight (Reza Mirkarimi, 2001), Seyyed

Hassan [Hossein Pour Sattar] is shown to be a student in a Howzeh Illmiyah26 (Islamic school) who is getting prepared for the graduation ceremony in which they are officially granted the title Hojjatol Islam va-al Muslimin27 after which they are allowed to wear

howze elmiye/ (LT as The School of Science), refers to the Islamic school where Iranian/ حوزه علمیه 26 Muslims clerics are trained. There are various hawzas in Islamic countries. The institutions in Najaf in Iraq and Qom in Iran are the preeminent centres for the training of Iranian clergymen. hojjatol eslaam/, LT as The Proof of Islam, is a title given to Islamic clerics in Iran. The/ حجه االسالم 27 honorific title also means “authority on Islam” and is awarded to Islamic scholars. As ranking is concerned, the use of this honorific in now an indication of a status in the hierarchy of learned below Ayatollah which is given to middle ranking clergymen. 148

.Ammaameh عمامه Ghaba, and قبا ,Aba عبا the special clothes of the clergymen including

In one scene of the film, he is shown to be in a mercer shop to purchase the clergy’s cloths.

Example 32. Daily Life References: Clothings. FILM Under the Moonlight (Reza Mirkarimi, 2001) CHARACTER Seyed Hassan حاج آقا معذرت میخوام. پارچه میخواستم برای عبا، قبا و عمامه PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Hajagha/ /sorry/ /I am/. /cloth/ /I wanted/ /for/ /Aba/ /Ghaba/ /and/ /Ammameh/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Sorry I wanted some material for my robe, turban and Aba.

,/abaa/ عبا ,/ghabaa/ قبا As can be seen in the example, the examples of clothing here are

Qaba or ghaba is a traditional long overall which is open from قبا ./ammaameh/ عمامه and

abaa/ is a type of cloak, over-garment worn by/ عبا .the front part and is worn by men clergymen and sometimes ordinary people when praying. Wearing Aba is considered to be Mustahab28 by many Iranian clergymen when doing the everyday prayers. Finally,

ammaameh/ (LT as Turban) is referred to a type of headwear worn by clergymen/ عمامه in Iran. It is still worn as a traditional way of dressing in some villages by men.

maghne'e/ is the example of the kind of clothes worn due to the rules and/ مقنعه regulation in Iran. In A Separation (Asghar Farhadi, 2011), Nader [Peyman Moadi] asks

Maqna’e for him to toss it into the مقنعه his daughter, Termeh [Sarina Farhadi], to get her washing machine.

28 Literally translated as ‘recommended’, Mustahab is an Islamic term that refers to those actions that are recommended by the Islamic law and are considered virtuous do be practiced and done by Muslims. 149

Example 33. Daily Life References: Clothings. FILM A Separation (Asghar Farhadi, 2011) CHARACTER Nader ترمه بابا این مانتو و مقنعه مدرست رو بیار من بندازم تو ماشین PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Termeh/ /dad/ /this/ /Manto/ /and/ /Maghnae of/ /your school/ /take you/ /I/ /drop I/ /in/ /machine/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Termeh, get your laundry.

Maqna’e is a type of Islamic scarf that is recommended to be worn by girls and women in Iran. Maqna’e is a dress code that is usually worn in schools, offices or official places to cover women’s hair. It is usually worn under Chador or without Chador. It is also worn by religious women as a praying cloth. The difference between a Maqna’e and a scarf is that while the latter is rather loose, Maqna’e is a tight clothing item that completely covers the head and neck of the one who is wearing it.

4.2.3(c) Foods and beverages

There are foods and drinks specific to different cultures. Iranian culture is also of no exception. These cultural foods and drinks include different types of drinks, dressings, bread, main courses, and puddings some of which are served in particular events and ceremonies.

In one scene of the film About Elly (Asghar Farhadi, 2009), Shohreh [Merila

Zare’i] is shown to be going to the town to shop for food stuff. At the same scene, Naazi

.Piaz Daagh and Kashk پیاز داغ و کشک Ra’na Azadivar] reminds her not to forget to get]

Example 34. Daily Life References: Food and Beverages (Food Stuff). FILM About Elly (Asghar Farhadi, 2009) CHARACTER Naazi شهره جون پیاز داغ و کشک هم یادتون نره PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Shohre/ /dear/ /Piaz dagh/ /and/ /Kashk/ /also/ /don’t remember you/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Don't forget the onions.

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piyaz daagh/, LT as Hot Onion, refers to a kind of topping served with soups/ پیاز داغ made of golden crispy and caramelized onions. It is usually preferred to be made from the sweet onion. The chopped onion is deep fried in oil in a non-stick pot. The onions are stirred in medium-high heat until they become crispy and golden. The whole process

kashk/, Kashk, is a/ کشک ,would take around 30 to 35 minutes. The other example here dairy product made from drained sour milk or yogurt that is usually served as dressings or side foods. It is a widely used and popular dairy product used in the cuisine of many nations such as Iranians, Turks, and Mongolians. In Iran, it comes in two ways: either in the form of whitish liquid like a sour cream or in a dried small rock shape form.

sangak/. In Sensitive/ سنگک The example of a type of bread as a CE is the use of

Floor (Kamal Tabrizi, 2013), Mr. Kamali [Reza Attaran] unexpectedly finds out from a colleague’s apprentice that his fellow colleagues have found about his late wife being mistakenly buried in a wrong grave next to another man. As Mr. Kamali is a religious person, he regards this as a disgrace to himself. He angrily asks the apprentice whom he has learned this secret from. The petrified apprentice confesses that he has heard it from the owner of Sangaki bakery shop.

Example 35. Daily Life References: Food and beverages (Food Stuff). FILM Sensitive Floor (Kamal Tabrizi, 2013) CHARACTER The apprentice حسابدار اقای زنگنه. حسابدار اقای زنگنه خودش ازین نونوایی سنگکی سرشنیده PERSIAN بود. اون خودش ازین الکتریکیه شنیده بود SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /accountant of/ /Mr./ /Zanganeh/. /accountant of/ /Mr./ /Zanganeh/ /himself/ /from this/ /bakery/ /Sangaki/ /front/ /he had heard/. /he/ /from this/ /Electrician/ /he had heard/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE From Mr. Zangeneh’s accountant. He heard it from the baker, who heard it from the electrician.

Sangak, LT as Little Ston, is a traditional Iranian rectangular or triangular flat wholegrain bread baked on burning stones. It is defined by Glosbe – the multilingual

151 online dictionary (2016 online) as “[An] Iranian flat bread baked on a bed of river

as “kind of سنگک ،نان سنگک stones.” Farsi Dictionary (2016 Online) has also defined bread baked on heated pebbles in fumace.” Traditionally, this type of bread has been baked for the Iranian army as the soldiers were required to be able to bake their own bread on a small quantity of pebbles at their camps.

قرمه سبزی :Another example refers to one of the most famous dishes in Iran

/ghorme sabzi/. In Sensitive Floor (Kamal Tabrizi, 2013), Mr. Kamali, whose wife has recently passed away, is sitting at the table, waiting for his daughter to serve the food.

Being accustomed to his late wife’s cooking, he hassles about the taste of Ghorme Sabzi prepared by his daughter.

Example 36. Daily Life References: Food and Beverages (Food Stuff). FILM Sensitive Floor (Kamal Tabrizi, 2013) CHARACTER Mr. Kamali ما قرمه سبزی خوردیم ها! بخور ببین چیه این آخه PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /we/ /Ghormeh Sabzi/ /have eated/ /ha/! /you eat/ /you see/ /what is/ /this/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE I’ve had green stew before. Eat this … what the hell is it?

ghorme sabzi/, LT as Green Stew, is a popular herb stew in Iran which is/ قرمه سبزی known as one of the national foods of the country. Ghormeh means stewed, and Sabzi is the Persian word for herbs and green. The main ingredients are a variety of sautéed herbs, mainly spinach, parsley, spring onions, fresh coriander; seasoned with dried fenugreek leaves.

,kalle paache/. In Sensitive Floor (Kamal Tabrizi/ کله پاچه Another example is

2013), after the illegal and secretive exhumation of Mr. Kamali’s wife from the grave, he asks his new son-in-law, his confidant in exhuming the corpse, to return home and he

.Kalle Pache کله پاچه would also return after he eats 152

Example 37. Daily Life References: Food and Beverages (Food Stuff). FILM Sensitive Floor (Kamal Tabrizi, 2013) CHARACTER Mr. Kamali برو من یه چرخی میزنم یه کله پاچه میخورم خودم میام خونه PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /you go/ /I/ /one/ /walk around I/ /one/ /Kallle Pache/ /I eat/ /myself/ /I come/ /home/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE I’ll take a stroll, have some breakfast and come home later.

LT as Head-Shank or Head-Trotter, Kalle Pache is a dish made from a boiled sheep’s head and feet which is usually served when there is the company of family members together in the morning. It is also regarded mainly as a breakfast soup which is seasoned with lemon and cinnamon.

4.2.3(d) Transportation

The examples of transportation found in the corpus of the study are the names of

پیکان different models of cars that are domestically manufactured. The example is

/peykaan/ (LT as Arrow, a car produced in Iran by Iran Khodro Company).

In the film Under the Moonlight (Reza Mirkarimi, 2001), Seyed Hassan [Hossein

Poursattar] the student of an Islamic school29, is shown to be accompanying and sympathizing with a bunch of poor people living under a bridge in the capital city of

Tehran. The people are shown in a scene to be talking about their wishes and ambitions in their lives. Majid [Asghar Heydari], one of the members of this poor community,

.Peykan پیکان expresses his wish to have a

29 See footnote 25.

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Example 38. Daily Life References: Transportation. FILM Under the Moonlight (Reza Mirkarimi, 2001) CHARACTER Majid یه پیکان 63 سفید یخچالی حاال رینگ اسپرت هم نبود نبود PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /one/ /Peykan of/ /63/ /white of/ /fridge/ /now/ /ring/ /sports/ /also/ /wasn’t/ /wasn’t/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Just a regular Peykan car, Model 63, white, if the rings are not sport it’s okay.

Peykan, LT as Arrow, is the first national Iranian car, and almost the most popular car in

Iran during the 1960s to 1990s, which was produced by the Iranian automobile company of Iran Khodro Industrial Group30. The last Peykan rolled down the assembly line in

2005.

4.2.3(e) Brand names

/saandis/ ساندیس The examples of the brand names found in the corpus of the study are

vaiteks/ (Vaitex, the/ وایتکس Sandis, a very famous and popular brand of fruit juice) and)

is used to refer to any ساندیس name that was used for the first time for bleach). While

.is also used to represent any brands of bleach وایتکس ,kinds of packed fruit juice

The Song of Sparrows (Majid Majidi, 2008), is the story of Karim [Reza Naji] who works on an ostrich farm. He is fired due to his carelessness which resulted in the escape of an ostrich from the farm. Accordingly, he has to work with his motorbike in

Tehran. In a scene from the film, Karim’s son, Hossein [Hamed Aghazi] is shown to be going to a stall to buy some drinks for himself and Karim. He asks the sales person the

.Sandisساندیس price of

30 Originally named as Iran National, Iran Khodro Industrial Group is an Iranian multinational automobile maker founded in 1962 in Tehran. 154

Example 39. Daily Life References: Brand names. FILM The Song of Sparrows (Majid Majidi, 2008) CHARACTER Hossein –آقا دو تا ساندیس چقدر میشه؟ 400 تومن PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Mr/ /two/ /Sandis/ /how much/ /it be/? /400/ /toman/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE -How much are two fruit juices? -400 tomans.

Sandis or Capri Sun is a brand of juice concentrate that is originally produced by the

German Company WILD. This product was produced by the original German company before the Islamic Revolution of Iran in 1979 and continued with the same name, but produced by an Iranian company, after the Revolution. This brand is still metonymically used by many to refer to any types and brands of fruit juice in general.

The second example here is taken from the film Fireworks Wednesday (Asghar

Farhadi, 2006). In one scene from the film, it is shown that Rouhi [Taraneh Alidousti], the maid, is asking where she can find the bleach. She metonymically uses the brand name Vaitex to refer to the bleach.

Example 40. Daily Life References: Brand names. FILM Fireworks Wednesday (Asghar Farhadi, 2006) CHARACTER Rouhi وایتکس کجاست؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Vaitex/ where is it/? ENGLISH SUBTITLE I'm looking for bleach.

Vaitex is the commercial name first used as a brand name for selling bleach in Iran produced by Shamin Corporation. Due to the popularity of the brand, the name has been used widely and metonymically since then by many Iranians to generally refer to any types and brands of chemicals used to whiten clothing.

155

4.2.3(f) Measurements

Different types of measurements were found in the corpus of the study as kinds of CEs.

These types include the official currency of Iran, the local criteria used to measure distance, grading systems in Iranian schools, and the Persian and Arabic calendar used to refer to years and months. Each of these sub-categories is discussed in the following.

4.2.3(f)(i) Currency

.(toman/ (Toman/ تومان rial/ (Rial) and/ لایر :Two types of currencies are used in Iran

While the former one is the official currency and is approximately just used in official paper works, the latter is no longer the official currency but is commonly used in everyday situations among people of Iran.

In Crimson Gold (Jafar Panahi, 2003), Hossein [Hossein Emadeddin] and his friend Ali [Kamyar Sheisi], are shown in one scene from the film to be riding on their motorbike. Since Hossein and Ali’s sister are getting married, they are heading to a jewellery shop to see a gold necklace31 worth 75 million Toman.

Example 41. Daily Life References: Measurements: Currency. FILM Crimson Gold (Jafar Panahi, 2003) CHARACTER Ali بریم ببینیم اون جواهر 75 میلیون تومنی چه شکلیه PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /lets go/ /we see/ /that/ /jewellery of/ /75/ /million/ /toman/ /what/ /it look like/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Let's go see what a 75-million necklace looks like.

31 In Iranian culture, it is a tradition, gold is considerably regarded as having an important role in Iranian wedding ceremonies. For instance, the groom and his family are expected to give gold, in the forms of rings, necklaces, earrings, etc., to the bride in different occasions such as when they are first engaged, as well as in the wedding ceremony. 156

Toman is the super unit of the official currency of Iran, Rial. Each Toman is 10 Rials. In comparison to the American dollar, approximately each 3500 Tomans equals one dollar up to the date of writing the current example.

4.2.3(f)(ii) Distance

There are also local terms used to measure distance in Iranian culture. The example is

farsax/ (Farsakh). The example here is taken from the film There Are Things You/ فرسخ

Don’t Know (2010, Fardin Saheb-Zamani). Ali [Ali Mosaffa] is a secluded taxi driver in the capital city of Tehran. In a scene from the film, the wipers of Ali’s car are broken, and he asks the owner of the taxi agency he works for, Khosrow, to help him fix the wipers. Being depressed of his relationship with his ex-wife, Ali seems to be very dejected. While sitting in the car, Khosrow asks Ali why he is so upset as one can easily

.Farsakh away فرسخ say that from 20

Example 42. Daily Life References: Measurements: Distance. FILM There Are Things You Don’t Know (2010, Fardin Saheb-Zamani) CHARACTER Khosrou از بیست فرسخی پیداست برزخی! PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /from/ /20/ /Farsakhs/ /clear is/ /limbo you are/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE from 20 KM it is clear you are depressed.

farsax/ (Farsakh) comes from ancient Persia, the length of which varies/ فرسخ The CE with the speed of travel but mainly represent the distance that can be travelled in one hour on a horse. The term is currently used in Iranian culture to suggest a long distance.

Therefore, in this example, 20 Farsakh does not necessarily indicate an exact distance.

157

4.2.3(f)(iii) Grading systems

This type of CE refers to the school grading systems used to evaluate students’ performance in Iranian schools and higher education institutions. The example here is taken from the film Under the Skin of the City (2001, Rakhshan Bani E’temad). Ali

[Ebrahim Sheibani] is shown to be marking his mother’s, Tuba [Golab Adineh], assignment. Tuba has four mistakes and, so, Ali tells her that she has got 16.

Example 43. Daily Life References: Measurements: Grading systems. FILM Under the Skin of the City (2001, Rakhshan Bani E’temad) CHARACTER Ali 16 چهار تا غلط داشتی از هر غلطم 10 مرتبه می نویسی اینارم میخونی PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /16/ /four/ /mistake/ /you had/ /from/ /each/ /mistake also/ /10/ /time/ /you write/ /these also/ /you read/ ENGLISH You got a “B.” Write the 4 words you misspelled, 10 times each. SUBTITLE Read, now!

The school grading system that is used in Iran is not a percentage nor letter grading. The students’ performance on a test is evaluated out of 20 in which the score 10 and above is considered pass and below is regarded as fail at schools. The passing score, however, at the higher education level for Bachelor’s, Master’s and Ph.D. levels are 12, 14, and 16 respectively.

4.2.3(f)(iv) Solar/Lunar year and months

The present Iran, as an Islamic and ancient country, has its own particular calendar which is rooted in both Islam as the official religion of the country and ancient Persia.

The first example here is the use of the Solar Hijri calendar is the official calendar of Iran. The film Women’s Prison (Manije Hekmat, 2002), revolves around the condition of a women’s prison in the late 1370s in the capital city of Tehran.

158

Example 44. Daily Life References: Measurements: Solar/ Lunar Years and Months. FILM Women’s Prison (Manije hekmat, 2002) CHARACTER - )زمستان 1379 زندان زنان( PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /winter/ /1379/ /prison of/ /women/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Winter 2001 Women’s Prison

The Solar Hijri calendar or Hejri-e Shamsi calendar is the official calendar of Iran and

Afghanistan in which the Hejira32 specifies the origin of the calendar. However, apart from this, the calendar has retained its ancient origin as the first day of spring, 21th

March, is the first day of the year and the months are still used in their ancient Persian names. At the date of writing the present example, it is 16th August 2015, which is 25th

Mordad 1394 in Solar Hijri calendar.

Another example is the use of months. In the film No Men Allowed (Rambod

Javan, 2011), Ms. Darabi’s [Vishka Asayesh] students are preparing themselves for an upcoming national Chemistry Olympiad exam. Ms. Darabi is shown to be explaining to the students that the national Chemistry Olympiad exam would be held in the month of

Bahman and that only 20 students would be selected for the next stage of the competition.

Example 45. Daily Life References: Measurements: Solar/ Lunar Years and Months. FILM No Men Allowed (Rambod Javan, 2011) CHARACTER Ms Darabi مرحله کشوری المپیاد بهمن برگزار میشه. از سرتاسر ایران 20 نفر انتخاب میشن PERSIAN برای مرحله سوم SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /level of/ /national/ /Olympiad/ /Bahman/ /will be held/. /from/ /all over of/ /Iran/ /20/ /individuals/ /will be selected/ /for/ /level/ /of/ third/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE The Olympiad is near and only twenty students all over the country will be chosen for the third stage.

32 The migration of Prophet Mohammad and his followers from Mecca to Madina in the year 622 CE.

159

bahman/ is the eleventh month in Iranian Solar Hijri calendar. Beginning/ بهمن Bahman in January and ending in February, there are thirty days in this month. Bahman is also the second month of winter.

Another example is taken from the Arabic Lunar calendar which is mainly used for religious events and ceremonies. In Ziba and I (Fereidoun Hasanpour, 2011), two boys are shown to be taking two horses for a religious ceremony, to be held for Imam

Hossein martyrdom. As they are talking to each other, one of them mentions the date of the day in Arabic month: 10th of Moharram.

Example 46. Daily Life References: Measurements: Solar/ Lunar Years and Months. FILM Ziba and I (Fereidoun Hasanpour, 2011) CHARACTER The Boy منه بدبخت رو بگو. 10 محرمه مادرم PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /me of/ /unfortunate/ /you say/. /10 of/ /Moharram/ /my mother/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Poor me! It is Moharam 10th and I don’t have my mother!

The Arabic Lunar or Hijri-e Ghamari calendar is also the calendar used in many Muslim and Arabic countries. Moharram or Muharram is the first month, as well as one of the four sacred months in Arabic (Islamic) Lunar calendar. It is also believed to be the second holiest month after Ramathan during which Muslims fast. At the time of writing the current example, it is 16th August 2015, which is 1st Zolgha’dah 1436 in Arabic

Lunar calendar.

From the discussion, it can be concluded that the cultural elements for measurements can be summarized as follows:

160

Daily Life References

Appliances: Cloths Food& Transportatio- Brand Measurements object from drinks n names daily life

Grading Solar/ Currency Distance Lunar year systems and Months

Figure 4.3. Daily Life References

4.2.4 Literary, Artistic and Educational References

The fourth class of CEs found in the Iranian films includes such references related to literature, education, art, and music. Each of these categories per se also includes subcategories. The category of literature class refers to the transcripts, stylistic terms, and names that have roots in the culture of Iran. Each of the item in this category is subdivided into i) folklore songs, ii) literary style terms, and iii) literary works and religious transcripts. The second sub-category, educational references, contains those references that are related to i) educational levels, ii) educational places, iii) exams and iv) pupils. The last sub-category contains elements related to the art and music of Iran which is per se subdivided into i) musical instruments, ii) musical terms and styles, and iii) fine art. These sub-categories are discussed in more detail below.

4.2.4(a) Literature

The literature of Iran or as it is referred to as Persian literature is one of the oldest literatures in the world. It can be divided into two periods of pre-Islamic and post-

Islamic eras. However, much of the pre-Islamic literature is lost, and most of the

161 remaining part of the literature dates back to what exist from the conquest of Iran by

Islamic army onward. The surviving literature of Iran is a combination of both Islamic teachings and Persian culture.

4.2.4(a)(i) Folklore songs

The examples of local songs are the songs that are sung in special ceremonies like weddings and birthday parties.

The first example is the use of the wedding song in the film Facing Mirrors

(2011, Negar Azarbayjani). The story is about Rana [Qazal Shakeri] and Adine (Eddie)

[Shayesteh Irani] who belong to different social classes and backgrounds. Being raised in a religious and traditional family, Rana has to work as a cab driver to pay off her husband’s debts who is imprisoned. On the other hand, Eddie, a transsexual girl, is from a wealthy, and more of a secular family who has escaped from her home. In a scene of the film, Rana is shown to be working in a wedding dress workshop. Rana and her co- worker [Maryam Boubani] start singing the wedding song for a newly married bride in the workshop.

Example 47. Literary, Artistic and Educational References: Literature: Local Songs. FILM Facing Mirrors (Qazal Shakeri, 2011) CHARACTER Rana’s Friend بادا بادا مبارک بادا ایشاال مبارک باد PERSIAN گل درومد از حموم سنبل درومد از حموم شاه دوماد رو بگین عروس درومد از SOUNDTRACK حموم GLOSS /flower/ /came out/ /from/ /bathroom/ /Sonbol/ /came out/ /from/ /bathroom/ /king/ /groom/ /you say/ /bride/ /came out/ /from/ /bath/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE (Traditional Iranian wedding song)

As can be seen in the example, the song that is sung in the workshop is a song usually

baadaa baadaa/ بادا بادا مبارک بادا ایشاال مبارک باد:sung at wedding ceremonies in Iran

162 mobaarak baadaa ishaalaa mobaarak baadaa/. It can be LT as Be! Be! Happy Be! God willing, Happy Be! This song is usually sung in chorus by guests when dancing and clapping hands in an Iranian wedding ceremony and meant to wish happiness for the newly married couple.

The other example is the song that is sung in birthday parties. The example is derived from Women’s Prison (Manije hekmat, 2002) when they are singing the Happy

Birthday song for a girl in prison.

Example 48. Literary, Artistic and Educational References: Literature: Local Songs.

FILM Women’s Prison (Manije hekmat, 2002) CHARACTER The prisoners تولد تولد تولدت مبارک. بیا شمعها رو فوت کن که صد سال زنده باشی PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /birthday/ / birthday/ / birthday your/ /congrats/. /you come/ /candles/ /puff you/ /that/ /one hundred/ /years/ /you live/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE -

mobaarak/ تولد تولد تولدت مبارک. بیا شمعها رو فوت کن که صد سال زنده باشی The song is mobaarak! Tavalodet mobaarak! Biyaa shamaa ro foot kon! Ke sad saal zende baashi/ which can be LT as Birthday! Birthday! Happy your birthday! Come and blow out the candles! That one hundred years you live! It is the same as Happy Birthday song in function.

4.2.4(a)(ii) Literary style terms

The literary style terms found in the corpus of the study refer to the different styles of

ghazal/ (Qazal) which are/ غزل ghaside/ (Qasida), and/ قصیده poetries. The examples are two noticeable and popular styles of poetry in Iran.

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The examples are used in the film May Lady (Rakhshan Bani Etemad, 1998) in which Forugh [Minoo Farshi] needs to make some important decisions in her life. In a scene from the film, Forough is heard talking to herself in the background.

Example 49. Literary, Artistic and Educational References: Literature: Literary Styles. FILM May Lady (Rakhshan Bani Etemad, 1998) CHARACTER Forough قصیده ای غزلی PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /a Ghasideh/ /a Ghazal/ ENGLISH - SUBTITLE

Qasida is originally an Arabic style of poem writing that is borrowed after the introduction of Islam to Iran. In this style, every line rhymes and a single metre is maintained throughout the poem. Rumi33 is one of the famous poets that used Qasida in writing poems. Qazal is the other poetic style. In this style, there are rhyming couplets.

In Qazal, the same metre is shared in each line. Some poets use this poetic form to write mainly about love. Hafez34 is the most famous and popular poet in Iran who wrote his poems in Qazal.

4.2.4(a)(iii) Literary works

The subcategory of literary works found in the Iranian films as the corpus of the study includes those books and works written by Iranian poets, scholars, and philosophers, etc.

In the film My Tehran for Sale (Granaz Moussavi, 2009), Marzieh [Marzieh

Vafamehr] is a young Iranian actress who meets Saman [Amir Chegini], an Iranian-

33 See Example 20. 34 Khwāja Shams-ud-Dīn Muḥammad Ḥāfeẓ-e Shīrāzī known as Hafez (1325-1389), was an Iranian poet born in the city of Shiraz who used Qazal poetic style to metaphorically write about elevated status of love, wine and tavern and to condemn religious hypocrisy. It can be said that he is the most popular poet in Iran whose masterpiece, called Divan, can be found in every Iranian home and is usually used for fortune telling. His poems are such popular that many Iranian composers and singers are also inspired by them. 164

Australian citizen, and they decide to migrate to Australia together. In a scene from the film, Marzieh is shown to be talking to her university professor in a car. Complaining

.Shahnameh شاهنامه about her life condition, Marzieh resembles her thesis to

Example 50. Literary, Artistic and Educational References: Literature: Literary Works. FILM My Tehran for Sale (Granaz Moussavi, 2009) CHARACTER MARZIEH قصه پایان نامه من استاد یه شاهنامه است PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /story of/ /thesis of/ /I/ /professor/ /one/ /Shahname/ /is/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE My thesis is more like a saga.

shaahnaame/, The Shahnameh, LT as Book of Kings is the book of epic poetry/ شاهنامه about legends of ancient Persia and written by the famous Persian poet Ferdowsi35. The book contains about 50000 couplets which have turned it to the longest epic poem written by a single poet. The influence of Shahnameh on Iranian culture is such that many Iranians name their children after Shahnameh’s characters. In the above example,

Shahnameh is metaphorically used to indicate the ups and downs of her life. This is because Shahnameh is also abundant with stories of Persian legends who have encountered much difficulties and calamities during their life.

Another example is used in A Simple Reception (Mani Haghighi, 2012). In one scene from the film, a couple is shown to be trying to give out a bag of money to a poor, elderly man. However, the old man refuses to accept the money. Being shocked and angry for his refusal, Leila [Taraneh Alidousti], the wife, sarcastically and disdainfully

tazkerat/ تذکره االولیا refer to the old man as being like one of the characters of the book ol-owliya/.

35 Abul Qasim Ferdowsi Tousi, Known as Ferdowsi (940-1020) was a Persian poet born in the city of Tus in a family of landowners during Samanid Empire in Iran. He is the author of the well-known book of epic poetry Shahnameh. He is celebrated as one of the most influential characters in the Persian literature and language. He is buried in the city of Tus where he was born. 165

Example 51. Literary, Artistic and Educational References: Literature: Literary Works. FILM A Simple Reception (Mani Haghighi, 2012) CHARACTER Leila بابا این از الی تذکره االولیا افتاده بیرون PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /dad/ /this/ from/ /between/ /Tazkirat al-Awliya/ /have dropped/ /out/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE He’s straight out of the Book of Saints.

tazkerat ol-owliya/ transliterated as Tazkirat al-Awliya is a book, containing/ تذکره االولیا

72 chapters, written by the Persian poet Attar-e Neishabouri36 about the life of famous

Sufis37. The book is also about the miraculous deeds done by Sufis. Tazkirat al-Awliya is the only remaining work of Attar written in prose. As mentioned, the book is written about Sufis who are characterized by their simple and poor life, as well as their austerity.

This explains why in the above example, the old man is referred and resembled by Leila to a character from Tazkirat al-Awliya, as he refused to accept the money.

4.2.4(a)(iv) Religious transcripts

By the conquest of Iran by the Islamic Army in more than a millennium ago, Islam was accepted by Iranian people and as a consequent, the culture was highly influenced the newly introduced religion. As a result, Islamic teachings and beliefs entered the culture in the form of transcripts. These religious and Islamic transcripts are regarded as one of the important parts of the literature today.

In the first example from the film Under the Moonlight (Reza Mirkarimi, 2001), a newly enrolled junior student of Hawzeh Illmiyah38 asks two senior students about the recommended prayers of the night. Trying to make fun of him and pulling his leg, one of

36 Abu Hamid bin Abu Bakr Ibrahim, known as Attar (1145-1221) as his pen-name, was an Iranian poet born in Nishapour which is located in the northeast of the present Iran. He is well known for his influence on Persian poetry and Sufism. 37 See Example 20; See footnote 16. 38 See footnote 26.

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joshan-e kabir/ aloud, the longest/ جوشن کبیر the senior students asks him to read out prayer, for three times.

Example 52. Literary, Artistic and Educational References: Literature: Religious Transcripts. FILM Under the Moonlight (Reza Mirkarimi, 2001) CHARACTER The Senior Student جوشن کبیر سه مرتبه البته با صدای بلند PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Joshan Kabir/ /three/ /time/ /albeit/ /with/ /voice of/ /loud/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE The Joshan Kabir prayers, 3 times and aloud.

joshan-e kabir/ transliterated as Jawshan Kabir is one of the longest Islamic/ جوشن کبیر prayer comprising of 1000 names and attributes of God. Meaning “steel plate,” Jawshan is believed by Muslims in Iran to refer to Prophet Muhammad’s armor in his battles. It is believed that the prayer was taught to the Prophet as a protection against injuries in the battlefield.

The second example here is taken from The Snow on the Pines (Peyman

Mo’aadi, 2012). The film is the story of a piano teacher [Mahnaz Afshar] who faces a major problem when she learns of a secret affair of her husband. In a scene from the film, it is shown that neighbours in the complex are gathered to think of a solution about security issues since there has recently been a burglary case. One of the neighbours, who is a religious person, is shown to quote another neighbour who has refused to contribute

آیه الکرسی money to hire a security guard since he believes that it is enough to read

/aayatol korsi/ instead to protect his house from burglary.

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Example 53. Literary, Artistic and Educational References: Literature: Religious Transcripts.

FILM The Snow on the Pines (Peyman Mo’aadi, 2012) CHARACTER The Neighbour ایه الکرسی میخونم فوت میکنم نگهبان نیاز ندارم PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Ayato-l Korsi/ /I read/ /puff I do/ /security/ /I don’t need/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE He recites the Holy Koran and doesn’t need a security guard.

aayatol korsi/ transliterated as The Throne Verse, the 255th verse of Al-Baqara/ آیه الکرسی

Surah39 of the Quran, the holy book of Muslims. The verse is about the great power of almighty God over the other powers in the whole universe. It is read and memorized by

Muslims who believe that it would bring protection for them.

4.2.4(b) Education

This category refers to the system of education in Iran. The education system of Iran comprises of a K-12 and higher education levels. Students are required to study for 12 years before they enter university. There also exists other types of educational centres such as religious schools with their own systems.

4.2.4(b)(i) Levels and Stages

This sub-category indicates the educational levels that students are required to study at the education institution before they graduated. There are different types of levels based on the institution that the students study at. The examples are provided in the following.

avval-e/ اول راهنمایی The examples that were found in the corpus include raahnamayi/ (LT as first level of Guidance School, the sixth level in K-12 education

پایه اول system of Iran; Levels from six to eight are called Orientation cycle in Iran) and

39 Surah or Sura refers to the chapters of Quran, the holy book of Muslims. Quran consists of 114 Surahs which are per se divided into verses. 168

/paaye avval/ (LT as The first level) which is the first level of education in Islamic schools in Iran where clergymen are trained).

The first example of educational levels is taken from the film A Separation

(Asghar Farhadi, 2011). Due to a fight with Nader [Peyman Moadi], Razieh [Sarah

Bayat] had a miscarriage and as a result has sued Nader to the court. In a scene from the film, Termeh [Sarina Farhadi], Nader’s daughter, is shown to be summoned to the court to explain what she has seen or heard. The judge asks Termeh about her school level,

./avval-e raahnamayi/ اول راهنمایی and she replies that she is studying at

Example 54. Literary, Artistic and Educational References: Education: Levels and Stages. FILM A Separation (Asghar Farhadi, 2011) CHARACTER Termeh من اول راهنمایی PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /I/ /first of/ /guidance/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Sixth.

avval-e raahnamayi/, LT as the first level of Guidance School, is the sixth/ اول راهنمایی level in the K-12 education system of Iran. The school levels from six to eight are literally titled as Guidance or Orientation cycle in Iran.

The second example is taken from the film Under the Moonlight (Reza

Mirkarimi, 2001). The scene shows a clergyman to be mentioning his fellow clergyman friend’s level of Islamic education when introducing him to another friend.

Example 55. Literary, Artistic and Educational References: Education: Levels and Stages. FILM Under the Moonlight (Reza Mirkarimi, 2001) CHARACTER The Clergyman آقای پناهی از طالب پایه اوله PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Mr/ /Panahi/ /from/ /clergymen of/ /level/ /of/ /first is he/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Mr. Panahi is one of the first grade clerics.

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paaye avval/ (LT as The first level) is the first level of education in Islamic/ پایه اول schools, Howzeh Illmiyeh40, in Iran where clergymen are educated.

4.2.4(b)(ii) Educational places

The example of educational places found in the Iranian films as the corpus of the study

howze elmiye/ (LT as The School of Science). The example is taken from/ حوزه علمیهis 41 a scene from the film Taste of Cherry (Abbas Kiarostami, 1997) in which a driver, Mr.

Badi’i [Homayoun Ershadi] is shown to be giving a ride to an Afghan clergyman and asks him why he and his fellow Afghan clergymen come to Iran and if they don’t have

.howze elmiye/ in Afghanistan/ حوزه علمیه

Example 56. Literary, Artistic and Educational References: Education: Educational Places. FILM Taste of Cherry (Abbas Kiarostami, 1997) CHARACTER Mr. Badi’i مگه شما افغانستان حوزه علمیه ندارین که اونجا درس بخونین میاین ایران؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /0/ /you/ /Afghanistan/ /Howze Illmiya/ /don’t have you/ /that/ /there/ /study you/ /you come/ /Iran/? ENGLISH SUBTITLE Aren’t there any seminaries in Afghanistan?

howze elmiye/ (LT as The School of Science), refers to the Islamic school/ حوزه علمیه where Iranian Muslim clerics are educated. There are various Howzehs in Islamic countries. The institutions in Najaf in Iraq and Qom in Iran are the preeminent centres for the training of the clergymen.

4.2.4(b)(iii) Examinations/Assessment

/konkoor/ کنکور ,An instance of examinations as CEs found in the corpus of the study

(LT as The Competitive Examination) can be mentioned. The example is taken from the

40 See footnote 26 41 See footnote 26 170 film No Men Allowed (Rambod Javan, 2011). In a scene from the film, two high school principals are arguing over whose school would win the chemistry national Olympiad.

Konkoor examination کنکور One of the principals tells the other that similar to the results, they would win the chemistry national Olympiad competition too.

Example 57. Literary, Artistic and Educational References: Education: Exams. FILM No Men Allowed (Rambod Javan, 2011) CHARACTER The high school principal همونطور که تو کنکور خدمتتون رسیدیم اینجا هم پوزتون رو خواهیم زد PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /As/ that/ /in/ /Konkoor/ /we serviced you/ /here/ /also/ /your chin/ /beat will we/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Don’t forget we won in the university entrance exams!

Konkoor is the name of University Entrance Exam in Iran which is borrowed کنکور from French. It is the test taken for admission to the Iranian institutions of higher education. The exam could be compared to the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM), the

Malaysian Certificate of Education, as the national examination in Malaysia which is taken by Malaysian students before they enter into a tertiary level.

4.2.4(b)(iv) Pupils

The example of pupils in the corpus is the term used to refer to students of Islamic schools in Iran. One instance of this sub-category is mentioned in Taste of Cherry

(Abbas Kiarostami, 1997) where Mr. Badi’i [Homayoun Ershadi], a driver, is shown to

طلبه be surprisingly asking his passenger, a student of an Islamic school, what is a

/talabe/ doing in the mountains outside the city. Mr. Badi’i is surprised since it is not usually expected to see a student of Islamic school be working outside the school.

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Example 58. Literary, Artistic and Educational References: Education: Pupils. FILM Taste of Cherry (Abbas Kiarostami, (1997) CHARACTER Mr. Badi’i طلبه اینجا چکار میکنه؟طلبه توی کوه و دشت نمیشه که! PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Talabeh/ /here/ /what work/ /is doing he/? /Talabeh/ /in/ /mountain/ /and/ /meadow/ /cannot be/ /that/! ENGLISH SUBTITLE A “seminarist”? He should be in a seminary

The Islamic educational centres in Iran have their own independent systems. The

talabe/ which is LT as Wishful or Aspirant for/ طلبه students of these schools are called

Science.

4.2.4(c) Art and Music

The category of Art and Music is composed of the musical instruments, artistic and musical terms and styles, and the fine art of the country. There are numerous types of classical and local instruments particular to Iran most of which dates back to the ancient

Persia.

4.2.4(c)(i) Musical instruments

taar/. The first example/ تار santoor/ and/ سنتور The examples of musical instruments are is taken from the film in Santouri (Dariush Mehrjoui, 2007). In a scene from the film,

Ali [Bahram Radan], an addicted musician, is shown to be describing how he became so

.Santour سنتور much connected to a big

Example 59. Literary, Artistic and Educational References: Art and Music: Musical Instruments. FILM Santouri (Dariush Mehrjoui, 2007) CHARACTER Ali Santouri

یک سنتور قدیمی و بزرگ. اون سنتور شده بود بازیچه من PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /one/ /Santour of/ /old/ /and/ /big/. /that/ /Santour/ /had become/ /toy of/ /I/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE A big old santour had become my toy.

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santoor/, Santur, literally means a hundred strings is a percussion and stringed/42 سنتور traditional musical instrument of Iran. There are two extremely light oval-shaped

Mezrabs (mallets) used to play the instrument.

The second example is the use of another well-known and popular Persian musical instrument in The Snow on the Pines (Peyman Mo’aadi, 2012). Farzad [Saber

Abar] is shown in a scene to be telling a piano teacher how he had been interested in

.taar/, Tar but things had not gone well, and it did not work out/ تار playing

Example 60. Literary, Artistic and Educational References: Art and Music: Musical Instruments. FILM The Snow on the Pines (Peyman Mo’aadi, 2012) CHARACTER Farzad موسیقی رو هم خیلی دوست دارم. رفتم تار زدم بعد نشد دیگه PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /music/ /also/ /very/ /I like/. /I went/ /Tar I played/ /then/ /didn’t become/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE I love music as well. I tried a few instruments but it didn’t work out.

taar/, Tar, LT as string, is a traditional long-necked and waisted musical instrument/ تار in Iran which literally means string in Persian. It is one the most important and basic traditional Persian musical instruments and is believed to be the root of such other musical instruments as the guitar. It is also popular and is played in other nations and countries such as in Armenia, Republic of Azerbaijan, Georgian and near Caucasus region.

4.2.4(c)(ii) Terms and styles

This subcategory refers to the musical terms and styles particular to the Iranian music.

The first example is taken from the film Santouri (Dariush Mehrjoui, 2007). In one

42 Also see Example 17 173 scene from the film, Ali Santouri [Bahram Radan], a musician who plays Santour43, is shown to be teaching his student Hanieh [Golshifteh Farahani], how to play the Santour.

Shour to شور Hanieh is asking Ali how one could move from one musical system like

.Mahour when playing the Santour ماهور Isfahan or اصفهان other musical systems such as

Example 61. Literary, Artistic and Educational References: Art and Music: Terms and Styles. FILM Santouri (Dariush Mehrjoui, 2007) CHARACTER Hanieh مثال اگر لز شور بخوایم بریم توی اصفهان یا مثال ماهور اینا مثال چکار میکنین؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /for example/ /if/ /from/ /Shour/ /we want/ /we go/ /into/ /Isfahan/ /or/ /for example/ /Mahour/ /these/ /for example/ /what/ /you do/? ENGLISH SUBTITLE If we want to move from ‘shour’ to ‘isfahan’ or ‘mahour’ what are we supposed to do?

,Shour شور :As can be seen in this example, three musical systems are mentioned here

Mahour. There are seven musical modal systems in the Iranian ماهور Isfahan, and اصفهان traditional art music. The three mentioned musical systems, Shour, Isfahan, and Mahour, are considered among the most important of the seven musical modal systems of Iranian traditional art music. Numerous celebrated and remarkable traditional and folk tunes are composed of these modal systems in Iran, and such traditional singers as Mohammad

Reza Shajarian44 can be mentioned as composing many of their songs based on these musical modal systems.

Based on the discussion in this section, the CEs of Literary, Artistic and

Educational references can be summarized as follow:

43 See Examples 17 and 60 44 See Example 22

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Literary, Artistic and Educational references

Art and Literature Education Music

Local Religious Literary Literary Exam Pupils Terms songs Transcripts Levels Places Musical styles works -s and instruments styles

Figure 4.4. Literary, Artistic and Educational References

4.2.5 Kinship References

The fifth class of CEs is elements related to relationships and affinities. It includes both the place of birth and language, as well as the family relationships. As a country of multiethnicity, there are different ethnicities with their particular language and accents in

Iran. The family relations is among the focused areas in Iranian culture. Accordingly, there are diverse terms used to refer to different relationships among family members and relatives. The examples are given below.

4.2.5(a) Descent and language

This category includes the ethnicities and languages in different parts of Iran. The first

Turki as an Iranian ethnicity and ترکی Lurs and لر and the second examples are the use of an Iranian language mainly in the Western and North West parts of Iran. The first example is taken from the film Taste of Cherry (Abbas Kiarostami, 1997) where Mr.

