THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL HISTORY OF PUBLIC RELATIONS CONFERENCE 2011 Held at Bournemouth University July 6-7, 2011 Conference Chair: Professor Tom Watson 1 PROCEEDINGS INDEX AUTHOR PAGE PAGE Historiography W. Timothy Coombs Privileging an activist vs. corporate view of public relations 4 & Sherry J. Holladay history in the US Robert Crawford & An ‘outside-in’ PR history: Identifying the role of PR as 19 Jim Macnamara history, culture, and sociology Martin David-Blais PR History: Narrative and Counter-Narrative 38 Ryszard Lawniczak From admiration to critical approach: The historical evolution 56 of post-socialist/communist PR scholarship History & Events John Brummette Trains, chains, blame, and elephant appeal: A case study of 73 the public relations significance of Mary the Elephant Francis X. Carty The influence of state and church on the growth of public 86 relations in post-independent Ireland - 1922 to 1973 Conor McGrath Early journalistic and parliamentary references to ‘lobbying’ 96 and ‘lobbyist’ in the UK Ian Somerville & Public relations and peace-building in a divided society: 124 Shane Kirby Engagement, reconciliation and the ‘Good Friday Agreement’ in Northern Ireland Heather Yaxley Exploring the origins of careers in public relations 144 Lynn M. Zoch, Debra The development of the image of public relations in the New 163 R. Van Tuyll, & Mark York Times – 1904-1934 K. Dolan National Histories Alina Dolea Stages of institutionalization and professionalization of 176 government public relations in Romania 1989 – 2010 Carroll Edwards Mixed models: The growth and development of public 194 relations in Jamaica, West Indies Barbra Natifu & Amos PR in Uganda: The nature, status, understanding and use of 215 Zikusooka PR in Uganda (1890-2009) Inga Pure Development of public relations in Latvia: Prehistory and 240 periods of development Marianne D. Sison, Colonial and other influences in the history of public relations 256 Zeny Sarabia-Panol, in the Philippines Caterina Lorenzo- Molo & Ritzi Villarico-Ronquillo 2 Napawan Tantivejakul The practice of public relations in building national unity: A 276 & Prichaya Manmin historical view of the kingdom of Thailand (1238-1932) Loan T. H. Van Public relations in Vietnam: History in the making 298 Professional & Practice Richard Bailey & Lucy Public relations education in Britain: a case history [Abstract] 310 Laville Thomas Beke Litigation public relations: The evolution of a specialist 311 practice in England Nicky Garsten & Jane The evolution and significance of public relations specialisms 327 Howard in contemporary Britain (1985-2010) [Abstract] Anne Gregory Government and the dance with communication: Coming full 329 circle in the 21st century Rachel Kovacs Senior practitioners’ definitions of CSR and their impact on 350 implementation of CSR initiatives Larsåke Larsson A history of the government press conferences in Sweden 368 Amisha Mehta & The essence of crisis action: Tracking and defining moments 384 Robina Xavier of crisis process and practice Tom Watson The evolution of evaluation – the accelerating march towards 398 the measurement of public relations effectiveness Proto-PR Simon Moore Ideals and realities: Renaissance state communication in 413 More’s Utopia and Machiavelli’s The Prince Christian Schnee Augustus – Public relations and the making of an imperial 427 reputation Cylor Spaulding & A historical account of the public relations activities and artful 444 Melissa Dodd devotion of Hildegard von Bingen Theories of PR Soojin Kim & Kelly Conceptual evolution of situational theory as a generalized 459 Vibber theory in public relations 3 Privileging an activist vs. a corporate view of public relations history in the U.S. W. Timothy Coombs, Professor ([email protected]) Sherry J. Holladay, Professor ([email protected]) Nicholson School of Communication, P.O. Box 161344 University of Central Florida Orlando, FL, USA 32816-1344 Abstract This paper argues that the history of U.S. public relations has been distorted by the emphasis on corporate functions of public relations. The dominant corporate-centric view of history ignores the practice of public relations in the First Reform Era and Progressive Era when activists sought societal change. Histories often claim that public relations developed as a response to activists who attempted to interfere with business operations. That myopic, corporate-centric view has perpetuated a negative view of public relations as merely a tool of “big business.” In the past as well as the present, corporations have been learning from and co-opting activists’ innovative public relations techniques. Current criticisms of public relations parallel early criticisms and images of corporations as