VIEWPOINT

do not have all the answers, together our immunology societies have been an The global response to the COVID-19 incredible global resource, as is highlighted in the contributions herein and in Fig. 1. pandemic: how have immunology (Editor note: see Fig. 2 for biographies of the presidents of the immunology societies societies contributed? featured in this article and Supplementary information for biographies of all the contributors.) Faith Osier, Jenny P. Y. Ting , John Fraser, Bart N. Lambrecht, Marta Romano, Ricardo T. Gazzinelli, Karina R. Bortoluci , Dario S. Zamboni , American Association of Immunologists: Arne N. Akbar , Jennie Evans, Doug E. Brown, Kamala D. Patel, Yuzhang Wu, Jenny P. Y. Ting. The pandemic immediately Ana B. Perez, Oliver Pérez, Thomas Kamradt, Christine Falk, Mira Barda-Saad, forced the American Association of Amiram Ariel , Angela Santoni, Francesco Annunziato, Marco A. Cassatella, Immunologists (AAI) to cancel our annual meeting, IMMUNOLOGY2020, Hiroshi Kiyono , Valeriy Chereshnev, Alioune Dieye, Moustapha Mbow, and to work remotely. AAI members are Babacar Mbengue, Maguette D. S. Niang and Melinda Suchard working at the forefront of the pandemic, Abstract | The COVID-19 pandemic is shining a spotlight on the field of immunology conducting critical immunological research that will support clinical solutions. like never before. To appreciate the diverse ways in which immunologists have US laboratories, however, have been contributed, Nature Reviews Immunology invited the president of the International challenged by pandemic restrictions, and Union of Immunological Societies and the presidents of 15 other national our members need more support than immunology societies to discuss how they and their members responded following ever. To provide this, the AAI developed the emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). a three-pronged approach prioritizing (1) advocacy, (2) dissemination of information and (3) continued funding. Can you highlight some of the ways in equally put to the test. And we already have AAI public affairs activities were critical which your immunology society and its some answers. components of the advocacy plan2. Since members have contributed to the response to Education and communication March 2020, AAI members have submitted the COVID-19 pandemic? between scientists across disciplines, testimonies, issued statements, written and and between scientists and the general public, co-signed letters, and advocated additional International Union of Immunological has flourished. Enabled by contemporary funding. Efforts included writing to Societies: Faith Osier. Unprecedented interactive online platforms, immunologists President Donald Trump and Congressional times call for unprecedented actions. took an early lead in organizing scientific leaders urging that they heed the advice of Immunologists and vaccine developers webinars for information sharing and scientific/public health leaders, including across the world have committed to collaborations and to spur cross-disciplinary AAI member Anthony Fauci3; writing to producing vaccines against COVID-19 in research. The International Union of National Institutes of Health (NIH) Director timelines previously considered unthinkable. Immunological Societies (IUIS) brought Francis Collins requesting justification for Immunologists globally have partnered and together more than 6,000 immunologists terminating an NIH-funded grant focusing engaged with epidemiologists, clinicians, from more than 100 countries in a series on understanding the risk of bat coronavirus public health officials, regulatory agencies of weekly COVID-19 webinars1. These not emergence4; advocating supplemental and funding bodies to fast-track research to only spanned the breadth of immunology funding for federal science agencies, better understand the disease. On 11 March but also reflected on our responsibility including the NIH, for pandemic-related 2020, the World Health Organization to maintain the integrity of rigorous research losses and additional trainee declared COVID-19 a pandemic: within scientific peer review, especially during support; and issuing a statement opposing weeks, a flurry of research activity was a pandemic. Our speakers reflected our actions taken by the Trump administration already under way. The scientific literature rich diversity and expertise across regional that will damage international scientific was flooded with studies describing the and national boundaries, and smashed collaboration5. disease (epidemiology, transmission, onset stereotypes with regard to gender, race and AAI journals accelerated the time and pathogenesis) as well as prognostic age. We contributed to our local, national taken for reviews of COVID-19 papers to biomarkers. Concurrently, innovative and regional response strategies. Like 1 week and made all coronavirus-related study designs facilitated rapid collection of never before, we engaged vigorously with publications free online to speed up the data on potential immune-based therapies the public in our respective constituencies dissemination of crucial information6. and drugs in multiple sites simultaneously. and mustered the composure to face Due to laboratory closures, authors and Old and new potential therapies were our own vulnerability. Although we still reviewers were given more flexibility7.