Badi’i [Homayoun Ershadi] is shown to be talking to a poor garbage collector from

.Lurestan, one of the western provinces in Iranلرستان

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Example 62. Kinship References: Descent and Language. FILM Taste of Cherry (Abbas Kiarostami, (1997) CHARACTER -Lor Guy - Mr. Badi’i –شمام لرین؟ PERSIAN -ما هم یه جورایی لریم SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /you also/ /are Lor/? /we/ /also/ /somehow/ /Lor we are/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE -Are you from Lorestan too? -You could say that

Lurs /lor/, with the population of around 5 million and comprising around 7% of the لر country’s population, are an Iranian ethnicity mainly living in the western and southwestern provinces of Iran such as Lorestan, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad, Khuzestan,

Fars, Bushehr, Chaharmahal-e Bakhtiyari, Hamedan, Ilam, and Isfahan. The language they speak is called Luri which is a related language to Persian and Kurdish.

The second example is taken from the same movie Taste of Cherry (Abbas

Kiarostami, 1997). Mr. Badi’I [Homayun Ershadi], intending to commit suicide, is shown to be giving to different people and requesting them to bury him under a cherry tree. In one scene from the film, Mr. Badi’i is giving a ride and talking to an elderly

Turk man who works in a museum. Talking to Mr. Badi’i, the senior man asks Mr.

Badi’i if he is a Turk man since he wants to tell a Turkish jock.

Example 63. Kinship References: Descent and Language. FILM Taste of Cherry (Abbas Kiarostami, 1997) CHARACTER The Turkish Guy حاال ببخشید ترک نیستی که یه جوک ترکی بگم PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /now/ /you excuse/ /Tork/ /you aren’t/ /that/ /a/ /jock of/ /Torkish/ /I tell/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Excuse me, you’re not Turkish, are you?

Known as Iranian Turks, Turks of Iran are of Azerbaijani’s ethnicity who speak

Azerbaijani as their mother tongue. They are the second largest ethnic group in terms of the population who live in such provinces as East and West Azerbaijan, Ardabil, Zanjan,

176

Kurdistan, Qazvin, Hamadan, Gilan, Markazi, and Kermanshah, as well as in Tehran,

Karaj, etc. As can be seen in the example, the elderly man intends to tell a Turkish jock.

It is common in Iran to make jocks about the different ethnicities in Iran. The jocks are mainly told based on the stereotypes of the ethnicities known among Iranians. For instance, while Turkish Iranians are considered simple people, people from Isfahan are regarded as stingy.

4.2.5(b) Family relations (lineage)

Terms used in Iran to show lineage are inclusive. Family relations are used to show the real blood relations and to functionally show someone’s affectionate feeling specifically

,(khaale/ (one’s mother’s sister/ خاله towards children or older people. The examples are

/amme/ عمه ,(amoo/ (one’s father’s brother/ عمو ,(daayi/ (one’s mother’s brother/ دایی

doxtar dayi/ (the/ دختر دایی one’s father’s sister) and their spouses, children, etc. such as)

zan amoo/ (the wife of one’s father’s/ زن عمو daughter of one’s mother’s brother), and brother).

Two examples are provided here from the film My Tehran for Sale (Granaz

Moussavi, 2009) and The Snow on the Pines (Peyman Mo’aadi, 2012). In the first example, a scene is showing a little girl asking Mrzieh [Marzieh Vafamehr] if Marzieh

.Khaleh خاله has seen her new mobile phone. The little girl addresses Marzieh as

Example 64. Kinship References: Family Relations (lineage). FILM My Tehran for Sale (Granaz Moussavi, 2009) CHARACTER The little girl خاله مبایلم رو دیدی؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /auntie/ /my mobile/ /you saw/? ENGLISH SUBTITLE Have you seen my mobile, Auntie?

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khaale/ is a lineage term that is used in Persian to refer to/ خاله ,As mentioned above one’s mother’s sister. However, in this example, Marzieh is not the actual sister of the girl’s mother, but the term is functionally used to show the girl’s affectionate feeling towards Marzieh.

The second example is taken from the film The Snow on the Pines (Peyman

Mo’aadi, 2012). In a scene from the film, Farzad [Saber Abar] is shown to be looking for his nephew. Finally, he finds his nephew coming to a piano teacher’s [Mahnaz

Afshar] house to listen to the piano. Being worried about losing him, Farzad asks his

.uncle and left Farzad without telling him دایی nephew why he had not told his

Example 65. Kinship References: Family Relations (lineage). FILM The Snow on the Pines (Peyman Mo’aadi, 2012) CHARACTER Farzad خوب نباید به دایی بگی اومدم پیانو گوش بدم؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /well/ /mustn’t you/ /to/ /uncle/ /you say/ /I come/ /Piano/ /I listen/? ENGLISH SUBTITLE Shouldn’t you tell your uncle you’re going to listen to the piano?

daayi/ in Persian refers to one’s mother’s brother. As mentioned, there is a/ دایی distinction between the terms which are used to refer to one’s uncle from the mother side

refers to one’s mother’s brother, the term that is used to دایی or the father side. While

.Amou in Persian عمو refer to one’s father’s brother is

Hence, from the findings, the kinship references in this study can be summarized as:

178

Kinship References

Descent and Family relations Language (lineage)

Figure 4.5. Kinship References

4.2.6 Social and Religious References

The Sassanid Empire of Persian came to an end by the conquest of the country by Islam more than a thousand years ago. However, the introduction of Islamic culture to the country did not lead to the total loss of the Persian culture and civilization but resulted in the marriage of the two cultures to each other. This is to say that, the current culture of

Iran is a combination of both Islamic and ancient Persian cultures in which many Islamic cultures are Persianized and Persian cultures are Islamicized. This class includes the three categories of CEs, namely, a) Religious elements, b) Social cultures, and c)

Honorific titles.

4.2.6(a) Religious elements

The religious elements are divided into four sub-categories of i) beliefs and sects, ii)

Islamic sharia, iii) Religious phrases, blessings and prayers, and vi) ceremonies and rituals.

4.2.6(a)(i) Beliefs and sects

The religious beliefs and sects have roots in mainly the Iranian beliefs that were shaped

-shab-e avval/ شب اول قبر ,after the introduction of Islam in the country. The first example

179 e ghabr/, is taken from the film A Cube of Sugar (Reza Mirkarimi, 2011). In one scene, the Bajenaghs45 of a traditional family are shown to be gathered in their father-in-law’s house. Digging a hole in the hope of finding a buried treasure, Haj Naser [Farhad

the first night of شب اول قبر Aslani] states how the hole they are digging reminds him of death in the grave.

Example 66. Social and Religious References: Religious: Beliefs and Sects. FILM A Cube of Sugar (Reza Mirkarimi, 2011) CHARACTER Haj Naser چاله ای که تو کندی منو یاد شب اول قبر میاندازه PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /the hole/ /that/ /you/ /have dug you/ /me/ /remind/ /night of/ /the first/ /grave/ /of/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE The hole you’ve dug, reminds me how hard dying down in a grave is.

refers to an Islamic belief that the soul of شب اول قبر ,LT as The First night in the Grave a deceased person will be questioned about his/her faith by two angels at the first night when he/she is buried in the grave.

The second example, which is taken from the film Women’s Prison (Manije

Hekmat, 2002), is concerned with religions and sects. The scene shows some women prisoners talking about the reasons of being prisoned. One of the prisoners is shown to refer to another prisoner’s religion Bahaii as her accusation and the reason of her imprisonment.

Example 67. Social and Religious References: Religious: Beliefs and Sects. FILM Women’s Prison (Manije hekmat, 2002) CHARACTER The Prisoner اینم بهاییه PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /this also/ /Bahaii is/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE That one is a Bahaii.

45 This is a term that is used for sons-in law of a family to show how they have become related to one another. In other words, when one is married to a girl, if the girl has a sister, the sister’s husband becomes his Bajenagh. 180

bahaayi/, Baha’i, is a religion that highlights the spiritual unity of the people of/ بهایی the world. As it was defined by Oxford Learners’ Dictionary (2016), this religion is “a monotheistic religion founded in the 19th century as a development of Babism, emphasizing the essential oneness of humankind and all religions and seeking world peace. The Baha’i faith was founded by the Persian Baha’ullah (1817-92) and his son

Abdul Baha (1844-1921)”.

4.2.6(a)(ii) Islamic sharia

This is the second sub-category of religious CEs. The examples are associated with the rules and regulation of Islam. This category covers a wide range of CEs in Iranian films in the corpus of the study such as the Islamic laws regarding, eating, marriage, prayers, relationships, etc.

In the first example from the film A Separation (Asghar Farhadi, 2011), Razieh

[Sarah Bayat], who had a miscarriage recently, is shown in a scene to be explaining to

Simin [Leila Hatami] her doubts about if the miscarriage of her baby has been due to her fight with Simin’s husband, or it has been because of her own fault. Thus, Razieh

to take the Diyeh46 money since she is not sure about the حرام believes that it would be cause of the miscarriage.

Example 68. Social and Religious References: Religious: Islamic Sharia. FILM A Separation (Asghar Farhadi, 2011) CHARACTER Marzieh میگن اگر شک داری حرومه این پولو بگیری PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /they say/ /if/ /doubt you have/ /Haram is/ /this/ money/ /you take/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE They say if I have doubts then it's a sin to take it.

46 According to the Islamic law, Diyeh is a money that is paid to the victim or the heir of the victim in such cases as murder, manslaughter, bodily harm or damage of one’s property. Diyeh can be considered as an equivalent to blood money and ransom. 181

,Haram is an Islamic term that refers to things that are forbidden to do or to eat. It is حرام as defined by Oxford Learners Dictionary (2016) something that is “not permitted by

Islamic law.” Alim Islamic Term Dictionary (2016) also defines it as “something which is unlawful or prohibited in Islam.” Thus, as can be seen in the above example, since

Razieh is not sure about the cause of her miscarriage, she would be not permitted and prohibited to take the money. Otherwise, she would be committed a Haram deed.

The second example is taken from the film The Lizard (Kamal Tabrizi, 2004). In a scene from the film, Reza Marmoulak [Parviz Parastoui], an outlaw disguising as a clergyman, is shown to be leading a prayer in the mosque, asking the moazzen47 to call

.Adhan before he can start the prayers اذان

Example 69. Social and Religious References: Religious: Islamic Sharia.

FILM The Lizard (Kamal Tabrizi, 2004) CHARACTER Reza Marmoulak خوب اذان بده بریم دیگه PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /well/ /Azan/ /you give/ /we go/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Well, call the "Azan" so we can begin

Azan or Adhan is “the call for daily ritual prayers (Salat)” (Islam.org 2016). It is also defined by Alim (2016), as “the Muslim call to prayer. It is used to signify the time of prayer for the five obligatory prayers”. Azan is an Arabic word which is derived from

Ezn literally meaning “to listen, to hear, to be informed about” which is اذن the word called by a mosque’s moazzen for five times during a day.

47 Refers to a male person who is appointed to recite the Azan, call for the daily prayers, from a mosque.

182

4.2.6(a)(iii) Phrases, blessings, and prayers

This sub-category is the most frequently used type of CEs observed in the corpus of the study. The first example is taken from the film Taste of Cherry (Abbas Kiarostami,

(1997). Mr. Badi’i [Homayoun Ershadi], a depressed man who has decided to commit suicide, is searching for someone who accepts to bury him under a cherry tree after he committed suicide. Finally, Mr. Badi’i finds an elderly Turkish48 man who accepts to bury him under the tree tomorrow early in the morning. Being suddenly scared, Mr.

Badi’i asks the elderly man to carefully check and make sure that Mr. Badi’i is dead before he put soil on his body. The scene shows that while the elderly man is getting off

enshaallah/ be alive and they/ انشاهللا the car, he expresses his hopes that Mr. Badi’i would would see each other in the morning.

Example 70. Social and Religious References: Religious: Phrases, Blessings, and Prayers. FILM Taste of Cherry (Abbas Kiarostami, (1997) CHARACTER The Turkish man انشاهللا شما هم منو میبینی. خدا حافظ شما PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /InshaAllah/ /you/ /also/ /I/ /you see/. /God/ /protector of/ /you/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE God willing, you’ll see me too

enshaallah/, LT as if Allah wills, is used when someone intends to express his/her/ انشاهللا hopes for a future event to happen if God wills. It is defined as “with the will of Allah”

(Al-islam.org 2016). It is approximately the nearest Arabic term to “God willing” or “if

God wills” in English. In Iranian culture, as in other Muslim countries, it is very common to use the term in different situations. It is so common in Arabic that the term is also used by Arabic speaking Christian and Jews in Arabic countries, as well as in Iran.

The usage of the term has roots in the Quranic belief that Muslims should say the term

48 See Example 63

183 as human beings don’t know what might happen in future. There are other languages such as Spanish and Portuguese that have expressions which have roots in the Arabic expression Inshallah: “ojala” in Spanish and “oxala” in Portuguese.

salavaat/ in Santouri (Dariush/ صلوات The second example is the use of

Mehrjoui, 2007). Salavat is taken from a scene of in the film when Ali Santouri’s

[Bahram Radan] mother is holding a praying ceremony. The scene shows Ali Santouri, who has become an addict to heroin now, to be coming to his parents’ house and aggressively and haplessly asking his mother to give him money. The present clergyman who is praying in the ceremony is shown to be trying to calm down the condition by asking the guests to say a Salavat.

Example 71. Social and Religious References: Religious: Phrases, Blessings, and Prayers. FILM Santouri (Dariush Mehrjoui, 2007)

CHARACTER The Mullah خانم ها عنایت بفرمایید! اجماعا صلوات بفرمایید PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /ladies/ /pay attention they/! /toghether/ /Salavat/ /you say/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Ladies, may I have your attention… Let us send a ‘salavat’ here…

Salavat refers to the Islamic phrase Sall Allahu Alayhi wa-Allih which is literally translated as Allah grant peace and honour on Him and His family; it is the praise of

God to Prophet Muhammad. Al-islam.org (2016) defines the term as “the invocation of blessings, especially the recitation of llahumma Sali 'Ala Muhammadin Wa Aali

Muhammad, meaning O Allah, bless Muhammad and the family of Muhammad.”

Muslims says Salavat as an invocation to compliment the prophet Mohammad which is believed to bring them reward in the other world.

184

4.2.6(a)(iv) Religious ceremonies and rituals

This Sub-category refers to the special religious events, ceremonies, and rituals. All of the examples that were found in the corpus of the study were associated with Islam as the official and the most practiced religion in Iran.

In the first example, taken from Ziba and I (Fereidoun Hasanpour, 2011), some villagers are discussing over Jafar’s [Shahab Hosseinni] request to let his father Mousa

[Parviz Parastouyi], a previously corrupted man, to tether Imam Hossein’s49 horse,

Zoljanah50, in the ceremony. The people, disagree with this request, arguing that it has taken a long time for the ceremony of Zoljanah to be held in their village and if Mousa tether and lead the horse, people may not donate money to the village any longer.

Example 72. Social and Religious References: Religious: Ceremonies and Rituals. FILM Ziba and I (Fereidoun Hasanpour, 2011) CHARACTER People of the Village این همه سال طول کشیده تا مراسم ذوالجناح تو محله ما جا افتاده PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /this/ /all/ /years/ /it has lasted/ /until/ /ceremony of/ /Zoljanah/ /in/ /area of/ /we/ /it has settled/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Several years it has taken to settle Zoljenah ritual in our area

maraasem-e zoljanaah/, LT as Zoljanah Ceremony, it refers to a ceremony/ مراسم ذوالجناح held in some cities of Iran in which a horse, representing the horse of Imam Hossein,

Zoljanah, is ornamented and people gather and mourn for what happened in the Battle of

Karbala. Zuljanah is believed to be an important character in the Battle of Karbala.

The second example is taken from the film Under the Moonlight (Reza

Mirkarimi, 2001). In a scene from the film, it is shown that the principal of an Islamic

49 See footnote 4 50 See Example 26 185 school51 [Mehran Rajabi] is reminding Seyyed Hassan [Hosseing Parastar], the student of Islamic studies who is reluctant to wear the clergymen’s cloth, that it is Seyyed

ceremony, and he would better accept to عمامه گذاری ,Hassan’s graduation ceremony wear the clothes.

Example 73. Social and Religious References: Religious: Ceremonies and Rituals. FILM Under the Moonlight (Reza Mirkarimi, 2001) CHARACTER the principal of the Islamic school بهرحال مراسم عمامه گذاری مال شماست. من که عمامه دارم شما خودتون میدونید PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /anyway/ /ceremony of/ /Ammameh Gozari/ /belongs/ /you is/. /I/ /that/ /I have turban/ /you/ /yourselves/ /you know/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE The Turban Ceremonial is yours, I already have my turban.

ammaame gozaari/, LT as The Turban52 Ceremony, refers to a graduation/ عمامه گذاری ceremony of the students of Islamic schools in which the newly graduated students are officially permitted to wear the clothes and to become clergymen.

4.2.6(b) Social cultures

This sub-category is associated with cultural habits and ceremonies. The elements of this sub-category are distinct from the previous sub-category, religious ceremonies, and rituals, in that the current one has roots in the Persian culture rather than the Islamic culture. Social cultures include three references that related to i) games and entertainments, ii) rituals, festivals, and ceremonies, iii) social habits and beliefs.

4.2.6(b)(i) Games and entertainments

As the name indicates, this subcategory includes elements associated with games and entertainments. In addition to games, it also includes activities that Iranian people

51 See footnote 26 52 See Example 32 186 perform to entertain or to express their feelings on special occasions such as in wedding ceremonies.

Two examples of games are taken from the film Women’s Prison (Manije

Hekmat, 2002). In a scene from the film, some women prisoners are shown to be sitting in the yard of the prison chat, while their children are playing around and asking their mothers what game to play. Mitra [Roya Nonahali], one of the prisoners, asks the

.Gorgam Be hava instead of Hamchin Hamchin گرگم به هوا children to go and play

Example 74. Social and Religious References: Social Cultures: Games and Entertainments. FILM Women’s Prison (Manije hekmat, 2002) CHARACTER Mitra پاشین پاشین برین. همچین همچین نمیخواد. گرگم به هوا. پاشین PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /get up you/ /get up you/ /go you/. /Hamchin Hamchin/ /don’t need/. /Gorgam be Hava/ /get up you/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Go on. Go play hide and seek.

گرگم به As can be seen in the example, the examples of the games used in the scene are

hamchin hamchin/, LT as/ همچین همچین gorgam be havaa/, LT I am a Wolf to Sky, and/ هوا

Like This Like This. The former refers to a child’s game in Iran in which one child becomes the wolf and try to catch other; the rest of the players escape to higher places to

همچین ,be safe. The game can be compared to Game of Tag53 in English. The latter game

hamchin hamchin/, also refers to children’s game in Iran in which players try to/ همچین imitate and repeat some movements told by an adult.

Another example is a particular noise that is made mainly by women in ceremonies as a sign of happiness. The example is taken from the film About Elly

(Asghar Farhadi, 2009). It is the story of a group of friends who have come to the

53 Known as it, Tag, the game of Tag is children’s game that is played as one or more players chase others and try to touch them, or as the name suggests, tag them 187

North54 of Iran as a holiday and to introduce two friends, Elly [Taraneh Alidousti] to

Ahmad [Shahab Hosseini], to each other to get married. However, all the joyful time of them suddenly ruins as Elly [Taraneh Alidousti] suddenly disappears. Not knowing why

Elly might have left them, the friends are shown to be arguing over the issue. Nazzi

[Rana Azadivar] one of the women raise the noise made by Shohreh [Merila Zarei] as a probable reason for Elly’s leaving them since Elly was engaged and she had come to

North without her fiancé’s knowledge.

Example 75. Social and Religious References: Social Cultures: Games and Entertainments.

FILM About Elly (Asghar Farhadi, 2009) CHARACTER Nazzi شهره خانم شما هم کل کشیدین! PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Shohreh/ /Mrs/ /you/ /also/ /Kel you made/? ENGLISH SUBTITLE And you, Shohreh, you made noises.

kel/, LT To Make Noises, refers to a particular way of making noise, usually made by/ کل women, in ceremonies and special occasions to express one’s happiness. The woman who makes the noise puts her hand above her mouth and produce a broken sound with the help of her hand, tongue, and teeth. When this sound is made, the present people usually clap their hands and make happy noises.

4.2.6(b)(ii) Rituals, festivals, and ceremonies

This group of cultural elements includes the names of mainly social rituals, festivals, and ceremonies. The first example of this sub-category is taken from the film Fireworks

Wednesday (Asghar Farhadi, 2006), where two friends are talking over the problem occurred between Morteza [Hamid Farrokhnejad] and his wife Mojdeh [Hediyeh

Tehrani]. Morteza is shown in the scene to be explaining to his friend about his decision

54 See Example 6

188 to take his family on a trip to Dubai, and accordingly to reduce the tension between them. However, the decision has led to another problem since it falls on the Persian New

sizde/, the/ سیزده Year. Morteza’s friend suggests that he could postpone the trip after thirteenth day after the New Year.

Example 76. Social and Religious References: Social Cultures: Rituals, Festivals, and Ceremonies FILM Fireworks Wednesday (Asghar Farhadi, 2006) CHARACTER Mahmoud خوب میذاشتین بعد از سیزده PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /well/ /you let/ /after/ /from/ /Sizdah/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Why not after the holidays! . sizde/, LT as The Thirteenth to Outdoor, the 13th of Farvardin, is the thirteenth day/ سیزده of, Farvardin, the first month of Persian calendar. The month has 31 days, is the first month of the spring season, starts on 21th of March, and is followed by the month

Ordibehesht55. The 13th day of Farvardin is believed in Iranian culture to be an omen day on which people should spend their time going outdoors and picnicking or otherwise, bad luck may come to them.

The second example is a cultural element that refers to a ceremony after one’s death. This element is extracted from Sensitive Floor (Kamal Tabrizi, 2013). In one scene, a family is shown to be returning from the funeral of their mother. In the car, one of the sons-in-law of the family asks if the wedding ceremony of a friend, Mr. Hassan,

.the 40th day after their mother’s death چهلم would be postponed after the

55 The first day of the year is called Nowrouz, LT as New day, in Iran which is celebrated in such countries as Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikestan. Nowrouz starts with the month Farvardin. The names of the months in the Persian Solar Hijri calendar are: (1) Farvardin, (2) Ordibehesht, (3) Khordad, (4) Tir, (5) Mordad, (6) Shahrivar, (7) Mehr, (8) Aban, (9) Azar, (10) Dey, (11) Bahman, and (12) Esfand. As the year starts on the first day of the spring season, 21th March, every three months start and end in one season.

189

Example 77. Social and Religious References: Social Cultures: Rituals, Festivals and Ceremonies. FILM Sensitive Floor (Kamal Tabrizi, 2013) CHARACTER son-in-law عروسی حسن آقا اینا میوفته بعد از چهلم دیگه ها؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /wedding of/ /Hassan/ /Mr/ /will fall/ /after/ /from/ /Chehelom/ /won’t it/? ENGLISH SUBTITLE Hassan’s wedding will have to wait until the ceremony after the 40th day of passing, right?

chehelom/, LT as The Fortieth, is the 40th day after someone’s death on which a/ چهلم ceremony will be held for the deceased person. During these forty days, the close family of the deceased person mourn and ceremonies of happiness such as wedding parties and ceremonies are postponed and held after this period.

4.2.6(b)(iii) Social habits and beliefs

In the first example is taken from Crimson Gold (Jafar Panahi, 2003). Hossein [Hossein

Emadeddin], the pizza delivery man, is shown to be delivering some pizzas. In the scene from the film, it is shown that the police have blocked the street for which Hossein is going to deliver the pizzas. The reason for the blockage of the street by the police is shown to be a mixed party in which some young people are gathered to dance and drink, which is forbidden by law in Iran. Thus, having no other choice, Hossein gives out the pizzas for free to the people on the street. Hossein tells the people that they do not need

.Salavati صلواتی to pay for the pizzas as the pizzas are

Example 78. Social and Religious References: Social Cultures: Social Habits and Beliefs. FILM Crimson Gold (Jafar Panahi, 2003) CHARACTER Hossein صلوات بفرست. صلواتیه PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Salavat/ /you send/. /Salavati it is/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE A gift from Heaven.

190

As mentioned before, Salavat56 refers to the Islamic phrase Sall Allahu Alayhi wa-Allih which is literally translated as Allah grant peace and honour on Him and His family; it is

salavaati/, Salavati, is/ صلواتی ,the praise of God of Prophet Muhammad. However different from Salavat. It is an adjective of Salavat and refers to mainly to such works that are done voluntarily or for free. In return to the free work, the person usually asks for just a praise to Prophet Mohammad.

,nazr/. In the film Ziba and I (Fereidoun Hasanpour/ نذر The second example is

2011), Jafar [Shahab Hosseini] is shown in the film to be trying to encourage some villagers to let his father, Mousa [Parviz Parastouyi] to fulfil his vowed. Since the villagers reject Mousa’s request, Jafar asks the clergyman of the village to mediate between him and the people of the village. The scene shows the clergyman mediating between them while the villagers are explaining to the clergyman that they do not have a

vow, but they cannot accept anyway since he was نذر problem with Jafar’s father previously known as a bad-reputed and perverted man.

Example 79. Social and Religious References: Social Cultures: Social Habits and Beliefs. FILM Ziba and I (Fereidoun Hasanpour, 2011) CHARACTER the village people خدا شاهده ما مشکلی با نذرش نداریم حاج آقا PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /God/ /witness is/ /we/ /any problem/ /with/ /his Nazr/ /we don’t have/ /Haj Agha/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE God knows we don’t have any problems with his vow, Sir.

nazr/, LT as A Vow, is a pledge to some good deeds if someone’s prayers are/ نذر granted. As it is also defined by Al-Islam.org (2016), Nadhr is “one of the three types of vows to Almighty Allah.”

56 See Example 71

191

4.2.6(c) Honorifics

This is the last category of social and religious references. It includes a wide range of forms of address that convey respect. There are also honorifics used to address someone according to the lineage, pilgrimages to holy places, and professions.

haaj aaghaa/. This element/ حاج آقا The first example of honorifics is the use of has been one of the most frequently used elements in the Iranian films as the corpus of the study. The example is taken from the film The Song of Sparrows (Majid Majidi,

2008). In a scene from the film, a motorbike taxi rider is shown to be offering a ride to a

haaj aaghaa/ and tried to/ حاج آقا passenger. The motorbike rider addresses the person as persuade him to get on the motorbike.

Example 80. Social and Religious References: Honorifics. FILM The Song of Sparrows (Majid Majidi, 2008) CHARACTER motorbike taxi rider سالم حاج آقا. خوب هستین حاج آقا؟ کجا میری حاج اقا؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /hello/ /Haj Agha/. /well/ /you are/ /Haj Agha/? /where/ /you go/ /Haj Agha/? ENGLISH SUBTITLE Hello, Hajji. I’m at your service. Where are you going?

haaj aaghaa/, Haj Agha, is generally an honorific title that is given to a Muslim/ حاج آقا man who has gone to a pilgrimage to Mecca57. Haj or Hajj is defined by Alim.org (2016) as:

“means effort. The Hajj is the pilgrimage to Mecca that is obligatory on every Muslim. It is one of the five pillars of Islam and takes place during the Islamic month of Zhul al-Hijjah. A Muslim must perform the Hajj at least once in his life. The exception to this is financial and health reasons”.

57 It is a city in Saudi Arabia in which the Muslim’s prophet, Mohammad, was born. It is also the home to Kabba, the holy building which is located in the centre of the most sacred mosque among Muslims. Millions of Muslims go on a pilgrimage to the city and make circumambulation round the building for seven times during the certain months of the year. 192

In Iranian culture, it is also used to show respect to elderly people. It is also used to refer to Iranian Muslim Clergymen, as well as religious people.

seyyed/. In Under the Moonlight (Reza/ سید The second example is the honorific

Mirkarimi, 2001), Hassan [Hossein Pour Sattar], the student of an Islamic school58, runs into the principal of the school, Hajj Agha59 [Mehran Rajabi]. Since he is late and has been so for many times in the past, Hajj Agha asks Seyyed Hassan to explain about his

Seyyed سید حسن unpunctuality. Hajj Agha is shown in the scene to address Hasan as

Hassan.

Example 82. Social and Religious References: Honorifics. FILM Under the Moonlight (Reza Mirkarimi, 2001) CHARACTER -Seyed Hassan -Hajj Agha -سالم علیکم حاج آقا PERSIAN -سالم علیکم. آقا سید حسن تشریف بیارید SOUNDTRACK GLOSS -/Salamunalaykum/ /Haj Agha/ - / Salamunalaykum/. /Agha/ /Seyyed/ /Hassan/ /you come please/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE -Hello. –Hello, Seyed Hassan come here.

seyyed/, LT as Master or Sir, Seyyed, an honorific title given to the male/ سید descendants of Prophet Mohammad through his generations. It is defined by Al-

Islam.org (2016) as referring to “a descendant of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.)”. Due to this lineage, Seyyeds are revered among Iranian Muslim people.

Hence, from the findings, the Social and Religious References in this study can be summarized as:

58 See footnote 26 59 See Example 80 193

Social Religious References

Social Honorif- Religious Cultures ics

believe Islamic phrases and sects ceremonies -s blessings and and rituals Sharia prayers and swearing social rituals and games and habits festivals and entertainme- ceremonies nts and believes

Figure 4.6. Social and Religious References

4.2.7 Institutional Organizations and Professional References

This is the last class of CEs identified in the current research. It mainly refers to institutional places, professional terms, and jobs. The institutions include the names of governmental, private departments and companies and military institutions. The professional terms sub-category includes the terms and titles used to refer to jobs and hierarchical ranks given to people work for the arm forces and religious institutions.

4.2.7(a) Governmental, private and military institutions

This subcategory encompasses a wide range of governmental, private and military departments and institutions. The first example, the emergency police 110, is taken from the film My Tehran for Sale (Granaz Moussavi, 2009). In a scene from the film, Marzieh

[Marzieh Vafamehr] and her boyfriend Sasan [Amir Chegini] are shown to be chatting over their immigration to Australia. Making a jock, Sasan, being an Australian citizen,

194 tells Marzieh that he is not yet sure of taking her to Australia. Marzieh, knowing that

Sasan is just trying to tease her, picks up the phone for prank and pretend to be calling the police 110 to complain about his boyfriend.

Example 83. Institutional Organizations and Professional References: Governmental, private and military. FILM My Tehran for Sale (Granaz Moussavi, 2009) CHARACTER Marzieh الو 110؟ آقا یه مرتیکه ای اینجا هست میگه شاید! PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /alo/ /110/? /Mr/ /a/ /guy/ /here/ /is/ /he says/ /maybe/! ENGLISH SUBTITLE Hello? 911? There’s a guy here and he’s saying “perhaps”.

Police 110, is the number پلیس The telephone number 110, or as it is known in Iran 110 of an emergency and special branch of the Iranian police force in Iran. It is the number that is used for the local emergencies and a quick call to police. The police number is usually dialled for such emergency cases as theft, burglary, accidents, murder, etc. This number can be considered as the equivalent to, as can be seen in the English subtitling of the example above, the emergency number in North America.

The second example is taken from the film The Lizard (Kamal Tabrizi, 2004). It

setaad-e eghaamey-e/ ستاد اقامه نماز refers to a cultural organization in Iran, called namaaz/. The organization can literally be translated as The Centre of Prayer

Establishment. In one scene from the film, some villagers are shown to have come to the railway station to welcome their new clergyman. Mr. Fazli [Naghi Seif Jamali], one of the villagers, tells the clergyman how long they have been waiting for a clergyman for

ستاد اقامه نماز their village, and how much they have contacted and corresponded to

/setaad-e eghaamey-e namaaz/ The Centre of Prayer Establishment until they have sent a clergyman to their village.

195

Example 84. Institutional Organizations and Professional References: Governmental, private and military. FILM The Lizard (Kamal Tabrizi, 2004) CHARACTER Mr. Fazli آنقدر در ستاد اقامه نماز خدمت برادران نامه نگاری کردیم که باالخره نتیجه داد PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /that much/ /in/ /organization of/ /setting up/ /prayer/ /service of/ /brothers/ /we corresponded letters/ /that/ /at last/ /it came to result/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE We wrote so many letters to the prayer organization that we finally got results

,setaad-e eghaamey-e namaaz/, LT as The Centre of Prayer Establishment/ ستاد اقامه نماز refers to a governmental organization founded for the promotion of prayer and the related issues such as developing mosques in Iran. This government organization also appoints clergymen as prayer Imams for mosques, as well as for Friday prayers.

4.2.7(b) Professional references

Professional references include terms that are associated with jobs and ranks. The references are divided into three sub-categories of i) jobs, ii) professional titles, and iii) military ranks.

4.2.7(b)(i) Profession and careers

The sub-category of 5.1.7.2.1 Profession and Careers includes those professions and careers that are specific to the culture of Iranian society. The elements encompass both

akhoond/. In one/ آخوند governmental and non-governmental jobs. The first example is scene in Under the Moonlight (Reza Mirkarimi, 2001), some poor people are celebrating their night under a bridge, where they also live, in the capital city of Tehran. A young boy from this group of people is shown to have stolen a clergyman’s shoes and clothes.

In the meantime, one of them, a retarded man, points to the stolen shoes of the

آخوند clergyman, Seyed Hassan [Hossein Pour Sattar] and says how the shoes are as

196

/akhoond/ style. Then, the scene shows the master of the group ironically expressing

./akhoond/ آخوند ,how they dislike Akhounds

Example 85. Institutional Organizations and Professional References: Professional References: Professions and Careers. FILM Under the Moonlight (Reza Mirkarimi, 2001) CHARACTER -The Retarded Guy -The Master آخوندیه اوستا PERSIAN –نه خیلی از آخوندا خوشمون میاد SOUNDTRACK GLOSS -/Akhoundi is/ /mentor/ -/no/ /much/ /from/ /Akhounds/ /we like/ ENGLISH -It’s the Mullah style. SUBTITLE -Much as we like Mullahs.

is a Persian name that refers to a clergyman in Iran. Akhoonds are آخوند An Akhoond responsible for leading religious services in the community. They lead the prayers in mosques, deliver religious sermons and perform religious ceremonies. They also teach in

Islamic schools known in Iran as Howzeh60. This term is also used in countries such as

Pakistan and Afghanistan. According to Oxforddictionaries.com (2016), the origin of the word Akhoond dates back to the “early 18th century; earliest use found in Atlas

Geographus. From Persian āḵūnd theologian, (religious) scholar, mullah, preacher, teacher (in a traditional Qur’an school), in post-revolutionary Iran also used pejoratively to denote the ruling clerics, further etymology uncertain and disputed.” By the Islamic revolution of Iran in 1979, clergymen take over the power which explains why the master expressed his dislike towards them.

The second example is taken from the film Ziba and I (Fereidoun Hasanpour,

2011). The film narrates the story of Mousa [Parviz Parastouyi], a perverted and bad- reputed man who has repented and is ashamed of his bad deeds during his youth.

Arguing over Mousa’s vow, one of the villagers sarcastically points out that if they let

60 See footnote 26 197

پیشنماز مسجد him in the mosque to perform his vow, he might later even wish to become a

/pishnamaaz-e masjed/, LT as The Mosque’s Prayer Lead.

Example 86. Institutional Organizations and Professional References: Professional References: Professions and Careers. FILM Ziba and I (Fereidoun Hasanpour, 2011) CHARACTER The village man البد بعدشم میخواد بشه پیشنماز مسجد PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /maybe/ /after that/ /he want/ /to be/ /Pishnamaz of/ /mosque/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Perforce he wants to be the liturgist of the mosque?

pishnamaaz-e masjed/, LT as The Mosque’s Prayer Lead, refers to a/ پیشنماز مسجد mosque’s Imam who stands in front of others in a mosque and performs the daily prayers while others follow him. In Iran, the Mosque’s Imams are selected among clergymen by The Centre of Prayer Establishment61. As an Islamic law, Muslims are highly recommended to perform their prayers in groups.

4.2.7(b)(ii) Professional titles

The professional titles found in the current study refer to the titles given to doctors and engineers. The first example is taken from the film Sensitive Floor (Kamal Tabrizi,

2013). In a scene from the film, Mr. Kamali [Reza Attaran], whose wife has recently passed away, is showing to be sitting at his wife’s grave and praying for her. His wife is buried mistakenly next to a man, and he considers this as a disgrace to his honour. While

Mr. Mohandes which آقای مهندس praying at the grave, he addresses the deceased man as could be literally translated as Mr. Engineer and nags that the prayer is not for him.

61 See Example 83. 198

Example 87. Institutional Organizations and Professional References: Professional References: Professional Titles. FILM Sensitive Floor (Kamal Tabrizi, 2013) CHARACTER Mr. Kamali صلوات برای شما نبود آقای مهندس. جاتم اینجا نیست. انشاال تو اسفل السافلین PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Salavat/ /for/ you/ /wasn’t/ /Mr/ /engineer/. /your place/ /here/ /isn’t it/. /Inshallah/ /in/ /Asfalossafelin/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE This prayer wasn’t for you sir, and you don’t belong here either

/aaghaa/ آقا The titles for Doctors and Engineers are usually used after the honorifics

.khanoon/ for Mistress. As can be seen in the above example, Mr/ خانوم means Mister or

.aaghaay-e mohandes/ (LT as Mr/ آقای مهندس Kamali uses the professional title of

Engineer), for the deceased man. The use of the titles have roots in the socially important status of doctors and engineers in the Iranian culture. This is to say that, addressing a person with such titles deems as a way of showing respect to that person.

4.2.7(b)(iii) Military and religious ranks

In Iranian society, professional titles are given to rank employees in particular organizations. The examples of the titles found in the corpus of the study include the titles given to the personnel of the military and religious organizations.

The first example is the use of military ranks. The example is taken from the film

Crimson Gold (Jafar Panahi, 2003). In a scene from the film, Hossein [Hossein

Emadeddin], a previously war warrior and now a pizza delivery man, is shown to have been waiting long to deliver the pizzas. However, he has not been able to deliver them since the street is blocked by the police and security forces who are ambushing to raid a mixed party of girls and boys. Being tired of waiting, Hossein addresses the police

.and asks him how long he would have to wait جناب سروان officer as

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Example 89. Institutional Organizations and Professional References: Professional References: Military and Religious Ranks. FILM Crimson Gold (Jafar Panahi, 2003) CHARACTER Hossein جناب سروان ما تا کی بایست اینجا بمونیم؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Sir/ /Sarvan/ /we/ /until/ /when/ /must/ /here/ /we stay/? ENGLISH SUBTITLE Sergeant, must we wait long?

jenaab sarvaan/, LT as Excellency Captain, is the thirteenth rank and insignia/ جناب سروان in Iranian army ranking. It is the fourth officer rank and the senior of Company Grade.

The rank is represented by four stars on the shoulder in Armed Forces of the Islamic

Republic of Iran.

The second example is a religious rank given to clergymen. The example is taken from the film Under the Moonlight (Reza Mirkarimi, 2001). A scene from the film

حجه االسالم shows the newly graduated clergymen who are addressed by their new title

Hojjat al-Islam by their master and officially entitled as a clergyman.

Example 88. Institutional Organizations and Professional References: Professional References: Military and Religious Ranks. FILM Under the Moonlight (Reza Mirkarimi, 2001) CHARACTER Clergyman جناب حجه االسالم سید محسن موسوی PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Mr/ /Hojjat-al Islam/ /Seyyed/ /Mohsen/ /Mousavi/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Hojat-ol-Islam Seyed Mohsen Moosavi

hojjatol eslaam/, LT as The Proof of Islam, is a title that is given to Islamic/ حجه االسالم clerics in Iran. The honorific title also means “authority on Islam” and is awarded to

Islamic scholars. As ranking is concerned, the use of this honorific in now an indication of a status in the hierarchy of learned below Ayatollah which is given to middle ranking clergymen.

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Hence, from the findings, the Social and Religious References in this study can be summarized as:

Institutional Organizations and Professional References

Governmental, Professional private and military References institutions

Professional Jobs Military and titles religious ranks

Figure 4.7. Institutional Organizations and Professional References

4.3 Classification of the Subtitling Procedures of CEs

After identifying the CEs in the Persian soundtracks (ST) of the Iranian films, the CEs were compared to their English subtitles (TT) of the films. The translation procedures were first analysed guided by the two translation taxonomies proposed by Diaz Cintas and Remael (2007), and Pedersen (2011). These two taxonomies of translation procedures were used since both are proposed based on the translation of CEs in the context of audiovisual translation, particularly subtitling. The procedures used in the subtitling of CEs in the official subtitles of Iranian films as the corpus of the study are classified into five categories (procedures), each further divided into some subcategories (techniques). While procedures refer to the type of the operations applied by the subtitlers, techniques refer to and provide information on how the procedures are specifically applied in detail. The procedures and the techniques are discussed, explained

201 and linked to the broader approaches of domestication and foreignization through examples in the following.

4.3.1 Retention

Retention is one of the most frequently used procedures in the subtitling of CEs in the corpus of the study. This procedure is called “Retention” since, as the term suggests, the

Persian CE is retained in the English subtitle. There are, however, variations to this procedure. Retention is applied through two techniques a) Isolated (Limited) Retention and b) Explicated Retention. While the former suggests that the Persian CE is retained with no further clarifications, the latter refers to the situations in which the Persian CE is both retained and explained in some ways. In both types of retention, there are cases in which the element is adjusted to the linguistic (phonological) conventions of the target language. Conversely, in other cases, the CEs have been retained with no interventions.

4.3.1(a) Isolated Retention

Isolated Retention is the technique used by the subtitlers to transfer the Persian CEs to the target culture intact. Using this technique, the CE is transferred without any additional explanations. The CEs, however, are sometimes marked and hence made distinguishable from the rest of the sentence for the convenience and attention of the audience. In order to mark and highlight the CEs, such techniques as i) Capitalization, ii) putting the CE between inverted-comma or brackets, and iii) using uppercase letters.

The examples of Isolated Retention are provided in the following.

Isolated Retention is first demonstrated in an example from the film Taste of

Cherry (Abbas Kiarostami, 1997). The story is about a depressed man, Mr. Badi’i

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[Homayoun Ershadi], who intends to commit suicide. Thus, Mr. Badi’i is driving his car and searching for someone who is willing to bury him after he committed suicide. In a scene from the film, an elderly man is shown to have accepted Mr. Badi’i’s request about burying him the day after in the early morning. However, being scared, Mr. Badi’i asks the elderly man to carefully check if he would be dead and not to put soil on his body if he is not completely sure about this. The elderly man expresses his hopes that,

.inshallah/, Mr. Badi’i would be alive and would answer him in the morning/ انشاهللا

Example 89. Isolated (limited) Retention. جواب میدی. انشاهللا میدی. میدونم میدی PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /reply/ /you will/. /inshallah/ /you will/. /I know/ /you will/.

