THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies StateSociety and in Governance Melanesia DISCUSSION PAPER

Discussion ISSUES OF GOVERNANCE IN : Paper 00/4 BUILDING ROADS AND BRIDGES

INTRODUCTION through which citizens and groups PHILIP articulate their interests, exercise their HUGHES legal rights and obligations and mediate This paper draws on the author’s recent their differences’. Resource experiences as Environmental and Social Management in In the case of roads, the current situation Specialist on an ADB road upgrading and Asia Pacific is far from one of ‘good governance’, as the maintenance project in four provinces along Project ability of the state to exercise its functions the Highlands Highway,1 as well as reports on of facilitating road development fairly and Research School numerous recent and ongoing road projects in effectively has been severely compromised in of Pacific and several parts of the country. The emphasis is recent years. At the same time, and partly as a Asian Studies on the Highlands region, but all the evidence response to the ‘power vacuum’ left by the state, indicates that the issues canvassed here apply The Australian the citizens (in this case the traditional owners throughout Papua New Guinea. National of the lands on which the roads and bridges By and large villagers, townspeople, University are built) are becoming evermore forceful in businessmen, bureaucrats and politicians asserting their rights with respect to land throughout Papua New Guinea are keen acquisition and compensation. The result of to see new roads built and existing roads the burgeoning problems associated with these improved, or at least maintained properly. land acquisition and compensation issues is that Despite this enthusiasm for roads, for a host road and bridge projects are suffering longer of reasons broached in this paper it is becoming delays and increased costs. increasingly difficult to implement road and bridge construction and improvement works throughout the country. The issues are broadly those of governance, ROAD USERS which, following UNDP (1997) I take to mean: The contribution ‘the exercise of political, economic and Rural communities throughout PNG have of AusAID to administrative authority to manage a two options for local land transport of people this series is nation’s affairs. It is the complex and goods: road transport (where there is a acknowledged mechanisms, processes and institutions road network), or by walking and carrying with appreciation. State, Society and Governance in Melanesia

their goods. Walking is the only option for most enterprises such as mining and petroleum 2 in the more remote parts of PNG. There is projects (e.g. the Porgera gold mine and Kutubu virtually no use of domesticated animals such oil and gas projects), large-scale commercial as horses, cattle or oxen to transport people or plantations (mainly coffee and some tea in the goods. Understandably, most communities are Highlands) and producers of semi-commercially enthusiastic about road development. grown vegetables for sale in the major towns The population of PNG is predominantly and cities. rural (about 85%) and the government since the late 1970s has focussed attention on programs to improve the quality of rural life. In the case LAND ACQUISITION AND of the Highlands region, an overall objective COMPENSATION has been to connect widely scattered pockets of population in order to facilitate the marketing of agricultural produce and exportable crops such Context as coffee, thereby switching agriculture from All resource development and infrastructure solely subsistence level to one containing an projects in PNG, including road projects, income earning activity. The expectation has are requiring increasingly complex negotiations been that the linking of population centres with landholders over land acquisition, would also have the effect of fostering a sense compensation and royalties in order for their of nationhood in a region of several hundred implementation (and often operation) to tribal groupings and languages, contributing to proceed cost-effectively and on time. The need more efficient administration and delivery of to relocate buildings and resettle people may government health, education and agricultural also eventuate. Mining and oil/gas, and extension services. Similar sentiments have to a lesser extent forestry projects, have been expressed in support of road developments required the negotiation of particularly complex throughout the country. agreements which, once signed, are subject The experience of road construction, to a continuous process of re-negotiation. upgrading and maintenance projects These negotiated agreements have covered throughout the country, including the associated infrastructure such as road, electricity Highlands, has been that local people whose transmission lines and telecommunications sites. road access to towns is improved Precedents have been set by these major, overwhelmingly perceive that such projects wealth-generating resources projects which are are beneficial to them. The major social