594 | October 2020 | volume 20 www.nature.com/nri Viewpoint

The AAI sustained education and funding initiatives. Although the IMMUNOLOGY2020 meeting was cancelled, the AAI published all submitted abstracts free online8. Furthermore, it • Petitioning governments established a ‘COVID-19 Resources and leaders 9 • Providing scientific and Information Center’ , transitioned advice to governments AAI-led immunology courses from onsite to virtual10 and continued funding for all AAI Fellowships despite laboratory closings11. • Public outreach and • Developing vaccines education and therapeutics Australian and New Zealand Society for • Countering misinformation • Development of Immunology: John Fraser. The Australian testing and diagnostics and New Zealand Society for Immunology Immunology is a very active and collegial society with societies more than 1,200 members spread across the • Fighting for continued research funding support • Fostering global solidarity seven states of and New Zealand; • Supporting rigorous peer • Fighting for equal rights and no, New Zealand is not (yet) a state of review of grants and for marginalized groups Australia. We have remained very active publications despite the pandemic putting a pin in all our regular events for 2020. Many of our members have talked whimsically over the • Organizing webinars and years about a global pandemic and now we online conferences • Supporting training are living it! Immunology and infectious and mentoring for disease have been at the forefront of public members awareness, and many of our members have been instrumental in communicating the science of immunology in lay terms Fig. 1 | Immunology societies have been vital to the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic. to the public and, more importantly, in The diverse ways in which immunology societies have contributed during the COVID-19 pandemic advising policymakers and politicians, who, are illustrated. Immunology societies have supported their members in their efforts to develop testing, I might add, have been very keen to learn therapeutics and vaccines; they have continued to fight for funding and for rigorous peer review of some immunology. Many of our members publications; they have organized online webinars, conferences and training programmes; and they are also part of international research teams have provided scientific advice to governments and policymakers. Immunology societies and their looking for solutions to the pandemic. members have been vital for public education and for countering misinformation that has arisen The Australian and New Zealand Society during the pandemic. Finally, the immunology societies have championed equal rights and global solidarity. Recent events have drawn attention in particular to the Black lives matter movement; for Immunology is a respected scientific a number of immunology societies have published statements in support of their commitment to society within the region and has responded fostering a culture of diversity and inclusion in our immunology research communities. to the COVID-19 crisis with well-informed information and online resources such as ‘Ask an Immunologist’12 and our Belgian Immunological Society: Bart N. training, is the principal investigator on ‘Fireside chats’13. Lambrecht and Marta Romano. Belgium three national trials investigating the use Australia and New Zealand responded has been hit hard by COVID-19, with close of recombinant granulocyte–macrophage vigorously at the first sign of community to 10,000 deaths from a population colony-stimulating factor (ClinicalTrials. transmission, and after enduring a brief of 11.5 million. Almost 70% of deaths gov ID NCT04326920)14 anticytokine but stringent lockdown now enjoy (almost) occurred in residential care centres. drugs targeting IL-1, IL-6 and IL-6 receptor ‘COVID-free’ status in the community. There was an early lockdown, and hospitals (NCT04330638)15 and the complement However, the sudden dramatic surge in were well prepared to handle severe cases C5 inhibitor zilucoplan (NCT04382755)16. cases in the Australian state of Victoria has of COVID-19 owing to a high density of These clinical trials have incorporated brought home just how easily containment specialized intensive care unit beds in highly detailed immunomonitoring, control can be lost. Nevertheless, our Belgium. Initially, PCR testing capacity was including 30-colour flow cytometry, relative success is down to two things; one, restricted, which led to underdiagnosis of single-cell RNA sequencing and cellular a scientifically informed and adherent mild cases and overestimation of deaths indexing of transcriptomes and epitopes public; and two, quality science-led political attributable to COVID-19, particularly in by sequencing (CITE-seq) analysis of more leadership. Attention now turns to a vaccine; elderly people. The Belgian Immunological than 150 barcoded antibodies. Several BIS which ones will work and more commonly Society (BIS) is a small society with only members are coordinating different projects, when can we expect one. With so much 210 active members, but its members such as studies on immune correlates of anticipation, it has been difficult to caution have been influential in this health crisis. protection or nationwide seroprevalence that the massively accelerated development Several BIS board members were part of testing. Much immunological knowledge of so many non-optimized vaccines risks a task force that discussed and designed was shared during discussions with making a wrong choice. It is an important all clinical interventions for COVID-19. clinicians on when and how to administer time to be an immunologist! The BIS president, a pulmonologist by convalescent plasma and how to identify

Nature Reviews | IMMUNOLOGY volume 20 | October 2020 | 595 Viewpoint

Faith Osier is Professor of Malaria Immunology Ana B. Perez is President of the Cuban Society and President of the International Union of for Immunology. She is Head of the Cellular Immunological Societies. She is an official Immunology Laboratory in the Department of #TOGETHERBAND ambassador for the United Virology in the Pedro Kourí National Institute Nations sustainable development goals and a of Tropical Medicine, , . She is a 2018 TED Fellow. professor at the Latin American University of Medical Sciences.

Jenny P. Y. Ting is President of the American Thomas Kamradt is a medical doctor and Association of Immunologists and Professor of the President of the German Society for Genetics, Microbiology-Immunology and the Immunology. Since 2004 he has been Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center at Director of the Institute of Immunology of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Jena University Hospital. His research Hill. She has made seminal contributions to focuses on T cells and chronic inflammatory the field of innate immunity, with a focus on diseases. the NLR family. John Fraser is President of the Australian and Mira Barda-Saad is the President of the Israeli New Zealand Society for Immunology and a Immunological Society since 2017 and a board fellow of the Royal Society of New Zealand. member of the Federation of the Israel He is Professor of Molecular Medicine and Societies for Experimental Biology since 2018. Dean of the Faculty of Medical Sciences at She is a professor at Bar-Ilan University, where the University of Auckland. His work focuses her research focuses on signal transduction on antimicrobial immunity. mechanisms in immune cells.

Bart N. Lambrecht has served as President of Angela Santoni is President of the Italian the Belgian Immunological Society since Society of Immunology, Clinical Immunology 2018. He is Professor of Pulmonary Medicine and Allergology. She is Professor of Immunology at Ghent University and Director of the VIB and Immunopathology at Sapienza University of Center for Inflammation Research in Ghent. Rome, Italy, and a scientific director of Instituto His work focuses on type 2 immunity and Pasteur Italia, Rome. Her work focuses on the lungs. NK cells and ILCs in cancer.

Ricardo T. Gazzinelli is President of the Hiroshi Kiyono is President of the Japanese Brazilian Society for Immunology. He is a Society for Immunology. He has made key senior investigator at Fundação Oswaldo contributions to the fields of mucosal Cruz, Brazil, and a professor at the University immunology and mucosal vaccine research. of Massachusetts Medical School, USA. He is a co-editor of Mucosal Vaccines: His research focuses on immunity to Innovation for Preventing Infectious Diseases. protozoan parasites.

Arne N. Akbar is Professor of Immunology Valeriy A. Chereshnev is President of the at University College and President Russian Scientific Society of Immunologists. He of the British Society for Immunology. is a member of the Russian Academy of His research focuses on immunity during Sciences, a Doctor of Medicine and Scientific ageing in humans. Director of the Institute of Immunology and Physiology. His interests include inflammation, ecological immunology and immunodeficiency.

Kamala D. Patel is President of the Canadian Alioune Dieye is President of the Sengalese Society for Immunology and a professor in Society of Immunology. He is Head of the the Department of Physiology and Department of Immunology in the Faculty of Pharmacology in the Cumming School of Medicine, Pharmacy and Odontology at Medicine at the University of Calgary, Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar. He Canada. Her research focuses on previously served as FAIS President and as an microscopy and leukocyte trafficking. IUIS Council member.

Yuzhang Wu is President of the Chinese Melinda Suchard heads the Centre for Vaccines Society of Immunology and Director of the and Immunology at the National Institute for Institute of Immunology at Army Medical Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg. She heads University, Chongqing, China. the regional reference laboratories for polio, measles and rubella for the WHO and is a member of the South African National Advisory Group on Immunization.