ENGLISH SUBTITLE You will reply! Inch’Allah, I know what you’ll say

As can be seen in the above example, Isolated Retention has been applied for

inshallah/ from the ST to the TT. This element could be/ انشاهللا transferring the CE literally translated as if Allah wills and is used among Muslims, including Iranians, to express one’s hopes for the happening of an event in future, if Allah (God) has ordained it to be so. The term has been so frequently used among Muslim that it has been even picked up by the followers of other religions such as Jews and Christians who live in a

Muslim country. There are different terms that can be used as equivalents to this particular term. The examples of the terms’ equivalence could be ‘God willing’ and ‘if

God wills.’ The common use of the term by Muslims has loaded the term with an indispensable connection of the element to being connected to a Muslim community.

Hence, the retention of the term by the subtitler in the above example highlights the foreignizing approach opted by the subtitler for the viewers.

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In another example in Santouri (Dariush Mehrjui, 2007), there are three Persian traditional musical systems mentioned. The characters in the movie are talking about how to move from one system to a different one while playing the Santour62, a Persian traditional musical instrument. Isolated Retention has been used to transfer the CEs. The

CEs has been marked through putting them between commas and, accordingly, been made distinguishable from the rest of the sentence.

Example 90. Isolated (limited) Retention. مثال اگر از شور بخوایم بریم توی اصفهان یا مثال ماهور اینا مثال چکار میکنین؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /for example/ /if/ /from/ /shour/ /we want/ /we go/ /to/ /esfahan/ /or/ /for example/ /mahour/ /like this/ /what to do/? ENGLISH SUBTITLE If we want to move from ‘shour’ to ‘isfahan’ or ‘mahour’ what are we supposed to do?

As can be seen in the above example, the three Iranian musical systems that are

Mahour63. The Iranian ماهور Isfahan and اصفهان ,Shour شور mentioned here are traditional art music, called Dastgah, is composed of seven musical modal systems, amongst which are these three musical systems that are considered the most important ones in the Iranian traditional art music. In regard to the musical mode, the Western musical systems are also composed of seven modes of scales, but with distinct features and names from the Persian musical systems. The non-existence of the modal systems in the two cultures has turned the translation of these words as crisis points for the subtitler to opt for the best procedure. As can be seen in the example, the subtitler has retained the names of the Persian musical systems in the English subtitle of the film which has resulted in a foreignized strategy. Moreover, to assist the audience to better perceive the names as the names of some Iranian CEs, the subtitler has marked them in an inverted

62 See example 17 63 See Example 61 204 comma. Another way to make the CEs marked and distinctive from the rest of the sentence is the use of UPPERCASE LETTERS. The example is given in the following.

In the film I and Ziba (Fereidoun Hassanpour, 2013), Mousa [Parviz Parastoui], is shown to be a previously drunken and perverted man who intends to repent to God from his bad deeds when he was young. In a scene from the film, Mousa, as a Muslim man, is shown to be crying and explaining to Mari, a little Christian girl that he is crying for Abolfazl, the brother of Imam Hossein.

Example 91. Isolated (limited) Retention. آخه گریه من واسه ابوالفظل ماریا جان PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /cause/ /cry/ /my/ /for/ /Abolfazl is/ /Maria/ /dear/

ENGLISH SUBTITLE So I’m crying for ABOLFAZL!

but has ابوالفظل As can be seen in the above example, subtitler has totally retained the CE used the uppercase letters to make it distinctive and distinguishable. As mentioned

Abolfazl is the brother of Hossein ibn Ali64 who was killed in a battle in the city of

Karbala65 in the present Iraq. While he is a well-known character in Iran, Abolfazl is barely known for the Western audience of Iranian films. The retention of the name in the

English subtitle, as can be seen, has resulted in a foreignized strategy. However, similar to the previous example, the subtitler has marked the name for the audience to make the

CEs distinguishable from the rest of the sentence through the usage of UPPERCASE

LETTERS.

64 See footnote 4 65 See footnote 4 205

4.3.1(b) Explicated Retention

This technique is used in cases where the CE is both retained and explained in some ways. In this technique, the latent meaning of the CE is explicated and comes to the surface. That is to say, the latent meaning of the CE is explicitly given to provide clues about the CE to the target culture audience. Although the latent meaning of the CE is explicitly provided in the subtitle, the retention of the ST CE positions this technique as creating a foreignizing translation.

In My Tehran for Sale (Granaz Moussavi, 2009), Marzieh [Marzieh Vafamehr] is shown to be talking to her boyfriend Sasan [Amir Chegini] about different historical places in Tehran. Sasan is an Iranian citizen of Australia who has not travelled to Iran for many years. In one scene, they are standing in front of the door of a cemetery called

Zahiroddoleh in which many Iranian leaders and masters of art, music, and culture are buried. As can be seen in the Persian soundtrack below, Marzieh mentions the name of the cemetery.

Example 92. Explicated Retention: Complementation. اره. اینجا ظهیرالدوله ست دیگه PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /yeah/. /here/ / Zahirodoleh / /is/ /la/

ENGLISH SUBTITLE This is Zahirodoleh cemetery.

In the context of Iran, Zahiroddoleh is well known by many Iranians. This is a cemetery in which numerous cultural figures of Iran are buried. Therefore, the popularity of this cemetery has resulted in the metonymical use of the name of the place. As can be seen in the above example, the subtitler has retained the CE and transferred it into English.

Moreover, to make it more clear, the latent meaning of the CE, that is a cemetery, has

206 been added by the subtitler. The reason is probably the unfamiliarity of the target audience with the name of the cemetery as a common shared knowledge.

The second example of Explicated Retention is taken from Women’s Prison

(Manije Hekmat, 2002). In a scene from the films, the women prisoners are shown to be talking about the reason for their accusation and being imprisoned. One of the prisoners points out her work as a dancer in one of the well-known cabarets in Tehran before the

Shokouf-e No شکوفه نو Islamic Revolution in 1979, and about her ability in belly dance in

Cabaret.

Example 93. Explicated Retention: Complementation. من تو شکوفه نو تو رقض شکم رودست نداشتم PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /I/ /in/ / Shokouf-e No / /in/ /dance of/ /belly/ /unique I was/

ENGLISH SUBTITLE I was the best belly dancer at “Shokoofeh no” Cabaret.

In the original soundtrack, the word cabaret is latent and only the name of the cabaret in

Tehran, Shokouf-e No, is mentioned. It is probably that, since Shokouf-e No is assumed to be understood by the Persian audience as to be referring to the cabaret, it has been kept implicit in Persian soundtrack. On the other hand, it is far from sound expectations that this knowledge to be shared by the target audience of the film. This is to say that, the subtitler is likely to assume that this knowledge is lacking by the Target audience and, accordingly, the latent meaning has been explicated. As mentioned earlier, despite the explicit providing of the latent meaning of the CE, the retention of the ST CE results in translation foreignization.

207

4.3.2 Direct Translation

Direct Translation refers to the procedure used in situations in which the Persian CE is transferred into the TT in a literal manner. This procedure has been applied to subtitle the ST CE, which are composed of two or more words. In this study, Direct Translation includes two types of techniques: a) Calque, and b) Literal. While in Calque the subtitler is encountered mostly with a group of two words (phrases), in Literal Direct Translation the CE is a phrase or a sentence. The examples are given below.

4.3.2(a) Calque

As mentioned above, Calque has been applied where the CE is composed of mainly a group of two words. Since the ST CEs has roots in Iranian culture, the word for word translation of its components entails the foreignization of the CE.

Sensitive Floor (Kamal Tabrizi, 2014), is the story of a traditional Iranian family who has recently lost their mother. In one scene from the film, Mr. Kamali [Reza

Attaran], the father of the family, is shown to be mourning for his lost wife. In the scene,

water and sugar to help out آب قند the aunt of the family asks her nieces to get a glass of

Mr. Kamali.

Example 94. Direct Translation: Calque. زهرا جون پاشو قربونت. پاشو برای عمه آب قند بیار PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Zahra/ /dear/ /get up/ /my dear/. /get up/ /for/ /aunt/ /water sugar/ /bring/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Zahra honey, get up and bring some sugar-water for her, thanks.

ab ghand/ refers to the solution of water and sugar which is usually taken by/ آب قند

Iranians when someone’s blood pressure suddenly drops due to a shocking incident.

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is considered a culture-specific آب قند Compared to the Western cultures, the use of phenomenon of the Iranian culture since it is not used in such cultures as the British. As can be seen in the example, the components of the Persian CE has been translated word for word. Nothing is omitted or added, and the semantic load of the Persian CE has been retained. The literal word for word translation of the Persian CE has, consequently, resulted in a foreignized approach in the transference of the CE into the English language and culture.

4.3.2(b) Literal

Literal Translation has been applied in situations where the ST CE, composed of phrases and sentences, has been transferred to TT through literal translation. This is the main difference between the use of Literal and Calque Direct techniques in the corpus of the present study. Literal translation results in a phrase or a sentence that observes the grammatical conventions of the target language. Therefore, the subtitle loses its foreignness of the ST CE in the target language and culture. The translation is sometimes placed in commas or is italicized to be marked from the rest of the sentence.

The example of the literal translation is the use of an Islamic expression which is frequently used by Muslims including Iranians in diverse situations. In Sensitive Floor

(Kamal Tabrizi, 2014), Mr. Kamali gets angry arguing in the police station and tries to

./la elaha ella allah/ ال اله اال هللا calm himself down by saying

Example 95. Direct Translation: Calque.

ال اله اال هللا PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /is no/ /god/ /but/ /Allah/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE There is no God but Allah …

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As can be seen in the example, the ST CE is translated literally. That is, the subtitle is a literal translation of the religious expression the literal translation. The translation lost its foreignness of the ST CE in the target language and culture.

4.3.3 Cultural Substitution

Cultural Substitution is another procedure observed in the corpus of the study. This procedure is carried out through two techniques of a) Source Culture (SC) Substitution, and b) Target Culture (TC) Substitution. While the former refers to the cases where the cultural load of the Persian CE is kept through the replacement of a more transcultural

Persian CE, the former technique is applied where another CE from the target culture is replaced for the original Persian CE. Accordingly, while Source Culture (SC)

Substitution is more towards the source culture, hence, it is a source-oriented procedure,

Target Culture (TC) Substitution is leans more towards the target culture and hence is more target-oriented or domesticated procedure.

4.3.3(a) Source Culture (SC) Substitution

This technique is used when the subtitler substitutes ST CE with a more familiar are to the target audience or transcultural CE. In other words, although the foreignness of ST

CE is retained, it is not as foreign as and unfamiliar the original CE and consequently, more accessible to the target audience. The examples are given below.

210

In one scene from the film The Song of Sparrows (Majid Majidi, 2008), two

HajAgha to حاج آقاpeople are riding on a motorbike. The pillion passenger honorific 66 show respect and persuade the man to arrange some works for him.

Example 96. Cultural Substitution: SC Substitution. حاج اقا اگه میشه این کار ما رم راه بندازین PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Hajagha/ /if/ /possible/ /this/ /work/ /my also/ /manage/.

ENGLISH SUBTITLE Hajji, please do something for me.

حاج آقا As can be seen in the above example, the subtitler has replaced the Persian CE

haaji/. The reason for considering the CE/ حاجی with a more transcultural source CE of

Hajji as to be more transcultural is the fact that the term is usually used not only in Iran

حاج but in other Muslim countries as well. The ST CE is composed of the two words

/aaghaa/ آقا haaj/ (refers to a Muslim person who goes on a pilgrimage to Mecca) and/

(an honorific in Persian most equals to Mr.). On the other hand, the substituted CE in the

Moreover, as mentioned, it is a term that .آقا lacks the Persian element of ,حاجی ,subtitle is usually used not only in Iran but in other Muslim countries and, hence, more transcultural.

Another example is taken from the film The Willow Tree (Majid Majidi, 2005).

Yousef [Parviz Parastoui], who is a professor of Persian literature, is talking about Jalal

Addin Mohammad Balkhi or also known in Iran as Mawlavi67, or Mawlana, the 13th century Persian poet.

66 See Example 80 67 See Example 20 211

Example 97. Cultural Substitution: SC Substitution. مولوی شدن مولوی در همین قمار عاشقانه است و همین گذشت بی تو PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Mawlavi/ /become/ /Mawlavi/ /in/ /this/ /gamble/ /love/ /is/ /and/ /this/ /dedication/ /without/ /you/. ENGLISH SUBTITLE As for Rumi, he always bet on love and expected nothing in return.

As can be seen in the subtitle, the subtitler has replaced the personal name Mawlavi with the other name Rumi which is another epithet of the poet. The reason for this replacement could be attributed to the more popular and familiar status of the name

Rumi in comparison with the name Mawlavi in the world. This is to say that, the ST CE is replaced with another Persian CE, but with a more familiar, a more popular and accordingly a more transcultural term.

4.3.3(b) Target Culture (TC) Substitution

This technique is completely towards the target culture and hence, leads to domestication. It is the most domesticated technique of transferring the ST CE into the target culture. Hence, any traces of foreignness of the Persian culture is eliminated and is replaced with a familiar CE to the target audience from the target culture.

In Taste of Cherry (Dariush Mehrjoui, 1997), Mr. Badi’i [Homayoun Ershadi], a driver intends to commit suicide, and the scenario shown as he is driving his car in search of someone who will bury him under a cherry tree after he commits suicide. His second passenger is an Afghan clergyman who, as the previous passengers, declines his request because he has religious objections to suicide. In one scene from the film, Mr.

Badi’i is shown to be talking to the Afghan clergyman. Since it seems odd for Mr. Badi’i to see a clergyman working outside the city because, in Iran, clergymen usually do not

212 work but just give religious sermons. Therefore he asks the Afghan clergyman on what he is doing there.

Example 98. Cultural Substitution: TC Substitution.

طلبه اینجا چکار میکنه؟ طلبه توی کوه و دشت نمیشه که؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Talabeh (student of religion)/ /here/ /what/ /do/? / Talabeh (student of religion)/ /in/ /mountain/ /and/ /meadow/ /can’t be/ /that/! ENGLISH SUBTITLE A “seminarist”? He should be in a seminary.

talabeh/ ‘Talabeh’ is used to address the students of Islamic school/ طلبه The term studying Islamic sharia in Iran. After the graduation, these students are then qualified as clergymen or Mullahs. The ST CE is translated through selecting a cultural term which semantic loading is very different from that of the ST-context. It is not a cultural element from the source, but it is considered as a cultural element from the target culture’s perspective. The word ‘seminarist’ is a term that is generally used to refer to a student of

Christianity believe who become a priest at a Roman Catholic seminary after they complete their studies. In other words, while the term Talabeh bears a highly Islamic load, the term seminarist bears Christian and Catholic meanings, which are fundamentally different from each other which has the roots in the ideology of the religions where the originated. Hence what is replaced in the subtitle by the subtitler is a cultural element from the target language and culture. This technique has resulted in a highly domesticated translation as the replaced element is close and familiar to the target culture and the target audience.

Another example is taken from the same scene. In this scene, Mr. Badi’i is shown to be talking to the Afghan clergyman and asking him why he has come to Iran to

.in Afghanistan حوزه study and if they do not have

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Example 99. Cultural Substitution: TC Substitution. مگه شما افغانستان حوزه علمیه ندارینکه اونجا درس بخونین میاین ایران؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /don’t/ /you/ /Afghanistan/ /Hawza Ilmiyya/ /don’t have/ /that/ /there/ / you study / /you come/ /Iran/? ENGLISH SUBTITLE Aren’t there any seminaries in Afghanistan?

حوزه علمیه howze-ye elmiye/. A Hawza Ilmiyya 68/ حوزه علمیه The CE used in this scene is refers to the Islamic school where Iranian Muslims clerics are educated. There are hawzas in some Islamic countries such as the ones in Najaf in Iraq and Qom in Iran as the preeminent centres for educating clergymen. On the other hand, a seminary is an educational institution for educating seminarists. Thus, whereas the former institution indicates a place for the promotion of Islamic ideology, the latter institution stands in contrast and intends to promote Christian ideology. Therefore, considering the ideology of the two centres, the missions and the purpose of establishment of these institutions based on different settings and for a different context. Consequently, the substitution of

Hawza Ilmiyya with seminaries indicates a cultural substitution from the target culture which has resulted in a highly domesticated translation.

4.3.4 Semantic Substitution

Semantic Substitution refers to a procedure through which a Persian CE is semantically substituted with another word from a different semantic level. It is based on whether the word substituted for the Persian CE is from a more general or more specific semantic field. Accordingly, this particular procedure has been divided into two techniques of, namely, Hypernym and Hyponym. While in Hypernym or Superordinate the Persian CE is replaced with a more general semantic level, Hyponym or Subordinate has been

68 Also see Example 56 214 applied where the Persian CE is replaced with a word from a more specific and lower semantic field. The examples are given below.

4.3.4(a) Hypernym

In A Separation (Asghar Farhadi, 2011), a group of friends is shown to be gathered and trying to settle a conflict between Nader [Peyman Mo’adi] and Razieh [Sareh Bayat] on

Razieh’s miscarriage. In one scene from the film, Nader is shown to be trying to investigate the matter in more details, but the friends attempt to manage and settle down the condition by asking the present people to say a Salavaat.

Example 99. Semantic Substitution: Hypernym. صلوات بفرستین تمومش کنین بره PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Salavaat/ /you send/ /finish it you/ /let go/

ENGLISH SUBTITLE Say a prayer and finish it.

salavaat/ is a pray to God to greet Islam’s Prophet Mohammad and his/ صلوات descendants. One of the situations in which Iranian say a Salavaat is when they want to manage and settle down a quarrel. However, this tradition, i.e. say a prayer in mass to calm down an aggressive situation, is lacking in the Western communities. As can be seen in the example, the subtitler has replaced Salavaat with ‘a prayer.’ This is to say that, the subtitler has decided to use a superordinate term from a more general semantic field to render Salavaat. In other words, while Salavaat is a specific type of prayer, a prayer is not necessarily a Salavaat. Therefore, the technique which is applied is hence

Hypernym or Superordinate.

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4.3.4(b) Hyponym

Hyponym or Subordinate is the other technique through which the Persian CE is replaced by a word of a different semantic field. While a word from an upper level of the same semantic field is used in Hypernym or Superordinate, a word from a lower level of semantic field is used in Hyponym or Subordinate.

The example for Hyponym is taken from the film A Separation (Asghar Farhadi,

2011). Because of a conflict between Nader [Peyman Mo’adi] and Razieh [Sareh Bayat] on Razieh’s miscarriage, they are called into the court. In a scene from the film, Hojjat

[Shahab Hosseini], Razieh’s husband, is shown to be arguing with Nader and accusing

./naamoos/ ناموس him of touching his

Example 100. Semantic Substitution: Hyponym. تو اصال با اجازه کی به ناموس من دست زدی؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /you/ /anyway/ /with/ /permission of/ /who/ /to/ /Naamous of/ /me/ /touched you/ /?/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Who said you could touch my wife?

naamoos/ is a polysemy word in Iranian culture. It is originally an Arabic word/ ناموس that is used in many countries in the Middle East including Iran, Turkey, as well as many Arabian countries. However, in the Iranian socio-linguistic context, the term is used to refer to a number of concepts such as one’s country, sister, mother, and wife for which a man’s honour and virtue is bounded to. Thus, in the Iranian context, the term is used when one is talking about his/her dignity, the integrity of the family, and sexual integrity of women and their chastity. One of the references for the term, as can be seen

,as mentioned ,ناموس in the example above is one’s wife. However, the use of the term bears highly cultural loads which directly associates it with one’s dignity. On the other

216

zan/ wife. As can be seen in the/ زن hand, this connotation is lacking in the word

has been translated to ‘wife’ which is a hyponym term of ناموس example above, the term the former.

4.3.5 Restatement

Restatement is procedure found in the corpus of the study which refers to either paraphrasing the Persian CE or to give a description of what is happening in the films. In paraphrasing or Rewording in the present study, the Persian CE is made explicit through giving a sort of definition for the CE. The latter strategy, called Description, has been applied where a cultural event or phenomenon in the film is linguistically described in brackets, inverted commas, etc. These techniques are elaborated in detail in the following.

4.3.5(a) Rewording

Rewording is the first technique under the procedure of Restatement. This technique has been applied in situations when the loss of meaning of Persian CE is still occurred by the retention of the CE in the target language. This is mainly due to the gap between the cultures. Therefore, the subtitler makes an attempt to reword the Persian CE in English.

This implies a usually longer stretch of words than the original CE. This technique has been applied for the subtitling of a diverse range of Persian CEs into English such as honorific titles, foods, clothes, ceremonies, religious laws, etc. The examples are given below.

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The first example of rewording as a technique of the Restatement procedure is taken from the film Under the Moonlight (Reza Mirkarimi, 2001). The story of the film is about a student of religion who has just finished his studies and is getting prepared for the graduation ceremony. In the context of Iran, when students of religion are graduated, they would be granted the permission to wear special clothings, including an Ammameh or turban69, at their graduation ceremony and, accordingly, are officially announced as clergymen or Mullahs. In one scene from the film, Hassan [Hossein Pour Sattar], a student of religious studies, is shown to be going to a shop to buy the clergymen clothes.

The salesperson is shown to be asking Hassan about the colour of the turban and Hassan replies that he wears black colour. Knowing about the colour of the turban, the

.seyyed/ Seyyed/ سید salesperson happily says that he is a

Example 101. Restatement: Rewording. به به سید هستید؟ الهم صل علی محمد و آل محمد PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /good/ /good/ /Seyyed/ /you are/? /God/ /salute/ /to/ /Muhammad/ /and/ /descendent of/ /Muhammad/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE So you are a descendant of the prophet.

There is an honorific title in Persian that is used to refer to those who are a descendant

seyyed/. A/ سید of the prophet Muhammad through his grandsons. The honorific title is clergyman can be identified as a Seyyed or not by wearing different colour of clothings, either black or white Ammameh or turban. As an Islamic country, Seyyeds are highly appreciated and acknowledged by many people in Iran. As also mentioned, Seyyed clergymen wear a black colour turban which is different from their fellow clergymen who wear a white colour turban. As can be seen in the above example, rewording has been used by the subtitler as the technique to transfer the honorific title Seyyed in the

69 See Example 32 218

English subtitle. In other words, the subtitler tries to give a definition for the Persian CE

The omission and rewording of the Persian CE have made the meaning of the CE .سید transparent to the audience. The removal and rewording of the CE indicated that a domesticating strategy had been applied by the subtitler.

Another example of rewording as a technique of the Restatement procedure is taken from the film Sensitive Floor (Kamal Tabrizi, 2014).

In the movie, the mother of a family has passed away, and the family is having a funeral. In a scene from the film, one of the son-in-laws [Houtan Shakiba] of the late mother is shown to be talking to his father-in-law, Mr. Kamali [Reza Attaran]. Houtan asks if because of the death, the wedding ceremony of Mr. Hasan would be postponed

.40th چهلم until after the

Example 102. Restatement: Rewording. عروسی حسن آقا اینا میوفته بعد از چهلم دیگه ها؟ PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /wedding of/ /Hasan/ /Mr/ /will fall/ /after/ /40th/ /won’t it/?

ENGLISH SUBTITLE Hassan’s wedding will have to wait until the ceremony after the 40th day of passing, right?

the 40th, LT as the fortieth, in the context of Iran that refers to the 40th day after the چهلم burial of a late person. Even though the family and the close relatives of the late person stop mourning after the 7th day of the burial of the demised, the family members of the demised will still wear black, not shaving their faces, and not holding any ceremonies of happiness until the 40th day. As can be seen in the above example, the Persian CE has been explained in the English subtitle as ‘the ceremony after the 40th day of passing’. In other words, since the Persian CE is less comprehended in the Western target culture, the subtitler has attempted to provide some explanations in the subtitle, so that it can be

219 better understood by the target audience. As a result, the foreignness of the Persian CE to the audience has been lessened.

4.3.5(b) Description

Description is another technique of Restatement procedure. Through the technique, the

ST CE is made explicit through the subtitle, describing what is happening in the scene by providing information in brackets or quotation marks. The technique benefits from brackets or quotation marks, to show what is subtitled is not a translation in its common sense, but a description for the audience to get a general account of what is culturally happening in the scene. For example, this technique has frequently been used for the scene showing the characters performing in a ceremony or singing a song that bear cultural meanings. The examples are given below.

I and Ziba (Fereidoun Hassanpour, 2013), is the story of Mousa [Parviz

Parastoui]. Mousa keeps blaming himself for the death of her pregnant wife since he was drunk when his wife at labour and for this, he could not take his wife to the hospital. As a return, Mousa is shown to devote his life to their son Jafar [Shahab Hossini]. Being regretful, Mousa hopes to repent. In one scene from the film, the people of the village are shown to be holding a religious ceremony for Imam Hossein, mourning and playing religious musical instruments.

Example 103. Restatement: Description. PERSIAN - SOUNDTRACK GLOSS -

ENGLISH SUBTITLE ‘Religious marsh’

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To clarify the cultural ceremony, some textual information is provided in inverted commas. The inverted commas are used to show that the provided information is not a translation of the source text but an explanation of what is happening in the scene. In other words, the Persian CE, which is an acoustic-visual text, is subtitled in the form of linguistic explanation. This technique is adopted to facilitate the comprehension of the

ST CE for the target audience and, hence, is more towards a domesticating strategy.

In another example in Women’s Prison (Manije Hekmat, 2002), the women prisoners are shown as throwing a birthday party for one girl. The prisoners are singing a song that is usually sang during in Iranian birthday parties.

Example 104. Restatement: Description. مبارک مبارک تولدت مبارک. بیا شمعها رو فوت کن که صد سال زنده باشی PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /congrats/ /congrats/ /your birthday/ /congrats/. /come/ /candles/ /blow you/ /that/ /a hundred/ /year/ /live you/. ENGLISH SUBTITLE [Women singing Happy birthday to you …]

تولد تولد تولدت مبارک. بیا شمعها Iranians sing this song in their birthday parties. The song is

mobaarak mobaarak! Tavalodet mobaarak! Biyaa shamaa/ رو فوت کن که صد سال زنده باشی ro foot kon! Ke sad saal zende baashi/ which can be LT as Birthday! Birthday! Happy your birthday! Come and blow out the candles! That one hundred years you live! It is the same as the Happy Birthday song in function. As can be seen in the above example, the CE has been clarified through providing a description in brackets. Even though it has not been translated, the description has managed to convey the birthday message portrayed in the scene. Therefore, the cultural element has been clarified by providing a bracketed description in which not only it explains the singing, but it also carries an

221 equivalence of the element in English. The simultaneity of the two techniques has led the translation even more towards domesticating compared to the previous example.

4.3.6 Indirect Translation

Indirect Translation is the other procedure observed in the current study. Through this procedure, the ST CE is not directly but indirectly transferred into the target culture.

That is, the subtitlers are seen to have economically made use of the minimum available

(con)textual clues. The term indirect translation has been used by scholars such as

Vinay and Darbelnet (in Venuti 2000), as a macro concept, to refer to a set of procedures which tend to be in line with free translation as opposed to a literal translation. While this concept of indirectness is to some extent maintained in the current thesis, it also refers to making use of the available (con)textual clues. The procedure has been applied through two techniques of 1) Co-Text and 2) Functional Translation.

4.3.6(a) Co-Text

Co-text refers to the information which can be derived from the surrounding text.

Through the application of the Co-Text technique, the ST CE is avoided and replaced by another textual item, mainly a pronoun, by which the audience is enabled to draw the meaning of the element from the surrounding linguistic, visual, etc. text and contextual clues.

The first example of the application of Co-Text comes from the film Taste of

Cherry (Abbas Kiarostami, 1997). Mr. Badi’i [Homayoun Ershadi], is a man driving his car who is searching for someone to bury him under a cherry tree after he commits

222 suicide. In one scene from the film, Mr. Badi’i is shown to be asking a passenger who is an Afghan Clergyman why people in Afghanistan consider Mazar-e Sharif, a city in

Afghanistan, a holy place. The Afghan clergyman replies that it is because Imam Ali’s tomb is in that city. Being surprised as Imam Ali’s tomb is in Najaf and not in Mazar-e

Sharif, Mr. Badi’i asks him if Imam Ali’s tomb is in Najaf. The Afghan clergyman replies that this is because some people believe that Imam Ali is buried in Mazar-e

Sharif.

Example 105. Indirect Translation: Co-Text. چرا در نجف هست. ولی بعضی ها اعتقاد دارند که قبر حضرت علی در مزار شریف هم PERSIAN هست SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /yes/ /in/ /Najaf/ /is it/. /but/ /some/ /believe they/ /that/ /the tomb of/ /Hazrat Ali/ /in/ /Mazar-e Sharif/ /also/ /is it/. ENGLISH SUBTITLE Yes, but some people think it’s in Mazar-e Sharif

Since Hazrate Ali’s tomb is mentioned in a previous dialogue between the two characters in the same scene, the ST CE is replaced by the pronoun it. This is to say that, the use of this pronoun is based on the co-text of the scene by which the viewers can understand the pronoun as referring to Imam Ali’s tomb.

The second example is taken from the film Under the Moonlight (Reza

Mirkarimi, 2001), when Hassan [Hossein Pour Sattar] and his friend, two students of

Islamic school, are shown to be trying to make fun of a new student by recommending him to read a very long prayer for three (3) times aloud. The new student takes their recommendation and leaves the place to start the praying. Hassan feels bad about his

223 friend’s joke, but his friend answered that since it is the new student’s first day at

Hawza70 (Islamic School), he must go through some hardship of praying.

Example 106. Indirect Translation: Co-Text. بابا سر کار چیه؟ شب اول آمده حوزه باید عبادت کنه تا صبح دیگه! PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /what/ /pulling leg is/ /?/. /night of/ /first/ /he has come/ /Hawza/ /must/ /pray he/ /until/ /morning/ /la/! ENGLISH SUBTITLE What do you mean? It’s his first night here. He must pray.

As can be seen in the example above, Hawza has been replaced with an adverb of place:

‘here.’ This is likely due to the co-text of the scene which clearly signifies the meaning of ‘here’ as an indication of Hawza for the audience of the film. In other words, since the visual context of the scene shows them to be in Hawza, ‘here’ clearly refers to the place they are staying at the moment of speaking.

4.3.6(b) Function-based Translation

Function-based Translation in the current study refers to a technique through which the

ST CE is minimally transferred to the TT by reducing the cultural load of the CE in such a way that it would be better understood by the audience. The replaced element, even though does not share the exact function of the ST CE, shares the minimal function of the original meaning.

The example is taken from the film Under the Moonlight (Reza Mirkarimi,

2001). The scene is about the graduation ceremony of some clergymen in an Islamic school in Iran. In the scene, it is shown that while the headmaster is granting the

70 See footnote 26 224 clergymen their certificate of graduation, he wishes them success in the path of

.(InshaAllah) انشاهللا preaching Islam by using the expression

Example 107. Indirect Translation: Function-based Translation. انشاهللا موفق باشی برای اسالم به امید خدا PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /InshaAllah/ /success/ /for/ /Islam/ /with hope/ /to God/

ENGLISH SUBTITLE Wish you success in the path of Islam and the Moslems

LT as if Allah wills, is used when someone intends to express his/her wishes for a future event to happen if God wills. It is defined as “with the will of Allah” (Al-islam.org

2016). It is approximately the nearest Arabic term to “God willing” or “if God wills” in

English. As mentioned earlier in Example 70, the application of the term has roots in the

Quranic belief that Muslims are recommended to use the term as people do not know what might occur in future. The application of this element lacks in the western culture.

As mentioned, the expression is used when someone expects to express his/her wishes for a future event to happen. Thus, as can be seen in the example, by translating the

InshaAllah) as Wish you, the subtitler has minimally transferred) انشاهللا praying phrase the ST CE to its minimal function that is shared by the Target audience which has accordingly resulted in the domestication of the ST CE and a better understanding of the

CE by the audience.

The second example comes from the film About Elly (Asghar Farhadi 2009), the story of some friends who have gone on a trip to the north of Iran. During the trip, one of the friends, Elly [Taraneh Alidousti] is lost, and her accompanying friends think that she is drowned in the sea. In one of the scenes, one of the friends, Peyman [Peyman Moadi],

225 is shown to be running anxiously to ask for help. While running to bring help, he is

.(Ya Ali) یا علی shown to say

Example 108. Indirect Translation: Function-based Translation. یا علی PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /Oh/ /Ali/

ENGLISH Damn! SUBTITLE

Ya Ali) is a religious expression that is used by many Iranians for appealing for) یا علی help when they are entangled in a predicament and to show that they are in a stressful situation. As can be seen in the example, this culturally loaded expression is functionally translated to Damn! As it is mentioned, Ya Ali is used here to show that they are in a stressful situation while appealing to Ali, the fourth Rashidun Caliph71 in Islam. The opted technique has resulted in a translation by which the Islamic Iranian cultural load of the expression has been lost while the function of the expression which conveys the stressful situation has remained.

4.3.7 Elimination

Elimination is the last procedure in the proposed taxonomy of translation strategies in the current study. As the name suggests, the ST CE is removed through this procedure.

The elimination of the Persian CE has been observed to be carried out through two techniques of a) Omission and b) Semantic Manipulation. These two procedures are exemplified and elaborated in detail in the following.

71 Refers to the first four religious successor of the Prophet of Islam who are Abu Bakr, the first successor of Prophet Mohammad, Umar the second Caliph, Uthman the third Caliph and Ali the fourth Caliph. 226

4.3.7(a) Omission

Omission is the first technique in Elimination procedure. What happens through this procedure is the total removal of the Persian CE. Moreover, Omission indicates that nothing is replaced by the ST CE. In other words, there is a total loss of meaning (of the word or phrase) in Omission. Omission has been one of the most frequently applied techniques in the corpus of the study.

The example is taken from the film A Separation (Asghar Farhadi, 2011). Razieh

[Sareh Bayat], the maid who is employed to take care of an elderly father of a family, is accused by Nader [Peyman Moadi], the owner of the house, of stealing and taking money from one of the rooms. In the scene from the film, Razieh is shown to be trying to prove that she has not stolen any money from the room by swearing to Imam Hossein.

Example 109. Elimination: Omission. به امام حسین اگه من رفته باشم از توی کشوی شما پوا ور داشته باشم PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /swear to/ /Emam Hossein/ /if/ /I/ /had gone/ /from/ /drawer/ /your/ /money/ /had taken ENGLISH SUBTITLE I swear I didn't take any money

emam hosein/ (626 AD – 680 AD) is the third Imam of/ امام حسین The religious figure

Shia Muslims. He is the son of Ali (the first Imam) and Fatimah Zahra (daughter of

Prophet Mohammad). Many Muslim Iranians swear to his name when they want to prove that they are telling the truth or in the same situations. As can be realized in the example given, the subtitler has omitted the name of the Persian CE in the English subtitle and is not replaced by any other element.

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The second example is taken from the film A Cube of Sugar (Reza Mirkarimi,

2011). The scene is about the sons-in-law of a family who are talking about a hidden treasure that they believe is buried somewhere in the house. One of the sons-in-law is a clergyman. In the scene, it is shown that one of the sons-in-law sarcastically teasing the clergyman by saying that even if they found the treasure, they must see if it is

.or Halal or Haram حالل / حرام Islamically

Example 110. Elimination: Omission. البته اینم بگم. تازه اگه گنج و پیدا کردی باید ببینی حکمش چی چیه. خمس و زکاتش. حالل PERSIAN و حرومش SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /but/ /this too/ /I tell/. /even/ /if/ /treasure/ /you found/ /must/ /you see/ /……/ /what is/. /Khoms/ /and/ /its Zakat/. /Halal/ /and/ /its Haram/ ENGLISH SUBTITLE Even if we find the treasure we have to see what the share of the mosque is.

refer to any foods, objects or actions which are permissible or حالل / حرام Halal / Haram not permissible to use or eat respectively based on the Islamic law. The term covers not only food and drink but also all matters of daily life. As can be seen in the example,

Halal / Haram are omitted in the English subtitle. Moreover, the terms have not been replaced, and any traces of the ST CEs are omitted.

4.3.7(b) Semantic Manipulation

Semantic Manipulation is the other technique of the Elimination procedure. Through this technique, the ST CE will be manipulated in the English subtitle. However, dissimilar to

Omission, through which the ST CE is totally omitted, the ST CE is removed and semantically manipulated in the subtitle through the technique of Semantic

Manipulation. The manipulation that is carried out through this technique is not necessarily ideologically loaded which is the reason for which the technique is called the

Semantic Manipulation in the current study. In other words, this technique results in the 228 manipulation of the Persian CE on the semantic level and the replacement of it with a different message. Hence, what happens is the loss of the original message and the insertion of a new message which is not in the original soundtrack. The examples are given below.

The first example is taken from the film Sheida (Kamal Tabrizi, 1999). In a scene from the film, Farhad [Parsa Pirouzfar] and Reza [Mohammad Reza Sharifinia], two friends who have found each other after many years, are shown to be talking about their memories during their military service as soldiers in the frontline of the war between Iran and Iraq. In the scene, they are shown to be in a café and looking at a photo

jashn-e/ جشن پتو taken with other soldiers and talking about a friend for whom they hold patoo/, a ceremony, for finishing his service.

Example 111. Elimination: Semantic Manipulation. آره یادمه واسش جشن پتو گرفتیم بعدم گرفتیم سرشو از ته تراشیدیم PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /yeah/ /I remember/ /for him/ /Blanket Ceremony/ /we held/ /then/ /get/ /his head/ /from/ /bottom/ /we shaved/. ENGLISH SUBTITLE I remember! We borrowed a blanket from him and then shaved his head!

jashn-e patoo/ literary translated as Ceremony/ جشن پتو In Persian, the ceremony is called of Blanket. It is a kind of ceremony, held by the fellow soldiers on the last night of the military service, in which the soldier is forcefully covered in a blanket and is bitten by other soldiers for fun. As can be seen in the example, while the ST CE says that they have held a Blanket Ceremony, the subtitle is semantically manipulated in a way that the message has been changed into as the soldiers have borrowed a blanket from him. As can be seen, the subtitler has not translated the actual meaning ST CE and, hence, the translation provided has totally changed the message.

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In another example from the film Fireworks Wednesday (Asghar Farhadi, 2006), the son of a family is shown to be waiting at school to be picked by his parents. In the scene from the film, the principal of the school is shown to be complaining about this situation and objecting the boy’s family to be irresponsible as this had happened frequently before. The principal is shown to be criticizing and saying that one day the

خاله aunt on the father side) comes to pick him up while on the other day his) عمه boy’s

(aunt on the mother side) comes.

Example 112. Elimination: Semantic Manipulation. یه روز عمش میاد دنبالش یه روز خالش میاد دنبالش PERSIAN SOUNDTRACK GLOSS /one/ /day/ /his aunt (father side)/ /comes/ /to pick him/ /one/ /day/ /his aunt (mother side)/ /comes/ /to pick him/. ENGLISH SUBTITLE One day it’s his aunt or his cousin…

In Persian language and culture, there is a focus on the relationships in the family. So, there are different words used to refer to your aunties or uncles on the mother or father side. However, this is not the case with English as the words ‘aunt’ and ‘uncle’ are used to refer to the both mother and father side relationships. As can be seen in the example,

.aunt on the mother side) has been semantically manipulated and subtitled as cousin) خاله

This is due to the fact that, as mentioned, English does not make a distinction between aunts on the mother or father sides. In other words, if the subtitler had translated both family relations as ‘aunt,’ it would have confused the audience as the word ‘aunt’ which conveys the same meaning in English would be repeated twice.

4.4 Summary

This chapter first discusses the positions of Iranian films in the international and global film polysystem through an analysis of the Iranian cinema from three perspectives,

230 namely, the total number of feature films, the language of the films, and their total box office. Subsequently, an examination of the classification of Cultural Elements (CEs) in the official subtitles of the Iranian films is presented. The broad classes, as well as the categories and sub-categories of the CEs, are presented and elaborated in detail. The identified classes of the CEs are: (1) Geographical and Historical References, (2)

Personal Names and Epithets, (3) Daily Life References, (4) Literary, Artistic and

Educational References, (5) Kinship References, (6) Social and Religious References, and (7) Institutional and Professional References. Subsequently, the procedures employed by the Iranian subtitlers are provided and discussed from the most foreignized to the most domesticated approaches. Lastly, the procedures are discussed. The identified procedures are (1) Retention, (2) Direct Translation, (3) Cultural Substitution,

(4) Semantic Substitution, (5) Restatement, (6) Indirect Translation, and (7) Elimination.

Each of the procedures are further divided and applied through two techniques, that are

(a) Isolated and (b) Explicated for the procedure of Retention, (a) Calque and (b) Literal for Direct Translation, (a) Source Culture (SC) Substitution and (b) Target Culture (TC)

Substitution for the procedure of Cultural Substitution, (a) Hypernym and (b) Hyponym for Semantic Substitution, (a) Rewording and (b) Description for Restatement procedure, (a) Co-Text and (b) Function-based Translation for the procedure of Indirect

Translation, and (a) Omission and (b) Semantic Manipulation for the procedure of

Elimination.

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CHAPTER 5

INTERNATIONAL AUDIENCE PREFERENCES

5. Introduction

This chapter presents an analysis of the data obtained from the administration of the questionnaire. As discussed in Chapter 3, questionnaire was used as the tool for collecting responses on the preferences of the international audience of Iranian films towards the subtitling of CEs in the films. The findings presented in this chapter provide answer to the research question two (2) of the current study that seeks “to determine the preference of the audience towards the Foreignizing and

Domesticating strategies in English official subtitling of Persian CEs in Iranian films” (refer to Chapter 1, page 16).

The questionnaire is composed of three sections. The first section includes the cover page in which the purpose of the research, the consent issues and instruction are explained. The second section consists of the demographic data. This section asks about the demographic characteristics of the respondents and accordingly makes it possible to control the unacceptable responses (see Appendix

3). The third section of the questionnaire, the main section, includes the subtitles.

This part determines the preferences of the respondents towards the subtitling of CEs in Iranian films. The analysis of the preference of the audience towards the Persian

CEs is presented in the following.

5.1 Analysis of the Audience Preference

The main section of the questionnaire consists of the CEs and their Persian soundtrack, as well as the English subtitles. The respondents are required to answer

232

the questions pertaining to ten CEs. The presented CEs in the questionnaire are: 1)

Iran’s Solar (3 ,حاج آقا The honorific title: Hajagha (2 ,تومان Iran’s Currency: Toman

(5 ,حالل / حرام Islamic Sharia: Halal/ Haram (4 ,تاریخ هجری شمسی Hijri Calendar

,Religious Phrases (6 ,انشاهللا Religious Phrases, Blessing, and Prayers: Inshallah

(8 ,قرمه سبزی Food: Ghorme Sabzi (7 ,الحمدهلل Blessing, and Prayers: Alhamdolellah

,آخوند Jobs: Akhoond (9 ,پلیس Institutions: The Emergency Police Number 110 110

The respondents are also able to listen .حوزه علمیه and 10) Institutions: Hawza Ilmiyya to the pronunciations of the CEs through a link to Forvo.com. The pronunciations are created and uploaded by the researcher himself. Each CE was contextualized by two shots from two different films.