now influencing negotiations over infrastructure and economic impacts on local populations projects such as roads. (which were mainly positive) occurred when Recent developments in compensation for roads were first constructed. Subsequent road resource development in PNG are analysed in improvements generally have had very much detail in Toft (1997a). The socio-cultural- reduced beneficial impacts, unless accompanied political contexts discussed in depth in the by wider social infrastructural investment and various papers in Toft (1997a) and the trends in technical transfer (which has seldom been compensation claims and negotiation described the case). and analysed in them have direct relevance It is important to distinguish between main to road construction and improvement projects highways such as the Highlands Highway (see also Rivers 1999). (which are generally national highways), and It is the policy and practice of all smaller ‘feeder’ roads (which include both international donor and lending agencies to national and provincial roads). Feeder roads require the government of Papua New Guinea service mainly rural communities whose to acquire title to the land needed for the livelihood is based on subsistence agriculture, project (and to pay associated land purchase with limited cash income derived from the sale and compensation costs) before the funds of garden produce in markets and cash crops are released. such as coffee. Main highways also service The need to acquire land does not apply subsistence-based communities, but in addition only to new roads. Except for the Highlands they service a very much larger and diverse Highway, most of the roads in the Highlands and widely distributed target population which (and indeed elsewhere in the country) are on includes the residents of the major towns, customary land, i.e. the rights of way have a high proportion of whom are wage-earners never been acquired by the government. Even and business people, major rural economic where the land has been acquired, sealing an Issues of Governance in Papua New Guinea: Building Roads and Bridges

unsealed road may involve alignment changes the investigations and funds for payments and drainage improvements which impinge to land owners) remained in doubt. 3 upon customary land adjacent to the road. Comment: Since 1995 the government Recent experience reviewed below indicates departments responsible have suffered that where road upgrading projects will involve severe ongoing decreases in funding and road widening and realignment, land acquisition personnel, and this has diminished even will be required, including the existing right further their capacity to carry out the of way if this is still on customary land. investigations required and to make the However for rehabilitation and maintenance agreed payments. projects where works will be confined to the existing right of way, land acquisition is not • The experience in the area was necessary for works to proceed. that confl icts were exacerbated when Delays and cost over-runs in road projects there were protracted delays between caused by problems in land acquisition and the fi nalisation of purchase documents compensation in the Highlands had already and the disbursement of funds to land become apparent in the 1980s, as acknowledged owners. Similarly, delays between land by the World Bank (1993) which identified procurement and construction may such problems as one of five major issues that cause local clan members to dispute were apparent during project appraisal. In their the original purchase of the land. draft Project Implementation Document (PID) Such disputes usually can be resolved for the Mendi to Kisenepoi Highlands Highway through negotiation/mediation and upgrading project, AusAID (1995) addressed when documentary evidence of purchase the issues of customary land acquisition, crop is produced. compensation and gravel pit royalties at length. Comment: These problems have been Some of the issues they raised and my comments demonstrated to occur widely throughout on their current implications are presented here PNG, with the worrying additional factor as they are even more pertinent now than they that the records for other than recent were in 1995, as detailed below. land acquisitions by DoL and DoW are in • As customary land acquisition was a chaotic state, such that in some cases causing delays and cost escalations the government might have diffi culty through disputes, the Mendi to Kisenepoi in providing documentary evidence of Highway upgrading project was designed ownership were such ownership to be to minimise these by confi ning the works challenged during later negotiations or to the existing acquired road alignments in the courts. and using existing gravel pits and quarries wherever possible. • Similar issues to those raised in Points 1-3 above applied to the payment of Comment: The potential for delays and compensation on the Mendi project cost escalations are greatly increased for loss of crops, trees and physical where the existing road alignment is on improvements, which again was customary