596 | October 2020 | volume 20 www.nature.com/nri Viewpoint

◀ Fig. 2 | The presidents of the immunology societies. A short biography and an image of the current immunology community come together in president of each immunology society featured in this Viewpoint are shown. FAIS, Federation of an unprecedented manner to drive research African Immunological Societies; ILC, innate lymphoid cell; IUIS, International Union of Immunological forwards. In the UK, the British Society for Societies; NK, natural killer; NLR, NOD-like receptor; WHO, World Health Organization. Credits: Faith Immunology (BSI) has been at the centre of Osier; Jenny P. Y. Ting, The American Association of Immunologists; John Fraser, TIGERTIGER; Bart N. Lambrecht; Ricardo T. Gazinelli; Arne N. Akbar, British Society for Immunology; Kamala D. Patel; efforts and a vocal advocate for immunology Yuzhang Wu; Ana B. Perez; Thomas Kamradt, Jena University Hospital; Mira Barda-Saad; Angela in political circles and in wider public debate. Santoni; Hiroshi Kiyono, Japanese Society for Immunology; V. A. Chereshnev; Alioune Dieye; Melinda For example, together with the Academy of Suchard, KEMRI Wellcome Trust. Medical Sciences, we convened an expert taskforce on immunology and COVID-19 (ref.18), which has fed into the highest levels good donors. Discussions on the risk of the general media and on social networks, of the UK government information on the antibody-mediated enhancement and urging our citizens to follow scientific immunology of the pandemic19. Taskforce cytokine storm led to alterations in trial advice in dealing with this pandemic. members have also given evidence to UK design (NCT04429854). Finally, several BIS This was key, as the Brazilian government parliamentary select committees on topics board members took the initiative to open minimized the importance of this disease, including immunity, vaccine development up their technical platforms to increase the spreading misleading information and and the immunopathology of COVID-19, PCR testing capacity, which soon led to a taking decisions not supported by high as well as briefing individual members capacity of more than 30,000 tests per day. scientific standards. of parliament. BIS members also advised several Meanwhile, our scientists have been The BSI is keen to ensure the public ministers and health-care officials on the designing new vaccine strategies and has access to reliable, evidence-based value and significance of antibody testing, trying to understand how cognate innate information on COVID-19. Through on plans for preparedness and on deciding immune receptors for SARS-CoV-2, host our media engagement, the voices of BSI which immunomodulatory drugs to cell metabolism and pro-inflammatory members have featured prominently in stockpile. BIS members were frequently in mediators contribute to host resistance or national news reports throughout the the news to educate the general public development of severe disease. The lack pandemic. We also produced resources on the immune response to COVID-19, the of governmental guidance makes one for the public to demystify the science of value of antibody testing and the impact believe that the Brazilian president’s plan COVID-19 on topics including testing and of the cytokine storm on disease severity. is to acquire herd immunity by natural vaccine development20. For our members We saw it as our duty to educate clinicians transmission, even though in many cities and the wider research community, we on the immunology of COVID-19 through the occupancy of intensive care units is at launched our highly successful ‘Connect webinars, which were very well attended. its limits. Hence, Brazilian immunologists on Coronavirus’ webinar series, which sees Our society also took care in identifying have also been preoccupied with clinical internationally renowned speakers discuss patients at particular risk of severe studies. The development of reliable the latest SARS-CoV-2 research21. COVID-19, and all major hospitals now point-of-care immunodiagnostic tests The BSI has made a real impact in report their young and severely affected for immuno-epidemiological surveys ensuring the voice of the immunology patients to the Belgian Primary Immune and clinical trials involving serotherapy, community on COVID-19 is represented Deficiency Group, which is collecting immunomodulators and anti-inflammatory at the highest levels in the UK. We are samples and will perform in-depth drugs is under way. In addition, the high extremely proud of what we have achieved, genetic analyses. rate of SARS-CoV-2 transmission and all made possible through our members’ the large governmental manufacturing plants support. We express our deepest thanks Brazilian Society for Immunology: for industrial production of vaccines have to those who have contributed to our Ricardo T. Gazzinelli, Karina R. Bortoluci made Brazil an attractive place to perform activities and the ongoing global and Dario S. Zamboni. Today, Brazil phase III clinical trials and to eventually COVID-19 effort. is placed in the shamed second-highest produce the vaccines for COVID-19. A silver position in terms of the number of cases lining of this sad scenario has been the Canadian Society for Immunology: of severe acute respiratory syndrome wider spread of scientific knowledge, in Kamala D. Patel. The Canadian Society coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection particular relating to immunology, among for Immunology (CSI) represents more and deaths due to COVID-19. The first the general public in Brazil. In this than 250 biomedical researchers, clinician official case in Brazil was recorded sense, the Brazilian Society for Immunology scientists, postdoctoral fellows and graduate in February 2020. Expecting a boom in made a key contribution with daily news, students. Many are directly involved in transmission, Brazilian scientists quickly live appearances, videos and debates on finding solutions to the problems caused by mobilized to create strategies to fight our social media channels, including the COVID-19 pandemic. Other members SARS-CoV-2. It soon became clear that Facebook (@sbi.imuno, 51,306 followers), actively participate in communicating the hopes to control transmission and to Instagram (@sbi.imuno, 27,363 followers), with the public to dispel the myths that treat COVID-19 would largely rely on Twitter (@sbi_imuno, 735 followers), YouTube surround the pandemic, serving as a assessment of and interventions in the and our society website17. In addition, many source for factual information across all immune system. The Brazilian Society of our members have contributed to news media platforms. for Immunology (Sociedade Brasileira de reports in the conventional press. The CSI is a rapid conduit for sharing Imunologia) led the efforts to mobilize pandemic-related information with the research laboratories into national and British Society for Immunology: Arne N. immunology community; for example, international networks to tackle COVID-19. Akbar, Jennie Evans and Doug E. Brown. details of webinars and other events. We also intensified communications with The COVID-19 pandemic has seen the global The CSI is also a point of contact