The CEs are first described and clarified briefly. Next, the respondents are asked if they had been familiar with the CEs before reading the given description.

The question is called The Question of Awareness (QOA) in the current study for which the respondents are required to provide answer by checking the Yes or No boxes provided in the questionnaire. Subsequently, the CE is given in the first shot of the film. The Context of the film is first described. Following, the respondents are required to check the subtitle that they prefer the most. The instruction states: Please check the subtitle that you prefer the most. The shots of relevant scenes in the films are provided, but the official subtitles are covered intentionally by the researcher so that the respondents are not influenced by the subtitles. The Persian soundtracks and the gloss translations are also provided for each of the film shots. Next, the English subtitles are provided in which the CEs were translated differently. The translations of the CEs are derived from the corpus of the study. In other words, the translations are not done by the researcher but by the official subtitlers of Iranian films. The respondents are required to choose their preferred options among the options

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provided for each shot. The same process is repeated for each CE. In other words, each CE is contextualized twice in two different films on one page, and the respondents are required to choose their preferred translation twice for each of the ten CEs asked. The analysis of the statistical result is presented in more details in the following.

تومان Iran’s Currency: Toman 5.1.1

is the super-unit of the official currency of Iran, the Rial. Each تومان The CE Toman

Toman is 10 Rials. In comparison to U.S dollar, each one dollar equalled about 3000 tomans at the time of publishing and distributing the questionnaire. a) The Question of Awareness (QOA)

The following question about Toman was first asked: Were you familiar with

Iranian currency before you read the above description? The following results are revealed based on the quantitative analysis of the data.

Table 5.1. The Analysis of the QOA, Toman.

As can be seen in the table, from the total number of 223 respondents who filled the questionnaire, 8 respondents (3.6%) missed answering this item. The number of missing responses is naturally increased from this item onward because a few respondents did not proceed beyond the demographic part of the questionnaire and,

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as a natural drawback of survey studies, they withdrew from completing the questionnaire1. While 75.3% of the respondents (162 respondents) selected the No option, 24.7% of them (53 respondents) selected the Yes answer. This indicates that the level of familiarity of the respondents to the currency of Iran, Toman, is low. b) English Subtitle 1 (Toman)2

The first film shot is chosen from Fireworks Wednesdays (Asghar Farhadi, 2006).

The context explains:

CONTEXT: In Fireworks Wednesday (2006), two students are caught by the school’s teachers for carrying explosives to the firework ceremony. The teacher asks them to tell how much they have paid for the explosives. While crying, the boys answer that they bought them for 400 tomans.

The shot is given, and the Persian soundtrack, the Gloss translation, as well as the potential subtitles are provided under the film shot.

1 Henceforth, since, as mentioned, many respondents failed to or decided not to proceed to through the questionnaire, only the valid percentage of the responses given will be descriptively analysed. However, if one require the analysis of the whole responses, including those withdraw from the questionnaire, he/she may refer to the related table as the missing responses will be included.

2 In this first example, the researcher will attempt to show exactly what were the procedures and steps, as well as the data, including both texts and pictures, which were included in the questionnaire. Therefore, print screens from the online questionnaire will be provided. However, for the rest of the analysis, only the statistical analysis of the responses will be described and one may refer to the Appendix to have a full access and view of the questionnaire. 235

Picture 5.1. Cultural element Toman and the potential subtitles.

Toman, as one of the CEs found in the corpus, is translated differently in different official subtitles of Iranian films. Based on the corpus of the study, it is found that this CE is translated as 1) Toman, 2) converted to Cents or Dollar, 3) Omitted, and 4) rephrased. The procedures that are used vary from domesticated ones (e.g. cents) to foreignized ones (e.g. Toman). As can be seen in Picture 6.1, the subtitles that are provided in the questionnaire represent the same translations. The respondents are required to select their preferred option among these options.

The analysis of the respondents’ preferences can be observed as below:

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Table 5.2. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Toman, (Fireworks Wednesday, Asghar Farhadi, 2006).

Discounting the missing data (2 respondents, 0.9% of the total), 72.4% (160 respondents) of the respondents selected the retention of Toman as their preferred subtitle. This was followed by the cultural substitution of Cent with the Iranian currency with 13.1% or 29 respondents. Rewording of Toman (not that expensive) and Omission are the last two preferred strategies with the percentages of 9.0% (20 respondents) and 5.4% (12 respondents) respectively. c) English Subtitle 2 (Toman)

As mentioned (see 3.2.3.2), to assure the reliability and validity of the questionnaire, the CEs in the questionnaire are contextualized twice in the questionnaire. The second shot for the examination of the non-Iranian audience towards the first cultural element, Toman, is selected from A Separation (Asghar Farhadi, 2011), the Academy

Award winner for the best foreign language film (For the shot, and the subtitles, see

Appendix 3). The context that is provided in the questionnaire explains the scene:

CONTEXT: In A Separation (2011), Hojjat who seeks to serve Nader in his house, is trying to persuade Nader to increase the pay to 400.000 tomans per a month. But Nader can’t afford to pay the amount and refused to agree with the request.

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Table 5.3 shows the statistical descriptive analysis of the preference of the respondents towards the translation of Toman in the second scene.

Table 5.3. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Toman, (A Separation, Asghar Farhadi, 2011).

From the total number of 221 valid responses, 59.7% of the population (132 respondents) selected the retention of Toman as their most preferred strategy. This is followed by the rewording procedure with the percentages of 21.3% of the population (47 respondents). The last preferred procedures are converting Toman to the U.S dollar and the omission of Toman with the percentage of 9.5% of the population which equals to only 21 respondents.

حاج آقا The Honorific Title: Hajagha 5.1.2

haaj aaghaa/ is an honorific title that is given to a Muslim man who/ حاج آقا The title has made a pilgrimage to Mecca. In Iranian culture, it is also used to show respect to elderly people. It is also used to refer to Iranian Muslim Clergymen, as well as religious people. This title is found to be translated differently in the official subtitles of Iranian films analysed as the corpus of the study. The found translation are: 1) your honour, 2) Sir, 3) Haji, 4) Hajagha, and 5) Omitted.

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a) QOA

The question that is asked in the questionnaire to examine the extent to which the respondents are familiar with this CE is: Were you familiar with this cultural word before you read the above description? Table 5.4 shows the population’s familiarity with this honorific title.

Table 5.4. The Analysis of the QOA, Hajagha.

4% of the total 223 respondents did not provide answer to this question and, therefore, are excluded from the analysis. As can be noticed, the level of non- awareness of the respondents to this honorific title is 77.6% (166 respondents), i.e.

haaj aaghaa/. 22.4% of/ حاج آقا of the population are not familiar with the title 77.6% the audience selected the Yes option, which means that they are familiar with this

CE. Hence, the data shows a low level of familiarity of the respondents with the

/haaj aaghaa/ حاج آقا title b) English Subtitle 1 (Hajagha)

haaj aaghaa/ (hajagha) is/ حاج آقا The first scene that is used to contextualise the title taken from the film A Separation (Asghar Farhadi, 2011). The context that is provided in the questionnaire is provided in the following.

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CONTEXT: In A Separation (2011), a couple is sitting in court appealing for divorce. .حاج آقا The couple in the film continuously address the judge as Hajagha This is because judges in Iran are usually considered religious people. Simin, the wife, wants to go abroad for a better life but Nader, her husband, refused to follow her. Simin asks for the reasons.

Table 5.5 demonstrates the preference of the respondents towards the provided options.

Table 5.5. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Hajagha, (A Separation, Asghar Farhadi, 2011).

Considering the valid responses, 54.2% (116 respondents) of the population selected your honour as their preferred option. This is followed by Haj Agha and Haji with the percentages of 30.8% (66 respondents) and 11.2% (24 respondents) of the population respectively. The last preferred procedure is the omission of the CE with only 3.7% of the population (8 respondents). c) English Subtitle 2 (Hajagha)

The second contextualization of the Hajagha is given in a shot from The Song of

Sparrows (Majid Majidi, 2008).

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CONTEXT: In the below scene from The Song of Sparrows (2008), two men are riding on a motorbike. The man at the back or the pillion passenger, who is a hypocrite, is talking on the mobile phone and addresses the person he is haj agha) to show that the man is a) حاج آقا talking to on the line by the title religious person and by doing so he uses that title to ask the man to do him some favours.

The preferred options are shown in Table 5.6.

Table 5.6. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Hajagha, (The Song of Sparrows, Majid Majidi, 2008).

The statistical analysis of the data shows that from the total number of 214 acceptable responses, Haj Agha and Sir are the most preferred subtitles with 37.4%

(80 respondents) and 36.4% (78 respondents) of the population respectively.

Following is the translation of the CE to Haji with the 23.4% of the population (50 respondents). The last preferred procedure is the omitting of the CE with only 2.8% of the population (6 respondents).

5.1.3 The Solar Hijri Calendar

The Solar Hijri calendar is the official calendar of Iran. The first day of the year is the first day of spring. The Hejira (the migration of Prophet Mohammad from Mecca to Madina) specifies the origin of the calendar. The months are still used with the ancient Persian names. We are now in the year 1396 Hijri. Three procedures are

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observed for the translation of Iranian Solar Hijri calendar in the corpus of the study:

1) retention of Iran’s calendar, 2) converting it to Christian calendar, and 3) the omission of the date and rewording it with a related message. The statistical descriptive analysis of the responses is given in the following. a) QOA

The following question is asked in the questionnaire to understand the extent to which the respondents are familiar with this CE before they read the explanation provided in the questionnaire: Were you familiar with Iranian calendar before you read the above description? The respondents are required to answer this question with a Yes or No. The table below explains their responses further.

Table 5.7. The Analysis of the QOA, Solar Hijri Calendar.

As the Table 5.7 shows, 209 respondents answered this item (6.3% of the total 223 respondents withdrew from answering this item). In regard to the valid population,

73.7% of the subjects were not familiar with the Solar Hijri calendar of Iran (154 respondents). The percentage of those familiar with Iranian calendar was 26.3% of the population (55 respondents). b) English Subtitle 1 (Solar Hijri Calendar)

First, the Iranian Solar Hijri calendar was contextualized in a scene from Sensitive

Floor (Kamal Tabrizi, 2013). The following context is given to describe the scene.

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CONTEXT: In Sensitive Floor (2013), Mr. Kamali, whose wife has recently passed away, is talking to the person who is writing the information on the tombstone. Since Mr. Kamali is a very religious man, he thinks that writing his wife's first name on the tombstone would be a disgrace for him. He asks the person to just write the birth and death dates on the stone.

Table 5.8 shows the responses of the audience to the translation of Solar Hijri calendar.

Table 5.8. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Solar Hijri Calendar, (Sensitive Floor, Kamal Tabrizi, 2013)

5.4% of the total 223 respondents did not provide answer to this item. Considering the valid responses, 49.3% of the population (104 respondents) preferred the conversion of the Iranian Solar Hijri calendar with the more familiar Christian calendar. This is followed by 32.2% of the population (68 respondents) who preferred the omission of the date. The last preferred procedure is the retention of the

Iranian calendar with 18.5% of the population (39 respondents). c) English Subtitle 2 (Solar Hijri Calendar)

Iranian Solar Hijri Calendar, similar to the other CEs in the questionnaire, is contextualized twice to reduce the influence of unpredictable and interfering factors.

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The second scene is selected from the film Taste of Cherry (Abbas Kiarostami,

1997). The context of the scene is as follows.

CONTEXT: In Taste of Cherry (1997), Mr. Badii intends to kill himself and is looking for someone to bury him under a cherry tree. He picks up an elderly man. The old man is telling him a memory of when he also wanted to commit suicide when he was young and near the city of Mianeh and how a small mulberry tree changed his decision.

Table 5.9 shows the result of the statistical descriptive analysis of the gathered responses from the population of the study.

Table 5.9. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Solar Hijri Calendar, (Taste of Cherry, Abbas Kiarostami, 1997).

The valid number of responses is 211 for this item (5.4% of the respondents did not answer this item). From this valid data, 55.0% of the population (116 respondents) selected the conversion of Iranian calendar to the Christian calendar. 27.0% of the subjects (57 respondents) selected the omission and rewording of the cultural element, and 18.0% of the population (38 respondents) preferred the retention of the

Solar Hijri calendar of Iran in the subtitle.

حالل / حرام Islamic Sharia: Halal / Haram 5.1.4

are the Islamic terms referred to food, an object or action حالل / حرام Halal / Haram which is permissible or not permissible to eat, use or do according to Islamic law.

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The analysis of the English official subtitles of the corpus of the study shows that the subtitlers use three procedures in the translation of these Islamic terms: 1) to retain them, 2) to reword them in some ways to keep the meaning, and 3) to omit the terms.

In the following, the respondents’ level of awareness and familiarity to the CE is provided. a) QOA

To examine the respondents’ level of familiarity, the following question is asked in the questionnaire: Were you familiar with these Islamic terms before you read the above description? The analysis of the responses to this question can be seen in the table below.

Table 5.10. The Analysis of the QOA, Halal / Haram.

Discounting the missed answers, 6.3% of the population (14 respondents), it can be seen that there is relatively a high level of awareness to this Islamic cultural term among the audience. That is relatively a high percentage of 61.2% of the population

(128 respondents) stated that they are familiar with these Islamic terms. This shows that only 38.8% of the population (81 respondents) are not familiar with the terms.

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(حالل / حرام b) English Subtitle 1 (Islamic Sharia: Halal / Haram

The CEs are contextualised first in a scene from the film A cube of Sugar (Reza

Mirkarimi, 2011). The context of the scene is described to the respondents as the following.

CONTEXT: In A Cube of Sugar (2011), the sons-in-law of the family are talking about finding a treasure that they believe is buried somewhere in the house. One of them sarcastically says that even if they found the treasure, they must see if it is Islamically Halal or not. He sarcastically mentions this since he is against clergymen and one of them is a clergyman.

Table 5.11 shows the respondents’ preferences towards the subtitling of the CEs

Halal and Haram in the first scene.

Table 5.11. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Halal / Haram (A Cube of Sugar, Reza Mirkarimi, 2011).

From the total number of 223 respondents, 6.3% (14 respondents) did not answer this item. From the valid population, 45.5% (95 respondents) selected the retention of

Halal / Haram as their preferred subtitle. This is followed by the rewording of these

Islamic terms. 26.3% of the respondents (55 respondents) preferred the CEs to be reworded as sin or not. 23.4% of them (49 respondents) preferred these Islamic terms

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to be subtitled as religiously legit or not, and only 4.8% of the population (10 respondents) selected the omission of the terms as their preferred subtitle.

(حالل / حرام c) English Subtitle 2 (Islamic Sharia: Halal / Haram

The second scene that was used for examining the preferences of the non-Iranian audience towards the subtitling of Halal and Haram was taken from A Separation

(Asghar Farhadi, 2011). The context of the scene is presented to the respondents as the following.

CONTEXT: In A Separation (2011), Marzieh, whose baby has been aborted, finds out that her baby died because of her own mistake and not because of the fight she had with Nader, the owner of the house. So, she thinks that the blood money that she wants to take from Nader is not Islamically clean and is Haram. In this scene, she is explaining it to Nader’s wife and says that the money is Haram and unclean.

After reading the context, the respondents are required to select their preferred subtitles. Table 5.12 shows the preference of the audience as the following.

Table 5.12. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Halal / Haram, (A Separation, Asghar Farhadi, 2011).

The number of the respondents who did not provide answer to this item is 6.3% of the total number of 223 respondents (14 respondents). From the valid number of 209 respondents to this item, 51.2% of the population (107 respondents) selected for the rewording of Haram to a sin. This is followed by 39.7% of the population (83

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respondents) who preferred the retention of Haram in the subtitle. 9.1% of the population (19 respondents) had also decided not legit as their preferred subtitle for translating Haram into English.

انشاهللا Religious Phrases, Blessings, and Prayers: InshaAllah 5.1.5

InshaAllah/ is originally an Arabic expression for ‘God Willing’ or/ انشاهللا The phrase

‘if Allah wills.’ The term is widely used in the Islamic world. The use of the term is very common among many Iranians when they are speaking about plans and events expected to occur in the future. The phrase acknowledges submission to God, with the speaker putting himself or herself into God’s hands. The analysis of the corpus revealed that this CE is translated in four different ways: 1) God willing, 2) (I) hope,

3) InshaAllah, and 4) omitted. The analysis of the awareness, as well as the preferences of the respondents are given in the following. a) QOA

To examine the awareness level of the respondents towards this religious phrase, the following question is first asked: Were you familiar with this phrase before you read the above description? The responses are presented below.

Table 5.13. The Analysis of the QOA, InshaAllah.

203 respondents from the total number of 223 respondents answered this question.

The analysis of their responses shows that this Islamic phrase is rather a familiar

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concept as the large percentage of 66.5% of the population (135 respondents) had selected the Yes option while 33.5% (68 respondents) of the population selected the

No option for this item. Accordingly, it can be said that the level of the respondents’ awareness to InshaAllah is rather high.

انشاهللا b) English Subtitle 1: InshaAllah

The first film shot to be used in the questionnaire to contextualize this CE is taken from the film Facing Mirrors (Negar Azarbayjani, 2011). The context of the scene that is provided for the respondents is as follows.

CONTEXT: Facing Mirrors (2011), is the story of Rana, a traditional wife, and Edi, a transsexual boy who faces a lot of problems. She is forced to drive a cab to pay off the debts that keep her husband in prison. In this scene, Rana is talking to her mother and complaining about her situation. The mother is consoling her and tells her not to worry, and the things will become better.

After reading the context of the scene, the respondents choose their preferred subtitle. The statistical analysis of their responses is provided in the table below.

Table 5.14. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of InshaAllah, (Facing Mirrors, Negar Azarbayjani, 2011).

From the valid number of 207 responses, God willing is selected as the most preferred subtitle for InshaAllah. This subtitle attracted more than half of the responses, 58.5% (121 respondents). This is followed by the retention of InshaAllah 249

with 35.3% of the responses (73 respondents). The next two preferred procedures are

(I) hope and the Omission of InshaAllah with the percentages of 5.3% (11 respondents) and 1.0% (2 respondents) respectively.

انشاهللا c) English Subtitle 2: InshaAllah

The CE InshaAllah is further contextualized in a second shot from the film The Snow on the Pines (Peyman Mo’adi, 2012). The context of the scene is described to the respondents as the following.

CONTEXT: In The Snow On The Pines (2012), a piano teacher who faces a major event in her personal life and some secrets of her husband's life become revealed. In this scene, she is talking to one of her neighbors. Since her husband is away, the neighbor is hoping that he will be back soon.

Table 5.15 shows the statistical analysis of the preferences of the respondents towards the subtitling of InshaAllah in this scene.

Table 5.15. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of InshaAllah, (The Snow on the Pines, Peyman Mo’adi, 2012).

At this point, the withdrawal rate of the respondents reached 9.0% of the population

(20 respondents). The analysis of the valid responses shows that 54.2% (110 respondents) and 36.0% of the respondents (73 respondents) selected God willing and InshaAllah as their most preferred subtitles respectively. This is followed by

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9.9% of the respondents (20 respondents) who preferred I hope. None of the respondents selected the omission of the CE as their preferred procedure.

الحمدهلل Religious Phrases, Blessings, and Prayers: Alhamdulillah 5.1.6

is originally an Arabic expression meaning ‘All الحمدهلل The phrase Alhamdulillah praise be to God’ or ‘Thank God.’ It is frequently used by Muslims and Iranians, due to it being central to the text of the Quran. The use of the term is very common among many Iranians, and it might better be understood as meaning ‘thankfully,’

‘thank goodness,’ or ‘thank God’ as used in English. This religious phrase is found to be translated differently by different subtitlers in the corpus of the study. The translations are: 1) literally translated as thank God, 2) retained as Alhamdulillah, 3) reworded as that’s good, or 4) omitted. a) QOA

Similar to the other CEs in the questionnaire, the respondents are first asked whether

The question that is .الحمدهلل they are already familiar with the phrase Alhamdulillah asked is: Were you familiar with this phrase before you read the above description?

The responses of the audience are as follows.

Table 5.16. The Analysis of the QOA, Alhamdulillah.

Discounting 11.2% of the population (25 respondents) who did not answer this question, 41.9% of the population (83 respondents) stated that they were familiar

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with this phrase before taking part in this survey. The Table 5.16 also shows that

58.1% of the respondents (115 respondents) were not familiar with this cultural phrase.

الحمدهلل b) Film Shot 1: Alhamdulillah

The CE is first provided in a scene from the film Here without Me (Bahram

Tavakkoli, 2011). The following context is provided for the respondents to contextualise the scene in which this CE is used.

CONTEXT: In Here Without Me (2011), Yalda is a disabled girl who has a great interest in collecting glass animals and has a secret crush on Reza, her brother’s friend. In this scene, the family is sitting at the table having dinner. The mother is talking about her own marriage years before and says that girls must have some kind of skill if they want to marry. She asks Yalda if she likes her art classes and Yalda answers yes.

The table below shows the respondents’ preferred options for the subtitling of

. الحمدهلل Alhamdulillah

Table 5.17. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Alhamdulillah, (Here without Me, Bahram Tavakkoli, 2011).

As it is shown in Table 5.17, 9.9% of the population (22 respondents) did not answer this question. From the 201 remaining respondents, 75.1% (151 respondents) selected Thank God as their preferred subtitle of Alhamdulillah. 19.9% (40

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respondents) chose the retention of the word as Alhamdulillah in the subtitle of the film. Only 3.5% (7 respondents) and 1.5% (3 respondents) of the respondents preferred rewording of the phrase as That’s good and the omission of it respectively.

الحمدهلل c) Film Shot 2: Alhamdulillah

The second film shot is taken from the film Facing Mirrors (Negar Azarbayjani,

2011). The scene is about Rana’s (one of the main characters of the film) conversation with a friend’s of her and that she was telling that the problem is settled. The context describes the scene in more details.

CONTEXT: Facing Mirrors (2011), is the story of Rana, a traditional wife and mother, and Edi, a transsexual boy who faces a lot of problems. In this scene, Rana is at work and is talking to her friend. She is telling her friend that one of her problems is over and she is happy for that. Her friend also thanks God for this.

The preferences of the respondents can be seen in the following table.

Table 5.18. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Alhamdulillah, (Facing Mirrors, Negar Azarbayjani, 2011).

In regard to the valid population (excluding the 9.0% of the total 223 population),

72.4% of the subjects (147 respondents) opted for Thank God as their preferred subtitle, similar to the first film shot. This is followed by 24.6% of the respondents

(50 respondents) who selected the retention of Alhamdulillah as their preferred

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option. Only 3.0% of the population (6 respondents) preferred the rewording of

Alhamdulillah as That’s good. None of the respondents selected the omission of the

CE in this subtitle.

قرمه سبزی Food: Ghorme Sabzi 5.1.7

is an Iranian herb stew. It is a very popular dish in Iran قورمه سبزی Ghormeh Sabzi and is often said to be the Iranian national dish. Ghormeh means stewed, and Sabzi is the Persian word for herbs and green. The main ingredients consist of a variety of sautéed herbs, mainly spinach, parsley, spring onions, fresh coriander; seasoned with the key herb, and dried fenugreek leaves. This cultural element was 1) literally translated as green stew, 2) replaced with the superordinate term stew, 3) retained as

Ghorme Sabzi, or 4) replaced by the pronoun this. The percentage of the population’s awareness of this food is provided as follows. a) QOA

The question of awareness asked the audience whether they were familiar with this food: Were you familiar with this food before you read the above description? The analysis of the data is as follows.

Table 5.19. The Analysis of the QOA, Ghorme Sabzi.

From the total of 223 respondents, 199 respondents answered this question. That is

10.8% of them (24 respondents) did not provide an answer to this question. From the

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valid responses, the large proportion of 66.8% of the population (133 respondents) stated that they had not heard or known about this Iranian stew. As can be seen in the

Table 5.19, 33.2% of the respondents stated that they are familiar with Iranian food.

قرمه سبزی b) Film Shot 1: Ghorme Sabzi

First, the food is contextualised in a shot from the film Sensitive Floor (Kamal

Tabrizi, 2013). The context of the scene that is provided for the respondents is as follows.

CONTEXT: Sensitive Floor (2013), is the story of Mrs. Kamali’s death. Her husband, Mr. Kamali who is a very religious and patriarchal man, gets very depressed after his wife’s body was buried in a wrong grave. In this scene, Mr. Kamali, the husband, is complaining about the taste of the food, Ghorme sabzi, that his daughter has made.

Table 5.20 below demonstrates the preferences of the respondents towards the subtitling of the Iranian food in the first scene.

Table 5.20. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Gorme Sabzi, (Sensitive Floor, Kamal Tabrizi, 2013).

From the valid 203 respondents, more than half of the population (61.6% equals to

125 respondents) expressed their preference to the retention of the Iranian food as

Ghorma Sabzi in the subtitle. 16.3% of them (33 respondents) selected literal 255

translation of the CE as green stew as their preferred option. 15.3% (31 respondents) preferred stew, and only 6.9% of the population (14 respondents) selected the omission of the food as their preferred option.

قرمه سبزی c) Film Shot 2: Ghorme Sabzi

As a rule in the questionnaire, Ghorme Sabzi is also contextualized in a second scene from an Iranian film. The second scene is selected from Snow on the Pines (Peyman

Mo’adi, 2012). The context of the scene is as follows.

CONTEXT: Snow On The Pines (2012), is the story of a piano teacher who faces a major event in her personal life and some secrets of her husband's life become revealed. In this scene, the teacher’s friend wants to put the remaining of the food, Ghorme sabzi, in the fridge.

Ghorme Sabzi is provided in the four possible subtitles. The respondents selected their preferred option. The analysis of the data id shown in the Table 5.21 below.

Table 5.21. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Gorme Sabzi, (Snow on the Pines, Peyman Mo’adi, 2012).

As is described in the table, 21 respondents or 9.4% of the population did not answer this question. Considering the valid population of 202 respondents, 56.4% of the respondents preferred the retention of Ghorme Sabzi as their preferred option. 18.8%

(38 respondents) and 16.8% (34 respondents) of the population also selected the use

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of the superordinate term, stew, and the literal translation, green stew, as their preferred subtitles respectively. 7.9% (16 respondents) of the population also selected the use of this as their preferred subtitle.

پلیس Institutions: Emergency Number - Police 110; 110 5.1.8

The telephone number 110 is the number of one of the branches of the police force in

Iran. It is the number that is used for the local emergencies and a quick call to police.

Three procedures were utilised by the subtitlers in the corpus of the study to translate this institution and number in the official subtitles of Iranian films. The procedures were: 1) the replacement of the number with another cultural number 911 from the west, 2) the retention of the number as 110, and 3) the use of the superordinate term the police. a) QOA

The level of the respondents’ familiarity with this CE was asked using the following question: Were you familiar with this number before you read the above description?

The analysis of the data is given below.

Table 5.22. The Analysis of the QOA, Emergency Number: Police 110.

The total percentage of 9% of the population (20 respondents) did not answer this question. So, from the valid number of 203 respondents, the high percentage of

85.7% of the population (174 respondents) chose No as their preferred answer. This

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means that a large proportion of the population did not have any prior knowledge about this institution and the emergency number. 14.3% of the valid population (29 respondents), on the other hand, were familiar with this CE.

پلیس b) Film Shot 1: Emergency Number: Police 110; 110

This CE is contextualized in the first scene from the film A Separation (Asghar

Farhadi, 2011). The context of the scene is described to the respondents as the following.

CONTEXT: In A Separation (2011), Hojjat who is Marzieh’s husband and whose baby has been aborted, goes to the school and demanded to talk to the witness of the fight between his wife and Nader, the owner of the house. The principal of the school asks a teacher to call the police, 110, to come and take Hojjat away from the girl's school.

Table 5.23 shows the preference of the respondents towards the subtitling of the CE in the scene.

Table 5.23. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Police 110, (A Separation, Asghar Farhadi, 2011).

9.0% (20 respondents) failed to answer this item. Therefore, from the 203 valid responses, a notable percentage of 75.9% (154 respondents) selected the police as their preferred choice. 23.2% of the subjects (47 respondents) had selected the retention of the number as 110, while only 1.0% of them favoured the replacement of

110 with another cultural number 911.

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پلیس c) Film Shot 2: Police Number 110; 110

The police number 110 is also presented and asked in a second scene. The scene is taken from the film Facing Mirrors (Negar Azarbayjani, 2011). The context of the scene is provided as the following.

CONTEXT: Facing Mirrors (2011), is the story of Rana, a traditional wife and mother, and Edi, a transsexual girl who wants to change her sex and to become a boy. In this scene, after Rana and Edi became friends, Edi comes to Rana’s house. Rana’s mother doesn’t know about Edi and thinks that he is a thief and asks Rana to call 110.

The following table demonstrates the respondent’s preference towards the subtitling of the police number 110.

Table 5.24. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Police 110, (Facing Mirrors, Negar Azarbayjani, 2011).

As can be seen in the table above, 9.0% of the population (20 respondents) did not provide answer to this item. Considering the valid population, the large proportion of

78.8% of the population (160 respondents), favoured the translation of this element as the police. 21.2% of the population (43 respondents) preferred the retention of the element intact as 110 as their preferred choice. None of the subjects selected the substitution of 110 with another cultural element as 911.

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آخوند Careers and Professions: Akhound 5.1.9

is a Persian name to refer to an Iranian clergyman. Akhoonds are آخوند An Akhoond responsible for leading religious services in the community. They lead the prayers in mosques, deliver religious sermons and perform religious ceremonies. They also teach in Islamic schools known in Iran as Howzeh. Based on the analysis of the corpus of the study, this CE is translated in five different ways: 1) retained as

Akhoond, 2) substituted by another more general cultural element of Mullah, 3) retained and also provided with a more general cultural element as Akhoond

(Mullah), 4) replaced by another cultural element from the target culture as

Seminarist, and 5) subtitled as Clergyman. The level of respondents’ awareness and their preference are presented in the following. a) QOA

In order to examine the respondents’ level of familiarity, the following question is asked from them: Were you familiar with this word before you read the above description?

Table 5.25. The Analysis of the QOA, Akhoond.

The valid number of respondent at this stage of the questionnaire was 194 out of 223 total subjects. As can be seen in the above table, a high proportion of 87.6% of the population (170 respondents) stated that they are not familiar with the CE before

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reading the provided description. On the other hand, only a small portion of the population, that is 12.4% (24 respondents) had prior knowledge about this CE.

آخوند b) Film Shot 1: Akhoond

Akhoond is first contextualized in a scene from the film The Lizard (Kamal Tabrizi,

2004). The following context is provided for the respondents.

CONTEXT: In The Lizard (2004), Reza Marmoulak, a recently jailed thief disguises himself as a clergyman and succeeds in escaping. In this scene, he encounters a bully in the village. The bully ironically welcomes him and says hello.

The following table demonstrates the preferences of the respondents in detail.

Table 5.26. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Akhoond, (The Lizard, Kamal Tabrizi, 2004).

11.2% of the total population of 223 respondents did not answer this question. The most preferred subtitle is the translation of the CE as Clergyman with the 38.9% of the population (77 respondents). This is followed by the retention of Akhoond with the percentage of 22.7% (45 respondents). The third preferred subtitle is the substitution of Akhoond with a more general and familiar cultural element from the source language as Mullah with the percentage of 19.2% (38 respondents). Next

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preferred subtitle is the translation of the CE as Akhoond (Mullah) with 13.6% of the population (27 respondents). The last preferred option is the substitution of the CE with Seminarist with 5.6% of the total valid population.

آخوند c) Film Shot 2: Akhoond

The second film shot is selected from the film Under the Moonlight (Reza

Mirkarimi, 2001). The following context of the scene is provided for the respondents.

CONTEXT: In Under The Moonlight (2001), Hassan, a student at an Islamic school is about to be dressed as a clergyman. A young boy steals his formal clothes. Hassan goes after the boy, and he gets to know about the poverty of the people and the poor neighbourhood where the young boy lives. In this scene, the poor people are looking at one of them wearing the religious clothing, and they excitingly ask him if he has stolen them from a clergyman, or an Akhoond!

After reading the context, the respondents are provided with the five options for the translation of Akhoond. The result of the analysis of their preferences is given below.

Table 5.27. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Akhoond, (Under the Moonlight, Reza Mirkarimi, 2001).

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Discounting 11.2% of the total population who did not provide answer to this question, the analysis of the responses shows that from the 198 valid responses, the most preferred option is the translation of Akhoond as Clergyman, i.e. 38.9% (77 respondents). This is followed by 24.2% (48 respondents), 20.2% (40 respondents), and 12.1% (24 respondents) of the population who referred Akhoond, Mullah, and

Akhoond (Mullah) as their preferred options respectively. The least preferred alternative is the substitution of Akhoond with Seminarist with only 4.5% of the population (9 respondents).

حوزه علمیه Institutions: Hawza Ilmiyya 5.1.10

refers to the Islamic school where Iranian Muslims حوزه علمیه A Hawza Ilmiyya clerics are trained. There are hawza in Islamic countries such as Iraq and Iran. This is the last CE that is asked in the questionnaire. Based on the analysis of the corpus,

Hawza Ilmiyya is translated in 4 ways in the official English subtitles of Iranian films. It was 1) retained as Hawza Ilmiyya, 2) retained as Hawza, 3) translated to

Islamic School, and 4) substituted Seminary. The next part shows the level of familiarity of the audience with this CE. a) QOA

The following question is asked to examine the extent to which the respondents are aware of the meaning of Hawza Ilmiyya before selecting their preferred subtitle:

Were you familiar with this word before you read the above description? The below table is the result of the analysis of the preference of the respondents.

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Table 5.28. The Analysis of the QOA, Hawza Ilmiyya.

As can be observed in the above table, 11.2% of the population (25 respondents out of 223) did not respond to this question. Considering the valid number of responses, the high level of 92.4% of the population (183 respondents) were unaware of Hawza

Ilmiyya when filling the questionnaire. Only 7.6% of the population (15 respondents) expressed that they had already been familiar with the term.

حوزه علمیه b) Film Shot 1: Hawza Ilmiyya

Hawza Ilmiyya is first used in a shot from the film Taste of Cherry (Abbas

Kiarostami, 1997). As to explain the context of the scene, the following description is given.

CONTEXT: In Taste of Cherry (1997), Mr Badii drives his car in search of someone who will bury him under a cherry tree after he commits suicide. His second passenger is an Afghan clergyman who declined to his request since Islam is against suicide. In this scene, he is talking to the clergyman and asks him why he does not study religion in Afghanistan but comes to Iran instead.

The shot of the film is provided, and the respondents are asked to choose their preferred subtitle among the four options provided. The table below demonstrates their preferences.

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Table 5.29. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Hawza Ilmiyya, (Taste of Cherry, Abbas Kiarostami, 1997).

25 respondents (11.2% of the total 223 population) did not answer, and 198 respondents responded to this question. Considering the number of valid responses, the translation of the institution as Islamic School attracted the most responses with

51.0% of the valid population (101 respondents). This is followed by 28.3% of the responses (56 respondents) who selected Seminaries as their preferred option. The third preferred option is Hawza Ilmiyya with 19.7% of the valid population (39 respondents). Finally, the least preferred option is the translation of the CE as Hawza with only 1.0% of the population (2 respondents).

حوزه علمیه c) Film Shot 2: Hawza Ilmiyya

The second film shot for the contextualization of Hawza Ilmiyya is selected from the film Under the Moonlight (Reza Mirkarimi, 2001). The following context was provided in the questionnaire to explain the scene for the respondents.

CONTEXT: In Under the Moonlight (2001), Hassan, a student of Islamic school is about to be dressed as a missionary. A young boy steals his formal clothes. Hassan goes after the boy, and he gets to know about the poverty of the people. In this scene, he is talking to another student of the Islamic school. They are talking about a new student and making fun of him by asking him to pray until morning.

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The following table shows the preferences of the respondents towards the four procedures used for translating the CE.

Table 5.30. The audience preferences towards the subtitling of Hawza Ilmiyya, (Under the Moonlight, Reza Mirkarimi, 2001).

This question is the last question of the questionnaire. 198 respondents from the total number of 223 answered this question. 11.2% (25 respondents) did not answer this item. From the valid responses given, nearly half of the subjects preferred the Islamic

School as their preferred option with 48.5% (96 respondents). The second preferred option is the replacement of Hawza Ilmiyya with Seminary which attracted 26.3% of the valid population (52 respondents). This is followed by the retention of Hawza

Ilmiyya with 19.7% (39 respondents) and lastly Hawza with only 5.6% of the valid population (11 respondents).

5.2 Summary

The present chapter provided an analysis of the preference of the international audience of Iranian films towards the subtitling of the CEs used in the questionnaire.

:The honorific title (2 ,تومان The analysed CEs are: 1) Iran’s Currency: Toman

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:Islamic Sharia (4 ,تاریخ هجری شمسی Iran’s Solar Hijri Calendar (3 ,حاج آقا Hajagha

,انشاهللا Religious Phrases, Blessing, and Prayers: Inshallah (5 ,حالل / حرام Halal/ Haram

Food: Ghorme (7 ,الحمدهلل Religious Phrases, Blessing, and Prayers: Alhamdolellah (6

Professions and (9 ,پلیس Institutions: The Police Number 110 110 (8 ,قرمه سبزی Sabzi

The analysis .حوزه علمیه and 10) Institutions: Hawza Ilmiyya ,آخوند Careers: Akhoond of each CE included an examination of the extent to which the respondents are familiar with each of the CEs, as well as an investigation of their preferred translation of the CE. Different translation procedures of the CEs are provided for the audience to check their preferences.

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CHAPTER 6

FINDINGS, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

6. Introduction

The results which are obtained from the data analysis are linked to the research questions and further discussed in the current chapter. In addition, the findings of the study are linked and compared with the literature, so as to highlight the contributions of the study. An overview of the research process is briefly presented. Second, the research questions are responded and discussed based on the obtained results and the theoretical framework applied in the study. This includes discussing the classification of the CEs, the subtitling procedures as well as the preferences of the audience.

Subsequently, the concluding remarks of the study are presented. Furthermore, the contributions of the study are highlighted. Finally, based on the limitations encountered during the research, recommendations for further and future research is proposed.

6.1 A Brief Review of the Research Process

The present research is developed based on the examination of the classification of

CEs, their English official subtitles, the audience preferences towards the subtitles in the view of polysystem theory, as well as the notions of foreignization/ domestication. The position of Iranian films was argued within the global film polysystem. Even-Zohar’s (1990) Polysystem Theory was applied to describe the film polysystem. Iranian cinema was also discussed in relation to the position of

English language films. Next, the procedures applied by the Iranian subtitlers were identified and classified. The classification of the CEs which was developed in the

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current research, mainly drew on the classifications proposed by Newmark (1988),

Diaz Cintas and Remael (2007) and Pedersen (2011). However, following Franco

Aixela (1996), in order not to restrict the selection of CEs due to the cultural gaps between Iranian culture as a Middle Eastern society and Western cultures, a broader definition was opted. Based on Even-Zohar’s (1990) Polysystem Theory, the position of Iranian films and cinema in the global film polysystem was determined. In other words, according to Even-Zohar’s (1990) Polysystem Theory, while specific films and cinemas occupy a canonical and central position in the film polysystem and, as a result, their repertoire shapes the polysystem, other cinemas are positioned in the peripheral and secondary position and tend to imitate the canonical films. In addition,

Venuti’s (1995/2008) notions of Domestication and Foreignization were also utilized in the classification of the procedures applied in the translation of CEs in the official

English subtitles of Iranian films. According to Venuti (1995/2008), while domestication is defined as “an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target language cultural values, bringing the author back home”, foreignization, or

“resistency” (Venuti 1995: 305-306), is perceived as “an ethno-deviant pressure on those (cultural) values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad” (p. 20). Accordingly, the procedure applied by the

Iranian subtitlers were classified on the basis of whether the resultant subtitle ethnocentrically reduced the Iranian CE to the English values or whether, on the contrary, it highlighted the linguistic and cultural differences and values of the

Iranian films in the English subtitles. Finally, this was followed by the examination of the international audience preferences of Iranian films towards the subtitles, by means of the online questionnaires.

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6.2 Responses to the Research Questions

Based on the analysis of data, the research questions raised in chapter 1 are responded and discussed in this section.

6.2.1 RQ 1: What are the CEs in Iranian films and how can they be classified?

The verbal-acoustic CEs in Iranian films, as it is shown in Table 6.1, are classified into seven broad categories which are then divided into 27 subcategories. Some of the subcategories are further subdivided into more specific categories with the total number of 31 subdivisions. This classification is developed based on the analysis of

1557 CEs derived from the soundtrack of 31 selected Iranian films. This classification was proposed on the basis of a comparison between the source text, which is the Persian language spoken in the Iranian Islamic Middle-Eastern setting and the target text, which is English used in the Christian-Secular Western culture of the audience.

The finding of the study suggests that there are limitations to the available classifications. This indicates that CEs are context specific depending on not only the source text but also the target culture for which the elements are translated. In other words, the CEs would be more accurately identified if both the ST elements which are lacking in the target culture, as well as those that have different intertextual status, are included in the analysis. This also implies that the selection of CEs is specific to each study. Otherwise, the researcher would either miss to include potential CEs or may come up with items that are not culturally loaded in a particular context. Hence, although the classification of the CEs proposed by the current study was initially guided by the classifications proposed by Newmark (1998), Diaz Cintas and Remael (2007), and Pedersen (2011), these classifications did not

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comprehensively accommodate the CEs which were identified in the Persian soundtrack of the Iranian films. In this regard, seven categories were identified in the corpus of the study. This categorization of CEs and the sub-classifications are given in the following:

1) Historical and Geographical References; 2) Personal Names and Epithets; 3) Daily Life References; 4) Kinship References; 5) Literary, Artistic and Educational References; 6) Social-Religious References; and 7) Institutional Organizations and Professional References.