land, even if this is not to theoretically the sole responsibility of be acquired. The risks and uncertainty government. The PID pointed out that are even greater where there is a establishing ownership of crops and requirement that this land be acquired individual trees is more diffi cult than before works proceed. identifying the owners of the land as • While the responsibility for, and all there will be many more people involved, costs involved with, land acquisition lies and rights to use land may be held by fi rmly with the government through the individuals or groups who are different Department of Works (DoW) and the from the land owners. Department of Land (DoL), any delays in the identifi cation of land owners and Land and Leadership in PNG paying purchase costs are likely to be Toft (1997b) has described in detail the disruptive to the project. The PID nature between land and leadership in PNG stated that the capacity of the national and its implications for land rent, compensation government to secure funds for land and royalty payments in relation to development acquisition (both the costs of carrying out projects. Rivers (1999) addressed a similar range State, Society and Governance in Melanesia

of issues in his discussion of the relationships Given the fluid nature of some aspects 4 between resource development companies and of social structure it is sometimes difficult land-owning communities. This brief summary to determine who are the appropriate land is condensed from Toft (1997b). owners and leaders to negotiate with over land PNG societies are virtually all egalitarian. issues. Traditional leaders head kin groups Hence in most communities (particularly those whose membership they cannot change; they in the Highlands), there is no ‘chief’ or even can only strive constantly for consensus on both a single village leader who can speak for the an inter- and intra-group level. Depending on community as a whole. Social structure is the circumstances, including the scale of the tied to genealogy: members of an ethnic group project, outsiders (often provincial or national trace their descent from a common ancestor. politicians) may try to assert a leadership role The diverging lines of descent from that in the negotiations. The outcome is that in ancestor are represented as clans, sub-clans every road project there are continuous disputes, and lineages down to extended families. often major and sometimes violent, over which Leaders of the society at all levels emerge families are the rightful owners of the land in through achieving success in the competitive question. The same issues apply when trying acquisition of status, according to traditional to determine not only the rightful recipients of values. Today this often translates into success royalties for materials extracted from the gravel as a politician or businessman. An important pits but also the appropriate local people to be aspect of traditional leadership is that, having engaged to work on the road works. Disputation acquired wealth, a person gained prestige by is usually within clans and not between clans, sharing it (i.e. distributing it), rather than as clan boundaries are usually reasonably well holding it. The nature of the leadership defined. system is such that it was (and still is) always open to challenge and changing alliances; Land Acquisition and Compensation Processes it was a fluid system of equal opportunity. and Issues The outcome is that political control is New road construction works require the represented by a changing balance of power acquisition by Government of land for the between equals, from the grassroots up, on both road right of way (40 m wide for major an individual level, leader to leader, and group National roads, 20 m wide for other roads) and, leader, clan to clan. depending on the circumstances, land for quarry Land ownership is vested in descent groups, sites. Royalties will be payable for gravel and fill with specific territorial areas being, like people, extracted from quarries and river/stream beds. subdivided on descent lines. All clan members Compensation will be payable for loss of garden are co-land owners. This gives individuals plots, garden crops, a wide range of commercial the right to use but not alienate land. trees, as well as physical improvements such Thus, land ownership is part of the identity of as buildings. the group. It is an unalienable right, passed Where road upgrading and maintenance from the ancestors into the guardianship of projects occur along rights of way which have successive generations. already been acquired by government, they will Today traditional owners find that others have much lower if any requirements for land, seek their property for various uses such as and such land which is needed will be for mining and road building. The property is road widening and straightening, road drains, alienated in a way which at least removes it culverts and additional quarries or river gravel from previous personal use, and at worst destroys sources. Royalties will be payable for extracted it. The property is