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Roads and Bridges THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies StateSociety and in Governance Melanesia DISCUSSION PAPER Discussion ISSUES OF GOVERNANCE IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA: Paper 00/4 BUILDING ROADS AND BRIDGES INTRODUCTION through which citizens and groups PHILIP articulate their interests, exercise their HUGHES legal rights and obligations and mediate This paper draws on the author’s recent their differences’. Resource experiences as Environmental and Social Management in In the case of roads, the current situation Specialist on an ADB road upgrading and Asia Pacific is far from one of ‘good governance’, as the maintenance project in four provinces along Project ability of the state to exercise its functions the Highlands Highway,1 as well as reports on of facilitating road development fairly and Research School numerous recent and ongoing road projects in effectively has been severely compromised in of Pacific and several parts of the country. The emphasis is recent years. At the same time, and partly as a Asian Studies on the Highlands region, but all the evidence response to the ‘power vacuum’ left by the state, indicates that the issues canvassed here apply The Australian the citizens (in this case the traditional owners throughout Papua New Guinea. National of the lands on which the roads and bridges By and large villagers, townspeople, University are built) are becoming evermore forceful in businessmen, bureaucrats and politicians asserting their rights with respect to land throughout Papua New Guinea are keen acquisition and compensation. The result of to see new roads built and existing roads the burgeoning problems associated with these improved, or at least maintained properly. land acquisition and compensation issues is that Despite this enthusiasm for roads, for a host road and bridge projects are suffering longer of reasons broached in this paper it is becoming delays and increased costs. increasingly difficult to implement road and bridge construction and improvement works throughout the country. The issues are broadly those of governance, ROAD USERS which, following UNDP (1997) I take to mean: The contribution ‘the exercise of political, economic and Rural communities throughout PNG have of AusAID to administrative authority to manage a two options for local land transport of people this series is nation’s affairs. It is the complex and goods: road transport (where there is a acknowledged mechanisms, processes and institutions road network), or by walking and carrying with appreciation. State, Society and Governance in Melanesia their goods. Walking is the only option for most enterprises such as mining and petroleum 2 in the more remote parts of PNG. There is projects (e.g. the Porgera gold mine and Kutubu virtually no use of domesticated animals such oil and gas projects), large-scale commercial as horses, cattle or oxen to transport people or plantations (mainly coffee and some tea in the goods. Understandably, most communities are Highlands) and producers of semi-commercially enthusiastic about road development. grown vegetables for sale in the major towns The population of PNG is predominantly and cities. rural (about 85%) and the government since the late 1970s has focussed attention on programs to improve the quality of rural life. In the case LAND ACQUISITION AND of the Highlands region, an overall objective COMPENSATION has been to connect widely scattered pockets of population in order to facilitate the marketing of agricultural produce and exportable crops such Context as coffee, thereby switching agriculture from All resource development and infrastructure solely subsistence level to one containing an projects in PNG, including road projects, income earning activity. The expectation has are requiring increasingly complex negotiations been that the linking of population centres with landholders over land acquisition, would also have the effect of fostering a sense compensation and royalties in order for their of nationhood in a region of several hundred implementation (and often operation) to tribal groupings and languages, contributing to proceed cost-effectively and on time. The need more efficient administration and delivery of to relocate buildings and resettle people may government health, education and agricultural also eventuate. Mining and oil/gas, and extension services. Similar sentiments have to a lesser extent forestry projects, have been expressed in support of road developments required the negotiation of particularly complex throughout the country. agreements which, once signed, are subject The experience of road construction, to a continuous process of re-negotiation. upgrading and maintenance projects These negotiated agreements have covered throughout the country, including the associated infrastructure such as road, electricity Highlands, has been that local people whose transmission lines and telecommunications sites. road access to towns is improved Precedents have been set by these major, overwhelmingly perceive that such projects wealth-generating resources projects which are are beneficial to them. The major social now influencing negotiations over infrastructure and economic impacts on local populations projects such as roads. (which were mainly positive) occurred when Recent developments in compensation for roads were first constructed. Subsequent road resource development in PNG are analysed in improvements generally have had very much detail in Toft (1997a). The socio-cultural- reduced beneficial impacts, unless accompanied political contexts discussed in depth in the by wider social infrastructural investment and various papers in Toft (1997a) and the trends in technical transfer (which has seldom been compensation claims and negotiation described the case). and analysed in them have direct relevance It is important to distinguish between main to road construction and improvement projects highways such as the Highlands Highway (see also Rivers 1999). (which are generally national highways), and It is the policy and practice of all smaller ‘feeder’ roads (which include both international donor and lending agencies to national and provincial roads). Feeder roads require the government of Papua New Guinea service mainly rural communities whose to acquire title to the land needed for the livelihood is based on subsistence agriculture, project (and to pay associated land purchase with limited cash income derived from the sale and compensation costs) before the funds of garden produce in markets and cash crops are released. such as coffee. Main highways also service The need to acquire land does not apply subsistence-based communities, but in addition only to new roads. Except for the Highlands they service a very much larger and diverse Highway, most of the roads in the Highlands and widely distributed target population which (and indeed elsewhere in the country) are on includes the residents of the major towns, customary land, i.e. the rights of way have a high proportion of whom are wage-earners never been acquired by the government. Even and business people, major rural economic where the land has been acquired, sealing an Issues of Governance in Papua New Guinea: Building Roads and Bridges unsealed road may involve alignment changes the investigations and funds for payments and drainage improvements which impinge to land owners) remained in doubt. 3 upon customary land adjacent to the road. Comment: Since 1995 the government Recent experience reviewed below indicates departments responsible have suffered that where road upgrading projects will involve severe ongoing decreases in funding and road widening and realignment, land acquisition personnel, and this has diminished even will be required, including the existing right further their capacity to carry out the of way if this is still on customary land. investigations required and to make the However for rehabilitation and maintenance agreed payments. projects where works will be confined to the existing right of way, land acquisition is not • The experience in the Mendi area was necessary for works to proceed. that confl icts were exacerbated when Delays and cost over-runs in road projects there were protracted delays between caused by problems in land acquisition and the fi nalisation of purchase documents compensation in the Highlands had already and the disbursement of funds to land become apparent in the 1980s, as acknowledged owners. Similarly, delays between land by the World Bank (1993) which identified procurement and construction may such problems as one of five major issues that cause local clan members to dispute were apparent during project appraisal. In their the original purchase of the land. draft Project Implementation Document (PID) Such disputes usually can be resolved for the Mendi to Kisenepoi Highlands Highway through negotiation/mediation and upgrading project, AusAID (1995) addressed when documentary evidence of purchase the issues of customary land acquisition, crop is produced. compensation and gravel pit royalties at length. Comment: These problems have been Some of the issues they raised and my comments demonstrated to occur widely throughout on their current implications are presented here PNG, with the worrying additional factor as they are even more pertinent now than they that the records for other than recent were in 1995, as detailed below. land acquisitions by DoL and DoW are in • As customary land acquisition was a chaotic state, such that in some cases causing
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