As mentioned, these classes were derived from the analysis of Persian soundtrack of

31 Iranian movies and accordingly 1557 CEs. The following table demonstrates the taxonomy proposed in the present research in details:

Table 6.1. The classification of Cultural Elements in Iranian films Cultural References In Iranian Films

a) Historical Periods

b) Endemic Plants and Animals and Fruits and Geological Objects I. cities and countries II. geographical areas

III. shops and parks and Historical and agencies, etc. IV. streets and localities Geographical c) Name of Places V. house and residence

a) Film and Animation Characters b) c) Historical Figures Personal Names and

Epithets d) Literary Figures e) Celebrity Figures f) Political Figures g) Religious Figures h) Social Figures

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a) Appliances: Home b) Appliances: Object From Daily Life c) Clothings

d) Food And Beverages Daily Life (Foodstuff) e) Transportation f) Brand Names I. currency II. distance g) Measurement: III. grading systems IV. solar/lunar year and months

i) musical instruments ii) terms and styles

a) Art and Music iii) fine art

Literary, Artistic i) levels and Educational ii) educational places b) Education iii) examinations References iv) pupils

i) folklore songs ii) literary styles c) Literature iii) literary works iv) religious transcripts

a) Descent and Language b) Family Relations Kinship (Lineage)

i. beliefs

ii. Islamic Sharia iii. phrases and blessings and a) Religious prayers and swearing

iv. sects v. ceremonies and rituals Social-Religious i. games and entertainments b) Social Cultures ii. rituals and festivals and ceremonies iii. social habits and beliefs c) Honorific Titles

a) Governmental, Military and Private Institutions Institutional i) Profession and career Organizations and b) Professional References ii) Professional titles Professional iii) military ranks

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As it is shown in Table 6.1, CEs were classified into seven broad clusters in this study. All these seven clusters are divided into 27 categories, some of which are further subdivided into more specific subcategories. In comparison to the already proposed classifications in Chapter 2, the present classification has resulted in a more detailed taxonomy of CE. The corpus of the present research is larger than the corpus used in the literature. As mentioned, the corpus comprised of 31 different Iranian films which equals to more than 3000 minutes of films viewing and transcription of the related soundtrack. In other words, the data was extracted based on the analysis of more than 3000 minutes of Persian soundtracks of the films which resulted in

1557 Cultural items. The size of the corpus has outsized the corpus of many researches to date.

Compared to the classification proposed by Newmark (1988), in addition to the classification of proper names, the current classification accommodates additional CEs, such as honorific titles, professional references and religious prayers and phrases, into the classification of CEs. This is to say that, as mentioned by

Franco Aixela (1996), the present classification identified two categories of CEs, namely, proper names and common expressions. The latter encompasses CEs as religious phrases and blessings, prayers and swearing, folklore songs, honorific titles, professional titles and military ranks. This aspect also shows the distinction between the currently proposed classification of CE and the ones proposed by Pedersen

(2011). This is to say that while the detailed classification of Pedersen (2011), containing 12 categories, includes such elements as professional titles as ECRs, cultural expressions are lacking in his classification. This, however, could be attributed to the way he defined CEs. His notion about ECRs, as the name indicates,

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refers to extralinguistic references and accordingly, cultural expressions such as religious prayers are sidelined.

On the contrary, due to the cultural importance and high frequency of occurrence of these expressions in Iranian films, they are included in the classification of CEs in the current study, which is more similar to the classification proposed by Yunxing (1998) who included culture-specific expressions as part of

CEs. Moreover, unlike the classifications proposed by Newmark (1988) and

Pedersen (2011), the current classification has also included Family relations

(lineage) as a category of CEs. This is due to the importance and the detailed network of relationship in Iranian families which has resulted in the existence of distinctive lexical elements in communication when the speakers are referring to relatives from either paternal or maternal side. The inclusion of this category can be said to be more similar to the category proposed by Diaz Cintas and Remael’s

(2007). This category is referred to as ‘descendant’ in Diaz Cintas and Remael’s

(2007) classification of CEs.

Nevertheless, it is important to note that there is still a difference between the

“References to descendant” proposed by Diaz-Cintas and Remael’s (2007: 201) and the “Family Relations (Lineage)” that is put forward in the current study. This is to say that, while it becomes clear from the examples such as “gringo, Cockney,

Parisienne” given by Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007: 201) that what they meant by

“descendant” is the origin or background of a person in terms of his/her family or nationality, “Family Relations (Lineage)” that is proposed in the current study refers to the lexical references that are used in defining the relationships among the

khale/, aunt on/ خاله amme/ and/ عمه members of a family; the example of which is the father and mother side respectively. These results and findings imply that, as 274

discussed in Chapter 1, Iranian films are rich in CEs. And as it is mentioned, this could primarily be attributed to the distance of the Iranian society as a Persian-

Islamic culture and the receptive audience from Western societies and cultures. As it could be expected, this detailed classification seems to be due to the gap among the compared cultures which are the results of the existent heterogeneity, which is reflected in the differences between the classification of CEs proposed in the current research and the ones proposed in the literature.

6.2.2 RQ 2: What procedures with what frequency are used in the English

official subtitling of Persian CEs in Iranian films?

In examining the procedures employed by Iranian subtitlers in subtitling of the

Persian CEs into English, a total number of 7 procedures and 14 techniques were identified. Based on the notions of Foreignization/ Domestication set forth by Venuti

(1995/2008), the translation procedures were categorized into Foreignizing and

Domesticating strategies. While four of the procedures, namely, Isolated (limited)

Retention, Explicated Retention, Source Culture (SC) Substitution and Calque were identified as the subcategories of the Foreignizing strategy in the corpus of the study, the other ten identified procedures were fit into Domesticating strategy. The application of the procedures under the foreignizing strategy indicates the retention of the foreignness of the source text. While Isolated (limited) Retention results in subtitling the source text element into the most “ethno-deviant” (Venuti 1995: 20) element to the audience, Explicated Retention, Source Culture (SC) Substitution and

Calque increasingly reduce the ethno-deviancy pressure of the source culture. The application of the domesticating procedures removed the soundtrack of the source’s

CE. This is followed by either explaining and substituting the source CE with a non-

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CE, i.e. neutralizing the text, or replacing it with a CE from the target culture. The neutralizing procedures which domesticate the text include Literal, Rewording,

Description, Hyponymy, Co-Text, Function-based Translation, Omission, and

Semantic Manipulation. The application of the neutralizing procedures has led to the naturalness of the source text’s CEs. As discussed by Venuti (1995/2008), naturalness indicates the significance of fluency in translation and, obviously,

“fluency involves domestication” (p. 21). The last procedure, Target Culture (TC)

Substitution, is the most domesticating technique through which not only the foreignness of the source text is removed, but the source CE is replaced by a CE from the target language and culture. The procedures and the techniques are presented and tabled into a scale of foreignization and domestication strategies in the following.

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Table 6.2. The classification of strategies in Iranian films

Classification of the Procedures in Subtitling of CEs

Procedures Techniques Scale (Foreignization & Domestication) Foreignized Retention Isolated (limited) Retention (Source Culture Oriented)

Foreignized Explicated Retention (Source Culture Oriented)

Source Culture (SC) Foreignized Cultural Substitution (Source Culture Oriented) Substitution

Foreignized Direct Calque (More Source Culture Oriented) Translation

Direct Domesticated Translation Literal (Target Culture Oriented)

Rewording Domesticated Restatement (Target Culture Oriented) Description Domesticated (Target Culture Oriented)

Hypernym Domesticated Semantic (Target Culture Oriented) Substitution Hyponym Domesticated (Target Culture Oriented)

Domesticated Co-Text (Target Culture Oriented) Indirect Translation Domesticated Function-based Translation (Target Culture Oriented)

Omission Domesticated Elimination (Target Culture Oriented) Semantic Manipulation Domesticated (Target Culture Oriented)

Cultural Target Culture (TC) Substitution Domesticated Substitution (Target Culture Oriented)

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As can be seen in Table 6.2, the procedures have been put into the scale of foreignizing and domesticating strategies. The below chart demonstrates the frequency of the applied techniques in the corpus of the study.

FREQUENCY OF THE TECHNIQUES 500 472 450 400 350 301 300 267 250 200 140 150 113 100 66 31 38 48 35 50 15 9 2 20 0 FUNC EXPLI ISOLA TION- SEMA CATE SC TC TED REW DESC HYPE BASE NTIC D SUBS CALQ LITER HYPO CO- OMIS SUBS RETE ORDI RIPTI RNY D MANI RETE TITUT UE AL NYM TEXT SION TITUT NTIO NG ON M TRAN PULA NTIO ION ION N SLATI TION N ON Frequency 301 31 38 48 15 66 9 113 2 35 140 472 20 267

Figure 6.1. The frequency of the applied techniques in subtitling of the CEs of Iranian films

The analysis of the applied techniques by the subtitlers is shown in Figure 6.1. As can be seen in Table 6.1, the foreignizing procedures reveal a total of 26.84% tendency by the subtitlers (19.33%, 1.99%, 2.44% and 3.08% for the Isolated

(limited) Retention, Explicated Retention, SC Substitution and Calque respectively).

Whereas, the domesticating procedures applied are dominant with 73.15% of the total procedures which are opted by the subtitlers. These procedures include Literal

Translation, Rewording, Description, Hypernym, Hyponymy, Co-text, Function- based Translation, Omission and Semantic Manipulation, Target Culture (TC)

Substitution with the percentage of 0.96%, 4.23%, 0.57%, 7.25%, 0.12, 2.24%,

8.99%, 30.31%, 1.28% and 17.14%, are used respectively. Among the domesticating techniques, Omission with more than 30% is the most dominant one, while

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Hyponymy is the least dominant technique. The reason for the dominancy of

Omission could be attributed to both the difficulty of translating CEs, as well as the effects of temporal and spatial constraints of subtitling on the subtitlers’ choice.

The finding supports, as argued by Venuti (1995/ 2008), the ethnocentric violence of translation. This is because as can be seen, the Persian language and culture have undergone a great degree and form of reduction to the dominant English language and culture. In other words, since the canon of the cinema is shaped by the

English language and culture, the CEs in the Iranian films have been subtitled towards creating fluency and naturalness, i.e. domesticating, in the target text. That is, as it is revealed by the data, the Iranian films have been mainly subtitled in accordance with the ethnocentric and imperialist value of the English language and culture.

As maintained by Venuti (1995/ 2008), domesticating would have such advantages as giving the audience a taste of the similarities between the two languages and cultures. The translated text can be read smoothly, natural, clear and coherent and in line with the target audience’s reading and expressing habits.

However, the source text would inevitably be distorted since the cultural properties of people and nations are concealed through domesticating methods. In other words, based on Venuti (1995/ 2008), the domesticating strategy for translating Persian culture into the Anglo-American culture is undesirable which is due to the resultant fluency in translations, and this approach leads to both the culture’s and the translators’ invisibility. This invisibility has two unfavourable impacts. Firstly, it is considered to be associated with the economic exploitation of the English-language translators. In other words, as mentioned by Venuti (2008: 13), transparency and fluency in translation have impacted translators to be “seldom recognized, poorly 279

paid writers whose work nonetheless remains indispensable because of the global domination of the British and American cultures.” Secondly, there is the issue of cultural otherness and cultural equality. As discussed by Venuti (2008), although, as mentioned, translation involves the detection and attaining similarities between two languages and cultures, if a minor foreign culture seeks to emerge, the foreign dissimilarities are not recommended to be totally removed which provides the audience with a glimpse of the cultural other. Otherwise, the values of the English language and culture would be imposed through domesticating the source text.

Comparably, English film producers have generated cultures that are “aggressively monolingual” and have invisibly accommodated the “British and American values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other” (Venuti 2008: 12).

This has also been suggested by polysystem theory as while domesticating procedures and accordingly superficial fluency of the translations would be the dominant choice of translators in a strong literary polysystem, the foreignizing strategy would be the prevailing approach in a weak culture (Even-Zohar 1990).

Thus, regarding the peripheral position of Iranian films, as well as the canonized position of English language films, domesticating procedures have invisibly nullified the Iranian culture as a weak culture in comparison to the English one. In other words, this invisibility of the Persian translators, and, consequently, the invisibility of the Persian language and culture indicates the dominancy of the English language and culture which is promoted through films among many other Medias. It also needs to be noted that, however, despite the advantages of foreignizing procedures, they are not always feasible to be applied which is due to the probability of understanding barriers that may occur. As maintained by Gambier (2009: 51) an

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“AV product has to be different enough to be ‘foreign’ but similar enough to what viewers are familiar with to retain their attention. […] In this respect, the needs and expectations of targeted viewers shape the adaptation of the source text”.

6.2.3 RQ 3: What are the international audienc’s preference towards the

Foreignizing and Domesticating official English subtitling of Persian CEs

in Iranian films?

As is emphasized by various scholars, (e.g. Leppihalme 1997; Nord 1991; Venuti

2004; Gottlieb 2009), the selected strategy that is opted by a translator is highly influenced by the audience’s expectations and needs. In this regard, the research objective 3 of the present research attempts to investigate the audience’ preferences towards the source-oriented, i.e. foreignizing, to target-oriented, i.e. domesticating

English subtitling of Persian CEs in Iranian films. Accordingly, this section attempts to discuss whether the general preference of the International audience of Iranian films is more towards the foreignization or domestication. As it is argued in the previous section (see7.2.2), the subtitlers of Iranian films were more inclined towards the domestication strategy, and as the result, Persian language and culture went through reduction in regard to the dominant English language and culture. The current section, then, examines if the general preference of the audience also matches the strategy that was more applied by the subtitlers, i.e. domestication.

Toman تومان (a

The 12th, 13th, and 14th questions in the questionnaire, first, asked the respondents to state whether they have been familiar with the CE. The respondents were then required to choose their preferred option from among different translations provided for the Iranian currency Toman in two scenes. Both domesticated and foreignized

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strategies were used in the four options provided for the respondents to choose from.

The collected data suggests a preference towards the foreignizing procedures. To be exact, respondents’ answer revealed a 72.4% preference towards the foreignized procedure used in the first scene and 59.7% towards the same strategy in the second scene. In other words, 66.5% of the audience preferred the foreignized procedure,

Isolated Retention of Toman, over the domesticated procedures provided. This is despite the fact that the level of awareness for this CE was as low as 24.7%, i.e.

75.3% of the respondents stated that they had not heard this CE before. Therefore, it can be argued that a foreignized strategy, i.e. an ethno-deviant translation is the preferred strategy by the audience. Additionally, the analysis of the relationship between the level of awareness and the preference of the audience through the Chi-

Square Test revealed a relationship between the variables for the first and the second scenes, respectively: P_ (-value) = 0.001<0.05 and P_ (-value) = 0.04<0.05.

However, the application of Phi and Cramer’s V Coefficients tests shows a very weak relationship between the variables, i.e. 0.20 and 0.13 for the first and the second scenes. This is to say that the correlation between the level of familiarity and the selection of the foreignization/domestication strategies is weak and the selection of the strategy by the audience is insignificantly influenced by their prior familiarity with the CE.

Hajagha حاج آقا (b

The 15th, 16th, and 17th questions asked the level of awareness of the respondents, as well as their preference towards the CE Hajagha and its different translations. Both domesticated and foreignized procedures were provided. Regarding the first scene, the analysis of the gathered data supports an inclination towards the domesticated strategy. In other words, while in the first scene, 57.9% of the respondents preferred 282

the domesticated procedures, 42.0% chose the foreignizing procedures. This ratio shows 60.8% preference for the foreignizing and 39.2% for the domesticating strategies in the second scene. On the average, it can be said that generally none of the strategies is mainly preferred over the other one by the audience: 51% and 49% for the foreignized and domesticated strategies respectively. In addition, the level of awareness (QOA) reveals that the majority of the respondents (77.6%) stated that they were not familiar with this CE before doing the questionnaire. Regarding the correlation between the level of the respondents’ awareness and the preference towards the foreignization or domestication strategies, the application of the Pearson

Chi-Square Test on the first and the second scenes resulted in the P_ (-value) of

0.054 and 0.19. The values are more than 0.05, i.e. P_ (-value) > 0.05. This indicates that there is no meaningful relationship between the level of awareness and the selection of foreignization or domestication strategies. In other words, the level of familiarity of the audience with the CE Hajagha do not affect their preference. c) The Solar Hijri Calendar

The preferences of the audience towards the different translations of the Solar Hijri

Calendar were asked in the 18th, 19th and 20th questions in the questionnaire. The

QOA demonstrates a low level of familiarity of the respondents towards this element, i.e. 73.7% of them were not familiar with this CE before reading the description provided in the questionnaire. The analysis of the data shows strong preference towards the domesticating procedure in both of the scenes. In other words, while totally 81.5% and 82.0% of the respondents preferred the domesticating strategy in the first and second scenes, respectively, only 18.5% and 18.0% of them preferred the foreignized strategies in the same scenes. Thus, on the average, while a very high level of 81.75% of respondents preferred the ethnocentric translations and the 283

omission or conversion of the Solar Hijri years to the Christian years, less than

18.5% of them preferred the ethno-deviant procedures and, as the result, retention of the Iranian Solar Hijri Calendar in the scenes provided. In view of that, it can be discussed that the domesticating procedures or ethno-centric translation is the significantly preferred procedure in subtitling this CE. Considering the correlation between the respondents’ level of familiarity and their preference towards the foreignizing and domesticating strategies, the following results are obtained through the application of Pearson Chi-Square Test. The results of the analysis show that the

P_ (-value) is more than 0.05 for both of the scenes. To be precise, the P_ (-value) for the first and the second scenes are 0.61 and 0.41, respectively. Therefore, it can be concluded that there is no meaningful relationship between the tested variables, i.e. there is no relationship between the familiarity of the audience of Iranian films and their preference towards the foreignizing or domesticating strategies.

Halal / Haram حالل / حرام (d

Halal and Haram were the next CEs which were asked in questions 21, 22 and 23 of the questionnaire. Unlike the previous questions in which the respondents mentioned low levels of familiarity with the CEs, these CEs were demonstrated to be familiar to most of the respondents. In other words, while 61.2% of the respondents selected

“YES” to the QOA, 38.8% of them chose the “NO” option in the QOA and accordingly demonstrated their unfamiliarity with the CEs. The analysis of the gathered data revealed a preference towards the domesticating procedures. Regarding the first scene, while 45.5% of the respondents preferred the retention of the CEs and accordingly the foreignized procedure, 54.5% of them preferred the domesticating procedures. This tendency remains the same in the second scene as the preference of the respondents to the foreignizing and domesticating procedures were 39.7% and 284

60.3% respectively. Therefore, on the average, there is a general preference towards the domesticating procedures. This is to say that while 42.6% of the respondents on the average chose the foreignized procedures in the two scenes, 57.4% of them selected the domesticating procedures which is despite their general familiarity with these CEs. Accordingly, the preference of the audience is more towards the ethnocentric translation of the CEs Halal and Haram. Moreover, in order to examine the correlation between the familiarity level of the audience and the selection of Halal and Haram, the Pearson Chi-Square Test is carried out which resulted in the P_ (- value) of 0.0 and 0.03 (less than 0.05). This indicates a relationship between the variables in this test. However, the results of the test demonstrate a relatively weak correlation between the variables, i.e. with the correlation coefficient of 0.3 and 0.2 for the first and the second scenes, respectively. This is to say that the selection of

Halal / Haram as the preferred foreignizing strategy is weakly correlated to the audience level of familiarity with these CEs.

InshaAllah انشاء هللا (e

The next CE which was asked for the audience’s preferences was the prayer

InshaAllah as questions 23, 24, and 25 in the questionnaire. Similar to the previous

CEs, Halal and Haram, the level of the audience’s familiarity with this CE was approximately high, i.e. 66.5% of them stated they had been familiar with the CE before reading the provided description. Accordingly, it can be argued that this

Islamic CE has become known to Western audience which could be due to its wide frequency of use. Data gathered from the responses to this question revealed a high level of preference towards the domesticated strategies. In other words, while 64.7% and 64% of the respondents preferred the domesticating procedures in the first and the second scenes respectively, 35.3% and 36% of them preferred the retention of the 285

CE as the foreignizing procedure. Averagely, the preferences of the respondents towards the domesticating and the foreignizing strategies are 64.35% and 35.65%, respectively. This is to say that, in spite of the high level of the respondents’ familiarity with this CE, the audience preference is significantly towards the domesticating procedure and accordingly the ethno-centric translation of InshaAllah.

Regarding the relationship between the respondents’ level of familiarity with

InshaAllah and their preferred strategy, the Pearson Chi-Square Test was carried out.

The results of the analysis demonstrate P_ (-value) more than 0.05 for both the first and the second scenes, i.e. 0.2 and 0.06, respectively. This shows P_ (-value) > 0.05 which indicates that there is no meaningful relationship between the audience’s familiarity with InshaAllah and the selection of the foreignizing and domesticating strategies.

Alhamdulillah الحمدهلل (f

Alhamdulillah was the 6th CE which was provided in the questionnaire in questions

26, 27, and 28. Regarding the extent of familiarity of the audience towards this CE, more than half of the respondents were not familiar with the CE with 58.1% of the respondents selecting “NO” as the option that described their familiarity in the QOA.

This indicates an approximate level of unfamiliarity of the respondents towards this

CE. In regard to the audience preferences, the bulk of the audience preferred the domesticated procedures in the first scene with 80.1% preferences. This tendency remains as high as 75.4 for the second scene too. On the other hand, the foreignizing procedure was preferred by 19.9% and 24.6% in the first and the second scenes, respectively. On the average, therefore, while 77.75% of the respondents preferred the domesticating procedures, only 22.25% of them chose the foreignizing procedure. Consequently, it can be argued that, despite the relative familiarity of the 286

audience with this CE, the domesticating procedures or an ethno-centric translation were highly preferred by the audience for subtitling the CE Alhamdulillah.

Additionally, the results of the Pearson Chi-Square Test showed P_ (-value) of 0.04 for this test. Therefore P_ (-value) < 0.05, which indicates a relationship between the level of familiarity and the preference of the audience. However, the results of the

Correlation Coefficient tests demonstrated a very weak relationship between the variables. This is to say that the value of the correlation coefficients for the first and the second scenes are 0.2 and 0.1, respectively. In other words, the level of familiarity of the respondents with the CE Alhamdulillah is weakly correlated with the selection of their preferred strategy.

Ghorme Sabzi قرمه سبزی (g

The 7th CE in the questionnaire was the traditional Iranian food Ghorme Sabzi. The gathered data shows that the audience were not familiar with the element to a great extent. In other words, 66.8% of the respondents selected “NO” to the QOA.

Therefore, it can be argued that this CE can be regarded as unknown to the majority of the respondents. Regarding the audience preferences, despite the unfamiliarity of them to this element, they highly preferred the foreignizing procedure with 77.9% and 73.2% of the respondents in the first and the second scenes, respectively. This is to say that the domesticating procedures were preferred with 22.2% and 26.7% of the respondents. Thus, on the average, while averagely 75.55% of the respondents preferred the foreignizing and accordingly an ethno-deviant approach towards the translation of this CE, 24.45% of them preferred the domesticating strategies, i.e. an ethno-centric translation in subtitling the CE. Moreover, the relationship between the level of familiarity of the audience and their preferred strategy is examined through the application of Pearson Chi-Square Test. The analysis resulted in the following P_ 287

(-value): 0.2 and 0.7 for the first and the second scenes, respectively, i.e. the values are more than 0.05. This indicates that there is no relationship between the audience level of familiarity with the CE Ghorme Sabzi and their preferred strategy.

Police Number 110 پلیس h) 110

The 32nd, 33rd, and 34th questions in the questionnaire required the respondents to express their familiarity and preferences towards the emergency police number 110 and its translations. The data gathered through the QOA in the questionnaire revealed that this CE element has been one of the least familiar CEs in the questionnaire with

85.7% of the respondents selecting “NO” as their answer to QOA. In view of the audience preferences, it was revealed that the bulk of the respondents preferred the domesticating procedures than the foreignizing one. This is to say that, while 76.9% and 78.8% of the respondents preferred the domesticating procedures in the first and the second scenes, respectively, only 23.2% and 21.2% of them preferred the foreignizing procedure in the first and the second scenes respectively. Similarly, on the average, the preferences of the audience towards the domesticating and the foreignizing strategies are 77.85% and 22.2%, respectively. This is, therefore, to argue that in subtitling this CE, the domesticating procedures and accordingly the ethno-centric translation are highly the preferred procedures by the audience of

Iranian films. Moreover, in order to examine the correlation between the familiarity level of the audience and the selection foreignizing or domesticating strategies, the

Pearson Chi-Square Test is carried out which resulted in the P_ (-value) of 0.7 and

0.9 (more than 0.05) for the first and the second scenes, respectively. This indicates that there is no meaningful relationship between the variables in this test, i.e. the selection the preferred strategy is not related to the audience level of familiarity with the CE. 288

Aknound آخوند (i

The 9th CE which was provided in the questionnaire was the Akhound. The data revealed the that the CE Akhound has a low level of familiarity among the respondents, i.e. 12.4% of the respondents stated that they were familiar with this cultural element. The data shows that slightly more than half of the respondents,

55.5% of them, selected the foreignizing procedures as their preferred procedures in the first scene. The second scene, similarly, revealed approximately the same percentage of preference (56.5%) towards the foreignizing procedures. On the other hand, the preference of the respondents for the domesticating procedures were 44.5% for the first scene and 43.5% for the second scene. Consequently, on the average, the preferences of the audience towards the foreignizing and domesticating procedures are 56% and 44%, respectively. Therefore, it can be argued that, the foreignizing strategies, i.e. the ethno-deviant translations, are slightly more preferred in the subtitling the CE Akhound in Iranian films. Moreover, as in the other tests of the questionnaire, the analysis of the relationship between the level of familiarity of the audience and their preferred strategy is carried out through the Pearson Chi-Square

Test. The analysis resulted in the following values: 0.4 and 0.1 for the first and the second scenes, respectively, i.e. P_ (-value) > 0.05. This indicates that the selection of the strategy is not related to the audience’s level of familiarity with the CE, i.e. there is no meaningful relationship between the familiarity and the selected strategy.

Hawza Ilmiyyah حوزه علمیه (j

The last CE in the questionnaire was Hawza Ilmiyyah. This CE revelead a low level of familiarity among the respondents. The percentage of 92.4% of the respondents selected “No” as their answer to the QOA. This is say that this CE was considered

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unknown for the respondents. In regard to the audience’s preferences in the first scene, the analysis of the gathered data revealed a high level of preference towards the domesticating procedures. That is, 79.3% of the respondents selected the domesticating procedures as their preferred options. This tendency remained approximately the same for the second scene as 74.8% of the respondents selected the domesticating procedures in the second scene too. Accordingly, there found to be a low level of preference towards the foreignizing procedures in the first and the second scenes, i.e. only 20.7% and 25.2% of the respondents preferred the foreignizing strategies, respectively. Therefore, the respondents preferred a domesticating, i.e., an ethno-centric approach, than a foreignizing, i.e. ethno-deviant approach, in the subtitling of the CE Hawza Ilmiyyah in Iranian films. The Pearson

Chi-Square Test is also carried out for this test. The analysis resulted in the values of

0.9 and 0.6 for the first and the second scenes, respectively. This is to say that since

P_ (-value) > 0.05, the selection of the strategy is not related to the audience’s level of familiarity with Hawza Ilmiyyah, and there is no meaningful relationship between the familiarity of the international audience of Iranian films and their preference towards the foreignizing or domesticating strategies.

The general preferences of the international audience of Iranian films, as the respondents in the current research, are provided in the following table.

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Table 6.3. Audience preferences towards the Foreignizing and Domesticating strategies CE Scene 1 Scene 2 Awareness

FOR DOM DOM DOM DOM FOR DOM DOM No Yes - cents 400 Not that 400,00 400,0 120 dol 10 400 تومان 1 Toman expensive 0 00 lar toma ns 72.4 13.1 5.4 9.0 9.5 59.7 9.5 21.3 75.3 24.7

DOM FOR FOR DOM FOR FOR DOM DOM - Your Haji Hajagha - Hajji Haja Sir حاج آقا 2 honour gha 54.2 11.2 30.8 3.7 23.4 37.4 36.4 2.8 77.6 22.4

DOM FOR DOM DOM FOR DOM 3 1334 1955 1334 - 1960 1339 - 49.3 18.5 32.2 55.0 18.0 27.0 73.7 26.3

DOM DOM FOR DOM DOM FOR DOM - Religiou Halal or Sin or not A sin Hara Not - حالل و 4 sly legit Haram m legit حرام 4.8 23.4 45.5 26.3 51.2 39.7 9.1 38.8 61.2

DOM DOM FOR DOM DOM DOM FOR DOM - God I hope InshaAll - God I InshaA انشاهلل 5 willing ah willing hope llah 58.5 5.3 35.3 1.0 54.2 9.9 36.0 0.0 33.5 66.5

DOM FOR DOM DOM DOM FOR DOM DOM - Thank Alhamd - That’s good Thank Alha That’s الحمدهلل 6 God ulillah God mduli good llah 75.1 19.9 1.5 3.5 72.4 24.6 3.0 0.0 58.1 41.9

FOR DOM FOR DOM DOM DOM FOR DOM Green Stew Ghorme this Green Stew Ghorm this قرمه 7 stew sabzi stew e sabzi سبزی 16.3 15.3 61.6 6.9 16.8 18.8 56.4 7.9 66.8 33.2

DOM FOR DOM DOM FOR DOM 8 110 911 110 The police The 110 911 police 1.0 23.2 75.9 78.8 21.2 0.0 85.7 14.3

FOR FOR DOM FOR DO FOR FOR DOM FOR DO M M Akhou Mullah Clergym Akho Sem Akhou Mulla Clergy Akho Sem آخوند 9 nd an und inar nd h man und inar (Mull ist (Mull ist ah) ah) 22.7 19.2 38.9 13.6 5.6 24.2 20.2 38.9 12.1 4.5 87.6 12.4

DOM FOR FOR DOM DOM DOM FOR FOR Semin Hawza Hawza Islamic Islamic semin Hawza Hawza حوزه 1 aries Illmiyya school school ary Illmiyy علمیه 0 a 28.3 19.7 1.0 51.0 48.5 26.3 19.7 5.6 92.4 7.6

FOR DOM Total 40.45 59.54 68.95 31.0 5

The second column shows the 10 CEs that were included in the questionnaire. The

first and the second scenes together with the subtitles and the percentage of the

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audience’s preferences are also provided. The last column demonstrates the audience’s level of awareness and familiarity with the CE in the questionnaire.

As the analysis of the data reveals, regarding the low level of familiarity of the respondents towards the CEs, i.e. low index of awareness (31.05% of the respondents on average stated their familiarity towards the CEs), the ethno-centric domesticating procedures, with the total percentage of nearly 60% are the dominant preferred procedures. This was followed by the foreignizing strategy with 40% preference of the audience. This is to say that the domesticating procedures, as discussed by Venuti’s estimation (1995/ 2008), is demonstrated to dominate the theory and practice of English-language translation. In other words, based on Venuti

(1995/ 2008), it can be argued that the international audience of the Iranian films have a preference towards the more domesticating strategies and, therefore, the ethnocentric pressure of the dominant cultural values to register the cultural and linguistic variations of the foreign Iranian CEs. That is, the domesticating method, i.e. the ethnocentric reduction of the Iranian CEs to the dominant cultural values of the English language and culture has been the preferred approach by the audience.

This is also supported by the analysis of the correlation between the level of familiarity and the selection of the preferred strategy. In other words, as it is discussed, there is mainly no meaningful relationship between the audience’s level of familiarity with the CEs and the selection of the preferred strategy. This means that even in the cases where the audience are familiar with the CE, the domesticating strategy is generally more preferred. Moreover, in the cases where there is a correlation between these variables, the relationship is shown to be extremely weak.

In other words, where the level of familiarity has been related to the preference of the audience, this relationship has not significantly resulted in the selection of their

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preferred strategy. Thus, as it is shown, the general preference of the audience is towards domestication and the familiarity of them with the CEs has not been significantly influential. This is in accordance to the dominancy of domestication in the English language translation. In other words, as maintained by Venuti (2008), the theory and practice of English-language translation have been dominated by fluent domestication. According to Venuti (1995: 309), the Anglo-American literary culture is currently dominated by the domesticating strategy. Considering the application of the ethno-centric domesticating strategies by the Iranian subtitler, it was also shown that domestication is the dominant strategy with the frequency of 73.09% in the

English subtitling of Iranian CEs in the films. This percentage for the application of the ethno-deviant foreignizing strategies was 24.85% in the corpus. This is in line with the general preference of the Western audience towards the domestication of the

CEs in Iranian films.

6.3 Summary of the Main Findings

The Iranian films in the study are produced in the context of Iran, a Middle-Eastern

Persian Muslim country. Therefore, as it is evident from the source text analysis, the films contain cultural elements which have emerged from the context and reflected in the soundtracks. In addition, the lack of cultural elements classifications in accommodating all of the cultural elements identified by the current study further supports the specificity of the cultural elements in Iranian films. As a result, the researcher had to include the elements which did not fit into the previous classifications. That is, the cultural elements were derived based on the gaps between the compared languages and cultures, Persian and English, as an Islamic Middle

Eastern culture and a Christian/ Secular Western culture, respectively. To be precise, it was supported that not only the already proposed taxonomies in the classification 293

of cultural elements are rewarding in identifying cultural elements, a more specific analysis of the particular languages and cultures in question is of high importance.

This is because the selection of an item as a cultural element is exclusive to each study and the settings of both the source and target languages and cultures should be considered.

In order for the Iranian films to reach the international Western audience who have a cultural background which is greatly different from that of the source

(con)text, translation strategies play a significant role. To be more specific, the cultural elements of the Iranian films, when being subtitled, have undergone changes which tend to reduce the foreignness of the source text elements and bring them closer to the cultural values of the target audience. In other words, the position of

Iranian films in relation to English language films in the global film polysystem appears to have impacted the decisions made by the Iranian subtitlers to opt for those translation procedures which are more in line with the English language, culture, and values. This indicates that the subtitlers have applied ethnocentric procedures in subtitling cultural elements in Iranian films which are more inclined to fluency and naturalness, i.e. domestication. This is to say that, the results and findings of the current study support the prediction maintained by polysystem theory and the notions of foreignization/domestication proposed by Even-Zohar (1990) and Venuti (1995/

2008), respectively.

The international audience of the Iranian films also tends to prefer the naturalness and fluency created in the domesticated English subtitles of Iranian films.

This can be explained by the Polysystem Theory and the notions of foreignization ad domestication. As maintained by Even-Zohar (1990) and Venuti (1995/ 2008) the centrality of certain literary systems shape the mind of the reader in such a way that

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the values and regularities of the canonized literature are preferred. This can also be extended to the practice of subtitling as stated by Diaz Cintas (2004) in general, and

English subtitling of Iranian films, in particular, as the results of the study suggest.

Moreover, English language and culture have become increasingly important in the world. Among several means by which the language and culture are being promoted, such as literature, media, etc. the cinema has played a key role. This can be obviously observed in the quantity and popularity of English language films.

However, based on Venuti (1995/ 2008), in order to resist the dominancy of the

English cultural values and, accordingly, promoting the linguistic and cultural difference of the Iranian culture, foreignizing translation strategies would be desirable. This is to say that, foreignizing procedures are considered as a strategic cultural movement against the hegemonic English language and culture and consequently resist the “ethnocentric violence of translation” (Venuti 2008: 16). This would provide the opportunity for a secondary language and culture, such as those of

Iran, to globally demonstrate themselves in this unequal arena of cultural exchange.

6.4 Contribution of the Study

This study is an initial attempt to look at subtitling of cultural elements in Iranian films into English in the view of Polysystem theory and the notions of foreignization and domestication. The study has a number of contributions in the field of TS from different perspectives. These contributions have been summed up in the following paragraphs.

Firstly, the study provided a historical and cultural analysis of the position of

Iranian movies and cinema in the global film polysystem. This provides us with a

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fundamental starting point in investigating the translation of the movies from a sociocultural perspective.

In addition, the study specified and accommodated the previous classification of CEs proposed by researchers and scholars such as Diaz Cintas and Remael (2007) and Pedersen (2011) to a classification which is particular to the cultural elements exist in the Middle-Eastern Persian Islamic culture of Iran. This yielded a detailed analysis and classification of cultural elements in two heterogeneous cultures and has demonstrated how the cultural gap between the English and Iranian culture has influenced the selection of cultural elements. Accordingly, the classification would provide future researchers who would be looking at cultural elements in subtitling of

Iranian films with a detailed taxonomy.

Moreover, drawing on a large corpus, the present study provided a practical classification of strategies based on the subtitling of Iranian cultural elements to

English. In comparison to the previous researches which were mainly carried out on case studies and from English to Persian, the present study drew on a large corpus in the view of Persian to English subtitling.

The study is also an initial attempt to incorporate the audience of the films and their preferences into the picture subtitling the Iranian culture for a Western audience. This has corroborated to the findings of the research to provide a practical, real and actual understanding of what theories may provide and predict to what is actually preferred by the addressees of translations.

Drawing on a cultural perspective, the study also attempted to extend the

Even-Zohar’s (1990) Polysystem Theory from a literary standpoint to the film studies and to a cultural and wider cultural context which highlights the importance

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of cultural turn in translation studies, in general, and in Audiovisual Translation, in particular. This was done through the simultaneous application of Venuti’s (1995/

2008) notions of foreignization and domestication along with Even-Zohar’s (1990)

Polysystem Theory as two supporting theories.

6.5 Recommendations for Further Research

Since the subjects of the study mainly resided in European and American countries, it was beyond the study to conduct interviews with them and examine their reasons for choosing any of the procedures in more details. Thus, it can be recommended to the future researchers to conduct an interview after the subjects responded to the questionnaires.

A limitation which was encountered by the researcher was the unavailability of certain Iranian films or their official English subtitles. This is to say that while a number of films could be ideal texts to find cultural elements in them, either the researcher was unable to find the film or the official subtitle could not be found.

Future studies can also investigate the needs, as well as the ways through which a revision can be carried out in the cultural, economic and legal codes that have marginalized and exploited translators in the current world. This can be done by exploring the ways the individualistic concept of authorship which has pushed translation to the borders of Anglo-American culture can be revised.

The future researchers can also focus on how the development of innovative translations can make the presence of the translators more visible to the readers.

It is also recommended that future studies study the influencing factors in the preference and selection of a particular subtitle over the other alternatives by the

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audience. That is to say that, as the data of the current study shows, although domestication is the general preference of the audience which shows the dominancy of English, the audience has not totally preferred the domesticating strategies at all items. As it was shown, there were cases where the audience has shown preference more towards the Foreignization strategy, for example, the translation of Ghorme

Sabzi as a famous dish in Iran. Regarding the translation of food, McGee (2004), maintains that food has turned out to be more simply available in Western societies and, consequently, there has been a progressive interest in knowing about foods from other cultures. This is also stated by Chiaro and Rossato (2015) who remark that globalisation has resulted in the distribution of food items from the most remote corners of the planet. These may have been the reasons for the preference of the audience to know more about the food which can be studied in more detail in future researches.