usually changed so that it gravel and fill. There is a growing practice, can never be used for its original state or revert especially in the Highlands, for people to plant to customary use. crops on the roadside in existing rights of The Land Act stipulates that only the way, and then to claim compensation for their government may deal in land. Procedures for eventual destruction. government acquisition are under review; in It is very difficult to determine with general freehold title remains (and will continue complete certainty which existing road rights to remain) with the traditional land owners and of way have been acquired by the government the government will hold the lease (Land Act, and which are still in customary ownership. Chapter No. 185, Revised Laws of Papua New The land registration records in both the Guinea 1996). Department of Lands (DoL) in Port Moresby Issues of Governance in Papua New Guinea: Building Roads and Bridges

and in the provincial capitals are in a very poor which is apparently still being used on road state. The DoL in Port Moresby has shifted projects, sets out compensation rates to be 5 office several times in recent years and in paid for a wide range of garden crops, food the course of these shifts records have been trees and timber trees. wrongly filed, mislaid and lost. There An updated schedule was released in 1998, but is no centralised computer-based record of this contains inconsistencies that will make its land registration. The situation in the use highly problematic in some circumstances. provinces is even worse, particularly in Western Highlands and Enga provinces where virtually Land acquisition all provincial records were destroyed when the The DoW Survey and Lands Branch is provincial headquarters were burnt down during responsible for land acquisition for roads. The various riots in recent years (the provincial steps in undertaking land acquisition are as headquarters in have been burnt follows: down several times). • Once the road design has been completed In the 1950s and 1960s the colonial a survey is commissioned by DoW to authorities alienated numerous large tracts of determine the boundaries of the land apparently unoccupied swampland and grassland required and the exact location, sizes and to establish tea and coffee plantations, rural areas of customary land which must be resettlement schemes, cattle stations and some acquired. Technically, the DoW should schools and other facilities. On such land parts submit a formal land application to the of some of the roads designated as being on National DoL which then issues a Survey customary land are probably in fact on land Instruction. In practice, a survey is alienated in this way, i.e. they have already been usually commissioned without the seeking acquired, although there is no record specifically of a Survey Instruction. relating to those roads. Even where road improvement projects will • Once the survey is complete, the be confined largely to road easements previously implementing agency (in this case DoW) acquired by the government, there are an then requests in writing that the DoL increasing number of reports of demands being issue a Land Investigation Instruction made for further payments for the land in Number (LIIN) to the District Lands the rights of way, based on assertions such as Offi cer (DLO), who is based in District ‘the original price was too low’, ‘the money Services in the province (referred to here was paid to the wrong families’, ‘the purchase as the Provincial DoL). There is normally was not made in accordance with customary one DLO in each District Offi ce. law’, or ‘the elders who agreed to the sale had • Once the LIIN has been issued the no right to dispose of the birthright of future DLO undertakes the necessary fi eld generations’. So far such claims have been investigations and consultation with the mainly of a nuisance value and most have been relevant communities and prepares a successfully resolved by negotiation. Land Investigation Report (LIR) into the They can have more serious impacts, as customary ownership of the subject land. for example with AusAID-funded bridge works The LIR may also include an assessment on the Tuman and Kumon rivers on the of the value of the ‘improvements’ to Highlands Highway near Mt Hagen where the land prepared in accordance with prolonged negotiations over such issues have the Economic Trees and Plant Price been fruitless and a periodic police presence Schedule. The LIR is sent to the has been established on the sites to allow the Provincial Administrator (PA) for his/her construction works to proceed without direct signature. In preparing the LIR the hindrance from local disgruntled villagers. DLO would normally work closely with The acquired land is assessed on its the Provincial Offi ce of Works (OoW) ‘unimproved value’, i.e. not including staff, with the Lands Offi ce staff involved improvements such as the value of economic sometimes based in OoW. trees and plants growing on the land. The Valuer General prepared an Economic Trees • The report once signed by the PA is and Plant Price Schedule dated 1 January sent to the Valuer General’s Offi ce (in the 1995 setting out the prices of plantings for National DoL) for price value assessments. acquisition purposes. This 1995 schedule, A copy is sent to the Provincial DL State, Society and Governance in Melanesia