Nature Reviews | IMMUNOLOGY volume 20 | October 2020 | 597 Viewpoint

for media outlets in Canada that are By use of single-cell sequencing and approved and applied during the Cuban searching for experts to provide facts high-throughput screening technologies, COVID-19 outbreak. First, an antibody about COVID-19. dozens of neutralizing human monoclonal screening test was developed and applied in Our society actively worked to antibodies were found with preventive and Cuba. Second, patients with COVID-19 were influence the Canadian Institutes of therapeutic potential27,28, and one of them treated with immunotherapeutics developed Health Research (CIHR) to reverse its has been approved for clinical trials by the in Cuba, including human recombinant cancellation of the Spring 2020 Project China Food and Drug Administration29. interferon alfa-2b41, later combined Grant Competition. The cancellation During the pandemic, Chinese immunologists with interferon-γ, a humanized recombinant occurred after researchers had submitted have been involved in both basic and clinical monoclonal antibody to CD6 (ref.42) and their grants. This unprecedented response studies of COVID-19. In collaboration with an immunomodulatory peptide, CIGB-258, to the pandemic could have resulted in zoologists and virologists, they have which is derived from heat shock protein 60 ending some research programmes as well developed a list of animal models, including (HSP60)43. Third, preventive strategies as the loss of scientific jobs. In response to rhesus monkeys, ACE2-transgenic mice30, were introduced for vulnerable populations the CSI and other organizations, the CIHR adenovirus 5-hACE2 mice31 and ferrets, that that used Cuban products to stimulate re-established the competition. can be used for immune response studies trained immunity or immunocompetence Having cancelled the CSI annual and preclinical evaluation of vaccines and (Biomodulin T)40. Fourth, passive conference, we took our own advice and therapeutics. In the clinic, Chinese immunization with convalescent serum held our annual general meeting online. immunologists detailed the nature of T cell was used to treat critically ill patients, and This meeting was held as protests against and antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 mesenchymal stem cell therapy was used anti-Black racism erupted in the USA, (refs32–34), identified the kidney as one of in patients with lung complications. Fifth, before spreading globally. Black, Indigenous the main targets of SARS-CoV-2 infection35, immunologists have identified biomarkers and other marginalized groups face systemic described the virus-associated cytokine linked to disease severity and are trying to racism in Canada as well. At the annual storm36 and promoted clinical use of recognize correlates of protection. Sixth, general meeting, we confronted this inequity thymosin37 and anti-IL-6 therapies38 for immunologists with molecular biologists with direct and specific actions22. patients with severe disease. Next, the were involved in the development of The strength of a vibrant, well-established Chinese Society for Immunology will vaccine candidates. society, such as the CSI, is that we are propose national major research projects Each of these strategies has been equally in a position of readiness to respond to further our insight into the immune and freely available to all of the Cuban to pandemics and other crises with the mechanisms involved in coronavirus population through a national integrated power of numbers and an engaged, infections and to develop innovative programme. Our members have been expert community. technologies to tackle these emerging actively communicating the evolving science infectious diseases. Just as before, the of COVID-19 through the national mass Chinese Society for Immunology: Chinese Society for Immunology is fully media, thereby contributing to furthering Yuzhang Wu. In the very early stages of committed to enhancing cooperation with the public understanding of immunology. the pandemic, the Chinese Society for IUIS and all regional societies to re-energize Moreover, Cuban medical and scientific Immunology launched an urgent project global scientific movements. experience has also contributed to the of popularization of immunology, with the responses in many other countries during aim of helping the public to understand Cuban Society for Immunology the COVID-19 pandemic. immunology jargon, such as ‘immune and Latin American and At the time of writing, Cuba has 2,432 defence’, ‘vaccine’, ‘antisera and antibodies’, Immunology Association: Ana B. Perez confirmed cases of and 87 deaths from ‘herd immunity’ and ‘cytokine storm’. and Oliver Pérez. The Cuban Society for COVID-19, with a recovery rate of 93.4%. These activities helped to increase public Immunology has more than 1,000 associated This relative success has been achieved understanding of the disease, and how they (106 titular) members, who are active in due to Cuba’s high physician-to-inhabitant could help with maintaining immunity basic or clinical immunology research ratio (1:116), an effective track and trace and self-protection. At the same time, the and work in the public health system, programme, the hospitalization of all Chinese Society for Immunology advised scientific institutions and universities people who tested positive and application the central government and local governments and also with the Latin American and of approved experimental treatments, to rapidly start the development of Caribbean Immunology Association which have helped to reduce morbidity immunological diagnostic, vaccine and (La Asociación Latinoamericana y Caribeña de and mortality associated with COVID-19. therapeutic antibody projects. At the time Inmunología) and the IUIS. As prominent of writing, more than 20 antibody test kits members of the Cuban scientific community, German Society for Immunology: using colloidal gold and chemiluminescence our immunologists were called on to Thomas Kamradt and Christine Falk. methods for both IgM and IgG detection23 respond to the challenges of the COVID-19 During the pandemic, the German Society and one nucleocapsid antigen rapid detection pandemic. As early as 12 February 2020, a for Immunology (Deutsche Gesellschaft method24 have been developed for diagnosis month before the first case was detected in für Immunologie (DGfI)) has been of COVID-19. So far, six vaccines, including Cuba (11 March), the Cuban government supporting our members by participating four inactivated vaccines25, one adenovirus approved the creation of the Cuban Science in a number of educational and outreach 5-vectored vaccine26 and one mRNA-based Group for the Confrontation of COVID-19, efforts. For example, our members have vaccine, have been approved for clinical which was key for decision-making in order contributed to webinars organized by the trials by the China Food and Drug to better control the predicted epidemic39,40. European Federation of Immunological Administration, and one of the inactivated As a result of this coordinated work, Societies (EFIS) and the IUIS. The DGfI has vaccines is in a phase III clinical trial. several immunological approaches were also been advising our national politicians