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APPENDICES Appendix 1: Questionnaire

Appendix 2: Total Number of Films Produced in the World

No. COUNTRY 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2005- 2013 1 India 1041 1091 1146 1325 1288 1274 1255 1602 1724 11746 2 Nigeria 872 914 956 987 1074 997 +- 8640 3 USA 699 673 789 773 751 792 819 738 738 6772 4 China 260 330 411 422 475 542 587 745 638 4410 5 Japan 356 417 407 416 448 408 441 554 591 4038 6 France 240 203 228 240 230 261 272 279 270 2223 7 UK 106 107 124 279 313 346 299 326 241 2141 8 Germany 146 174 174 185 216 189 212 220 223 1739 9 Spain 142 150 172 173 186 200 199 182 231 1635 10 Republic of 87 110 124 113 158 152 216 204 207 1371 Korea 11 Italy 98 116 121 154 131 142 155 166 167 1250 12 Russia 62 59 78 78 78 133 111 109 139 847 13 Argentina 41 63 48 46 61 121 100 141 168 789 14 Switzerland 86 80 87 87 80 88 84 93 103 788 15 Indonesia 50 60 77 88 80 82 84 86 +- 772 16 Canada 62 74 99 75 81 98 86 98 93 766 17 Bangladesh 84 100 98 96 64 +- 732 18 Brazil 40 60 78 79 84 75 99 83 129 727 19 Mexico 53 64 70 70 66 69 73 112 126 703 20 Philippines 84 65 106 121 80 40 44 78 53 671 21 Iran 26 57 51 62 98 76 67 87 +- 564 22 Netherlands 51 38 42 62 50 65 73 79 68 528 23 Turkey 28 35 40 50 70 65 70 61 85 504 24 China; Hong 55 51 50 53 70 54 53 52 42 480 Kong 25 Belgium 46 69 37 38 47 46 42 55 70 450 26 Thailand 39 42 55 54 37 49 +- 420 27 Sweden 53 46 29 36 41 54 43 51 61 414 28 Poland 30 37 40 45 49 60 51 47 31 390 29 Denmark 31 33 29 34 37 49 43 59 69 384 30 Malaysia 23 28 28 28 27 39 49 76 71 369 31 Viet Nam 12 10 16 11 12 90 75 +- 366 32 Czech 31 45 30 39 45 37 45 46 45 363 Republic 33 Austria 30 33 32 30 35 46 54 54 46 360 34 Pakistan 42 42 43 39 27 +- 347 35 Egypt 23 59 37 44 46 37 28 25 33 332 36 Greece 24 22 33 29 37 18 43 44 69 319 37 Finland 20 26 17 25 25 42 42 49 49 295 38 Australia 25 28 26 33 45 37 43 29 26 292 39 Hungry 26 46 28 30 27 24 - 32 38 +- 277 40 Israel 22 22 23 35 19 29 26 40 55 271 41 Cambodia 41 62 35 25 28 26 13 +- 270 42 Azerbaijan 2 3 14 13 16 20 63 69 69 269 43 Ireland 10 19 24 39 36 34 32 38 34 266 Appendix 3: Respondents’ Demographic Data

Respondents’ Gender

Respondents’ Age

Respondents’ First Language (L1)

Respondents’ Level of Education

Respondents’ English language Competency

Respondents’ Persian language Competency

Respondents’ Religion

Respondents’ Years of Watching Iranian Films

Respondents’ Number of Watched Iranian Films in English Subtitles

Respondents’ Interests in Watching Iranian Films

Appendix 4: List of Cultural Elements (CEs) in Iranian Films

N CE CATEGORIES LIST OF CEs & THE FREQUENCIES O sasaniaan/: The Sasanian Empire, known to its inhabitants as Ērānshahr in Middle/ ساسانیان )Historical and )1 .1 Geographical Persian, was the last imperial dynasty in Persia (Iran) before the rise of Islam, ruled by and References: Historical named after the Sasanian dynasty from 224 to 651 AD. Periods

xarboze mashadi/: Literally translated as ‘Mashhadi melon’, is a kind of/ خربزه مشهدی )Historical and )2 .2 Geographical Iranian melon which is cultivars of Cucumis melo, a type of melon, also called Odessa References: Endemic melons, and is grown near the city of Mashhad. They are elongate, unridged, with dark green Plants and Animals skin with irregular yellowish bands, and flesh of a deep orange colour and Fruits and Geological Objects dorr-e najaf/: Literally translated as ‘Najaf gem’, it is an ornamental stone of the/ در نجفه )Historical and )2 .3 Geographical Quartz family, used as a jeweled ring, that is extracted from the city of Najaf, located in Iraq. References: Endemic The stone is a brittle clear, colorless glass that is mainly worn for its spiritual properties. Plants and Animals and Fruits and Geological Objects deraxt-e majnoun/: ‘Majnoon tree’, is a species of willow native to dry areas/ درخت مجنون )Historical and )3 .4 Geographical of northern China, but cultivated for millennia elsewhere in Asia, being traded along the Silk References: Endemic Road to southwest Asia and Europe Plants and Animals and Fruits and Geological Objects

Ardebil/: an ancient city in Iranian Azerbaijan. Ardabil is the center/ اردبیل )Name of Places: cities )1 .5 and countries of Ardabil Province. At the 2011 census, its population was 564,365, in 156,324 families, where the dominant majority are ethnic Iranian Azerbaijanis. asalouye/: Asaluyeh is a city in and the capital of Asaluyeh County, in Bushehr/ عسلویه )Name of Places: cities )2 .6 and countries Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 4,746, in 875 families. Located on the shore of the Persian Gulf some 270 km SE of the provincial capital of Bushehr, it is best known as the site for the land based facilities of the huge PSEEZ (Pars Special Energy Economic Zone) project. The town itself is of minor significance, although it is common practice to refer to PSEEZ (established 1998) and Asaluyeh town collectively as Asaluyeh. esfahaan/: Isfahan is a city in central Iran, known for its Persian architecture. In/ اصفهان )Name of Places: cities )1 .7 and countries the huge Naqsh-e Jahan Square is the 17th-century Imam (Shah) Mosque, whose dome and minarets are covered with mosaic tiles and calligraphy. Ali Qapu Palace, built for Shah Abbas and completed in the late 16th century, has a music room and a verandah overlooking the square’s fountains. Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque is known for its intricate tiling. amir aabaad/: Amir Abad is a village in Iran near the capital city of Tehran. The/ امیر آباد )Name of Places: cities )1 .8 and countries main street of Amir Abad is called Kargar Avenue and is one of the longest streets of Tehran, extending from Southern Tehran's Rah Ahan Square to Northern Amir Abad. The Atomic Energy Organization of Iran is headquartered north of this district. University of Tehran has large parts of its engineering, economics, physics departments, and physical education facilities, as well as the majority of its student dormitories located here. Laleh Park is in the middle of North Kargar street. Shariati Hospital is also located on this street. .deh shish/: Deh Shish is a village in Iran near the capital city of Tehran/ ده شیش )Name of Places: cities )1 .9 and countries barze kouh/: Barze kouh is the name of a village in the north part of Iran. The city/ برزه کوه )Name of Places: cities )3 .10 and countries is one of the battlegrounds of Sardar Jangal, Mirza Kuchak Khan Jangali, and the people of this city and the villages speaks in Taleshi language. bandar/: Bandar Abbas a port city and capital of Hormozgān Province on the southern/ بندر )Name of Places: cities )4 .11 and countries coast of Iran, on the Persian Gulf. The city occupies a strategic position on the narrow Strait of Hormuz, and it is the location of the main base of the Iranian Navy. Bandar Abbas is also the capital and largest city of Bandar Abbas County. At the 2006 census, its population was 367,508, with 89,404 families. Tabriz/: Tabriz is the most populated city in Iranian Azerbaijan, one of the historical/ تبریز )Name of Places: cities )1 .12 and countries capitals of Iran and the present capital of East Azerbaijan province. chaalous/: Chalus is a city in Mazandaran Province in north of Iran. It serves as the/ چالوس )Name of Places: cities )2 .13 and countries county seat for Chalus County. Chalus is a major vacation destination for Iranians during holidays for its nice weather and natural attractions. shiraaz/: Shiraz is a city in south-central Iran, known for its literary history and many/ شیراز )Name of Places: cities )2 .14 and countries gardens. The marble Tomb of Hafez, honoring the revered poet, sits within its own garden. To the east, the Mausoleum of Saadi houses the 13th-century writer’s mosaic-tiled tomb and an underground pool. Shiraz is a gateway to Persepolis, the ruined 6th-century-B.C. capital to the northeast, with its immense gateways, columns and friezes. .tabas/: Tabas is a city in and capital of Tabas County, South Khorasan Province, Iran/ طبس )Name of Places: cities )1 .15 and countries Tabas is located in central Iran, 950 kilometers southeast of Tehran, in South Khorasan Province. At first, it was part of the greater Khorasan province, but in 2001 it was annexed to Yazd Province. However, in 2013 it was returned to Khorasan and it became part of South Khorasan province. The name Khorasan means the land of the rising sun. There are two other places in Khorasan called Tabas, but the name Tabas usually refers to the city under discussion. qom/: also spelled as Ghom, is the eighth largest city in Iran. It lies 125 kilometres/ قم )Name of Places: cities )4 .16 and countries (78 mi) by road southwest of Tehran and is the capital of Qom Province. Qom is considered holy by Shiʿa Islam, as it is the site of the shrine of Fatimah bint Musa, sister of Imam `Ali ibn Musa Rida (Persian Imam Reza, 789–816 AD). The city is the largest center for Shiʿa scholarship in the world, and is a significant destination of pilgrimage. Qom is famous for a Persian brittle toffee known as Sohan considered a souvenir of the city and sold by 2,000 to 2,500 “Sohan” shops. kaashaan/: Kashan is a city of Isfahan, Iran. The etymology of the city name comes/ کاشان )Name of Places: cities )4 .17 and countries from the Kasian, the original inhabitants of the city, whose remains are found at Tapeh Sialk dating back 9,000 years; later this was changed to "Kashian", hence the town name. Between the 12th and the 14th centuries Kashan was an important centre for the production of high quality pottery and tiles. In modern Persian, the word for a tile (kashi) comes from the name of the town. kajour/: Kajour is a district (bakhsh) in Nowshahr County, Mazandaran/ کجور )Name of Places: cities )2 .18 and countries Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 14,203, in 4,028 families. The District has no cities. The District has three rural districts (dehestan): Panjak-e Rastaq Rural District, Tavabe-e Kojur Rural District, and Zanus Rastaq Rural District. karaj/: Karaj is a county in Alborz Province in Iran. The capital of the county is Karaj/ کرج )Name of Places: cities )1 .19 and countries kordestaan/: Kordestan is one of the 31 provinces of Iran, not to be confused with/ کردستان )Name of Places: cities )5 .20 and countries the greater unofficial geographical area of Iranian Kurdistan. kelaardasht/: Kelardasht is a district (bakhsh) in Chalus County, Mazandaran/ کالردشت )Name of Places: cities )1 .21 and countries Province, Iran. kish/: Kish is a coastal city in and the capital of Kish District, in Bandar Lengeh/ کیش )Name of Places: cities )2 .22 and countries County, Hormozgan Province, Iran. The city is on Kish Island, a special zone of Iran. The island is served by Kish International Airport, and has a visa policy separate from the Iranian mainland, such that foreign tourists can get visa on arrival. lorestaan/: Lorestan is a province of western Iran in the Zagros Mountains. The/ لرستان )Name of Places: cities )1 .23 and countries name Lorestan means "land of the Lurs". In the wider sense it consists of that part of western Iran coinciding with the province of Ilam and extending for about 650 km on a northwest to southeast axis from Kermanshah to Fars, with a breadth of 150–180 km. The terrain consists chiefly of mountains, with numerous ranges, part of the Zagros chain, running northwest to southeast. The central range has many summits that almost reach the line of perpetual snow, rising to 4000 m and more. It feeds the headwaters of Iran's most important rivers, such as the Zayandeh rud, Jarahi, Karun, Diz, Abi, Karkheh. Between the higher ranges lie many fertile plains and low hilly, well-watered districts. Mahmoud aabaad/: Mahmudabad is a city in and the capital of Mahmudabad/ محمود آباد )Name of Places: cities )1 .24 and countries County, Mazandaran Province, Iran. It is located on the Caspian Sea. At the 2006 census, its population was 27,561, in 7,513 families. mazaar sharif/: Mazar Sharif is the third-largest city of Afghanistan, with a/ مزار شریف )Name of Places: cities )2 .25 and countries 2015 UN—Habitat population estimate between 577,500 and 693,000. It is the capital of Balkh province and is linked by highways with Kunduz in the east, Kabul in the southeast, Herat in the west and Uzbekistan in the north. makke/: Mecca is a city in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia that is also capital of/ مکه )Name of Places: cities )2 .26 and countries the Makkah Region. Its resident population in 2012 was roughly 2 million, although visitors more than triple this number every year during the hajj ("pilgrimage") period held in the twelfth Muslim lunar month of Dhu al-Hijjah. najaf/: Najaf is a city of south-central Iraq. It is the capital of Najaf Governorate. It/ نجف )Name of Places: cities )3 .27 and countries is widely considered the third holiest city of Shia Islam, the Shi‘ite world's spiritual capital, and the center of Shi‘ite political power in Iraq. An-Najaf is considered sacred by Shi'a Muslims. An-Najaf is renowned as the site of the tomb of Caliph ‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib. Sunnis consider ‘Ali the fourth Rashidun (rightly guided Caliphs). The city is now a center of pilgrimage throughout the Shi'ite Islamic world. It is estimated that only Mecca and Medina receive more Muslim pilgrims. neishaabour/: Neishabour is a city in the Khorasan Province, capital of the Nishapur/ نیشابور )Name of Places: cities )2 .28 and countries County and former capital of Province Khorasan, in northeastern Iran, situated in a fertile plain at the foot of the Binalud Mountains. Nearby are the turquoise mines that have supplied the world with turquoise for at least two millennia. .hasht pey/: Hasht Pey is the name of a village in the Khorasan Province/ هشت پی )Name of Places: cities )1 .29 and countries paasaargad/: Pasargad was the capital of the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the/ پاسارگاد )Name of Places: cities )1 .30 and countries Great who had issued its construction (559–530 BC); it was also the location of his tomb. It was a city in ancient Persia, located near the city of Shiraz (in Pasargad County), and is today an archaeological site and one of Iran's UNESCO World Heritage Sites. sanandaj/: Sanandaj is the capital of Kurdistan Province in Iran. Sanandaj is the/ سنندج )Name of Places: cities )1 .31 and countries twenty-third largest city in Iran. Sanandaj is not old and was founded about 200 years ago, yet under its short existence it has grown to become a center of Kurdish culture. karbala/: Karbala is a city in central Iraq, located about 100 km (62 mi) southwest/ کربال )Name of Places: cities )5 .32 and countries of Baghdad, and a few miles east of Lake Milh. The city, best known as the location of the Ghazwaṫ Karbalā’ (Battle of Karbala) in 680 CE, or the Masjidayn (two Mosques) of Imam Husayn and Abbas, is considered as a holy city for Shi'ite Muslims as Mecca, Medinaand Jerusalem. mashhad/: Mashhad is the second most populous city in Iran and capital of Razavi/ مشهد )Name of Places: cities )3 .33 and countries Khorasan Province. It is located in the northeast of the country, close to the borders of Turkmenistan and Afghanistan. The city is most famous and revered for housing the tomb of Imam Reza, the eighth Shia Imam. shalamche/: Shalamche is a town located in Khuzestan Province, Iran. It is situated/ شلمچه )Name of Places: cities )2 .34 and countries on the border with Iraq, north-west of Abadan. The town was one of the main sites of invasion of Saddam Hussein's Iraq in the Iraq-Iran war. Some 50,000 Iranians died in the fighting around the town, and there is today a war memorial in their memory. darake/: Darakeh is a neighbourhood located north of the provincial capital/ درکه )Name of Places: )1 .35 geographical areas of Tehran, Iran. It is near Evin and Velenjak. It is a popular hiking area that attracts many tourists,

.shomaal/: Shomal (LT as the north) is a name that refers the northern region of Iran/ شمال )Name of Places: )8 .36 geographical areas The region is covered with dense jungles and is attached to the Caspian sea. The region is the most popular holiday destination in Iran. aabshaar doqolou/: Literally translated as ‘twin waterfall’, it is the name of a/ آبشار دوقلو )Name of Places: )1 .37 geographical areas waterfall in the north of Tehran.

bimaarestaan-e emaam reza/: Imam Reza Hospital is the name of a/ بیمارستان امام رضا )ع( )Name of Places: shops )1 .38 and parks and hospital in the central part of the city of Bandar Abbas. agencies, etc. park-e lavizaan/: LT as ‘Lavizan Park’, it is a park in the north-eastern/ پارک لویزان )Name of Places: shops )2 .39 and parks and neighborhood of Tehran, the capital of Iran. agencies, etc. park-e mellat/: LT as ‘The Nation Park’, it is an urban park in/ پارک ملت )Name of Places: shops )1 .40 and parks and northern Tehran, Iran. It is one of the city's largest green spaces, situated adjacent to Valiasr agencies, etc. Street at the foot of the Alborz mountains to the east, extending to Chamran Expressway and Seoul Street to the west. It is watered by winter-snow streams coming down from Mount Tochal. shokouf-e no/: ‘Shokoufe no’ is the name of a cabaret in Tehran, Iran, before the/ شکوفه نو )Name of Places: shops )1 .41 and parks and Islamic revolution in 1979 in the country. agencies, etc. qahv-e khaane/: LT as ‘House of Cofee’, is an establishment which primarily/ قهوه خانه )Name of Places: shops )2 .42 and parks and serves hot coffee, related coffee beverages. It is also a place for smoking Shisha. agencies, etc. ,kafe denis/:Denis café is the name of a café shop in the northern part of Tehran/ کافه دنیس )Name of Places: shops )1 .43 and parks and the capital city of Iran. agencies, etc. makaz-e jarrahi emaam reza/: Imam Reza Surgical Center is the name/ مرکز جراحی امام رضا )Name of Places: shops )1 .44 and parks and of a hospital in the central part of the city of Bandar Abbas. agencies, etc. mouze taarix tabi’i/: The Natural History Museum is located in a building/ موزه تاریخ طبیعی )Name of Places: shops )1 .45 and parks and in the capital city of Tehran. The building includes some large halls and a veranda, which are agencies, etc. decorated by muqarnas and stucco. hotel esteqlaal/: Esteqlall Hotel (LT as Independence Hotel) is a hotel/ هتل استقالل )Name of Places: shops )1 .46 and parks and in Tehran, Iran. Opened in 1962 as the Royal Tehran Hilton, the hotel was designed by local agencies, etc. Iranian architect Heydar Ghiai. The hotel's design consultants also included noted British architect Raglan Squire, who also designed Hilton hotels in Tunis, Bahrain, Nicosia and Jakarta. ,hotel kontenintaal/: InterContinental Hotels & Resorts has over 180 hotels/ هتل کنتینانتال )Name of Places: shops )1 .47 and parks and located in more than 60 countries across the globe. In operation for over 70 years, the agencies, etc. Intercontinental brand is one of the world’s major luxury hotel and resort brands. It is now replaced by the Esteghlal (Independence) Hotel after the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1979. .pol-e resaalat/: Resalat bridge is a bridge in the capital city of Tehran/ پل رسالت )Name of Places: shops )1 .48 and parks and agencies, etc. zahir-od dole/: Zahiroddowleh is the name of a cemetery in Tehran. It is located/ ظهیرالدوله )Name of Places: shops )1 .49 and parks and in Darband, close to Tajrish, Shemiran (now a neighbourhood inside Tehran's city limits) and agencies, etc. many Iranian giants of art and culture are buried there. bahaar-e naaranj/: The Orange blossom is the fragrant flower of the Citrus/ بهار نارنج )Name of Places: shops )4 .50 and parks and sinensis (orange tree). It is used in perfume making, and is traditionally associated with agencies, etc. good fortune and has been popular in bridal bouquets and head wreaths for weddings. behesht-e zahraa/: LT as ‘The Paradise of Zahra’, from Fatima az-Zahra, is the/ بهشت زهرا )Name of Places: shops )2 .51 and parks and largest cemetery in Iran. Located in the southern part of metropolitan Tehran, it is connected agencies, etc. to the city by Tehran Metro Line 1. The cemetery has been one of the inspirations for a webcomic called Zahra's Paradise. "haram/: The Arabic term ḥaram has a meaning of "sanctuary" or "holy shrine/ حرم )Name of Places: shops )2 .52 and parks and in Islam. agencies, etc. halim foroushi/: The Place that sells Halim. Halim is a stew popular in the/ حلیم فروشی )Name of Places: shops )1 .53 and parks and Middle East, Central Asia, and Indian subcontinent. Although the dish varies from region to agencies, etc. region, it always includes wheat or barley, meat, and sometimes lentils. Popular variations include keşkek in Turkey, Iran, Azerbaijan and northern Iraq; Hareesain the Arab world and Armenia; Khichra in Pakistan and India; and Hyderabadi haleem in Telangana, India. shamsol emaare/: ‘The Edifice of the Sun’ is considered the most stunning/ شمس العماره )Name of Places: shops )1 .54 and parks and structure of the Golestan Palace. The idea of building a tall structure came to Nasser ed Din agencies, etc. Shah who wanted a structure from which he could have panoramic views of the city. Designed by Moayer ol Mamalek, construction on this building began in 1865 and was completed two years later. Its architect was Ali Mohammad Kashi. zarh/: Zarih is an ornate lattice structure, usually gilded, that encloses a grave in/ ضریح )Name of Places: shops )2 .55 and parks and a mosque or Islamic Shrine. agencies, etc. .masjed/: Mosque is the place of worship for followers of Islam/ مسجد )Name of Places: shops )3 .56 and parks and agencies, etc.

azadi/: LT as ‘the Liberty Square’, is a city square in Tehran, Iran. It has an area of/ آزادی )Name of Places: )1 .57 streets and localities about 50,000 m2, plus adjacent areas, and is the largest square in Tehran and the second largest in Iran, being smaller than Azerbaijan Square in Tabriz. The 50 m Azadi Tower is in the centre of the square. 58. Name of Places: enqelaab/: LT as ‘Revolution’, Enghelab is an important square in/ انقالب )1( streets and localities central Tehran, Iran. Enqelab Street is a major trunk route in Tehran, Iran connecting Enqelab square to Imam Hossein Square. The street's full name is Enqelab-e Islami (Islamic Revolution Street) and it was named in honour of the Islamic Revolution of 1979. Its former name was Shah Reza Street after Rezā Shāh, the founder of the Pahlavi Dynasty. baam-e tehraan/: LT as ‘the Roof of Tehran’, it is a residential area in the most/ بام تهران )Name of Places: )1 .59 streets and localities northern regions of Saadat Abad locality which enjoys a pleasant weather and attracts many people into its parks. bombast-e akbariyun/: Akbariyoun dead-end street is the name of a deadlock/ بن بست اکبریون )Name of Places: )1 .60 streets and localities street in Tehran. pol-e roumi/: literally translated as ‘Roman Bridge’, it is a bridge in the capital/ پل رومی )Name of Places: )1 .61 streets and localities city of Tehran. The name of the Roman bridge is taken from a bridge in the southwest of Iran, in the city of Dezful, which was built by the Roman captives. jaadde chaalous/: LT as ‘Chalus Road’, it is a road that connects the capital city/ جاده چالوس )Name of Places: )1 .62 streets and localities of Tehran to the northern city of Chalus. Chalus is a city in Mazandaran Province in north of Iran. It serves as the county seat for Chalus County. According to the 2006 census, it has a population of 44,618, in 12,791 families. jaadde karaj/: LT as ‘Karaj Road’, it is a road that connects the capital city of/ جاده کرج )Name of Places: )1 .63 streets and localities Tehran to nearby city of Karaj. jaadde lavaasaan/: LT as ‘Lavasan Road’, it is a road to Lavasan. Lavasan is an/ جاده لواسان )Name of Places: )1 .64 streets and localities affluent town in Shemiranat County, Tehran Province, Iran. It is home to many upper-class and wealthy families. Some Iranians call it the Beverly Hills or Switzerland of Tehran. chaahaar rah-e hasanaabaad/: LT as ‘Hasanabad Junction’, it is the name/ چهارراه حسن آباد )Name of Places: )1 .65 streets and localities of a historical square in the capital city of Tehran. xani aabaad/: Khani Abad is one of the oldest localities of the capital city of/ خانی آباد )Name of Places: )1 .66 streets and localities Tehran. xaraab aabaad/: Kharab Abad is a worn out abandoned building that has turned/ خراب آباد )Name of Places: )1 .67 streets and localities into a refuge for addicted and homeless people. sadaabaad/: Sadabad Palace is a 300 hectare complex built by/ سعداباد )Name of Places: )1 .68 streets and localities the Qajar and Pahlavimonarchs, located in Shemiran, Greater Tehran, Iran. Today, the official residence of the President of Iran is located adjacent to the complex.The complex includes more than 180 hectares of natural forest, streets, qanats, galleries, and museums. shemiraanaat/: Shemiranat is a county in Tehran Province in Iran. The capital of/ شمیرانات )Name of Places: )2 .69 streets and localities the county is Shemiran, which is part of the city of Tehran. kaxe golestaan/: LT as ‘Golestan Palace’, it is the former royal Qajar complex/ کاخ گلستان )Name of Places: )1 .70 streets and localities in Iran's capital city, Tehran. One of the oldest historic monuments in the city of Tehran, and of world heritage status, the Golestan Palace belongs to a group of royal buildings that were once enclosed within the mud-thatched walls of Tehran's arg ("citadel"). It consists of gardens, royal buildings, and collections of Iranian crafts and European presents from the 18th and 19th centuries. .kaashaanak/: Kashanak is one of the oldest localities in Tehran/ کاشانک )Name of Places: )2 .71 streets and localities kouch-e sho’le/: LT as ‘Flame Street’, it is the name of a street in the central/ کوچه شعله )Name of Places: )1 .72 streets and localities part of the capital city of Tehran. ,lavaasaan/: Lavasan is an affluent town in Shemiranat County, Tehran Province/ لواسان )Name of Places: )3 .73 streets and localities Iran. At the 2011 census, its population was 28,558, in 7,645 families. The Jajrood River flows through Lavasan. It is home to many upper-class and wealthy families. manouchehri/: Manouchehri is a street in Tehran which is named after the Iranian/ منوچهری )Name of Places: )1 .74 streets and localities poet Abu Najm Ahmad ibn Ahmad ibn Qaus Manuchehri. Manuchehri Damghani, was a royal poet of the 11th century in Persia. He was from Damghan in Iran and he is said to invent the form of musammat in Persian poetry and has the best ones too. He traveled to Tabarestan and was admitted to the court of King Manuchihr of Ziyarid dynasty and that's where he got his pen name. He later was a royal poet in the court of Sultan Shihab ud-Dawlah Mas'ud I of Ghazni son of Mahmud of Ghazna. meydoun-e chaalous/: LT as ‘Chalus Rounabout’, it is a roundabout in the/ میدون چالوس )Name of Places: )3 .75 streets and localities entrance of the northern city of Chalus. Chalus is a city in Mazandaran Province in north of Iran. It serves as the county seat for Chalus County. According to the 2006 census, it has a population of 44,618, in 12,791 families. Chalus is a major vacation destination for Iranians during holidays for its nice weather and natural attractions. vanak/: Vanak is a neighbourhood in the northern part of Tehran, capital of Iran and/ ونک )Name of Places: )1 .76 streets and localities there is a square and a street named after it. The word Vanak means "Small Tree" in Persian ,zaferaaniye/: Zafaraniyeh is an affluent neighbourhood in the north of Tehran/ زعفرانیه )Name of Places: )1 .77 streets and localities Iran. The name's origin lies in the fact that it was the residence of many saffron traders long ago, thus the name Zafaraniyeh. yaaft aabaad/: Yaft Abad is a locality in Tehran, located south-west of the central/ یافت آباد )Name of Places: )1 .78 streets and localities district of Tehran in Iran ebn-e baave/: Ebne Bave is the cemetery is named after the most famous/ ابن باوه ی )Name of Places: )1 .79 streets and localities occupant, Ibn Babawayh (d.991 CE) a famous scholar of Shia Islam. He taught in Baghdad and lived in Rey at the end of his life. His works (more than 300 volumes) are used as valid sources in Jurisprudence. His most famous book is Man La-yahzar al-faqih. He died in 381 A.H. and his tomb is in Ebn-e Babooyeh daaraabaad/: It is one of the localities in the capital city of Tehran. Darabad is/ داراباد )Name of Places: )2 .80 streets and localities located in the northern region of Tehran which is attached to Tochal mountains in the north. Darabad’s Saheli Park is among the most famous parks in Tehran. shoush/: Shoush is one of the old roundabouts in the capital city of Tehran. It is one/ شوش )Name of Places: )1 .81 streets and localities of the impoverished areas of Tehran. heravi/: One of the streets in the capital city of Tehran. Heravi Metro Station is a/ هروی )Name of Places: )1 .82 streets and localities station in line 3 of the Tehran Metro. It is located on Sayyad Expressway at not far from Heravi Sq. in Northwestern Tehran. The station is across from Golestan Hospital. vozaraa/: Literally translated as ‘[the street of] Ministers, is a famous street in the/ وزرا )Name of Places: )1 .83 streets and localities capital city of Tehran. It is also known by the name of Khalid Islambouli, the Egyptian army officer who planned and participated in the assassination of Egypt's third president, Anwar Sadat, during the annual 6th October victory parade on 6 October 1981. alvand/: One of the streets in the capital city of Tehran. Alvand is the name of the/ الوند )Name of Places: )1 .84 streets and localities highest mountain in Alvand province of Iran. xiyaabaan-e shahid qandi/: LT as ‘the street of Martyr Qandi’, is the name/ خیابان شهید قندی )Name of Places: )6 .85 streets and localities of a street in the capital city of Tehran. The street has taken its name from Mahmoud Qandi, one of the martyrs in the 8 years war between Iran and Iraq. He was the minister of the Ministry of Information and communications technology which was established in 1908, is responsible for postal services, telephones and information technology in the Islamic Republic of Iran. xoun-e xodaa/: LT as ‘The House of God’, it refers to the Kaaba, a building at/ خونه خدا )Name of Places: )1 .86 streets and localities the center of Islam's most sacred mosque, that is Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām, in Mecca, Hejaz, Saudi Arabia. It is the most sacred site in Islam. It is considered by Muslims to be the bayt Allāh, the "House of God", and has a similar role to the Tabernacle and Holy of Holies in Judaism. Wherever they are in the world, Muslims are expected to face the Kaaba when performing salat (prayer). From any point in the world, the direction facing the Kaaba is called the qibla. dasht-e behesht/: LT as ‘the Meadow of the Paradise’, refers to a welfare and/ دشت بهشت )Name of Places: )1 .87 streets and localities recreation complex that is belonged to the judicial system of Iran after the Islamic revolution in 1979. After the 1979 overthrow of the Pahlavi dynasty by the Islamic Revolution, the system was greatly altered. The legal code is now based on Islamic law or sharia, although many aspects of civil law have been retained, and it is integrated into a civil law legal system. According to the constitution of the Islamic Republic, the judiciary in Iran "is an independent power". fereshte/: It is the name of one of Tehran’s Street. Literally translated as ‘angel’, the/ فرشته )Name of Places: )2 .88 streets and localities street is also known by ‘Morteza Fayyazi’ and is one the most expensive and affluent streets in the capital city of Tehran. geloubandak/: Geloubandak junction is one of the oldest junctions in the capital/ گلوبندک )Name of Places: )2 .89 streets and localities city of Tehran.

shabestaan/: Shabestan is an underground space that can be usually found in/ شبستان )Name of Places: house )3 .90 and residence traditional architecture of mosques, houses, and schools in ancient Iran. borj-e pardis/: LT as ‘the Paradise Skyscraper’, is the name of a tall buildings/ برج پردیس )Name of Places: house )1 .91 and residence in the capital city of Tehran. hojre/: Originally as an Arabic word, Hojreh means a room. The term, however, is/ حجره )Name of Places: house )2 .92 and residence used to refer to accommodation of Akhounds or Mullahs, i.e. the students of Islamic schools in Iran. The rooms are usually based in mosques.

aaftaabe/: Aftabeh is a container with a spout used for storing and pouring contents/ آفتابه )Appliances: Home )2 .93 which are liquid in form

mohr/: Mohr is a small piece of soil or clay, often a clay tablet, used/ مهر )Appliances: Object )1 .94 From Daily Life during salat (Islamic daily prayers) to symbolize earth. The use of a turbah is compulsory in most Shi'a schools of Islam and many Hadith mention the benefits of prostration (Sajda) upon the soil of the earth or an alternative material. samaavar zoqaali/: ‘Charcoal Samavar’, is a samovar that is heated by/ سماور زغالیه )Appliances: Object )1 .95 From Daily Life charcoal. Samavar is a heated metal container traditionally used to heat and boil water in and around Russia as well as in other countries: Central Europe, South-Eastern Europe, Eastern Europe, Iran, Kashmir and the Middle-East. Since the heated water is typically used to make tea, many samovars have a ring-shaped attachment (Russian: конфорка) around the chimney to hold and heat a teapot filled with tea concentrate. hejle/: Hejleh refers to a room that bride and groom spend their wedding night in. In/ حجله )Appliances: Object )1 .96 From Daily Life the past, a Hejleh room was usually a room, without a a door and window. The walls of the Hejleh were painted with the images of Shirin and Farhad on it.

faastouni/: a high-quality type of wool yarn, the fabric made from this yarn, and/ فاستونی )Daily Life: Clothing )2 .97 a yarn weight category. ,qabaa/: Reborrowed from Arabic (qabāʾ), from Middle Persian kpʾh (kabāh, “garment/ قبا )Daily Life: Clothing )4 .98 cloak”). Ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *(s) kep- (“to split, cut”). Cognate to Khotanese khapa (“dress”). Perhaps cognate with Latin cappa (“cape”). shalvaar-e kordi/: LT as ‘Kordish Pants’ is traditional Kurdish dresses that are/ شلوار کردی )Daily Life: Clothing )1 .99 for everyday wear. The Kurdish costume was worn many days in the past. labaah/: Labah refers to the long cloak that is worn in by older generation or by/ لباه )Daily Life: Clothing )1 .100 Mullahs. .maanto/: Manto is a long cloak which is worn by women in Iran/ مانتو )Daily Life: Clothing )2 .101 maqne’e/: Maqnae a Islamic scarf that is mainly worn by women in official places in/ مقنعه )Daily Life: Clothing )2 .102 Iran. abaa/: Aba refers to the long cloak that is mainly worn by Mullahs. It is also/ عبا )Daily Life: Clothing )3 .103 recommended to wear Aba when a man perform his prayers. ammaame/: Ammameh is a type of headwear based on cloth winding. Featuring/عمامه )Daily Life: Clothing )5 .104 many variations, it is worn as customary headwear by clergymen in Iran. ,rousari/: scarves covering most or all of the top of a woman's hair and her head/ روسری )Daily Life: Clothing )1 .105 leaving the face uncovered. A headscarf is formed of a triangular or square cloth folded into a triangle piece of fabric, with which the head is covered. Apart from the keffiyeh of the Middle East, headscarves worn by men are much less common and usually for practical purposes. chador/: also variously spelled in English/ چادر )Daily Life: Clothing )11 .106 as chadah, chad(d)ar, chader, chud(d)ah, chadur and naturalized as /tʃʌdə(ɹ)/ is an outer garment or open cloak worn by some women in Iran and some other countries in public spaces or outdoors. A chador is a full-body-length semicircle of fabric that is open down the front. This cloth is tossed over the woman's or girl's head, but then she holds it closed in the front. The chador has no hand openings, or any buttons, clasps, etc., but rather it is held closed by her hands or tucked under the wearer's arms. dastaar/: Dastar is a type of headwear based on cloth winding. Featuring many/ دستار )Daily Life: Clothing )1 .107 variations, it is worn as customary headwear by men of various countries. Communities with prominent turban-wearing traditions can be found in the Indian Subcontinent, Afghanistan, South Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, the Middle East, the Near East, Central Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Sahel, and parts of the Swahili Coast

fesenjoun/: Fesenjoun is an Iranian and Iraqi cuisine stew (a khoresh) flavored/ فسنجون )Food And Beverages )1 .108 (Foodstuff) with pomegranate syrup and ground walnut. It is traditionally made with poultry (duck or chicken), but also variants using balls of ground meat, ghormeh cut lamb, fish, or no meat at all are not unusual. Depending on the cooking method, it can have sweet or sour taste. Fesenjān is served with Iranian white or yellow rice (polo or chelo) qorme sabzi/: an Iranian herb stew. Qhorme Sabzi is a very popular dish/ قرمه سبزی )Food And Beverages )6 .109 (Foodstuff) in Iran and neighboring Azerbaijan Republic. It is often said to be the Iranian national dish. The history of Ghormeh sabzi dates back at least 500 to 2,000 years. shole zard/: Shole Zard is an Iranian traditional saffron rice pudding dessert. It is/ شله زرد )Food And Beverages )1 .110 (Foodstuff) traditionally served during festivals such as Nowruz and Tirgan, as well as Ramadan among Muslim communities. zereshk/: commonly known as barberry, is a large genus of deciduous and/ زرشک )Food And Beverages )1 .111 (Foodstuff) evergreen shrubs from 1–5 m tall found throughout the temperate and subtropical regions of the world. .delo jigar/: the liver and the heart of a sheep/ دل و جیگر )Food And Beverages )3 .112 (Foodstuff) aab qand/:LT as ‘Water-Sugar’ is the solution of water and sugar that is given to/ آب قند )Food And Beverages )1 .113 (Foodstuff) some one who is fainted due to some kinds of stress. -aab qoure/: Verjuice is a highly acidic juice made by pressing unripe grapes, crab/ آبغوره )Food And Beverages )1 .114 (Foodstuff) apples or other sour fruit. Sometimes lemon or sorrel juice, herbs or spices are added to change the flavour. ,estaanbouli/: Estanbouli is a dish made from white rice, tomatoes, garlic, onions/ استانبولی )Food And Beverages )1 .115 (Foodstuff) and other ingredients. ashe reshte/: a type of āsh (thick soup) featuring reshteh (thin noodles), kashk (a/ آش رشته )Food And Beverages )4 .116 (Foodstuff) whey-like, fermented dairy product), commonly made in Iran and Azerbaijan. There are more than 50 types of thick soup (āsh) in Iranian cooking, this being one of the more popular types. The ingredients used are reshteh (thin noodles), kashk (a whey-like, fermented dairy product), herbs such as parsley, spinach, dill, spring onion ends and sometimes coriander, chick peas, black eye beans, lentils, onions, flour, dried mint, garlic, oil, salt and pepper. This is a soup that is vegetarian but can easily be made vegan by omitting the kashk; alternatively, meat can be added. Traditional Ash reshteh is served at special Iranian events, like Nowruz, Sizdah be-dar or during winter time. The noodles are supposed to symbolize good fortune for the new year. piyaz daaq/: LT as ‘Fried Onions’ are a popular snack food, garnish, or vegetable/ پیاز داغ )Food And Beverages )2 .117 (Foodstuff) accompaniment to various recipes. Common fried onions are cooked by basic pan frying or sautéing of sliced onions. torshi/: Torshi is the pickled vegetables of the cuisines of many Balkan and Middle/ ترشی )Food And Beverages )2 .118 (Foodstuff) East countries. The word turşu comes from torshi which comes from torsh, which means 'sour' in Persian and Kurdish. jigar/: liver of a sheep/ جیگر )Food And Beverages )2 .119 (Foodstuff) cholo kabaab/: Chelow kabab or Chelo kabab is the national dish of Iran. It consists/ چلوکباب )Food And Beverages )1 .120 (Foodstuff) of steamed, saffron basmati or Iranian rice topped with one of the many varieties of Persian kabab. halvaa/: Halva is any of various dense, sweet confections served across the Middle/ حلوا )Food And Beverages )2 .121 (Foodstuff) East, South Asia, Central Asia, West Asia, the Caucasus, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Balkans, Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Malta and the Jewish diaspora. halim/: Haleem or Daleem is a stew popular in the Middle East, Central Asia, and/ حلیم )Food And Beverages )2 .122 (Foodstuff) Indian subcontinent. Although the dish varies from region to region, it always includes wheat or barley, meat, and sometimes lentils. xagineh/: Scrambled eggs is a dish made from whites and yolks of eggs stirred or/ خاگینه )Food And Beverages )1 .123 (Foodstuff) beaten together in a pan while being gently heated, typically with salt and butter and variable other ingredients. sachme polo/: literally translated as pallbearing rice, it is a kind of rice which is/ ساچمه پلو )Food And Beverages )1 .124 (Foodstuff) prepared with lentil, oil and salt. The food has gained its name since it is usually served in military basements to soldiers as well as that the lentil looks like shotguns. .adas polo/: it is a kind of rice which is prepared with lentil, oil and salt/ عدس پلو )Food And Beverages )1 .125 (Foodstuff) .qolve/: the kidneys of a sheep/ قلوه )Food And Beverages )2 .126 (Foodstuff) ,kabaab/: Kebab are various Middle Eastern dishes originally based on grilled meat/ کباب )Food And Beverages )3 .127 (Foodstuff) and now with many variants. Two of the best-known kebab dishes are shish kebab and doner kebab. kashk/: Kashk, qurt, qurut, jamid, chortan, aaruul is a range of dairy products used/ کشک )Food And Beverages )3 .128 (Foodstuff) in cuisines of Iranian, Turkish, Mongolian, Central Asian, Transcaucasian, and the Levantine peoples. ,koufteh/: Kofta is a family of meatball or meatloaf dishes found in South Asian/ کوفته )Food And Beverages )2 .129 (Foodstuff) Middle Eastern, Balkan, and Central Asian cuisine. kou kou/: Kuku also spelled as kookoo is an egg based Iranian dish. It is frequently/ کوکو )Food And Beverages )6 .130 (Foodstuff) a vegetarian dish, made with whipped eggs which then are folded in with various ingredients. It is similar to the Italian dish frittata or an open-faced omelette. .nazri/: Nazri refers to the food that is given as a religious vow/ نذری )Food And Beverages )1 .131 (Foodstuff) jouje kabaab/: Jūjeh-kabāb is an Iranian dish that consists of grilled chunks of/ جوجه کباب )Food And Beverages )1 .132 (Foodstuff) chicken which are sometimes with bone and other times without bone. This is one of the most common and popular dishes of Iran. kale pache/: Khash, pacha, kalleh pacheh, or kakaj šürpi is a dish of boiled cow or/ کله پاچه )Food And Beverages )1 .133 (Foodstuff) sheep's feet and/or head, although other cow parts, such as the brain, head and stomach may also be used. keyk yazdi/: LT as ‘Yazdi Cake’, it is a native Yazd confectionary in the center/ کیک یزدی )Food And Beverages )3 .134 (Foodstuff) of Iran and it is used mostly in the Yazd province for reception at religious ceremonies. ,nanaayi taftouni/: Taftan, taftoon or taftun is a leavened flour bread from Persian/ نان تافتون )Food And Beverages )1 .135 (Foodstuff) Pakistani and Uttar Pradesh cuisines, baked in a clay oven. This bread is made with milk, yoghurt, and eggs. nounvayi sangaki/: Sangak is a plain, rectangular, or triangular Iranian whole/ نون سنگک )Food And Beverages )1 .136 (Foodstuff) wheat leavened flatbread.

peraayd/: The Kia Pride is a subcompact car sold by the South Korean automobile/ پراید )Transportation )1 .137 manufacturer Kia Motors between March 1987 and January 2000, and again since September 2011. Between April 2005 and September 2011 the Kia New Pride had been sold. peykaan/: Peykan, LT as arrow, is an automobile produced by/ پیکان )Transportation )3 .138 the Iranian company Iran Khodro (formerly called "Iran National") between 1967 and 2005. The car was very popular in Iran from its introduction until its discontinuation. It is often referred as the Iranian "chariot."

saandis/: Sandis is a brand of juice concentrate drink owned by the German/ ساندیس )Brand Names )1 .139 Company WILD and sold in laminated foil pouches. goldkouest/: QNet Ltd, formerly known as QuestNet, GoldQuest, and QI/ گلدکوئست )Brand Names )1 .140 Limited, is a Hong Kong-based direct selling company owned by the QI Group. .vayteks/: a chemical that whitens clothing/ وایتکس )Brand Names )1 .141

tomaan/: Toman, is a superunit of the official currency of Iran, the rial. It was/ تومان )Measurement: )104 .142 currency divided into 10,000 dinars. Between 1798 and 1825, the toman was also subdivided into 8 rial, each of 1250 dinar. In 1825, the qiran was introduced, worth 1000 dinars or one tenth of a toman. riyal/: The Iranian rial is the currency of Iran. Although the "toman" is no longer an/ لایر )Measurement: )2 .143 currency official unit of Iranian currency, Iranians commonly express amounts of money and prices of goods in "tomans". For this purpose, one "toman" equals 10 rials. qeroun/: also qerun or kran, was a currency of Iran between 1825 and 1932. It was/ قرون )Measurement: )2 .144 currency subdivided into 20 shahi or 1000 dinar and was worth one tenth of a toman. The rial replaced the kran at par in 1932, although it was divided into one hundred (new) dinars. The qiran is no longer an official denomination but the term still enjoys wide usage among Iranians. dozaari/: also qerun or kran, was a currency of Iran between 1825 and 1932. It was/ دوزاری )Measurement: )1 .145 currency subdivided into 20 shahi or 1000 dinar and was worth one tenth of a toman. The rial replaced the kran at par in 1932, although it was divided into one hundred (new) dinars. The qiran is no longer an official denomination but the term still enjoys wide usage among Iranians.

farsax/: Farsakh is a historical Iranian unit of itinerant distance, the length of which/ فرسخ )Measurement: distance )1 .146 varied according to terrain and speed of travel. The European equivalent is the league.

147. Measurement: grading )2( 16 /shounzdah/: The Iranian grading system is similar to that of France's in secondary systems schools and universities; the passing grade is 10. Graduate programs require 12 and 14 as passing grades for Master's and Ph.D. level programs, respectively. Iranian grades are not convertible to the 4.0 scale GPA directly, and should be used according to the destination universities' regulations. Usually a grade of more than 16/20 is considered excellent.