for Certifi cates of Alienability (COAs) to This Board must then have determined and 6 be issued in relation to land acquisition. declared Land Mediation Areas (once again The COAs are signed by the Secretary for by notice in the National Gazette), appointed Provincial Affairs. Land Mediators to these areas and approved the appointment of Local Court Magistrates to the • Both the valuations for the land and Local Land Courts. The decisions of the Local the COAs are sent to the implementing Land Court are subject to appeal for up to one agencies, i.e. DoW. Cheques are raised by year. The machinery for resolving land disputes the DoW Design Division (of which the is cumbersome. Survey and Lands Branch is a part) based The road project may be put on hold until on the land valuations, and purchase all parties have accepted the decision, or every documents are prepared and forwarded to avenue of appeal is exhausted. The Officer- the Secretary of the National DL for his/ in-Charge of the Land Acquisition Unit of her signature. DoTWCA reports that these cases can take • The signed purchase documents, together more than 1 year and sometimes 5-10 years to with the cheques, are sent to the be settled. This has been confirmed by both Provincial Administrator for execution Lands Officers in the provinces and districts, and payment to the land owners. The and by agency-funded road projects staff. executed documents are then returned The average length of time is now about 3 years. to the National DoL for Registration of The process definitely is rapidly becoming more Native Land Dealings. complex with increased disputation within clans If the land acquisition process is and with consequent major delays in settling straightforward, then Step 1 (survey) commonly land and compensation issues. takes 1-4 months and Steps 2-6 a minimum of 5 A serious implication of such delays is that months, and more generally at least 8 months. as loans are normally for 3-5 years, the PNG If, as is usually the case, there are disputes government may not be able to expend some or over who are the customary owners of the land, all of the loan funds in the specified period. the process takes much longer. In these cases a Compensation for improvements disputes resolution process is undertaken under the Land Disputes Settlement Act, Chapter No. 45, Compensation is paid only for improvements 1975 which has the following steps. which will be destroyed by the proposed road construction works. Within DoTWCA, • Step 1 – Local Land Mediation. The the Operations Division is responsible for DLO brings together the disputing parties commissioning the necessary compensation with a mediator in order to try and resolve investigations to be undertaken by relevant the ownership issues. The mediator may staff from DoW, the DoL, the Provincial be the Local Lands Court Magistrate Administrations and District Services. (LLCM), a Village Magistrate, a Local Compensation is normally assessed about 3 Councillor or another senior person of months before construction work is due to good standing with the litigants. District commence, with a view to the compensation Services in some provinces employ Land cheques being raised and paid to the land Mediators. If this fails: owners shortly before construction works begin. • Step 2 – Local Land Court. The Valuations are supposed to be based on case is heard before the LLCM for the Valuer General’s Economic Trees and determination. If those litigants who Plant Price Schedule, but increasingly payment were not successful desire, they can appeal agreements are reached which are outside the to a higher court. values set by the Schedule. Compensation payments for physical improvements such as • Step 3 – District Land Court. The case houses or trade stores are normally determined is heard before a District Land Court by negotiation. The valuations and associated Magistrate, whose decision is fi nal. negotiations with land owners are undertaken by Before the Local Land Court can function DLOs, other District Services Officers or valuers under the Land Disputes Settlement Act, the from the Valuer General’s Office. province must have appointed a Provincial Land Disputes over compensation normally can Disputes Board and published the appointment be resolved by mediation. Where this is not of its members in the National Gazette. effective, the complainants have recourse to the Local and District Lands Courts. Issues of Governance in Papua New Guinea: Building Roads and Bridges