598 | October 2020 | volume 20 www.nature.com/nri Viewpoint

during the pandemic. For example, we were supplementing the Ministry of Health’s our society supported several educational asked to advise the National Ethics Council COVID-19 testing facilities with advanced events on SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (Deutscher Ethikrat) on the feasibility and PCR equipment and trained personnel. between March and June 2020, and we usability of so-called immunity passports for Special funding programmes were created hosted a ‘School of Immunology’ on the people who have recovered from COVID-19. by the Israel Science Foundation, the Israel topic of viral immunology and vaccinology. Moreover, the DGfI and the German Innovation Authority and the Ministry of This was organized by the SIICA junior Society for Virology have jointly advised the Health with an expedited review process to faculty and had more than 400 students regulatory authorities on important safety explore various aspects of the pandemic. actively participating in interactive live issues related to the development and testing These included a variety of immunological webinars and scientific games. To mark the of vaccines against SARS-CoV-2. research programmes ranging from occasion of the ‘Day of Immunology’ on Going forwards, we think immunology innovative vaccination strategies to immune 29 April — which was this year dedicated societies can have an important role in therapy, and strategies for inhibition of the to autoimmunity and autoinflammation — public engagement. The DGfI certainly cytokine storm induced by the virus. Israeli SIICA released the ‘Pills of Immunology’ on appreciates that there is a lack of Immunological Society members provided its official YouTube channel, where several understanding of basic immunological support in refereeing these applications, SIICA scientists discussed how the immune concepts in large segments of the general serving on COVID-19-related policy-setting system is involved in fighting infections population. We need to increase our committees and performing research to and chronic diseases, including COVID-19 efforts in public outreach far beyond the identify therapeutic targets and immunogenic (ref.45). Finally, SIICA and other European current outbreak. The DGfI has a standing epitopes for vaccines. Several advanced immunology societies strongly endorsed the committee on public outreach and has vaccination development programmes are GAVI advanced market commitment for produced an information booklet entitled under way at the Israel Institute for Biological COVID-19 vaccines (COVAX AMC), which “Immunology for Everyone”. Research, academic institutes, medical centres is an initiative to support the development of We encourage all immunologists to and biotech companies. a COVID-19 vaccine through multilateral, join their local immunology society if The Israeli Immunological Society shared international collaborations46. Additional possible. The benefits of joining include its communication resources and databases initiatives on COVID-19 education for first-class educational offers, networking to promote these efforts and to assist in rapid the Italian public are already scheduled opportunities, professional growth and the and responsible containment of COVID-19 for the autumn, testifying to how SIICA is opportunity to become involved in public in Israel. We expect that the outstanding working hard to correctly inform public outreach. Promoting equality and diversity multidisciplinary efforts and innovative opinions surrounding the pandemic and is another major strategic aim of the DGfI. approaches that arose in these challenging vaccines. This is reflected, for instance, in the fact that times will remain as a future platform 50% of the members of the DGfI’s governing for biomedical research teams even after Japanese Society for Immunology: council are women, a large proportion of COVID-19 is under control. Hiroshi Kiyono. At the time of writing invited speakers at the annual meetings (early July 2020), the spread of SARS-CoV-2 of our society are women and childcare Italian Society of Immunology, Clinical in Japan has fortunately been controlled, support is offered at our annual meetings. Immunology and Allergology: Angela although occasional increases of new cases Finally, we acknowledge the good work Santoni, Francesco Annunziato and are seen in large cities, and most Japanese immunology societies can do in promoting Marco A. Cassatella. Italy was the first laboratories have been able to resume international collaboration. At the beginning European country to face the outbreak of their research activities under restricted of the pandemic, the DGfI received a highly COVID-19 and suffered one of the highest regulations. However, the pandemic encouraging letter of solidarity from the death tolls in the world, leading the Italian continues worldwide, and the JSI wishes to Japanese Society for Immunology (JSI), government to rapidly take very restrictive extend its support and sincere appreciation in which it offered enormously generous measures. Italian Society of Immunology, to fellow physicians and medical staff practical help (for instance, in importing Clinical Immunology and Allergology across the world fighting on the front line and maintaining critical strains of mice for (SIICA) immunologists have been at the against COVID-19, as well as to friends and facilities that had to be closed down). forefront of the Italian response to the colleagues all over the world who are COVID-19 pandemic, being interviewed suffering from the lockdown. The JSI Israeli Immunological Society: Mira by the most relevant TV programmes and believes that the solidarity of scientists Barda-Saad and Amiram Ariel. When journalists, and our members have worked will help and lead to the medical solutions the COVID-19 pandemic reached Israel hard to ensure rigorous dissemination of and many of the social solutions that are in early 2020, a firm and swift government the science. This is particularly important necessary to deal with the COVID-19 response elicited citizen adherence with in these ‘infodemic’ times. In addition, pandemic. To this end, we deliver a message social distancing instructions, containing Alberto Mantovani and Guido Forni, who of solidarity and support to all regional the disease and preventing a more serious are both prominent SIICA immunologists immunology societies, expressing our firm outbreak. As of 22 June, 20,778 people in and members of the Italian Science Academy intention to help each other overcome the Israel had been infected with SARS-CoV-2, (Accademia Nazionale delle Scienze), have pandemic together47. with 40 patients still in a critical condition written a document on different aspects of Going forwards, the fundamental and 306 deaths. The immunological the COVID-19 pandemic, including issues mission of our society is to support our community rapidly responded to assist related to the production of a vaccine44. scientists in their attempts to unravel the in various ways, including through the It has been challenging for SIICA to immunological mechanisms by which formation of multidisciplinary discussion maintain its usual level of activities during the host responds to SARS-CoV-2 and forums, boosting research on the virus and these times of social distancing. However, to understand why some patients with

