religions
Article Boundary-Breaking Disposition against Post-Truth: Five Big Questions for Religious Education
Song-Chong Lee
Religious Studies and Philosophy, The University of Findlay, 334 Frazer Street, Findlay, OH 45840, USA; lee@findlay.edu
Received: 15 September 2018; Accepted: 16 October 2018; Published: 17 October 2018
Abstract: This paper articulates how religious education can broaden our perspective on post-truth from simply an issue of critical reading to a philosophical challenge involving larger issues such as our sense of self, perception of others, and grounding of justice. Pointing out that the root cause of post-truth is our parochial, defensive sense of self and community, which premises a boundary-drawing/building mindset, the author suggests the feeling of transcendence as an intellectual, psychological, and spiritual ground to cultivate a counterforce, which is the boundary-breaking disposition. This rationale is developed particularly by the discussion of the Five Big Questions that the author has been using for his Introduction to Religion course: Ultimate Meaning, Transcendence, Personal Identity, Vocation, and Service.
Keywords: religious education; post-truth; introduction to religion; meaning of life
1. Introduction It is extremely hard to prevent media misrepresentation and the spread of unverified content on the Internet because we are not just recipients of pure facts but often prisoners in the cave of manufactured facts. The World Economic Forum called this threat “digital wildfire” in 2013. Additionally, the unprecedented scale and speed of information creation and transmission in this hyper-connected digital world has intensified this threat. We created more data in 2017 than the past 5000 years of humanity. According to Levitin, author of The Organized Mind, we are living in “an age of information overload (O’Kelly 2015)” The Oxford Dictionary recognized this global problem by declaring “Post-Truth” the 2016 word of the year. Leaders from a variety of intellectual communities, including CEOs of tech companies, journalists, and Internet activists, are realizing the devastating impact of fake news and disinformation on public trust in the media and social solidarity. They are taking numerous measures to fight back against the post-truth phenomena. Education is obviously on the frontline, calling attention to the urgency of teaching critical thinking and media literacy. Like other educational fields, religious education has a lot to offer. It has recently made a huge comeback in American higher education. Questions and issues that religious education covers are relevant and meaningful in this battle because it deals with what other measures might have overlooked. It asks second-order questions while most other academic disciplines focus on the first-order task of scientific inquiry. The second-order questions here mean big questions of life, which may sound abstract and unpractical on the outside, but they can be very effective in striving to identify the fundamental cause of post-truth. These questions are about the grounding and axiology of post-truth, not necessarily about logical validity and veracity of various truth claims. I believe that our parochial, defensive sense of self and community is the main problem because we tend selectively to choose facts, information, and claims that are felt and believed to benefit us and our community, which assumes a
Religions 2018, 9, 316; doi:10.3390/rel9100316 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2018, 9, 316 2 of 8 boundary-drawing/building.1 In this paper, I will articulate how religious education can broaden the problem of post-truth from simply an issue of critical reading to a philosophical challenge involving larger issues such as our sense of self, perception of others, and grounding of justice. To make my discussion productive in this limited space, I will specifically use one of my religion courses as a showcase. In particular, the Five Big Questions used in my Introduction to Religion course (RELI101) will be the focal point, and they will present a roadmap to cultivate a boundary-breaking disposition.
2. Problem of the Grounding of Post-Truth Prior to the discussion on the Five Big Questions, it seems worth asking questions about the grounding of post-truth and their axiological implications because there are complex multilayered causes at play: What is the root cause? Are the triggering factors and their grounding solely political? What goals or values do people intend to achieve when adopting a post-truth stance? What harm would it cause to our community? Since the scientific revolution, facts have been highly regarded for our rational judgment. U.S. President John Adams confirmed this truth by stating, “Facts are stubborn things; and whatever may be our wishes, our inclinations, or the dictates of our passions, they cannot alter the state of facts and evidence.” (John Adams Historical Society 2018) In one of his encyclicals, John Paul II also said, according to Chaput’s paraphrase, “Truth exists, whether we like it or not. We don’t create truth; we find it, and we have no power to change it to our tastes (Chaput 2017).” However, Kellyanne Conway’s alternative facts made this faith look naïve and outdated. Truth is something that can serve our interests, something that is aligned with the values we care, or something that can justify a course of action geared to our favor. Thus, the ground of this post-truth problem seems to be, at least on the surface, built by irrational and uncritical understanding and utilization of facts. Thus, the lack of correct information or knowledge and critical thinking skills is mainly to blame. However, I believe that there is a more fundamental problem, which is underneath the socio-political surface. The problem is neither the lack of critical thinking nor the absence of goodwill. It is the lack of the ability to discern the type of truth on which we struggle and to build the disposition that the new world is demanding. The aspect of truth over which we are divided is not facts per se, which are observable and objectively measurable, but their interpretation and application for the interest of each individual or group particularly in a hostile relationship. It is the parochial sense of self and community that causes the post-truth world. For instance, the post-truth world emerges when the world suffers an extreme power struggle between the supposed “establishment” and the supposed “populists.” (Democracy International 2017) It usually emerges when an interpreter of a community does not communicate and collaborate with interpreters of other communities. Economic indicators and any numerical data on people and society can be interpreted very differently by accountants, statisticians, economists, and politicians. Scientists are subject to the temptation of cooking data to win government grants and corporate funding. Major news sources in America also suffer political polarization. The left-leaning media outlets include New York Times, Washington Post, Huffington Post, and Mother Jones while Fox News, the Blaze, and Drudge Report represent the right end of the spectrum. Even academics are no exception. They are ironically the ones that might have laid the groundwork for the post-truth worldview, although unintentionally. Since the emergence of existentialism out of a breakdown of traditional systems and ideas after the world wars, belief in objective reality and absolute truth claims, particularly in political discourses, have been habitually challenged by liberal academics. They are often biased toward their special agendas and peer groups. It all comes down to our boundary-drawing-mindset and our defensive mode of view on the other side of the territory. In all of our social life, we tend to find security through a stable or fixed set of beliefs and thereby adopt a particular interpretation of the world. What does not fit in our existing system is perceived immediately as a threat rather than a catalyst for positive change.