well-funded and unethical bullies. By alternatively grounding U.S. public relations history in the works of activists, we open possibilities for re-imagining the field and legitimising activists’ works as a positive, central component in public relations theory and research. Introduction This essay argues for the value of expanding the corporate-centric history of U.S. public relations to include the public relations works of activists in the First Reform Era and Second Reform Era. Acknowledging the works of these activists demonstrates the history of public relations is not simply rooted in corporate reactions to activists and can be traced back to activist actions designed to seek societal change. In the past as well as the present, corporations have been learning from and co-opting activists’ public relations techniques. Current criticisms of public relations often are rooted in this corporate-centric view of public relations as well as in the way in which public relations has been portrayed as subverting journalistic and democratic processes through a lack of transparency and an abundance of resources. Interrogating the way the history of U.S. public relations has been depicted is not simply an academic exercise. Although we see it as central to broadening 4 students’ education, it also holds promise for re-imagining the field and legitimising the works of activists as an important component in public relations theory and research. This paper begins with our definition of public relations and moves to shortcomings in the corporate-centric approaches to U.S. public relations history, including the neglect of activism in the First Reform Era, Progressive Era, and the environmental movement. The development of the Internet offers opportunities for activism that, like the activism of earlier eras, is mimicked and co-opted by corporate public relations. We end with a discussion of current criticisms to demonstrate how early criticisms of public relations have continued to plague public relations over the years. Defining public relations When discussing U.S. public relations history, it is important to define public relations because definitions reveal one’s point of view and what qualifies as public relations. We define public relations as “the management of mutually influential relationships within a web of constituency relationships” (Coombs and Holladay, 2010, p. 4). This definition highlights the advocacy function of public relations. We can claim public relations is about providing information but ultimately those utilizing public relations are trying to alter the behaviours of others (Moloney, 2005). Moreover, the idea of management implies a strategic approach that unfolds over time. Public relations is used purposefully to shape relationships; it is not just the occasional use of tactics. Practitioners establish objectives they hope to achieve and manage their resources in pursuit of those objectives. To qualify as public relations, actions must involve sustained strategic attempts to influence relationships with constituents. The corporate-centric history of U.S. public relations A common view in discussions of U.S. public relations history is that public relations (corporate public relations) was a reaction to activist activities. Public relations’ birth in the early 1900s has been depicted as a reaction to activists in the Progressive Era (the muckrakers) attempting to create social reform (Stoker and Rawlins, 2005). The 1970s saw intense activism surrounding environmental causes, Civil Rights, and the war in Vietnam. U.S. public relations had another growth spurt in reaction to the efforts to shape U.S. environmental policies (Conley, 2006). More recently, activists have taken to the Internet to pressure for corporate reforms. Conservative and liberal activists have utilized various 5 Internet channels, such as social media, to pressure corporations to change their behaviours. The result has been a burgeoning growth industry of online public relations services that focuses on identifying reputational threats to corporations that emerge online. What is interesting is how writers have characterized corporate public relations as a reaction or defence against attacks. As Stoker and Rawlins (2005) noted, the Progressives were using public relations in the form of publicity to expose corrupt institutional practice as a way to reform them. Gower (2008) argued that publicity “was a tool for moral reform in the early 1900s but was co-opted by public relations practitioners by the beginning of the 1920s” (p. 315). Public awareness of suspect, unethical, and dangerous organizational practices created pressure for reform as public opinion turned against the corrupt institutions such as corporations. The Progressive activists