148. Measurement: )16( 1319 /hezaaro sisado nouzdah/: The Solar Hijri calendar also called the Solar Hejri solar/lunar year and calendar or Shamsi Hijri calendar, and abbreviated as SH, is the official calendar months of Iran and Afghanistan. It begins on the vernal equinox (Nowruz) as determined by astronomical calculation for the Iran Standard Timemeridian (52.5°E or GMT+3.5h). This determination of starting moment is more accurate than the Gregorian calendar for predicting the date of the vernal equinox, because it uses astronomical observations rather than mathematical rules. Each of the twelve months corresponds with a zodiac sign. The first six months have 31 days, the next five have 30 days, and the last month has 29 days in usual years but 30 days in leap years. The New Year's Day always falls on the March equinox. aabaan/: Aban is the eighth month of the Iranian calendar. Aban has 30 days. It begins/ آبان )Measurement: )2 .149 solar/lunar year and in October and ends in November by the Gregorian calendar. Aban is the second month months of autumn, and is followed by Azar. arba’in/: Arba’in a Shia Muslim religious observance that occurs forty days after/ اربعین )Measurement: )1 .150 solar/lunar year and the Day of Ashura. It commemorates the martyrdomof Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson months of Muhammad, who was killed on the 10th day of the month of Muharram. Imam Husayn ibn Ali and 72 companions were killed by Yazid I's army in the Battle of Karbala in 61 AH (680 CE). Writing in forty batches has become a tradition among Islamic scholars. ordibehesht/: Ordibehesht is the second month of the Solar Hijri calendar, the/ اردیبهشت )Measurement: )1 .151 solar/lunar year and official calendar of Iran and Afghanistan. Ordibehesht has 31 days, spanning the months of months April and May in the Gregorian calendar. Its associated astrological sign in the tropical zodiac is Taurus. Ordibehesht is the second month of the spring season (Bahar), and is followed by Khordad. .bahman/: Bahman is the eleventh and penultimate month of the Iranian calendar/ بهمن )Measurement: )3 .152 solar/lunar year and Bahman has thirty days. It begins in January and ends in February of the Gregorian calendar. months The month is equivalent to Aquarius zodiac.Bahman is the second month of winter, and is followed by Esfand. tasou’aa/: Tasu’a is the ninth day of Muharram and the day before Ashura. Several/ تاسوعا )Measurement: )1 .153 solar/lunar year and events occurred on this day, including: Shemr's entrance to Karbala, the granting of safe months conduct for the children of Umm ul-Banin, preparation for war, and besieged day. dey/: Dey is the tenth month of the Iranian calendar, marking the start of winter. It has/ دی )Measurement: )1 .154 solar/lunar year and thirty days, beginning in December and ending in January of the Gregorian Calendar.The months associated astrological sign in the tropical zodiac is Capricorn. mordaad/: Mordad is the fifth month of the Iranian calendar. Mordad has thirty-one/ مرداد )Measurement: )2 .155 solar/lunar year and days, beginning in July and ending in August of the Gregorian calendar]. It is the second months month of summer after Tir, and is followed by Shahrivar. The name "Mordad" derives from Middle Persian "Amurdad" from Avestan 'Ameretat', the Zoroastrian divinity of "immortality", and under whose protection the month stands. moharram/: Muḥarram is the first month of the Islamic calendar. It is one of the four/ محرم )Measurement: )4 .156 solar/lunar year and sacred months of the year. It is held to be the second holiest month, following Ramadan. The months word "Muharram" means "forbidden". sha’baan/: Sha’ban is the eighth month of the Islamic calendar. This is the month of/ شعبان )Measurement: )1 .157 solar/lunar year and "separation", so called because the pagan Arabs used to disperse in search of water. months safar/: Safar means "whistling of the wind". When this name was assigned to this/ صفر )Measurement: )1 .158 solar/lunar year and month, it was probably a windy time of the year. Most of the Islamic months were named months according to weather conditions at the time. However, since they are based on the moon, the months shift about 11 days every year. So, the seasons do not necessarily correspond to the name of the month anymore. -xordaad/: Khordad is the third month of the Iranian calendar. Khordad has thirty/ خرداد )Measurement: )1 .159 solar/lunar year and one days. It begins in May and ends in June by the Gregorian calendar. Khordad is the third months month of the spring season (Bahar). It is followed by Tir. ramezaan/: Ramezan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, and is observed/ رمضون )Measurement: )1 .160 solar/lunar year and by Muslims worldwide as a month of fasting (Sawm) to commemorate the first revelation of months the Quran to Muhammad according to Islamic belief. This annual observance is regarded as one of the Five Pillars of Islam. The month lasts 29–30 days based on the visual sightings of the crescent moon, according to numerous biographical accounts compiled in the hadiths.

aaqaaye tabrizi/: proper surnames in the movies/ آقای ... )Film and Animation )2 .161 Characters zizi goulou/: Zizigulu Tales is a television series directed by Marzieh/ زی زی گولو )Film and Animation )2 .162 Characters Boroumand. This series began in the early 1994, and aired on Iranian television until the spring of 1995. shangoul-o mangoul/: It is the Iranian version of the stoty "The Wolf and/ شنگول و منگول )Film and Animation )1 .163 Characters the Seven Young Goats" ali santouri/: the first character of the movie Ali Santouri. It is a/علی سنتوری )Film and Animation )3 .164 Characters 2007 Iranian drama film directed by Dariush Mehrjui dealing with the life of a santour player named Ali Bolourchi. The film's title, "Santouri" refers to one who can play the santour instrument. It is noteworthy that, in Persian "playing the Santour" is also the euphemism for injecting heroin into one's veins; thrashing, for instance, one's arm for causing the main artery of the arm to swell, in preparation for the injection, is reminiscent of playing the santour. maadar-e haaj zanbour-e asal/: literally translated as the mother of Huch/ مادر هاچ زنبور عسل )Film and Animation )1 .165 Characters the honeybee, refers to the mother of an animation character. It is an anime series produced by Tatsunoko Productions. The series features the adventures of a young bee named Hutch: the son of a Queen bee, Hutch is separated from his mother when his native beehive is destroyed by an attack of wasps. The series follows Hutch as he searches for his missing mother, in the midst of a frequently hostile nature. The series were very popular one during 1990s in Iran.

yazid/: Yazīd ibn Mu‘āwiya, commonly known as Yazid I, was the second Caliph of/ یزید )Historical Figures )1 .166 the Umayyad Caliphate. Yazid was the Caliph as appointed by his father Muawiyah I and ruled for three years from 680 CE until his death in 683 CE.

iraj mirzaa/: Prince Iraj Mirza, son of prince Gholam-Hossein Mirza, was a/ ایرج میرزا )Literary Figures )1 .167 famous Iranian poet. He was a modern poet and his works are associated with the criticism of traditions. He also made translation of literary works from French into Persian. xosro’o shirin/: Khosrow and Shirin, is the title of a famous Persian tragic/ خسرو و شیرین)Literary Figures )1 .168 romance by the Persian poet Nizami Ganjavi who also wrote Layla and Majnun. ferdowsi/: Abu ʾl-Qasim Ferdowsi Tusi, or Ferdowsi was a Persian poet and the/ فردوسی )Literary Figures )2 .169 author of Shahnameh, which is the world's longest epic poem created by a single poet, and the national epic of Greater Iran. forouq/: Forugh Farrokhzad was an influential Iranian poet and film director. She/ فروغ )Literary Figures )3 .170 was a controversial modernist poet and an iconoclast, writing from a female point of view. qamar/: Qamar-ol-Moluk Vaziri, born Qamar Seyed Hosayn Khan, commonly known/ قمر )Literary Figures )2 .171 as "Qamar", was a celebrated Iranian singer, who was also the first woman of her time to sing in public in Iran without wearing a veil. She is known as "the Queen of Persian music". mowlavi/: Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Rūmī, also known as Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad/ مولوی )Literary Figures )3 .172 Balkhī, Mevlânâ/Mawlānā, Mevlevî/Mawlawī, and more popularly simply as Rumi, was a 13th-century Persian Sunni Muslim poet, jurist, Islamic scholar, theologian, and Sufi mystic. haafez/: Khwāja Shams-ud-Dīn Muḥammad Ḥāfeẓ-e Shīrāzī, known by his pen name/ حافظ )Literary Figures )1 .173 Hafez, was a Persian poet who "lauded the joys of love and wine but also targeted religious hypocrisy." rostam/: Rostam or Rustam is the most celebrated legendary hero in Shahnameh and/ رستم )Literary Figures )1 .174 Iranian mythology. In Shahnameh, Rostam and his predecessors are Marzbans of Sistan. shams/: Shams was a Persian. Muslim, who is credited as the spiritual instructor/ شمس )Literary Figures )2 .175 of Mewlānā Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Balkhi, also known as Rumi and is referenced with great reverence in Rumi’s poetic collection, in particular Diwan-i Shams-i Tabrīzī (The Works of Shams of Tabriz). Tradition holds that Shams taught Rumi in seclusion in Konya for a period of forty days, before fleeing for Damascus. The tomb of Shams-i Tabrīzī was recently nominated to be a UNESCO World Heritage Site. shahriyaar/: Seyyed Mohammad Hossein Behjat Tabrizi, mainly known by his pen/ شهریار )Literary Figures )2 .176 name, Shahriar, was a notable Iranian poet of Azerbaijani ethnicity, who wrote in Azerbaijani and Persian. leyli/: Leyli is the female character of a love story between Qais ibn Al-Mulawah and/ لیلی )Literary Figures )6 .177 Layla that took place in the 7th century Arabia. The Persian poet Nizami Ganjavi also wrote a popular poem praising their love story in the 10th century who also wrote "Khosrow and The Five) (پنج گنج :Shirin". It is the third of his five long narrative poems, Panj Ganj (Persian Treasures). Lord Byron called it “the Romeo and Juliet of the East.” -majnoun/: Majnoon, the male character of a love story between Qais ibn Al/ مجنون )Literary Figures )8 .178 Mulawah and Layla that took place in the 7th century Arabia. The Persian poet Nizami Ganjavi also wrote a popular poem praising their love story in the 10th century who also wrote پنج :Khosrow and Shirin". It is the third of his five long narrative poems, Panj Ganj (Persian" ”.The Five Treasures). Lord Byron called it “the Romeo and Juliet of the East) (گنج mowlaanaa/: Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Rūmī, also known as Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad/ موالنا )Literary Figures )1 .179 Balkhī, Mevlânâ/Mawlānā, Mevlevî/Mawlawī, and more popularly simply as Rumi, was a 13th-century Persian Sunni Muslim poet, jurist, Islamic scholar, theologian, and Sufi mystic.

shajariyaan/: Mohammad-Reza Shajarian is an internationally and critically/ شجریان )Celebrity Figures )1 .180 acclaimed Iranian classical singer, composer and Ostad of Persian music. He has been called "Iran's greatest living maestro of Persian classical music."

shah/: Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, known as Mohammad Reza Shah, was the Shah of/ شاه )Political Figures )1 .181 Iran from 16 September 1941 until his overthrow by the Iranian Revolution on 11 February 1979. Mohammad Reza Shah took the title Shāhanshāh on 26 October 1967. ,saddaam/: Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti was the fifth President of Iraq/ صدام )Political Figures )1 .182 serving in this capacity from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003.

,abolfazl/: Al-‘Abbās ibn ‘Ali also Qamar Banī Hāshim, was the son of Imam Ali/ اباالفضل )Religious Figures )15 .183 the first Imam of Shiite Muslims and the fourth Caliph of Sunni Muslims, and Fatima bint Hizam, commonly known as Mother of the Sons. abaa abdellah-el hosein/: Al-Ḥusayn ibn ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib, was a grandson/ اباعبدا..الحسین )Religious Figures )1 .184 of the Islamic Nabi Muhammad, and son of Ali ibn Abi Talib, and Fatimah the daughter of Muhammad. emaam hosein/: Al-Ḥusayn ibn ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib, was a grandson of the Islamic/ امام حسین )Religious Figures )8 .185 Nabi Muhammad, and son of Ali ibn Abi Talib, and Fatimah the daughter of Muhammad. .emaam zamaan/: The twelfth Imam of Shia muslims/ امام زمان )Religious Figures )3 .186 emaam zaadeh/: An Imāmzādeh is a word found in the Persian, Azerbaijani, and/ امامزاده )Religious Figures )12 .187 Urdu languages, that refers to an immediate descendant of a Shi'i Imam. Imamzadeh means "offspring" or descendent of an imam. There are many other different ways of spelling this term. amiral mo’menin/: Ali was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, the/ امیرالمومنین )Religious Figures )1 .188 prophet of Islam. He ruled as the fourth caliph from 656 to 661, and was first Imam of Shia Islam from 632 to 661. a’emmeye ma’soumin/: in Twelver Shia Islam are the Islamic/ ائمه معصومین )Religious Figures )1 .189 prophet Muhammad, his daughter Fatima Zahra; and the Twelve Imams. All are considered to be infallible under the theological concept of Ismah. bibi faatemeh/: Fatimah bint Muhammad was the youngest daughter of the/ بی بی فاطمه )Religious Figures )1 .190 Islamic Nabi Muhammad and her mother Khadijah, therefore, one of the members of Muhammad's Bayt. She was a wife of 'Ali and mother of Al-Hasan and Al-Husayn. panj tan-e aale abaa/: the People of the Cloak, refers to the Islamic/ پنج تن آل عبا )Religious Figures )2 .191 prophet, Muhammad; his daughter, Fatimah; his cousin and son-in-law Ali; and his two grandsons Hassan and Husayn. peyqambar/: Muhammad is the prophet and founder of Islam. According to Islamic/ پیغمبر )Religious Figures )4 .192 doctrine, he was God's Messenger, sent to confirm the essential teachings of monotheism preached previously by Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. hosein/: Al-Ḥusayn ibn ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib, was a grandson of the Islamic Nabi/ حسین )Religious Figures )1 .193 Muhammad, and son of Ali ibn Abi Talib, and Fatimah the daughter of Muhammad. zoljanaah/: was the horse of Husayn ibn Ali. Dhuljanah was a very important/ ذوالجناح )Religious Figures )4 .194 character in Karbala. zahraa/: Fatimah bint Muhammad was the youngest daughter of the Islamic Nabi/ زهرا )Religious Figures )4 .195 Muhammad and her mother Khadijah, therefore, one of the members of Muhammad's Bayt. She was a wife of 'Ali and mother of Al-Hasan and Al-Husayn. abbaas/: Al-‘Abbās ibn ‘Ali also Qamar Banī Hāshim, was the son of Imam Ali, the/ عباس )Religious Figures )6 .196 first Imam of Shiite Muslims and the fourth Caliph of Sunni Muslims, and Fatima bint Hizam, commonly known as Mother of the Sons. ali/: Ali was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, the prophet of Islam. He ruled/ علی )Religious Figures )12 .197 as the fourth caliph from 656 to 661, and was first Imam of Shia Islam from 632 to 661. ali akbar/: ‘Ali al-Akbar ibn Al-Husayn, or simply "Ali al-Akbar," was the son of/ علی اکبر )Religious Figures )1 .198 Al-Husayn ibn ‘Ali, the third Shi‘ite Imam, and Umme Layla. He was killed at the age of 18, 19 or 25 on the day of ‘Ashura’, in Karbala’. fatemey-e zahraa/: Fatimah bint Muhammad was the youngest daughter of the/ فاطمه زهرا )Religious Figures )2 .199 Islamic Nabi Muhammad and her mother Khadijah, therefore, one of the members of Muhammad's Bayt. She was a wife of 'Ali and mother of Al-Hasan and Al-Husayn. qamar-e bani haashem/: Al-‘Abbās ibn ‘Ali also Qamar Banī Hāshim, was the/ قمر بنی هاشم )Religious Figures )2 .200 son of Imam Ali, the first Imam of Shiite Muslims and the fourth Caliph of Sunni Muslims, and Fatima bint Hizam, commonly known as Mother of the Sons. mohammad/: Muhammad is the prophet and founder of Islam. According to Islamic/ محمد )Religious Figures )1 .201 doctrine, he was God's Messenger, sent to confirm the essential teachings of monotheism preached previously by Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.

shahid paaknejaad/: Literally translated as ‘Martyr Paknejad’ was one of the/ شهید پاکنژاد )Social Figures )5 .202 members of Iran’s parliament who was killed in an explosion in the headquarter of Iran Islamic Republic Party on 28th of June, 1981 in Tehran while a meeting of party leaders was in progress. Seventy-three leading officials of the Islamic Republic were killed, including Chief Justice Ayatollah Mohammad Beheshti (who was the second-most powerful figure in the revolution after Ayatollah Khomeini at the time). The People's Mujahedin of Iran or Mujahideen al-Khalq is thought to have been responsible for the attack. shahid ostovaari/: Literally translated as ‘martyr Ostovari’, is the name of one/ شهید استواری )Social Figures )1 .203 of Iranian soldiers who was killed in the eight years of war between Iran and Iraq. He was born in Marvdasht city and was killed in 1987. xoffash-e shab/: literally translated as ‘the night bat’, it an epithet of Gholamreza/ خفاش شب )Social Figures )2 .204 Khoshrou. Gholamreza Khoshroo, a serial killer who became famous as "The Night Bat" was hanged in a depot at the Azadi stadium in Tehran. Five years before, he had been arrested under charges of multiple armed robberies and rape but he escaped from the police while he was being taken to the court for trial. After his escape, he continued his murder spree by acting as a private cab driver, and picking up female passengers. He then took his victims to a deserted area and dumped their bodies after rape and murder. For some time he created an atmosphere of fear and horror on the streets of Tehran. He was finally arrested on the night of June, 26 and after a brief trial was hanged at 7:45 am, Aug, 14, 1997. darvish/: Darvish or Dervish is a member of a Muslim (specifically Sufi) religious/ درویشی )Social Figures )1 .205 order who has taken vows of poverty and austerity. Dervishes first appeared in the 12th century; they were noted for their wild or ecstatic rituals and were known as dancing, whirling, or howling dervishes according to the practice of their order.

haqqol laah/: literally translated as the right of Allah, it is a term in Islamic/ حق هللا )Religious: beliefs )1 .206 Jurisprudence. Fiqh is Islamic jurisprudence. While Sharia is believed by Muslims to represent divine law as revealed in the Quran and the Sunnah (the teachings and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad), fiqh is the human understanding of the Sharia — sharia expanded and developed by interpretation (ijtihad) of the Quran and Sunnah by Islamic jurists (Ulama) and implemented by the rulings (Fatwa) of jurists on questions presented to them. haqqon naas/: it is a term in Islamic Jurisprudence which means the right of/ حق الناس )Religious: beliefs )1 .207 people. Fiqh is Islamic jurisprudence. While Sharia is believed by Muslims to represent divine law as revealed in the Quran and the Sunnah (the teachings and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad), fiqh is the human understanding of the Sharia —sharia expanded and developed by interpretation (ijtihad) of the Quran and Sunnah by Islamic jurists (Ulama) and implemented by the rulings (Fatwa) of jurists on questions presented to them. so’aal/: literally translated as Sharia question is a question that is asked by a Muslim/ سئوال )Religious: beliefs )2 .208 to find out his/her duty based on the Islamic jurisprudence. Sharia is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God's immutable divine law and is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its human scholarly interpretations. The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists. shafaa’at/: Intercession or intercessory prayer is the act of praying to a deity on شفاعت )Religious: beliefs )5 .209 behalf of others. Although the idea of intercession or mediation (Arabic: s̲ h̲ afāʿa) has historically played a very prominent role in Islamic thought, it is not universally accepted by all Muslims in the present day. The Quran says that the pre-Islamic Arab pagan gods will not be able to intercede with God on behalf of humankind, and that "the guilty" (al-mujrimīn, 74:41) will not benefit from any intercession on the Day of Judgment. hejaab/: Hijab or a veil is an article of clothing or hanging cloth that is intended to/ حجاب )Religious: beliefs )7 .210 cover some part of the head or face, or an object of some significance. Veiling has a long history in European and Asian societies. The practice has been prominent in different forms in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. ,naamey-e a’amaal/: in Islamic believes, literally translated as the letter of deeds/ نامه اعمال )Religious: beliefs )1 .211 it refers to an immaterial book in which all actions and deeds of every individual are recorded by two angels that are appointed by God. nazar kardeh/: translated as blessed, refer to a person who miraculously is blessed/ نظرکرده )Religious: beliefs )3 .212 by the attention of a prophet or an Imam. .tprbat/: translated as the soil, refers to the soil of an Imam’s tomb/ تربت )Religious: beliefs )1 .213 keraamaat/: the practice of rituals, sometimes seen as magical in nature, performed/ کرامات )Religious: beliefs )1 .214 with the intention of invoking the action or evoking the presence of one or more gods, especially with the goal of uniting with the divine, achieving henosis, and perfecting oneself.

osoul-e din/: Theology of Twelver Shias contains five principles of/ اصول دینه )Religious: Islamic )1 .215 Usul al-dín is an Arabic .(أصول الدین عند الشیعة :Sharia the Shia religion known as Uṣūl ad-Dīn (Arabic Islamic term which literally translates as 'foundation of the faith', roughly interpretable as 'theology'. halaal/: also spelled hallal or halaal, refers to what is permissible or lawful in/ حالل )Religious: Islamic )12 .216 Sharia traditional Islamic law. It is frequently applied to permissible food and drinks. Arabic pronunciation: literally 'one خمس :xoms/: In Islamic tradition, khums (Arabic/ خمس )Religious: Islamic )4 .217 Sharia fifth') refers to the historically required religious obligation of any Muslim army to pay one- fifth of the spoils of war, the money collected from non-believers after a military campaign; this tax was paid to the caliph or sultan, representing the state of Islam. shab-e avval-e qabr/: LT as the ‘first night of grave’, it is the first night after/ شب اول قبر )Religious: Islamic )2 .218 Sharia the burial of a dead person. According to narratives, the first night is an important night for the deceased and has different stages. At first, an angel named Romain enters the grave to create a lawsuit, and after him, the two angels, Nakir and Monkar, ask for beliefs and deeds. Some acts, such as the prayer of the Laila al-Dafn, help to reduce the difficulty to the night. ,shab-e qadr/: variously rendered in English as the Night of Decree, Night of Power/ شب قدر )Religious: Islamic )1 .219 Sharia Night of Value, Night of Destiny, or Night of Measures, is in Islamic belief the night when the first verses of the Quran were revealed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. aqd/: Aghd refers to the marriage contract and vows between a woman and a/ عقد دائم/نکاه )Religious: Islamic )21 .220 Sharia man. Based on Islamic Sharia, the woman and the man are not allowed to touch each other or the man to see the woman’s body or hair before they are married. qena/: Ghena refers to certain types of music which are forbidden (Haram) to be heard/غنا )Religious: Islamic )1 .221 Sharia or played in Islam. qesaas/: Ghesas is an Islamic term meaning "retaliation in kind" or revenge, "eye/ قصاص )Religious: Islamic )1 .222 Sharia for an eye", "nemesis" or retributive justice. It is a category of crimes in Islamic jurisprudence, where Sharia allows equal retaliation as the punishment. kaffaareh/: Kaffareh is a penalty or fine imposed on committing certain haram actions/ کفاره )Religious: Islamic )1 .223 Sharia or omitting certain obligations. Some of these penalties are financial and some are worships. The main kaffaras consist in the emancipation of a slave, feeding or providing clothes for 60 people in need, 60 days of fasting, 31 of which should be consecutive, and slaughtering a sheep. The main actions or omissions leading to kaffara consist in intentionally or unintentionally killing a human being, intentionally breaking one's fast, breaking one's promise or vow or swear, and committing some prohibited actions during hajj and 'umra. Fidya (ransom), which is obligatory when some non-prohibited actions are committed, also counts as a sort of kaffara. mash/: literally means to touch with hand, it refers to an action in Wudu. Wudu is a/ مسح )Religious: Islamic )1 .224 Sharia ritual action that brings about purity and cleanliness. It is performed by washing one's face and hands, and then wiping one's head and feet in the specific way explained in the manuals of Islamic laws. Wudu' is mustahab (supererogatory) per se, but it is obligatory for some actions, such as prayer and tawaf around the Ka'ba. There are tow ways to perform the wudu': sequential (tartibi), by immersion (irtimasi). In some cases, one should perform ghusl or tayammuminstead of wudu'. Also jabira wudu' should be performed if there is a splint. In the Wudu' Verse of the Quran, the way to perform the wudu' is stated, and its details are elaborated in hadiths. Scholars of Islamic ethics and hadiths have emphasized the importance of having wudu' and being pure all the time. mehriye/: Mahriye or Mehriye refers to a mandatory payment, in the form of money/ مهریه )Religious: Islamic )3 .225 Sharia or possessions paid or promised to pay by the groom, or by groom's father, to the bride at the time of marriage, that legally becomes her property. While the mahr is often money, it can also be anything agreed upon by the bride such as jewelry, home goods, furniture, a dwelling or some land. Mahr is typically specified in the marriage contract signed during an Islamic marriage. naa mahram/: all those males whom a woman is permitted to marry (e.g. a cousin/ نامحرم )Religious: Islamic )5 .226 Sharia or just a random Muslim male) or a male whom it is forbidden tomarry at that moment in time but may become permissible to marry in the futuredue to a change in circumstances. In other word a male who is temporarilyforbidden (e.g. a Muslim female who is already married is temporarily forbiddento marry another Muslim male as long as she is married. But once she divorcesher current husband and passes her ‘Iddah’ (waiting period after divorce), shemay now marry another Muslim male and he is no longer forbidden for her). najes/: Najes refers to things or persons regarded as ritually unclean. According to/ نجس )Religious: Islamic )2 .227 Sharia Islam, there are two kinds of najis: the essential najis which cannot be cleaned and the unessential najis which become najis while in contact with another najis. vaajeb/:LT as mandatory, it is an Islamic term which denotes a religious duty/ واجب )Religious: Islamic )1 .228 Sharia commanded by Allah. The word is also used in Persian, Pashto, Turkish, and Urdu in the same meaning. azaan/: Azan is the Islamic call to worship, recited by the muezzin at prescribed times/ اذان )Religious: Islamic )3 .229 ."meaning "to listen, to hear, be informed aboutأَ ِذ َن Sharia of the day. The root of the word is ʾadhina ."meaning "ear ,(أُ ُذن) Another derivative of this word is ʾudhun xaandan-e qor’aan/: The Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which/ خواندن قران )Religious: Islamic )5 .230 Sharia Muslims believe to be a revelation from God. It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature. The Quran is divided into chapters, which are then divided into verses. xaandan-e namaaz/: an invocation or act that seeks to activate a rapport with an/ خواندن نماز )Religious: Islamic )2 .231 Sharia object of worship through deliberate communication. salavaat/: or Darood Sharif (in Urdu) is an invocation which Muslims make by/ صلوات )Religious: Islamic )11 .232 Sharia saying specific phrases to compliment the Islamic prophet Muhammad. siqe/: Sigheh is a type of temporary contract marriage permitted in Twelver Shia/ صیغه )Religious: Islamic )5 .233 Sharia Islam, where the duration of the marriage and the mahr must be specified and agreed upon in advance. It is a private contract made in a verbal or written format. siqey-e fozouli/: to marry a woman and a man without having the permission/ صیغه فضولی )Religious: Islamic )2 .234 Sharia from them. tavaaf/: Tavaf refers to one of the Islamic rituals of pilgrimage. During/ طواف )Religious: Islamic )1 .235 Sharia the Hajj and Umrah, Muslims are to go around the Kaaba (the most sacred site in Islam) seven times, in a counterclockwise direction; the first three circuits at a hurried pace, followed by four times, more closely, at a leisurely pace. faateha/: Fatehah refers to the act of reading Quran or prayer for the soul of a deceased/ فاتحه )Religious: Islamic )8 .236 Sharia person. qebleh/: Qiblah is the direction that should be faced when/ قبله )Religious: Islamic )1 .237 Sharia a Muslim prays during salah prayers. It is fixed as the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca. hojjat-e shar’i/: is the criteria by which the acts and deeds of Muslims are/ حجت شرعی )Religious: Islamic )1 .238 Sharia assessed and evaluated as right or wrong. haram/: an Arabic term meaning "forbidden". Thus it may refer to: either something/ حرام )Religious: Islamic )10 .239 Sharia sacred to which access is forbidden to the people who are not in a state of purity or who are not initiated into the sacred knowledge; or to an evil thus "sinful action that is forbidden to be done". rak’at/: Rak’at refers to the prescribed movements and words followed/ رکعت )Religious: Islamic )5 .240 Sharia by Muslims while offering prayers to God. It also refers to a single unit of Islamic prayers. rouzeh/: Fasting is a willing abstinence or reduction from some or all food, drink, or/ روزه )Religious: Islamic )1 .241 Sharia both, for a period of time. zakat/: Zakat is a form of alms-giving treated in Islam as a religious obligation or/ زکات )Religious: Islamic )5 .242 Sharia tax, which, by Quranic ranking, is next after prayer (salat) in importance. sangsaar/: LT as ‘stonning’ refers to a method of capital punishment whereby a/ سنگسار )Religious: Islamic )1 .243 Sharia group throws stones at a person until they die. No individual among the group can be identified as the one who kills the subject. This is in contrast to the case of a judicial executioner. Often slower than other forms of execution, stoning within the context of contemporary Western culture is considered a form of execution by torture. shar’a/: Shar’e or Sharia is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition. It/ شرع )Religious: Islamic )8 .244 Sharia is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God's immutable divine law and is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its human scholarly interpretations. The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists. qosl/: Ghosl is an Arabic term referring to the full-body ritual purification mandatory/ غسل )Religious: Islamic )1 .245 Sharia before the performance of various rituals and prayers, for any adult Muslim after having sexual intercourse, ejaculation, or completion of the menstrual cycle. keraahat/: In Islamic terminology, something which is makruh is a disliked or/ کراهت )Religious: Islamic )1 .246 Sharia offensive act (literally "detestable" or "abominable"), one of the five categories (al-ahkam al- khamsa). In Islamic law - wajib/fard (obligatory), Mustahabb/mandub (recommended), halal/mubah (permitted), makruh (disapproved), haram (forbidden). Though it is not haram(forbidden) or subject to punishment, a person who abstains from this act will be rewarded. Muslims are encouraged to avoid such actions when or as possible. It is one of the degrees of approval (ahkam) in Islamic law. namaaz/: Namaz or Salat is one of the Five Pillars in the faith of Islam and an/ نماز )Religious: Islamic )14 .247 Sharia obligatory religious duty for every Muslim. It is a physical, mental, and spiritual act of worship that is observed five times every day at prescribed times. namaaz-e shab/: literally translated as the ‘night prayer’, it is one of the Mustahab/ نماز شب )Religious: Islamic )1 .248 Sharia prayers in Islam. Mustahabb (literally "recommended") is an Islamic term referring to recommended, favored or virtuousactions. Mustahabb actions are those whose status of approval in Islamic law (ahkam) falls between mubah (neither encouraged nor discouraged) and wajib (compulsory). One definition is "duties recommended, but not essential; fulfilment of which is rewarded, though they may be neglected without punishment". Synonyms of mustahabb include masnun and mandub. The opposite of mustahabb is makruh (discouraged). vozou/: the Islamic procedure for washing parts of the body, a type of ritual/ وضو )Religious: Islamic )3 .249 Sharia purification. Wuduinvolves washing the hands, mouth, nostrils, arms, head, and feet with water, and is an important part of ritual purity in Islam. What activities require wuḍūʾ, what rituals constitute it, and what breaks or invalidates it are governed by fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and specifically its rules concerning hygiene. aqd/: the Islamic ritual through which a couple are regarded as husband and wife. It is/ عقد )Religious: Islamic )3 .250 Sharia socially or ritually recognised union between spouses that establishes rights and obligations between them, between them and their children, and between them and their in-laws. tahaarat/: an essential aspect of Islam. (The same term taharah is also found in/ طهارت )Religious: Islamic )1 .251 Sharia Hebrew applying to purity in Ancient Israel and modern Judaism also). It is the opposite of najis, things which are considered ritually impure are in the state of najāsa.

.xaandan-e qor’an/: to recite and read the holy Quran or prayers/ )خواندن قران/دعا( )Religious : phrases and )3 .252 blessings and prayers and swearing -saying prayers to the prophet/: Salawat (plural of Salat) or aṣ-ṣalātu ʿala -n/ )صلوات( )Religious : phrases )2 .253 and blessings and nabī or Darood Sharif (in Urdu) is an invocation which Muslims make by saying specific prayers and swearing phrases to compliment the Islamic prophet Muhammad. allaaho akbar/: usually translated as "God is [the] greatest". It is a/ هللا اکبر )Religious : phrases )3 .254 and blessings and common Islamic Arabic expression, used in various contexts by Muslims; in formal prayer, prayers and swearing in the call for prayer (adhān), as an informal expression of faith, in times of distress, or to express resolute determination or defiance. astaqforollaah/: The prayer from Quran that is read when someone asks for/ استغفرهللا )Religious : phrases )5 .255 and blessings and repentance from God. prayers and swearing ashhado alla elaaha ellallaah/: an Islamic creed declaring belief in the/ اشهداال اله الی هللا )Religious : phrases )1 .256 and blessings and oneness of God (tawhid) prayers and swearing enshaa allaah/: the language expression for "God willing" or "if God wills". The/ انشاهللا )Religious : phrases )65 .257 and blessings and phrase is commonly used by Muslims, Arab Christians, and Arabic-speakers of other religions prayers and swearing to refer to events that one hopes will happen in the future. It expresses the belief that nothing happens unless God wills it and that God's will supersedes human will. besmellaaher rahmaner rahim/: "In the name of God") is the name of/ بسم ا.. الرحمن الرحیم )Religious : phrases )7 .258 and blessings and the Islamic phrase b-ismi-llāhi r-raḥmāni r-raḥīmi In the name of God, the Most Gracious, the prayers and swearing Most Merciful". ."alhamdolellah/: known as Tahmid is an Arabic phrase meaning "Praise be to God/ الحمدهللا )Religious : phrases )9 .259 and blessings and It is frequently used by Muslims of every background, due to its centrality to the texts of prayers and swearing the Quran and the words of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, but also spoken by some Arabic- speaking Christians and Jews. xayrol haafez vallaho xayrol hafezin/: An Arabic prayer which/ خیر الحافظ و هللا خیر الحافظین )Religious : phrases )1 .260 and blessings and means that the God is the best protector in the world. The prayer is believed to protect the prayers and swearing reader from evil. rahemallah man yaqraol faatehato ma’as salavaat/: refers to/ رحم ا.. من یقرا فاتحه مع الصلوات )Religious : phrases )1 .261 and blessings and the act of reading Quran or prayer together with saying a Salavat for the soul of a deceased prayers and swearing person. salaamon alaykom va rahmatollaahe va barakato/: it is the full/ سالم علیکم و رحمه هللا و برکاته )Religious : phrases )5 .262 and blessings and and complete form of As-salāmu ʿalaykum which is a greeting in Arabic that means "peace prayers and swearing be upon you". The greeting is a standard salutation among Muslims and is routinely used whenever and wherever Muslims gather and interact, whether socially or within worship and other contexts. The typical response to the greeting is waʿalaykumu as-salām ("and upon you, peace"). qol hovallaah/: the 112th Sura of the Qur'an. In the early years of Islam, the/ قول هو هللا )Religious : phrases )1 .263 and blessings and sūrahs of the Quran came to be known by several different names, sometimes varying by prayers and swearing region. This sūrah was among those to receive many different titles. It is a short declaration of tawhid, God's absolute oneness, consisting of 4 ayat. Al-Ikhlas means "the purity" or "the refining". qowmozzalemin/: literally translated as ‘the ruthless nation’ is an Arabic and/ قوم الظالمین )Religious : phrases )1 .264 and blessings and Islamic phrase that is referred to those who repress others. prayers and swearing laa elaaha ellal laah/: This phrase, called the shahada – (šahāda) – or Muslim/ ال هللا الی هللا )Religious : phrases )10 .265 and blessings and creed, is the declaration of belief in the oneness of God prayers and swearing maashaallaah/: also Masha'Allah, is an Arabic phrase that means "God has/ ماشاهللا )Religious : phrases )10 .266 and blessings and willed", expresses appreciation, joy, praise, or thankfulness for an event or person that was prayers and swearing just mentioned. allahomma sale alaa mohammad va aale mohammad/: an/ الهم صل علی محمد و ال محمد )Religious : phrases )18 .267 and blessings and invocation which Muslims make by saying specific phrases to compliment the Islamic prayers and swearing prophet Muhammad. hoval baaqi/: Literally means ‘He is eternal’, is a verse from Quran. This verse is/ هوالباقی )Religious : phrases )1 .268 and blessings and maily used in Iran when somebody has passed away. prayers and swearing ennaanellaah va ennaa elayhe raaje’un/: a part of a verse from/انا للله و انا الیه راجعون )Religious : phrases )2 .269 and blessings and the Qur'an which translates to "We belong to Allah and to Him we shall return. The phrase is prayers and swearing recited by Muslims when a person experiences a tragedy in life, especially upon hearing news that a person has died. The phrase may also be recited in situations that involve risk of any sort. vassalaamo alaykom va rahmatollaahe va barakatoh/: a/ والسالم علیکم و رحمه هللا و برکاته )Religious : phrases )1 .270 and blessings and greeting in Arabic that means "peace be upon you". The greeting is a standard salutation prayers and swearing among Muslims and is routinely used whenever and wherever Muslims gather and interact, whether socially or within worship and other contexts. ya allaah/: Literally translated as ‘oh God’, it is an Arabic phrase that is used in/ یا هللا )Religious : phrases )16 .271 and blessings and different situations among Iranians, such as when entering a room or a place, or when asking prayers and swearing for God’s help. yaa rafiqa man laa rafiqa lah/:literally translated as ‘oh thee my friend/ یا رفیق من ال رفیق له )Religious : phrases )2 .272 and blessings and who there is no friend for Him’, an Arabic sentence that is recited as a prayer. prayers and swearing asfalossaafelin/: literally translated as ‘the nethermost of the lowest’, refers to/ اسفل السافلین)Religious : phrases )1 .273 and blessings and the lowest level in the hell and those who are placed there. prayers and swearing qabule haq/: literally means ‘May God accept’, is a prayer that is said when/ قبول حق )Religious : phrases )1 .274 and blessings and someone has finished praying. prayers and swearing allaah vakili/: literally translated as ‘I take Allah as my attorney’ is a kind of swear/ هللا وکیلی )Religious : phrases )1 .275 and blessings and and an oath that is taken to express one’s truthfulness. prayers and swearing vaallaa/: literally translated as ‘swear by Allah (God)’, is a type of swear by which/ وهللا )Religious : phrases )12 .276 and blessings and someone take the name of God as his/her proof. prayers and swearing jallal xaaleq/: literally means ‘The creator is the greatest’, it is a phrase that/ جل الخالق )Religious : phrases )1 .277 and blessings and Iranians express in surprise, or to express surprise and disbelief. prayers and swearing xodaa bozorge/: usually translated as "God is [the] greatest". It is a/ خدا بزرگ )Religious : phrases )1 .278 and blessings and common Islamic Arabic expression, used in various contexts by Muslims; in formal prayer, prayers and swearing in the call for prayer (adhān), as an informal expression of faith, in times of distress, or to express resolute determination or defiance.

bahaayi/: a religion teaching the essential worth of religions, and the unity and/ بهایی )Religious: Sects )1 .279 equality. Established by Bahá'u'lláh in 1863, it initially grew in the Middle East, known as Bahá'ís, spread out into the world's countries and territories, with the highest concentrations in India and Iran.

ammaame gozaari/: literally as ‘the turban ceremony’ is a ceremony in which/ عمامه گذاری )Religious: ceremonies )2 .280 and rituals the graduated students of Islamic schools are officially allowed to wear the special cloths of Mullahs and are appointed as clergymen. maraaseme zoljanaah/: LT as ‘the Zoljanah Ceremony’, it is a ceremony that/ مراسم ذوالجناح )Religious: ceremonies )1 .281 and rituals is held in the memory of Imam Hossein, in which a horse is symbolically ornamented as Zoljanah, the horse of Husayn ibn Ali, a very important character in Karbala. naayeboz ziyaareh/: is referred to someone who goes on a pilgrimage to an/ نایب الزیاره )Religious: ceremonies )1 .282 and rituals Imam's graveyard on behalf of another person. azaadaari/: is ‘noha’ or when interpreted in light of Shia views, is/ )شعر عذاداری( )Religious: ceremonies )1 .283 and rituals a lament about the tragedy of Husayn ibn Ali in the Battle of Karbala. azaadaari/: The Mourning of Muharram (or Remembrance of/ )صدای مارش مذهبی( )Religious: ceremonies )1 .284 and rituals Muharram or Muharram Observances) is a set of rituals associated with both Shia and Sunni Islam. The commemoration falls in Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar. Many of the events associated with the ritual take place in congregation halls known as Hussainia. The event marks the anniversary of the Battle of Karbala, when Imam Hussein ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad, was killed by the forces of the second Umayyad caliph. Family members accompanying him were killed or subjected to humiliation. The commemoration of this event during the yearly mourning season, with the Day of Ashura as the focal date, serves to define Shia communal identity. Muharram observances are carried out in countries with a sizable Shia population. azaadaari/: The Mourning of Muharram (or Remembrance of/ )عذاداری( )Religious: ceremonies )3 .285 and rituals Muharram or Muharram Observances) is a set of rituals associated with both Shia and Sunni Islam. The commemoration falls in Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar. Many of the events associated with the ritual take place in congregation halls known as Hussainia. ezdevaaje movaqqat/: LT as ‘the temporary marriage’, it is a type of temporary/ ازدواج موقت )Religious: ceremonies )2 .286 and rituals contract marriage permitted in Twelver Shia Islam, where the duration of the marriage and the mahr must be specified and agreed upon in advance. It is a private contract made in a verbal or written format. A declaration of the intent to marry and an acceptance of the terms are required (as they are in nikah). This type of marriage is also known as sigeh or sigheh in Iran. chehelom/: LT as ‘the 40th’ it is a Shia Muslim religious observance that/ چهلم )Religious: ceremonies )11 .287 and rituals occurs forty days after someone’s death. rowzeh/: LT as ‘Mourning’, it refers to the ritual of the Mourning of Muharram. It/ روضه )Religious: ceremonies )3 .288 and rituals is held every day of the year to commemorate the death of Husayn ibn Ali and his followers during the Battle of Karbala. molabbas shodan/: LT as ‘to be dressed’, it is stage at which clergymen are/ ملبس شدن )Religious: ceremonies )1 .289 and rituals entitled to wear the special cloths of Mullahs. In other words, to officially become a Mullah. The word Mullah is derived from the Quranic term Mawla. However, used ambiguously in the Quran, some publishers have described its usage as a religious title as inappropriate. The term is sometimes applied to a Muslim man or woman, educated in Islamic theology and sacred law. The title is derived from the Arabic word mawlā, meaning "vicar", "master" and "guardian". In large parts of the Muslim world. mowezeh/: an oration, lecture, or talk by a member of a religious/ موعظه )Religious: ceremonies )2 .290 and rituals institution or clergy. hey’at/.: It is referred to a crowd of people who mourn mainly for the third Imam of/ هیئت )Religious: ceremonies )2 .291 and rituals Shia Muslims. Hussain ibn Ali was a grandson of Prophet) Muhammad, and son of Ali ibn Abi Talib (the ,نَـبِي :the Islamic Nabi (Arabic fourth Rashid caliph of Sunni Islam, and first Shi'ite Imam), and Fatimah the daughter of Muhammad. He is an important figure in Islam as he was a member of the Bayṫ (Household) of Muhammad, and Ahl al-Kisā’ (People of the Cloak), as well as being the third Shi'ite Imam. xotbeh/: Khotbeh refers to a special prayer that is usually made by a Mullah to the/ خطبه )Religious: ceremonies )2 .292 and rituals bride and groom during a wedding ceremony based upon Islamic recommendations. nazr/: Nazr or Religious vows are the public vows made by the members of religious/ نذر )Religious: ceremonies )9 .293 and rituals communities pertaining to their conduct, practices, and views. nowhe/: Nowheh refers a lament about the tragedy of Husayn ibn Ali in the Battle of/ نوحه )Religious: ceremonies )1 .294 and rituals Karbala. haftom/: literally translated as the ‘7th’ is referred to the mourning ceremony that is/ هفتم )Religious: ceremonies )1 .295 and rituals held on the 7th day after one’s death. .aashouraa/: Ashoura is the tenth day of Muharram in the Islamic calendar/ عاشورا )Religious: ceremonies )6 .296 and rituals For Shi'a Muslims, Ashura marks the climax of the Remembrance of Muharram, and commemorates the death of Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad at the Battle of Karbala on 10 Muharram in the year 61 AH ( in AHt: October 10, 680 CE). The massacre of Husayn with a small group of his companions and family members had a great impact on the religious conscience of Muslims, particularly Shi'a Muslims, who commemorate Husayn's death with sorrow and passion. menbar/: a pulpit in the mosque where the imam (prayer leader) stands to deliver/ منبر )Religious: ceremonies )3 .297 khutbah) or in the Hussainia where the speaker sits and lectures the ,خطبة) and rituals sermons congregation. The word is a derivative of the Arabic root n-b-r ("to raise, elevate"); the Arabic plural is manābir.