Nature Reviews | IMMUNOLOGY volume 20 | October 2020 | 599 Viewpoint

COVID-19, but not others, develop severe opinion of specialists, is the main weapon Senegal, we believe that the dissemination disease. For this purpose, we believe that in the fight against this infection. Second, of our research findings should not we should support both basic and clinical that new schemes for the provision of only be limited to peer-review journals researchers with backgrounds in virology, medical care and social services must and scientific conferences but should immunology and infectious diseases, as well be implemented, with the understanding also involve mainstream media outlets. as other scientific fields, and bring these that it is the behaviour of citizens that We hope to hold future symposia where researchers together as one team. The JSI determines the trajectory of a pandemic. medical staff can stimulate interest in the intends to play a key role in this through Third, the best ideas of the theory importance of immunology and of joining the creation of a scientifically interactive and practice of immunology, virology and immunology societies. platform that will help us to understand the epidemiology should become the basis for host immune response to SARS-CoV-2. all decision-making in order to combat the South African Immunology Society: To start this mission, we are now in the pandemic. Going forwards, the Russian Melinda Suchard. At the time of writing, process of organizing an online international Scientific Society of Immunologists will be South Africa is the African country most symposium focusing on the immune involved in supporting all of these aims. severely affected by COVID-19 in terms of system in COVID-19, which will be held in the total numbers of confirmed cases and December 2020 as the 49th annual meeting Senegalese Society of Immunology: deaths. The expertise developed in other of the JSI48. Furthermore, JSI members are Alioune Dieye, Moustapha Mbow, infectious diseases facilitated a rapid and providing their scientific resources and Babacar Mbengue and Maguette D. S. sustained public health response. Members knowledge for the development of vaccines Niang. Through its members, the Senegalese of the South African Immunology Society and immunotherapies for COVID-19 Society of Immunology (SSI) has joined are involved in every aspect of the public in response to projects initiated by the the task force of the Ministry of Health health response, including molecular Japanese Agency for Medical Research and Social Action (Ministère de la Santé testing, evaluation of serology, clinical care, and Development (AMED)49. et de l’Action sociale du Sénégal) and the vaccine and treatment trials, and policy The JSI believes that by showing a spirit COVID-19 observatory of the Ministry of development. The society has enabled rapid of global solidarity and coming together Higher Education, Research and Innovation sharing of information across disciplines as ‘Team Immunology’, our immunology (Ministère de l’Enseignement supérieur, and institutions through our well-received communities can help to achieve our de la Recherche et de l’Innovation) in newsletters and a planned set of webinars. common goal of eradicating SARS-CoV-2. Senegal. As part of such bodies, the SSI COVID-19 has starkly highlighted the provides advice on the diagnostic methods fundamental role of immunology for public Russian Scientific Society of for SARS-CoV-2 and has made proposals health action, and we see an increasing Immunologists: Valeriy A. Chereshnev. to the Ministry of Health and Social trend of public users on our social media prepared thoroughly for the Action on the roles of laboratories and platforms seeking to understand the COVID-19 pandemic. The country’s the contribution of immunology research science behind the pandemic response leadership, in cooperation with the scientific to the COVID-19 pandemic. Within this strategies. The keen public interest in community, quickly introduced an isolation framework, an algorithm for the use of COVID-19 vaccine development is a tool regime, calling on the medical community SARS-CoV-2 antibodies has been developed to be leveraged to strengthen vaccine and citizens to help fight the pandemic. The and presented to the Ministry of Health and acceptance more generally among the social Russian Scientific Society of Immunologists, Social Action, and an overview of global media-savvy generation. the Russian Academy of Sciences, the research efforts, including on social science The pandemic has brought diverse Ministry of Health, and several other aspects of the pandemic, has been presented sectors together in solidarity, a noticeable departments organized online conferences, to the Ministry of Higher Education, trend within various medical disciplines that at which specialists discussed various issues Research and Innovation. all seek deeper insights into the pathogenesis related to SARS-CoV-2. In educational The SSI is also conducting research of COVID-19. A research focus for the programmes, immunologists and virologists projects focused on (1) the immunological country will undoubtedly include studies covered various aspects of the pandemic, mechanisms underlying the clinical outcome addressing the interaction of COVID-19 ranging from the dynamics of the immune of patients infected with SARS-CoV-2, with other infectious diseases, particularly response to treatment regimens and the (2) the immune correlates associated tuberculosis and HIV infection, as well as creation of vaccines. Today, immunology with protection from or susceptibility with non-communicable diseases, including has reached the very cutting edge of the to COVID-19, with particular focus hypertension and diabetes, which are highly fight against the pandemic and, as they say, on populations from urban and rural prevalent in the country. ‘we have all become immunologists and regions and on any differences seen We anticipate a growing member base virologists’. Therefore, immunologists were between Africans and Europeans, and (3) of South African and international society invited to the presidential commission to determining the existence and longevity of members as we work towards hosting the combat COVID-19. cellular and humoral memory responses to next meeting of the IUIS Congress in Cape In June 2020, a clinical trial of the first SARS-CoV-2. Town in 2022. Russian vaccine against COVID-19 was Although action regarding social Faith Osier1,2 ✉ , Jenny P. Y. Ting 3 ✉ , John Fraser4 ✉ , started, and several more vaccine variants equality has not yet been considered in our Bart N. Lambrecht5 ✉ , Marta Romano6, are on the way. Assessing the preliminary response to the pandemic, investigation of Ricardo T. Gazzinelli7 ✉ , Karina R. Bortoluci 8, 9 10 ✉ results of the fight against SARS-CoV-2, discrimination will be taken into account. Dario S. Zamboni , Arne N. Akbar , Jennie Evans11, Doug E. Brown11, Kamala D. Patel12,13 ✉ , we come to the following conclusions. To ensure that our COVID-19-related Yuzhang Wu14 ✉ , Ana B. Perez15 ✉ , Oliver Pérez16, First, that quick, decisive adoption of activities help to further popularize Thomas Kamradt17 ✉ , Christine Falk18, public health measures, based on the immunology at the community level in Mira Barda-Saad19 ✉ , Amiram Ariel 20,