Constraints to the process compensation process had been completed. Because the various government There do not appear to be well established 7 departments involved in the land acquisition procedures in rural areas for addressing this issue. and compensation processes (National and Delays of months or even years in payments Provincial DoL and the Land Courts) are for land acquisition and compensation are understaffed and very poorly resourced and common. In the Highlands land owners are funded, they are unable to undertake the increasingly reluctant to allow construction necessary tasks without assistance from the works to proceed until the requisite payments managing contractors of road projects. In order have been made. to expedite the process, the road projects have had to fund some or all travel, vehicle hire and Costs accommodation costs of the government staff, as The typical range of costs for land well as pay fees to non-government mediators. acquisition, compensation, as well as the survey The deteriorating situation is being and preparation of Land Investigation Reports, compounded by uncertainties created by is summarised in the table below. Prices paid department restructuring at the national and for the acquisition of land for roads are relatively provincial level and associated planned staff readily available, but data on compensation redundancies and cut-backs in funding. For paid in accordance with the Valuer General’s example, as of mid 1999 the Valuer General’s schedule for economic trees and plants has been Office had only four valuers to cover all five more difficult to obtain. Department of Lands Highlands provinces (three based in and staff report that on some PNG-funded projects one in Mt Hagen). (including roads) requiring land acquisition and All government staff involved in the compensation for improvements, where villagers land acquisition/compensation process for roads, have insisted on evaluation prices, the Minister along with road construction contractors, stated and/or the Departmental Secretary can use their that it is very important that the construction discretion to make above valuation payments, works take place as soon as possible after the but these are not noted on the purchase settlements have been reached and payments documents. made. Any delay beyond about 2-3 months will result in further compensation demands by, Average cost Range of costs for example, people who claim to have been (K/km) (K/km) wrongly excluded from the original negotiations (perhaps because they were living elsewhere Survey 6,000 at the time), or for newly planted crops or Land Inves tigation 3,000 trees the original land owners (or others) have Report since planted in the acquired right of way. Land acquisition The longer the delay, the greater the demands. Productive land 20,000 1,000 - 30,000 An excellent example in the Western Highlands Unproductive land 8,000 500 - 15,000 Province is the 9.2 km Ogelbeng-Ambra section of the Ogelbeng-Kotna-Banz road. Acquisition Compensation 25,000 8,000 - 80,000 of and payments for this section of the road Total cost were reported to have been completed about Productive land 54,000 12 months ago, but along several parts of it Unproductive land 42,000 there are already extensive plantings of garden crops and commercial pineapple fields right to the edge of the existing road. District Services The Valuer General’s Officers, working staff expect that if and when road upgrading closely with other sections in the Department work takes place there will be another round of of Lands, DoTWCA, OoW and provincial and compensation demands. district authorities, have so far been able to The people who take these kinds of restrict payments for land within the price actions and make these kinds of demands range shown in the table. However, pressures (including those who were the original land from affected land owners for higher prices are owners) are technically squatters whose rights steadily increasing, especially in the Highlands with respect to further compensation for where there is widespread knowledge about the land and improvements legally were probably higher prices paid by mining companies for land. extinguished once the acquisition and For example, Burton (1997) reported that in State, Society and Governance in Melanesia

1992 at the Porgera gold mine in Enga Province discussions with staff on these projects it is 8 K520,000 was paid for the loss of 40 ha of evident that land owners along the Mendi forested land required for a waste dump, i.e. and roads claimed very much higher K13,000/ha (Burton 1997). amounts of compensation and were very much Not all land owners demand or receive more forceful in pursuing their claims than land payments for land required for road projects. owners along the Okapa road. In 1996/1997 a senior politician in the Western The determination of compensation Highlands implemented projects to upgrade and payments is normally made by District Services seal existing roads on customary land without staff, including the DLOs. Valuer General’s the land being acquired by the government Office staff in the Highlands report that and without any compensation payments being there is mounting evidence of irregularities in made. District Service staff in the Western the process, especially exaggeration in the Highlands Province reported that in 1996 amounts to be paid and payments to ‘phantom’ villagers along