gorgam be havaa/: LT as ‘I’m a Wolf to Sky’, it is a children’s game in which/ گرگم به هوا )Social Cultures: games )1 .298 and entertainments one become a wolf and tries to toach others, whicle the other children run away and try to stand in a place higher than the wolf. hamchin hamchin/: LT as ‘Like This Like This’, is a children’s game in which/ همچین همچین )Social Cultures: games )1 .299 and entertainments children try to imitate what their adults want them to do. shir yaa xat/: LT as ‘Lion or Line’, it refers to the practice of throwing a coin in/ شیر یا خط )Social Cultures: games )1 .300 and entertainments the air to choose between two alternatives, sometimes to resolve a dispute between two parties. It is a form of sortition which inherently has only two possible and equally likely outcomes.

azz ire Qoran rad shodan/: ‘to pass from under the holy Quran’ is a/ از زیر قران هم ردشیم )Social Cultures: rituals )1 .301 and festivals and tradition that is usually done when someone is going to a journey. It is believed that passing ceremonies from under the Qura will bring health and safety. paarche nevisi/: LT as ‘Writing on a Cloth’, it refers to an expression of/ پارچه نویسی )Social Cultures: rituals )1 .302 and festivals and welcome, condolence, congratulations, etc. that is written in a big piece of cloths and is put ceremonies on in a place to be seen by the public. tou sofre raah baaz shodan/: the opening of a way in the table cloths by/ تو سفره راه باز شده )Social Cultures: rituals )1 .303 and festivals and the arrangement of the plates, glasses, etc., which is believed to be a sign of incoming guests. ceremonies jashne patou/: LT as ‘the blanket ceremony’, it is a tradition that is held for the/ جشن پتو )Social Cultures: rituals )1 .304 and festivals and soldier who is spending his last night in a military basement after approximately two years of ceremonies doing his military service. ,chaar shanbe souri/: Chaharshanbe Suri, also known as the Festival of Fire/ چهارشنبه سوری )Social Cultures: rituals )3 .305 and festivals and is an Iranian festival celebrated on the eve of the last Wednesday before Nowruz. ceremonies halaaliyat/: ‘Asking for forgiveness’ from one’s family and friends when he/she is/ حاللیت )Social Cultures: rituals )5 .306 and festivals and taking a journey as he/she may not live to come back. ceremonies hanaa bandoun/: a ceremony that is held before a newly married girl go to her/ حنا بندون )Social Cultures: rituals )1 .307 and festivals and husband’s house. ceremonies xoune tekouni/: LT as ‘House Shaking’, it is an Iranian tradition of spring/ خونه تکونیت )Social Cultures: rituals )1 .308 and festivals and cleaning and part of the Norouz festival. It usually involves washing carpets, painting the ceremonies house, and cleaning the yard and attic, stems from the Zoroastrians' idea of purifying with cleanliness as a measure for keeping Evil away from the kingdom of Good. daamaad sarxoune/: LT as ‘the groom at home’, this term refers to a man who/ داماد سرخونه )Social Cultures: rituals )1 .309 and festivals and is married but is unable to afford and provide independent shelter and lives in his father-in- ceremonies law’s home. .darbast/: to take a whole taxi/ دربست )Social Cultures: rituals )6 .310 and festivals and ceremonies zanjir pare kardan/: ‘to break chains’ by fastening them round one’s arms/ زنجیر پاره میکرد )Social Cultures: rituals )1 .311 and festivals and in a public show called Marekeh. Mareke is a kind of public show in which a "stunner" ceremonies entertains viewers by doing strange actions. Mareke in Iran, and possibly some other Middle Eastern countries, is a traditional demonstration of some of the moves, such as tearing a chain with an arm, breaking a stone with a hand or playing with a venomous snake. Watching the show is free, but during the show or after the show, people can make a donation as a gift. sare sofreye halaal neshastan/: literally translated as ‘to be sited at a/ سر سفره حالل نشستن)Social Cultures: rituals )1 .312 and festivals and Halal tablecloth’, is an expression of praise to someone who is a truthful person and evades ceremonies from cheating others. It is believed that the food that one is raised with has direct effect on his/her personality. So, being raised with a Halal food makes a person honest. salavaati/: Salavati refers to the food or anything that is given in return for an/ صلواتی )Social Cultures: rituals )3 .313 and festivals and invocation which Muslims make by saying specific phrases to compliment the Islamic ceremonies prophet Muhammad. ma’ereke/: Mareke is a kind of public show in which the "stunner" entertains viewers/ معرکه )Social Cultures: rituals )1 .314 and festivals and by doing strange actions. Mareke in Iran, and possibly some other Middle Eastern countries, ceremonies is a traditional demonstration of some of the moves, such as tearing a chain with an arm, breaking a stone with a hand or playing with a venomous snake. Watching the show is free, but during the show or after the show, people can make a donation as a gift. Mareke is almost fading and rarely runs around cities in Iran. raqse shekam/: ‘Belly dance’ is an expressive dance which emphasizes complex/ رقض شکم )Social Cultures: rituals )1 .315 and festivals and movements of the torso. Originally a Middle Eastern folk dance, it has evolved to take many ceremonies different forms depending on the country and region, both in costume and dance style. New styles have been spread from the Middle East to the whole world where its popularity has becoming more and more popular in the Occident. sofre aqd/: literally as the ‘marriage table cloths’, is one of the traditional Iranian/ سفره عقد )Social Cultures: rituals )2 .316 and festivals and tablecloths that spreads at the wedding or wedding ceremony, and the bride and groom sit ceremonies there and listen to the marriage contract. The marriage table is prevalent in most Iranian cities, in which there are six dishes, each containing something that expresses the wish of the groom's bride. These containers usually include walnuts, almonds, hazelnuts, breads, and eggs and eggs. Among these, there are dishes of sweets and cheese breads and beans, honey and yoghurts. An egg is a symbol of fertility and the birth of a child by a bride. qand shekastan/: literally translated as ‘to break sugarloaf’, is a family tradition/ قند شکستن )Social Cultures: rituals )1 .317 and festivals and in which someone tries to break the sugarloaf into halves in ones’ wedding ceremony. It is ceremonies believed that is the sugarloaf breaks in the first hit, the first child of the couple will be a boy. kel keshidan/: Kel is a special noise that is usually made by women in ceremonies/ کل کشیدن )Social Cultures: rituals )3 .318 and festivals and to showand express the crowd’s happiness. ceremonies Ruz e Tabi'at), is –روز طبیعت ) sizdah/: LT as the ‘13th’, also known as Nature's Day/ سیزده )Social Cultures: rituals )1 .319 and festivals and an Iranian festival held annually on the thirteenth day of Farvardin (the first month of ceremonies the Iranian calendar), during which people spend time picnicking outdoors. It marks the end of the Nowruz holidays in Iran. eyde nowrouz/: Nowrouz Eid is the name of the Iranian New Year, also known/ عید نوروز )Social Cultures: rituals )1 .320 and festivals and as the Persian New Year, which is celebrated worldwide by the Iranians, along with some ceremonies other ethno-linguistic groups, as the beginning of the New Year. It has been celebrated for over 3,000 years in Western Asia, Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Black Sea Basin and the Balkans. It marks the first day of the first month (Farvardin) in the Iranian calendar.

baa qeyrat/: LT as ‘with qeyrat’ is a term that refers to a person who appreciates/ با غیرت )Social Cultures: social )1 .321 habits and beliefs qeyrat. Qeyrat is an Arabic word which means "protective jealousy" or "justifiable jealousy." From the Islamic perspective, it is seen as a good and necessary type of jealousy that men have for the womenfolk (e.g. their wife, their sisters, and their daughters) and is perceived as a necessary part of Islam. The concept asserts that all Muslim men should have a collective sense of protectiveness for Muslim women. .bi qeyrat/: LT as ‘without qeyrat’ is a term that refers to a person who lacks qeyrat/ بی غیرت )Social Cultures: social )9 .322 habits and beliefs qeyrat is an Arabic word which means "protective jealousy" or "justifiable jealousy." From the Islamic perspective, it is seen as a good and necessary type of jealousy that men have for the womenfolk (e.g. their wife, their sisters, and their daughters) and is perceived as a necessary part of Islam. The concept asserts that all Muslim men should have a collective sense of protectiveness for Muslim women. bi naamousi/: an act of doing something against the concept of/ بی ناموسی )Social Cultures: social )1 .323 habits and beliefs an ethical category and a virtue in the Iranian Muslim society. ,naamous/: Namous is originally the Arabic word of a concept of an ethical category/ ناموس )Social Cultures: social )9 .324 habits and beliefs a virtue, in Middle Eastern patriarchal character. Literally translated as "virtue", it is now more popularly used in a strong gender-specific context of relations within a family described in terms of honor, attention, respect/respectability, and modesty. sahmiye’i/: literally translated as ‘having a share’, a term that is used to refer to/ سهمیه ای )Social Cultures: social )1 .325 habits and beliefs an unfair process of admitting, accepting, or employing a person over others on the basis of being affiliated to a political or ideological group. qeyrat/: Qeyrat is an Arabic word which means "protective jealousy" or "justifiable/ غیرت )Social Cultures: social )12 .326 habits and beliefs jealousy." From the Islamic perspective, it is seen as a good and necessary type of jealousy that men have for the womenfolk (e.g. their wife, their sisters, and their daughters) and is perceived as a necessary part of Islam. The concept asserts that all Muslim men should have a collective sense of protectiveness for Muslim women.

haaj aaqaa/: LT as ‘Mister Haji’, is a title which is originally given to/ حاج آقا )Honorific Titles )143 .327 a Muslim person who has successfully completed the Hajj to Mecca. It is also often used to refer to an elder, since it can take time to accumulate the wealth to fund the travel, and in many Muslim societies as an honorific title for a respected man. The title is placed before a person's name; for example Saif Gani becomes Hajji Saif Gani. haaj xanoum/: LT as ‘Mrs. Haji’, is a title which is originally given to/ حاج خانم )Honorific Titles )30 .328 a Muslim woman who has successfully completed the Hajj to Mecca. It is also often used to refer to an elder, since it can take time to accumulate the wealth to fund the travel, and in many Muslim societies as an honorific title for a respected man. The title is placed before a person's name. haaj/: Hajj is a title which is originally given to a Muslim person who has/ حاج )Honorific Titles )16 .329 successfully completed the Hajj to Mecca. It is also often used to refer to an elder, since it can take time to accumulate the wealth to fund the travel, and in many Muslim societies as an honorific title for a respected man. The title is placed before a person's name; for example Joshua Omo becomes Hajji Joshua Omo. "Hadži" is also used in Christian Orthodox religion for people who go on pilgrimage to the grave of Christ in Jerusalem. It can be then added to the surname for men (e.g. Hadži-Petrović) or before the first name for women (Hadžika). Hajji is derived from the Arabic ḥājj, which is the active participle of the verb ḥajja ("to make the pilgrimage"). The alternative form ḥajjī is derived from the name of the Hajj with the adjectival suffix -ī, and this was the form adopted by non-Arabic languages. In some areas the title has become a family name, for example in the Bosniak surname Hadžiosmanović("son of Hajji Osman"). haaji/: Hajji (sometimes spelled Hadji, Haji, Alhaji, Al hage, Al hag or El-Hajj) is/ حاجی )Honorific Titles )21 .330 a title which is originally given to a Muslim person who has successfully completed the Hajj to Mecca. It is also often used to refer to an elder, since it can take time to accumulate the wealth to fund the travel, and in many Muslim societies as an honorific title for a respected man. The title is placed before a person's name; for example Joshua Omo becomes Hajji Joshua Omo. "Hadži" is also used in Christian Orthodox religion for people who go on pilgrimage to the grave of Christ in Jerusalem. It can be then added to the surname for men (e.g. Hadži-Petrović) or before the first name for women (Hadžika). Hajji is derived from the Arabic ḥājj, which is the active participle of the verb ḥajja ("to make the pilgrimage"). The alternative form ḥajjī is derived from the name of the Hajj with the adjectival suffix -ī, and this was the form adopted by non-Arabic languages. In some areas the title has become a family name, for example in the Bosniak surname Hadžiosmanović("son of Hajji Osman"). sheyx/: Sheikh is an honorific title in the Arabic language. It commonly designates/ شیخ )Honorific Titles )2 .331 the ruler of a tribe, who inherited the title from his father. "Sheikh" is given to a royal male at birth, whereas the related title "Sheikha" is given to a royal female at birth. .aziz/: literally translated as ‘dear’, it is a title that is usually given to grandmothers/ عزیز )Honorific Titles )13 .332 karbalaayi/: Karbalai refers to a person who has made a pilgrimage to the city of/ کربالیی )Honorific Titles )6 .333 Karbala. The city, best known as the location of the Ghazwaṫ Karbalā’ in 680 CE, or the Masjidayn of Imam Husayn and Abbas, is considered as a holy city for Shi'ite Muslims as Mecca, Medinaand Jerusalem. Tens of millions of Shi'ite Muslims visit the site twice a year, rivaling Mecca as a place of pilgrimage. The martyrdom of Imam Husayn ibn Ali is commemorated annually by millions of Shi'ites, Up to 8 million pilgrims visit the city to observe ‘Āshūrā’ , which marks the anniversary of Imam Husayn's death, but the main event is the Arba‘īn (40th day after Ashura), where up to 22 million visit the holy graves. Most of the pilgrims travel barefooted from all around Iraq and more than 56 countries. marhoum/:literally translated as ‘blessed and forgiven’, it is a title that gives to a/ مرحوم )Honorific Titles )6 .334 deceased man. mashti/: LT as ‘from Mashhad’, refers to a person who has made a pilgrimage to/ مشهدی )Honorific Titles )15 .335 the city of Mashhad. The city is most famous and revered for housing the tomb of Imam Reza, the eighth Shia Imam. Every year, millions of pilgrims visit the Imam Reza shrine and pay their tributes to Imam Reza. The Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid is also buried within the shrine. Mashhad has experienced the rise and fall of many governments over the course of history. seyyed/: Seyed is an honorific title denoting people (Sayyid for males, Sayyida for/ سید )Honorific Titles )11 .336 females) accepted as descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad through his grandsons, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Alicombined Hasnain, sons of Muhammad's daughter Fatimah and his son-in-law Ali (Ali ibn Abi Talib). seyyedeh/: Seyedeh is an honorific title denoting people (Sayyid for males, Sayyida/ سیده )Honorific Titles )1 .337 for females) accepted as descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad through his grandsons, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali combined Hasnain, sons of Muhammad's daughter Fatimah and his son-in-law Ali (Ali ibn Abi Talib). esou/: Esou is a casual way of calling a guy. This title is more common in southern/ اسو )Honorific Titles )1 .338 regions in Iran. heydare karraar/: LT as ‘attacking lion’, it is the epithet of Ali the cousin and/ حیدر کرار )Honorific Titles )1 .339 son-in-law of Muhammad, the prophet of Islam. He ruled as the fourth caliph from 656 to 661, and was first Imam of Shia Islam from 632 to 661. molla asali/: derived from the Quranic term Mawla. However, used ambiguously in the/ مال )Honorific Titles )2 .340 Quran, some publishers have described its usage as a religious title as inappropriate. The term is sometimes applied to a Muslim man or woman, educated in Islamic theology and sacred law. The title is derived from the Arabic word mawlā, meaning "vicar", "master" and "guardian". In large parts of the Muslim world, particularly Iran, Kurdistan, Pakistan, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, EasternArabia, Turkey and the Balkans, Central Asia, the Horn of Africaand South Asia, it is the name commonly given to local Islamic clerics or mosque leaders. xaan/: Khan, originally a title for a sovereign or a military ruler, widely used by/ خان )Honorific Titles )5 .341 Mongolians living to the north of China and later medieval nomadic turkic tribes. "Khan" also occurs as a title in the Xianbei confederation for their chief between 283 and 289. The Rourans were the first people who used the titles khagan and khan for their emperors. Subsequently the Ashina adopted the title and brought it to the rest of Asia. In the middle of the sixth century the Iranians knew of a "Kagan – King of the Turks". xaahar/: literally translated as ‘sister’, it refers to a title that is used to address women/ خواهر )Honorific Titles )5 .342 in an ideologically religious way. kaakaa/: Kaka refers to a male sibling in the accent of people from the south part of/ کاکا )Honorific Titles )4 .343 Iran. .(olamaa/: Ulama are educated in religious institutions (madrasas/ علما )Honorific Titles )1 .344 The Quran, sunnah (authentic hadith), qiyas(analogical reasoning, for Sunni Islam) or 'aql ("dialectical reasoning", for Shia Islam), ijma (juridical consensus) are the sources of traditional Islamic law.

tork/: Torks are a Turkic ethnic group in the Caucasus living mainly in Iranian/ ترک )Descent and Language )2 .345 Azerbaijan and the independent Republic of Azerbaijan. They are the second-most numerous ethnic group among the Turkic peoples after Anatolian Turks. They are predominantly Shi'i Muslims, and have a mixed cultural heritage, including Turkic, Iranian, and Caucasian elements. They comprise the largest ethnic group in Republic of Azerbaijan and by far the second-largest ethnic group in neighboring Iran. The world's largest number of ethnic Azerbaijanis live in Iran, followed by Azerbaijan. torki/: Torki is the extinct Iranian language that was once spoken in Iranian/ ترکی )Descent and Language )2 .346 Azerbaijan and Azerbaijan. Some linguists believe the southern Tati varieties of Iranian Azerbaijan such as those around Takestan such as the Harzandi and Karingani dialects to be remnants of Azeri. In addition, Old Azeri is known to have strong affinities with Talysh. Azeri was the dominant language in Azerbaijan before it was replaced by Azerbaijani, which is a Turkic language. tehraniha/: LT as ‘from Tehran’, or related to Tehran. Tehran is the capital/ تهرانی )Descent and Language )1 .347 of Iran and Tehran Province. With a population of around 8.8 million in the city and 15 million in its larger metropolitan area, Tehran is the most populous city in Iran and Western Asia, and has the second-largest metropolitan area in the Middle East. It is ranked 29th in the world by the population of its metropolitan area. lor/: an Iranian people living mainly in western and south-western Iran. Their/ لریم )Descent and Language )2 .348 population is estimated at around five million. They occupy Lorestan, Kohgiluyeh and BoyerAhmad, Khuzestan and Fars (especially Lamerd, Mamasani and Rostam), Bushehr, Ch aharmahal and Bakhtiari, Hamadan, Ilam, and Isfahan provinces. The Lur people mostly speak the Lurish language (sometimes called "Luri"), a Southwestern Iranian language related to Persian. irani/: Irani, a diverse Indo-European ethno-linguistic group that comprise the/ ایرانی )Descent and Language )1 .349 speakers of the Iranian languages. Proto-Iranians are believed to have emerged as a separate branch of the Indo-Iranians in Central Asia in the mid second millennium BC. At their peak of expansion in the mid first millennium BC, the territory of the Iranian peoples stretched across the Iranian Plateau and the entire Eurasian Steppe from the Great Hungarian Plain in the west to the Ordos Plateau in the east. The Western Iranian Persian Empires came to dominate much of the ancient world from the 6th century BC, leaving an important cultural legacy, while the Eastern Iranian nomads of the steppe played a decisive role in the development of Eurasian nomadism and the Silk Route.

baraadar showhar/: a woman’s husband’s brother/ برادر شوهرتون )Family Relations )1 .350 (Lineage) pedar showhar/: a woman’s husband’s father/ پدر شوهرتون )Family Relations )1 .351 (Lineage) pesar daayi/: one’s uncle’s son from the mother side/ پسر داییم )Family Relations )1 .352 (Lineage) pesar xaaleh/: one’s aunt’s son from the mother side/ پسرخالت )Family Relations )3 .353 (Lineage) xaaleh/: one’s aunt from the mother side/ خاله )Family Relations )24 .354 (Lineage) xaahar showhar/: one’s husband’s sister/ خواهر شوهرت )Family Relations )4 .355 (Lineage) dayi/: one’s uncle from his/her mother side/ دایی )Family Relations )13 .356 (Lineage) doxtar daayi/: one’s uncle’s daughter from his/her mother side/ دختر دایی )Family Relations )2 .357 (Lineage) doxtar amou/: one’s uncle’s daughter from his/her father side/ دختر عمو )Family Relations )1 .358 (Lineage) zan daayi/: one’s uncle’s wife from his/her mother side/ زن دایی )Family Relations )3 .359 (Lineage) zan amou/: one’s uncle’s wife from his/her father side/ زن عمو )Family Relations )1 .360 (Lineage) amme/: one’s aunt from his her father side/ عمه فریده )Family Relations )5 .361 (Lineage) amou/: one’s uncle from his/her father side/ عمو )Family Relations )16 .362 (Lineage) showhar xaaleh/: one’s aunt’s husband from his/her mother side/ شوهر خالمون Family Relations .363 (Lineage)

taar/: Tar, LT as ‘string’, is an Iranian long-necked, waisted instrument, shared by/ تار )Art and Music: musical )1 .364 instruments many cultures and countries like Iran, Armenia, Georgia, Republic of Azerbaijan, and other means "string" in Persian, though it might (تار) areas near the Caucasus region. The word tār have the same meaning in languages influenced by Persian. This has led some Iranian experts to hold that the Tar must be common among all the Iranian people as well as the territories that are named as "Iranian Cultural Continuum" by the Encyclopædia Iranica. santour/: Santour is a hammered dulcimer of Persian/Iranic origins. The term Santur/ سنتور )Art and Music: musical )8 .365 instruments originated with meaning "100 strings."

shour/: Shour is one of the seven Dastgāhs of Persian Music (Classically, Persian/ شور )Art and Music: terms )1 .366 and styles Music is organized into seven Dastgāhs and five Āvāzes, however from a merely technical point of view, one can consider them as an ensemble of 12 Dastgāhs). maahour/: one of the seven Dastgāhs of Persian Music (Classically, Persian Music/ ماهور )Art and Music: terms )1 .367 and styles is organized into seven Dastgāhs and five Āvāzes, however from a merely technical point of view, one can consider them as an ensemble of 12 Dastgāhs). -mezraab/: a small flat tool used to pluck or strum a stringed instrument. For hand/ مضراب )Art and Music: terms )1 .368 and styles held instruments such as guitars and mandolins, the plectrum is often called a pick, and is a separate tool held in the player's hand. In harpsichords, the plectra are attached to the jack mechanism .shisho hast/: mainly refers to very rhythmic, festive and happy songs/ 6 و Art and Music: terms )1( 8 .369 and styles oktaav/: the interval between one musical pitch and another with half or double/ اکتاو )Art and Music: terms )1 .370 and styles its frequency. It is defined by ANSI as the unit of frequency level when the base of the logarithm is two. The octave relationship is a natural phenomenon that has been referred to as the "basic miracle of music", the use of which is "common in most musical systems". panj xatte haamel/: a set of five horizontal lines and four spaces that each/ پنج خط حامل )Art and Music: terms )2 .371 and styles represent a different musical pitch—or, in the case of a percussion staff, different percussion instruments. Appropriate music symbols, depending on the intended effect, are placed on the staff according to their corresponding pitch or function. Musical notes are placed by pitch, percussion notes are placed by instrument, and rests and other symbols are placed by convention.

gachbori sonnati/: LT as ‘traditional Stucco’, it refers to a material made/ گچبری سنتی )Art and Music: fine art )2 .372 of aggregates, a binder, and water. Stucco is applied wet and hardens to a very dense solid. It is used as decorative coating for walls and ceilings and as a sculptural and artistic material in architecture. Stucco may be used to cover less visually appealing construction materials such as metal, concrete, cinder block, or clay brick and adobe. golo morq/: literally translated as ‘flower and bird’, it is a style of painting in/ گل و مرغ )Art and Music: fine art )1 .373 Iran. Flower and bird are the symbol of divine grace and the subtle manifestation of the Creator. The romance of flowers and chicken is also likened to God's glorification and the mention of truth. The flower has the status of the beloved and the bird, the lover. moqarnas/: Moqarnas is a form of architectural ornamented vaulting, the "geometric/ مقرنس )Art and Music: fine art )1 .374 subdivision of a squinch, or cupola, or corbel, into a large number of miniature squinches, producing a sort of cellular structure", sometimes also called a "honeycomb" vault. It is used for domes, and especially half-domes in entrances, iwans and apses, mostly in traditional Persian architecture. Where some elements project downwards, the style may be called mocárabe; these are reminiscent of stalactites, and are sometimes called "stalactite vaults".

-t daste daar/: the 20th letter in Farsi alphabet. The Persian alphabet or Perso/ ط دسته دار )Education: levels )1 .375 Arabic alphabet, is a writing system used for the Persian language. The Persian script shares many features with other systems based on the Arabic script. It is an abjad, meaning vowels are underrepresented in writing. The writing direction is exclusively right-to- left. The script is cursive, meaning most letters in a word connect to each other; when typed, the computer automatically joins adjacent letterforms. However, some Persian compounds do not join, and Persian adds four letters to the basic set for a total of 32 characters. The replacement of the Pahlavi scripts with the Persian alphabet to write the Persian language was done by the Tahirid dynasty in 9th-century Greater Khorasan. dares xaarej/: the highest level of Shia theological courses in Islamic schools in/ درس خارج )Education: levels )1 .376 which certain clergymen can reach the level of Ijtihad. Ijtihad is an Islamic legal term referring to independent reasoning or the thorough exertion of a jurist's mental faculty in finding a solution to a legal question. It is contrasted with taqlid (imitation, conformity to legal precedent). According to classical Sunni theory, ijtihad requires expertise in the Arabic language, theology, revealed texts, and principles of jurisprudence (usul al-fiqh), and is not employed where authentic and authoritative texts (Qur'an and Hadith) are considered unambiguous with regard to the question, or where there is an existing scholarly consensus (ijma). Ijtihad is considered to be a religious duty for those qualified to perform it. An Islamic scholar who is qualified to perform ijtihad is called a mujtahid.

howze elmiyyeh/: LT as ‘center of science’, it is an Islamic educational/ حوزه علمیه )Education: Places )6 .377 institution for educating students (sometimes called seminarians) in theology, generally to prepare them for ordination as clergy, academia, or ministry.

konkour/: Konkour is an examination where candidates are ranked according to/ کنکور )Education: )6 .378 Examinations their grades. If the examination is open for n positions, then the first n candidates in ranks pass, the others are rejected.

talabeh/: Talabeh refers to the students of Islamic schools or Howze Illmiyah which/ طلبه )Education: Pupils )7 .379 is referred to an educational institution for educating students (sometimes called seminarians) in theology, generally to prepare them for ordination as clergy, academia, or ministry.

mobaarak mobaarak tavallodet/ مبارک مبارک تولدت مبارک. بیا شمعها رو فوت کن که صد سال زنده باشی )Literature: folklore )1 .380 songs mobaarak. biya shamaa ro fout kon ke sad saal zende baashi/: literally translated as happy happy happy your birthday. come and blow down the candles to be alive for one hundred years, is the happybirthday song that is sang in Iran in birthday parties. :/baadaa baadaa mobaarak baadaa, ishaallaa mobaarak baada/ بادا یادا مبارک بادا ایشاال مبارک باد )Literature: folklore )1 .381 songs literally translated as be be happy be, inshallah happy be, is the song that is usually sang in wedding ceremonies for the newly married couple.

qazal/: Qazal is a poetic form with rhyming couplets and a refrain, each line sharing/ غزل )Literature: literary )1 .382 styles the same meter. A ghazal may be understood as a poetic expression of both the pain of loss or separation and the beauty of love in spite of that pain. The form is ancient, originating in Arabic poetry in Arabia long before the birth of Islam. It is derived from the Arabian panegyric qasida. The structural requirements of the ghazal are similar in stringency to those of the Petrarchan sonnet. In style and content, it is a genre that has proved capable of an extraordinary variety of expression around its central themes of love and separation. qasideh/: Qasidah is an ancient Arabic word and form of writing poetry, often/ قصیده )Literature: literary )1 .383 styles translated as ode, passed to other cultures after the Arab Muslim expansion. The word qasidah is still being used in its original birthplace, Arabia, and in all Arab countries.

almasnavi alma’navi lelmowlavi/: an extensive poem written/ )هذا کتاب المثنوی المعنوی للمولوی( )Literature: literary )1 .384 works in Persian by Jalal al-Din Muhammad Balkhi also known as Rumi, the celebrated Persian Sufi poet. It is one of the best known and most influential works of Sufism. The Masnavi is a series of six books of poetry that together amount to around 25,000 verses or 50,000 lines. It is a spiritual writing that teaches Sufis how to reach their goal of being in true love with God. -tazkaratol owliya/: Tazkirat al-Awliyā, also transliterated as Tadhkirat al/ تذکره االولیا )Literature: literary )1 .385 works Awliya or Tazkerat-ol-Owliya, is a 72-chapter book written by the Persian poet and mystic Attar about the life of famous Sufis and their miraculous deeds. shaahnaameh/: The Shahnameh, also transliterated as Shahnama, is a long epic/ شاهنامه )Literature: literary )1 .386 works poem written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi between c. 977 and 1010 CE and is the national epic of Greater Iran.

qor’aan/: The Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to/ قران )Literature: religious )16 .387 transcripts be a revelation from God. It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature. The Quran is divided into chapters, which are then divided into verses. soureye maryam/: Sūrat Maryam is the 19th sura (chapter) of the Qur'an and is/ )سوره مریم( )Literature: religious )2 .388 transcripts a Makkan sura with 98 ayat (verses). It is named after Maryam (Mary), Mother of Isa (Jesus), who appears in verses 16-34. Theodor Nöldeke's chronology identifies this sura as the 58th sura delivered, while the traditional Egyptian chronology places it as the 44th. ,aaye/: means "evidence" or "sign". In the context of Islam's principal scripture/ آیه )Literature: religious )2 .389 transcripts the Quran, ayah is used to mean "verse", i.e. each statement or paragraph marked by a number. aayatolkorsi/: the 255th verse of the 2nd surah of the Qur'an, Al-Baqara. This/ ایه الکرسی )Literature: religious )2 .390 transcripts verse speaks about how nothing and nobody is comparable to Allah. It is perhaps the most well-known verse of the Quran and is widely memorized and displayed in the Islamic world. jowshane kabir/: Jawshan Kabeer is a long Islamic prayer that contains 1000/ جوشن کبیر )Literature: religious )2 .391 transcripts names and attributes of God. Jawshan means "steel plate" or "mail" and thus the name of the prayer refers to Muhammad’s heavy armor in battle. hadis/: Hadith refers to one of various reports describing the words, actions, or habits/ حدیث )Literature: religious )1 .392 transcripts of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The term comes from the Arabic language and means a "report", "account" or "narrative". Unlike the Qur'an, which is the same literary work recognized by all Muslims, the ahadith is not one single same collection. doaaye komeyl/: LT as ‘the Supplication of Kumayl’ is a supplication famous/ دعای کمیل )Literature: religious )2 .393 transcripts among Shi'a for its perceived beauty and a traditional supplication in Shi'a Muslim spiritual practice. The Du'a is not an exclusively Shi'a dua, however, as none of its content is controversial among Shi'a and Sunni schools of thought. revaayaat/: one of various reports describing the words, actions, or habits of the/ روایات )Literature: religious )1 .394 transcripts Islamic prophet Muhammad. The term comes from the Arabic language and means a "report", "account" or "narrative". Unlike the Qur'an, which is the same literary work recognized by all Muslims, the a hadith is not one single same collection. ziyaarate aashouraa/: Ziyarat Ashura is a salutatory prayer to Husayn ibn Ali/ زیارت عاشورا )Literature: religious )1 .395 transcripts and the martyrs of the Battle of Karbala. The prayer is part of the liturgy used in pilgrimages to the shrine of Husayn in Karbala. ,soureye asr/: LT as ‘the era verse’, it refers to the 103rd sūrah of the Qur’ān/ سوره عصر )Literature: religious )1 .396 transcripts the Muslim holy book. It contains three āyāt. Surat al-‘Asr is the second shortest sura after al- Kawthar. soureye ankabout/:LT as ‘verse of spider’, it refersto the 29th sura of/ سوره عنکبوت )Literature: religious )1 .397 transcripts the Qur'an with 69 verses. It is a Meccan surah due to the introduction concerning the persecution of the Muslims. The early Muslims were persecuted in Mecca, where Muhammed was not a head of state and not persecuted in Medina, where he was a head of state and had some protection. The surah states that Nuh, Ibrahim, Lut, Shuaib, Hud, Saleh, Musa, and Muhammad all were prophets of God. All of them endured hardships. For example, Noah was ridiculed often and Abraham was thrown into the fire. But God destroyed their people who transgressed. soureye nekaah/: Women or Sūrat an-Nisāʼ is the fourth chapter of/ سوره نکاه )نساء( )Literature: religious )1 .398 transcripts the Quran, with 176 verses. The title of the sura derives from the numerous references to women throughout the chapter, including verses 34 and 127-130.

399. Governmental, )9( 110 /sado dah/: commonly known with its emergency telephone number as Police- is a dispatcher center of Law Enforcement Force of Islamic Republic (پلیس Military and Private 110 (Persian: ۱۱۰ Institutions of Iran which sends emergency responder units. baamdaad film/: Bamdad film is an independent film-production company based/ بامداد فیلم )Governmental, )2 .400 Military and Private in Tehran / Iran. This company mainly focuses on women, human-rights and social issues. Institutions Bamdad Film has produced more than 10 documentary and feature films since 1997 when started its activities. The manager is Manijeh Hekmat, a member of Iranian Production and distribution committee, also a member of Film-Director board. boshraa film/: Boshra film is the name of one of the biggest film making companies/ بشرا فیلم )Governmental, )1 .401 Military and Private in Iran. Institutions daaneshgaahe aazaad/: commonly referred to as Azad University, is/ دانشگاه آزاد )Governmental, )2 .402 Military and Private a private university system in Iran. It is one of the largest comprehensive system Institutions of universities, colleges, and community colleges in the world. daaneshgaahe sharif/: Sharif University is a public research university/ دانشگاه شریف )Governmental, )1 .403 Military and Private in Tehran, Iran known traditionally to be the first choice of top ranked Iranian high school and Institutions university students in engineering and physical sciences, and it is known as the Iranian MIT. The university is located in the Tarasht neighborhood of Tehran within close proximity of Azadi Square, and also has an international campus in Kish, a resort island in the Persian Gulf. dabirestaane zobdegaane daaneshe alvand/: a private high school/ دبیرستان زبدگان دانش الوند )Governmental, )1 .404 Military and Private in the capital city of Tehran. Institutions saazemaane behzisti/: ‘State welfare organization’ of Iran is a governmental/ سازمان بهزیستی )Governmental, )1 .405 Military and Private organization that is established in 1981 to provide help to the people with disabilities. Institutions saazemaane farhangi va honari shahrdari/: Cultural and/ سازمان فرهنگی و هنری شهرداری )Governmental, )1 .406 Military and Private Artistic Organization of Tehran Municipality is one of the first institutions formed to achieve Institutions such an excellent goal, and to bolster human’s religious cognition, aesthetic spirits, and truth- seeking. Throughout a curvy path of nearly 16 years since its birth, the organization has left an impression. Currently, Cultural and Artistic Organization of Tehran Municipality has promoted the quality and quantity in both software and hardware aspects, presenting its function to the citizen to be judged. Establishing some four hundred centers including Community Centers, culture centers, libraries, galleries, museums, etc. proves determination of managers and the urban management to lead to a typical city. setaade eqaameye namaaz/: ‘the organization of prayer establishment’ is a/ ستاد اقامه نماز)Governmental, )1 .407 Military and Private state organization in Iran whose responsibility is the promotion of prayer in the country. Institutions taqout/: Taqouti refers to a person who is affiliated or supports an administration/ طاغوتی )Governmental, )1 .408 Military and Private which is not led by an impeccable Imam. Institutions komiteye emdaad/: The Imam Khomeini Relief Foundation is an Iranian/ کمیته امداد )Governmental, )2 .409 Military and Private charitable organization, founded in March 1979 to provide support for poor families. The aim Institutions is to help such families regain financial stability. IKRF has also provided support outside Iran. mojtamae aamouzeshi nikoukari ra’d/: Ra’ad Rehabilitation/ مجتمع آموزشی نیکوکاری رعد )Governmental, )1 .410 Military and Private Goodwill Complex was established under the laws of Islamic Republic of Iran in 1984 Institutions (Reg. No.2811). RRGC is a private charity institution, dedicated solely to promote the cause of the physically disabled community. The institution started its activities with five applicants in a temporarily donated premise of two small rooms at a charity medical clinic, located in a low income suburb, south of Tehran. RRGC now operates from its own building, a nearly 4,000 m2 (in excess of 40,000 sq.) facility, constructed on a parcel of land measuring 2,800 sq m. to which RRGC holds the title deed. majlese shoraaye eslami/: The Islamic Consultative Assembly, also/ مجلس شورای اسالمی )Governmental, )1 .411 Military and Private called the Iranian Parliament, the Iranian Majlis, is the national legislative body of Iran. Institutions nehzate savaad aamouzi/: the Literacy Movement Organization of Iran is/ نهضت سواداموزی )Governmental, )1 .412 Military and Private an Iranian governmental organization founded in 1978 by the order of Sayyid Rouhollah Institutions Khomeini, in order to teach reading and writing to adults and children who do not have access to schools (deprived areas). nirouye entezaami/: The Law Enforcement Force of the Islamic Republic of/ نیروی انتظامی )Governmental, )1 .413 (ناجا :Military and Private Iran or Disciplinary Force of the Islamic Republic of Iran abbreviated as NAJA (Persian Institutions is the uniformed police force in Iran. The force was created in early 1992 by merging the Shahrbani, Gendarmerie and Islamic Revolutionary Committees into a single force.

,aaxound/: Akhound is a term that refers to a Persian title for an Islamic cleric/ آخوند )Professional )16 .414 References: Profession common in Iran, Azerbaijan and some parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Standard and career Chinese word for imam, used in particular by the Hui people, also derives from this term. Famous Akhund's are as follows: Molana Hamza Akhund Other names for similar Muslim clerics include sheikh and mullah. emaame jamaa/at/: LT as ‘Imam of the crowd’, it refers to a person, usually a/ امام جماعت )Professional )2 .415 References: Profession clergyman or mullah, who stands in front and leads prayers. and career balaali/: LT as ‘sweat corn seller’, it refers to a person who sells sweat corns besides/ باللی )Professional )1 .416 References: Profession the streets. and career ,pishnamaaze masjed/: LT as ‘the mosque’s prayer leader’ refers to a person/ پیشنماز مسجد )Professional )1 .417 References: Profession usually a clergyman or mullah, who stands in front and leads prayers. and career rowhaani/: literally translated as ‘the spiritual person’, is another word to refer to/ روحانی )Professional )2 .418 References: Profession Akhounds and Mullahs. An akhoond (akhund or akhwand) is a Persian title for an Islamic and career cleric, common in Iran, Azerbaijan and some parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Standard Chinese word for imam, used in particular by the Hui people, also derives from this term. rowze xoun/: LT as ‘mourning singer’, it refers to a person who performs shia/ روضه خون )Professional )1 .419 References: Profession Iranian Muslims ritual of the Mourning of Muharram. It is held every day of the year to and career commemorate the death of Husayn ibn Ali and his followers during the Battle of Karbala. mokabber/: Mokabber is a person who calls the second call to Islamic Prayer, given/ مکبر )Professional )1 .420 References: Profession immediately before the prayer begins. Generally, the iqama is given more quickly and in a and career more monotonous fashion, compared to the adhan, as it is addressed to those already in the mosque rather than a reminder for those outside it to come to the mosque. Aside from a difference in the number of repetitions of each formulæ, the iqama differs from the first call to prayer, the adhan, in only one place nowhe xaan/: LT as ‘mourning singer’, it refers to a person who leads mourning/ نوحه خوان )Professional )1 .421 References: Profession for Imams. and career

aaqaaye doctor/: LT as Mister doctor, it refers to a title that is given to men to/ آقای دکتر )Professional Titles )1 .422 show respect, sometimes even when the addressee is not a doctor. However, it may also be used sarcastically to express and show the stupidity of the addressed person. aaqaaye mohandes nikbaxt/: literally translated as Mister Engineer, it refers to/ آقای مهندس )Professional Titles )6 .423 a title that is given to men to show respect, even when the addressee is not an engineer. However, it may also be used sarcastically to express and show the stupidity of the addressed person. hojjatol eslaam/: an honorific title meaning "authority on Islam" or/ حجه االسالم و المسلمین )Professional Titles )2 .424 "proof of Islam and Muslims". .xaanoume doctor/: a person who is a physician or has a PhD/ خانم دکتر )Professional Titles )5 .425

ostovaar qorbaani/: A warrant officer (WO) is an officer in a military/ استوار قربانی )Professional )1 .426 References: military organization who is designated an officer by a warrant, as distinguished from a commissioned ranks officer who is designated an officer by a commission, and a non-commissioned officer who is designated an officer, often by virtue of seniority. afsar/: a member of an armed force or uniformed service who holds a position of/ افسر )Professional )1 .427 References: military authority. ranks jenaab sargord/: a military rank of commissioned officer status, with/ جناب سرگرد )Professional )5 .428 References: military corresponding ranks existing in many military forces throughout the world. ranks jenab sarvaan/: The army rank of captain is a commissioned officer rank/ جناب سروان )Professional )3 .429 References: military historically corresponding to the command of a company of soldiers. ranks sarkaar/: a general rank in Iranian military which refers to soldiers and those/ سرکار )Professional )8 .430 References: military personnel whose ranks come on their arms. ranks sargorouhbaan/: a rank in military and policing forces which is near to/ سرگروهبان )Professional )2 .431 References: military a sergent. ranks gorouhaan/: a military unit, typically consisting of 80–250 soldiers and usually/ گروهان )Professional )1 .432 References: military commanded by a major or a captain. Most companies are formed of three to six platoons, ranks although the exact number may vary by country, unit type, and structure.