600 | October 2020 | volume 20 www.nature.com/nri Viewpoint

Angela Santoni21,22 ✉ , Francesco Annunziato23,24, 32Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the https://www.immunology.org/coronavirus/ Marco A. Cassatella25, Hiroshi Kiyono 26,27,28 ✉ , Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. connect-coronavirus-webinars (2020). 22. Canadian Society for Immunology. CSI Council Valeriy Chereshnev29 ✉ , Alioune Dieye30 ✉ , ✉e-mail: [email protected]; jenny_ting@ statement on systemic inequities. CSI https://www. 30 30 Moustapha Mbow , Babacar Mbengue , med.unc.edu; [email protected]; bart.lambrecht@ csi-sci.ca/ (2020). 30 31,32 ✉ Maguette D. S. Niang and Melinda Suchard ugent.be; [email protected]; a.akbar@ 23. Cai, X. F. et al. A peptide-based magnetic chemiluminescence enzyme immunoassay for 1Biosciences Department, KEMRI Wellcome, Kilifi, Kenya. ucl.ac.uk; [email protected]; wuyuzhang@tmmu. serological diagnosis of coronavirus disease 2019. 2Parasitology Department, Heidelberg University edu.cn; [email protected]; thomas.kamradt@med. J. Infect. Dis. 222, 189–193 (2020). Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany. uni-jena.de; [email protected]; angela. 24. Diao, B. et al. Diagnosis of acute respiratory [email protected]; [email protected]; syndrome coronavirus 2 infection by detection of 3Department of Genetics, Lineberger Comprehensive [email protected]; [email protected]; nucleocapsid protein. Preprint at medRxiv https:// Cancer Center, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.07.20032524 (2020). [email protected] Chapel Hill, NC, USA. 25. Gao, Q. et al. Rapid development of an inactivated https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-020-00428-4 vaccine candidate for SARS-CoV-2. Science https:// 4Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University doi.org/10.1126/science.abc1932 (2020). of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand. Published online 10 September 2020 26. Zhu, F. C. et al. Safety, tolerability, and immunogenicity of a recombinant adenovirus type-5 vectored 5 VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, 1. International Union of Immunological Societies. COVID-19 vaccine: a dose-escalation, open-label, Ghent, Belgium. IUIS-Frontiers webinar series on COVID-19. IUIS non-randomised, first-in-human trial. Lancet 395, https://iuis.org/webinars/ (2020). 1845–1854 (2020). 6Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium. 2. The American Association of Immunologists. The 27. Chen, X. Y. et al. Human monoclonal antibodies 7Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. American Association of Immunologists, public affairs. block the binding of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein AAI https://www.aai.org/Public-Affairs (2020). to angiotensin converting enzyme 2 receptor. 8 Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil. 3. The American Association of Immunologists. Letter Cell. Mol. Immunol. 17, 647–649 (2020). 9Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, from the American Association of Immunologists. 28. Cao, Y. et al. Potent neutralizing antibodies against AAI https://www.aai.org/AAISite/media/Public_Affairs/ SARS-CoV-2 identified by high-throughput single-cell Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil. Letters-Comments/Letter-from-The-American-Associat sequencing of convalescent patients’ B cells. Cell 10Division of Infection and Immunity, University ion-of-Immunologists-re-COVID-19.pdf (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.05.025 (2020). 4 College London, London, UK. . The American Association of Immunologists. 29. Wu, Y. et al. A noncompeting pair of human neutralizing Letter to Dr Collins regarding grant termination. antibodies block COVID-19 virus binding to its receptor 11British Society for Immunology, London, UK. AAI https://www.aai.org/AAISite/media/Public_Affairs/ ACE2. Science 368, 1274–1278 (2020). Letters-Comments/Letter_to_Dr_Collins_Re_Grant_ 30. Bao, L. et al. The pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 in 12 Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Termination_052020.pdf (2020). hACE2 transgenic mice. Nature https://doi.org/ University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada. 5. The American Association of Immunologists. 10.1016/10.1038/s41586-020-2312-y (2020). Statement of AAI Committee on Public Affairs. AAI 13Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 31. Sun, J. et al. Generation of a broadly useful model for https://www.aai.org/AAISite/media/Public_Affairs/ COVID-19 pathogenesis, vaccination, and treatment. University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada. Letters-Comments/AAI-Opposes-US-Withdrawal-from- Cell https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.06.010 14Institute of Immunology, Army Medical University, WHO-and-Visa-Changes-Affecting-Chinese-Scientists- (2020). 060920.pdf (2020). 32. Diao, B. et al. Reduction and functional exhaustion Chongqing, China. 6. The Journal of Immunology COVID-19, SARS, and of T cells in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 15Pedro Kourí Institute, Havana, Cuba. MERS articles. J. Immunol. https://www.jimmunol.org/ (COVID-19). Front. Immunol. 11, 827 (2020). coronaviruses 33. Long, Q. X. et al. Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 16 Instituto de Ciencias Básicas y Preclínicas 7. The Journal of Immunology. A message to our in patients with COVID-19. Nat. Med. 26, 845–848 ‘Victoria de Girón’, Universidad de Ciencias Médicas authors, reviewers, and readers. J. Immunol. (2020). de la Habana, Havana, Cuba. https://www.jimmunol.org/content/message- 34. Long, Q. X. et al. Clinical and immunological our-authors-reviewers-and-readers7 (2020). assessment of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 17 Institute of Immunology, Jena, Germany. 8. The American Association of Immunologists. Poster infections. Nat. Med. https://doi.org/10.1038/ 18DZIF, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany. abstracts from IMMUNOLOGY2020. AAI https://plan. s41591-020-0965-6 (2020). core-apps.com/aai2020/abstracts (2020). 35. Diao, B. et al. Human kidney is a target for novel 19Laboratory of Molecular and Applied Immunology, 9. The American Association of Immunologists. severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life COVID-19 resources and information center. AAI (SARS-CoV-2) infection. Preprint at medRxiv https:// Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel. https://www.aai.org/COVID-19-Resources (2020). doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.04.20031120 (2020). 10. The American Association of Immunologists. AAI 36. Zhou, Y. et al. Pathogenic T-cells and inflammatory 20Department of Human Biology, Faculty of Natural Courses in immunology. AAI https://www.aai.org/ monocytes incite inflammatory storms in severe Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel. Education/Courses (2020). COVID-19 patients. Natl Sci. Rev. 7, 998–1002 (2020). 11. The American Association of Immunologists. 37. Liu, Y. et al. Thymosin alpha 1 (Tα1) reduces the 21 Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza AAI Fellowships. AAI https://www.aai.org/Careers/ mortality of severe COVID-19 by restoration of University of Rome, Rome, Italy. Fellowships/ (2020). lymphocytopenia and reversion of exhausted T cells. 12. The Australian and New Zealand Society for Clin. Infect. Dis. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa630 22Instituto Pasteur Italia, Cenci Bolognetti Foundation, Immunology. ASI community. ASI https:// (2020). Rome, Italy. www.immunology.org.au/community/ (2020). 38. Xu, X. et al. Effective treatment of severe COVID-19 23School of Medicine, University of Florence, 13. The Australian and New Zealand Society for patients with tocilizumab. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA Immunology. ASI Fireside chats. ASI https:// 117, 10970–10975 (2020). Florence, Italy. www.immunology.org.au/events/list/ (2020). 39. Díaz-Canel Bermúdez, M., Núñez Jover, J. Government 24Flow Cytometry Diagnostic Core, Careggi University 14. Bosteels, C. et al. Sargramostim to treat patients with management and Cuban science in the confrontation Hospital, Florence, Italy. acute hypoxic respiratory failure due to COVID-19 with COVID-19. An. Acad. Cienc. Cuba. http://www. (SARPAC): A structured summary of a study protocol for revistaccuba.cu/index.php/revacc/article/view/881/892 25University of Verona, Verona, Italy. a randomised controlled trial. Trials 21, 491 (2020). (2020). 15. Maes, B. et al. Treatment of severely ill COVID-19 40. Castellanos-Serra, L. Bringing Cuban Biotech 26 Division of Mucosal Immunology, Institute of Medical patients with anti-interleukin drugs (COV-AID): Research to Bear on COVID-19: All Hands and Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan. a structured summary of a study protocol for a Minds on Deck. MEDICC Rev. 22, 31–37 (2020). randomised controlled trial. Trials 21, 468 (2020). 27Institute for Global Prominent Research, Graduate 41. Pereda, R., et al. Therapeutic effectiveness 16. US National Library of Medicine. ClinicalTrials.gov of interferon-alpha2b against COVID-19: the School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan. https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04382755 Cuban experience. Preprint at medRxiv https:// 28Center for Mucosal Immunology, Allergy and (2020). doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.29.20109199 (2020). 17. Sociedade Brasiliera de Imunologia. SBI homepage. 42. Saavedra, D., et al. An anti-CD6 monoclonal Vaccines, Division of Gastroenterology, Department of SBI https://sbi.org.br/ (2020). antibody (itolizumab) reduces circulating IL-6 in Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, 18. British Society for Immunology. Information on the severe covid-19 elderly patients. Immun. Ageing San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA. Joint Academy of Medical Sciences/British Society for https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-32335/v1 (2020). Immunology Taskforce: https://www.immunology.org/ 43. Venegas-Rodríguez, R., et al. CIGB-258 29Institute of Immunology and Physiology, coronavirus/immunology-and-covid-19 (2020). immunomodulatory peptide: a novel promising Ural Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, 19. British Society for Immunology. Joint Academy of treatment for critical and severe COVID-19 patients. Yekaterinburg, Russia. Medical Sciences/British Society for Immunology Preprint at medRxiv https://doi.org/10.1101/ report on COVID-19 and immunology https://www. 2020.05.27.20110601 (2020). 30Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, immunology.org/sites/default/files/Final_COVID-19_ 44. Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. COVID19: Pharmacy and Odontology, Cheikh Anta Diop Immunology_report.pdf (2020). An executive report. https://www.lincei.it/it/article/ University of Dakar, Dakar, Senegal. 20. British Society for Immunology. Coronavirus covid-19-executive-report (2020). information hub on the BSI website. BSI 45. Società Italiana diImmunologia, Immunologia 31National Institute for Communicable Diseases, https://www.immunology.org/coronavirus (2020). Clinica e Allergologia. SIICA SCHOOL, official a division of the National Health Laboratory Service, 21. British Society for Immunology. BSI channel. Youtube https://www.youtube.com/channel/ Johannesburg, South Africa. ‘Connect on Coronavirus’ webinar series. BSI UCh5jjFh6tOARju4IKlvUHKQ (2020).