the 4.5 km local road between (i.e. non-existent) claimants. Because of this, Angalimp and Kurki requested that OoW the Valuer General’s Office is increasingly upgrade their road, the work subsequently being undertaking the field assessments for carried out with no acquisition of customary compensation payments itself, with the District land and no compensation being requested or Office staff undertaking the initial identification paid. Such cases are however uncommon. of claimants. Another common practice in the past has been for works to commence after land acquisition and compensation settlements have CONCLUSIONS been reached, but before the monies are paid out. The delays in payment often extend for In the immediate to long term the several years and as further ‘compensation’ an state’s ability to exercise its functions in occupation fee is negotiated and paid. Land this area must be improved dramatically. owners are becoming increasingly intolerant of This undoubtedly would require a suite of this practice by the overnment and are insisting major interrelated administrative and legislative on payment before work commences. reforms, consideration of which is beyond In general, cost seems to be a much the scope of this paper. These reforms less serious issue than the time it takes to should include improved procedures by reach settlements for land acquisition and government at all levels to ensure better compensation. communication between governments and the AusAID (1995) estimated in the Mendi affected landowner communities. In reality, to Kisenepoi highway upgrading project that in the present economic, political and social compensation for crops, trees and improvements climate in PNG it is unlikely that there will be along the 63 km of road could total K3 million, a rapid change in the situation. i.e. K50,000/km. In the event K1.8 million was Given this, then, in the short term funding paid along the 30 km of road to be agencies and managing contractors will need upgraded, i.e. K60,000/km. On the 30 km to provide staff and financial and material long section of highway to be upgraded in resources to an even greater extent than the Wapenamunda to Wabag project in Enga is currently the case to assist government Province, a total of about K2.5 million has personnel undertake the myriad of necessary been paid by the government for compensation, tasks to ensure the timely settlement of land i.e. K83,000/km. acquisition and crop compensations matters. In the case of the ongoing Highlands Major road projects will need to establish Highway to Okapa road upgrading project in for the duration of the project community the Eastern Highlands Province being funded liaison teams analogous to those established for under ADB Loans 1153 and 1154: PNG, mining projects. As well as facilitating land about K3,000/km has been paid, i.e. 20 to 30 investigation and acquisition and associated times less than for recent roads in Southern compensation negotiations, the teams would Highlands and Enga Provinces. A partial undertake or assist with community information explanation for the difference is that the Mendi programmes (in Tok Pisin or Tok Ples), addressing and Wabag roads are major highway upgrades women’s issues, including employment planning, within a 40 m wide corridor, whereas the implementation and monitoring, small business Okapa Road is a much smaller scale upgrade activities, road safety planning, and within a 20 m wide corridor. However, from environmental management and monitoring. Issues of Governance in Papua New Guinea: Building Roads and Bridges

REFERENCES NOTES 9 UNDP (1997) Governance for 1 ADB TA No. 3037: PNG Sustainable Human Development. Road Upgrading and Maintenance UNDP Policy Document, New Project 1999. Undertaken by Egis York, January 1997. Consulting Australia Pty Ltd for AusAID (1995) Australia – the Asian Development Bank and Papua New Guinea the PNG Department of Transport, Development Cooperation Works and Civil Aviation. Project Highlands Highway Upgrading Project. Mendi to Kisenepoi. Draft Project Implementation Document, Canberra, December 1995. Burton, J. (1997) The principles of compensation in the mining industry. In Toft, S. (ed) Compensation for resource development in Papua New Guinea. Law Reform Commission of Papua New Guinea Monograph No. 8, pp. 116-136 Rivers, J. (1999) Formulating Basic Policy for Community Relations Programs. State, Society and Governance in Melanesia Discussion Paper No. 99/1. Research School of Pacifi c and Asian Studies, the Australian National University, Canberra. Toft, S. (Sed.) (1997a) Compensation for resource development in Papua New Guinea. Law Reform Commission of Papua New Guinea Monograph No. 8. Toft, S. (1997b) Patrons or clients? Aspects of multinational capital – landowner relations in Papua New Guinea. In Toft, S. (ed) Compensation for resource development in Papua New Guinea. Law Reform Commission of Papua New Guinea Monograph No. 8, pp. 10-22. World Bank (1993) Project Completion Report. Independent State of Papua New Guinea. Road Improvement Project (Loan 2265-PNG), December 1993.

THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies State, Society and Governance in Melanesia The State, Society and Governance in Melanesia (SSGM) Project was launched in 1996 in the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. Funded by the ANU with financial assistance from the Australian Government through AusAID, it comprises three Fellows (Dr Bronwen Douglas, Mr Anthony Regan and Dr Sinclair Dinnen), a Convenor (Mr David Hegarty, on secondment from the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade) and an Administrator (Ms Monica Wehner).

SSGM Discussion Paper Series 96/1: Peter Larmour, Research on Governance in Weak States in Melanesia 96/2: Peter Larmour, Models of Governance and Development Administration 96/3: David Ambrose, A Coup that Failed? Recent Political Events in Vanuatu 97/1: Sinclair Dinnen, Law, Order and State in Papua New Guinea 97/2: Tomasi Vakatora, Traditional Culture and Modern Politics 97/3: ‘I Futa Helu, Tradition and Good Governance 97/4: Stephanie Lawson, Cultural Traditions and Identity Politics: Some Implications for Democratic Governance in Asia and the Pacifi c 97/5: Peter Larmour, Corruption and Governance in the South Pacifi c 97/6: Satish Chand, Ethnic Confl ict, Income Inequity and Growth in Independent Fiji 97/7: Sam Alasia, Party Politics and Government in Solomon Islands 97/8: Penelope Schoeffel, Myths of Community Management: Sustainability, the State and Rural Development in Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu 97/9: Philip Tepahae, Chiefl y Power in Southern Vanuatu 98/1: John Haglegam, Traditional Leaders and Governance in Melanesia 98/2: Binayak Ray, Good Governance, Administrative Reform and Socioeconomic Realities: A South Pacifi c Perspective 98/3: Eric Wittersheim, Melanesia Élites and Modern Politics in New Caledonia and Vanuatu 98/4: Bronwen Douglas, Sinclair Dinnen and Anthony J. Regan, State, Society and Governance in Melanesia Project: Review 1995-98 98/5: Peter Larmour, Making Sense of Good Governance. 98/6: Bronwen Douglas, Traditional Individuals? Gendered Negotiations of Identity, Christianity and Citizenship in Vanuatu 98/7: Raymond Apthorpe, Bougainville Reconstruction Aid: What are the Issues? 99/1: John Rivers, Formulating Policy for Community Relations Programs 99/2: Lissant Bolton, Chief Willie Bongmatur Maldo and the Incorporation of Chiefs in the Vanuatu State 99/3: Eugene Ogan, The Bougainville Confl ict: Perspectives from Nasioi 99/4: Grace Molisa and Elise Huffer, Governance in Vanuatu: In Search of the Nakamal Way 00/1: Peter Larmour, Issues and Mechanisms of Accountability: Examples from Solomon Islands 00/2: Bronwen Douglas (ed), Women and Governance from the Grassroots in Melanesia 00/3: Bronwen Douglas, Weak States and Other Nationalisms: Emerging Melanesian Paradigms? 00/4: Philip Hughes, Issues of Governance in Papua New Guinea: Building Roads and Bridges 00/5: KJ Crossland, The Ombudsman Role: Vanuatu’s Experiment 00/6: Tarcisius Tara Kabutaulaka, Beyond Ethnicity: The Political Economy of the Guadalcanal Crisis in Solomon Islands

State, Society and Governance in Melanesia Project Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200 AUSTRALIA Convenor: David Hegarty Administrator: Monica Wehner Telephone: +61 2 6249 4145 Telephone: +61 2 6279 8394 Fax: +61 2 6249 5525 Fax: +61 2 6249 5525 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] http://rspas.anu.edu.au/melanesia