Nature Reviews | IMMUNOLOGY volume 20 | October 2020 | 601 Viewpoint

46. Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance. The GAVI COVAX AMC. for its continued partnership with the IUIS, which has been Cape Town) and R. Glashoff (Stellenbosch University). Gavi https://www.gavi.org/sites/default/files/2020-06/ instrumental to the success of the webinars. A.D., M.M., B.M. Nature Reviews Immunology apologizes to all of the regional Gavi-COVAX-AMC-IO.pdf (2020). and M.D.S.N. thank the Senegalese Ministry of Health and and national immunology societies that we were not able to 47. The Japanese Society of Immunology. Letter of Social Action and Ministry of High Education, Research feature in this article for reasons of space restrictions. solidarity and support from the Japanese Society and Innovation for their support. The British Society for We encourage all of our readers to join and support the of Immunology. JSI http://files.jsi-men-eki.org/ Immunology (BSI) coronavirus work is supported by the Lorna work of their relevant immunology societies. Finally, we general/meneki/JSI_Message_20200327.pdf and Yuti Chernajovsky Biomedical Research Foundation, with thank all immunologists and immunology societies for (2020). additional support from the following BSI Gold Corporate their monumental contributions to tackling the COVID-19 48. The Japanese Society of Immunology. Homepage Members: 10x Genomics, Fluidigm, Miltenyi Biotec and pandemic. for the 49th Meeting of the Japanese Society for NanoString. H.K. acknowledges the great contribution of the Immunology. JSI http://icongroup.co.jp/49immunology/ Japanese Society for Immunology (JSI) executive board mem- Competing interests english/ (2020). bers K. Takeda (Osaka University), K. Hase (Keio University), J.P.Y.T. is a co-founder of IMMvention Therapeutix and 49. Japanese Agency for Medical Research and O. Takeuchi (Kyoto University) and A. Takaoka (Hokkaido Goldcrest Bio. All other authors declare no competing Development. AMED new scientific outputs related University) for supporting JSI’s emphasis on solidarity for sci- interests. to COVID-19. AMED https://www.amed.go.jp/en/news/ entists, and extends sincere appreciation to them on behalf topics/nso-index.html (2020). of all JSI members. M.S. thanks the following members of the Publisher’s note South African Immunology Society Executive Committee for Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional Acknowledgements their input: E. Mayne (University of the Witwatersrand and claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. F.O. acknowledges the members of the International Union of National Health Laboratory Service), C. Gray (University of Immunological Societies (IUIS) Executive Committee and par- Cape Town and National Health Laboratory Service), Supplementary information ticularly the Secretary General for their contributions. She K. Kgoadi (University of Cape Town), S. Buldeo (Neuberg Global Supplementary information is available for this paper at thanks the members of the publication committee led by Laboratory), C. Worsley (University of the Witwatersrand), https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-020-00428-4. R. Carsetti for their efforts and leadership in supporting the H. Ranchod (National Institute for Communicable Diseases), IUIS/Frontiers scientific webinars. She also thanks Frontiers J. Peter (University of Cape Town), T. Scriba (University of © Springer Nature Limited 2020

602 | October 2020 | volume 20 www.nature.com/nri