1 For some examples, see (Lewandowsky et al. 2017). Religions 2018, 9, 316 3 of 8 Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 7
I believe that a solutionI believe can come that from a solution a boundary can come-breaking from or a boundaryboundary-breaking-transcendingor boundary-transcending disposition, disposition, which can be cultivatedwhich by an can intellectual be cultivated and by ethical an intellectual translation and of ethicalthe feeling translation of transcendence of the feeling. Let me of transcendence . Let me articulate it with anarticulate analogical it reasoning, with an analogical using two reasoning, philosophical using acts. two One philosophical is Jacque acts.Derrida’s One is Jacque Derrida’s differance and the otherdifferance Martinand Buber’s the other I and MartinIt relationship. Buber’s IThese and It tworelationship. concepts reflect These a two disposition concepts reflect a disposition that the highly interconnected,that the highly interdependent interconnected, world interdependent of the 21st-century world demand of the 21st-centurys. Derrida invented demands. Derrida invented the idea of differance theto express idea of thedifferance unlimitedto express creativity the unlimitedof our interpretation, creativity of of our the interpretation, text, which was of the text, which was expanded and developedexpanded later and into developed a philosophical later into agrounding philosophical for groundinghis civic virtue for his civicof absolute virtue of absolute hospitality. hospitality. He encouragedHe encouraged us to see usthe to problem see the problemof our belief of our in beliefthe objectively in the objectively and uniformly and uniformly understood understood text/realitytext/reality and inspired and us inspired to work us constantly to work constantly to find better to find ways better to respond ways to to respond what to what might be might be considered consideredunfamiliar and unfamiliar unacceptable and unacceptable (Anderson 2013 (Anderson, p. 65). 2013An importa, p. 65).nt An implication important implication of this of this philosophical philosophicalattitude particularly attitude for particularly the problem for theof post problem-truth ofis post-truththe demandis the of demandintellectual of intellectual flexibility flexibility and open-mindednessand open-mindedness in all we do in to all make we dosense to makeof our sense surroundings of our surroundings and get a better and sense get a better sense of order of order and belonging:and The belonging: open-mi Thendedness open-mindedness that Scheffler that points Scheffler out can points liberate out can people liberate from people the from the dictates of dictates of authorityauthority and dogmatic and dogmatic adherence adherence to dominant to dominant ideological ideological views views(Scheffler (Scheffler 1983) 1983. The). The idea of differance idea of differance presupposespresupposes constant constant self self-reflection,-reflection, self self-criticism,-criticism, and and self self-transcendence,-transcendence, andand itit eventually challenges eventually challengesus us to to transcend transcend our our epistemic, epistemic, political, political, and and moral moral comfort comfort zone. zone. Similarly, Martin Buber’sSimilarly, notion Martin of an I Buber’s and Thou notion relationship of an I can and be Thou a greatrelationship insight to can fight be the a great insight to fight parochialism of the thepost parochialism-truth world. ofWhile the post-truth Derrida’sworld. differance While offers Derrida’s an epistemologicaldifferance offers insight, an epistemological insight, Buber’s thought makesBuber’s us reflect thought on the makes quality us reflect of our on relationship the quality with of our the relationship world. He withchallenges the world. us He challenges us to to consider whether considerwe are engaging whether wein the are I engaging and Thouin relationship the I and Thou or therelationship I and It relationship. or the I and ItTherelationship. The world world in the I and It relationshipin the I and Itis relationshipjust an inanimate is just object an inanimate that exists object only thatfor our exists survival, only for success, our survival, success, and and prosperity. Theprosperity. other or It The is otheranything or It isbeyond anything myself beyond or myselfourselves, or ourselves, that we thatexperience: we experience: particularly particularly somethingsomething unnatural, unnatural, abnormal, abnormal, unorthodox, unorthodox, or hetero orgeneous. heterogeneous. It is the It isobject the objectof my of my perception and perception and interpretation.interpretation. He said, He “ said,Every “Every It is boundedIt is bounded by others; by others; It exists It only exists through only through being being bounded by bounded by others” (Buberothers” 1958 (Buber, p. 19584). On, p. the 4). other On the hand, other the hand, world the in world the I inand the ThouI and relationship Thou relationship is is a meaningful a meaningful part ofpart our ofontological our ontological narrative. narrative. Just as Just a flower, as a flower, in Kim in KimChun Chun-Soo’s-Soo’s poem, poem, kkot (꽃), which has been only which has been onlya a gesture, gesture, becomes becomes a a meaningful meaningful being being at at the the moment moment when when we we call call its name,its name,the other, including other the other, including otherhumans humans and nature,and nature, approaches approaches to co-arise, to co- co-exist,arise, co- andexist, co-prosper and co-prosper when wewhen take them meaningfully. we take them meaningfully.We embrace We embracethe other theas other an important as an important part of part our of life. our Tolife. sum To sum up, Derridaup, Derrida and Buber emphasized and Buber emphasizedepistemic epistemic flexibility flexibility and and moral moral inclusiveness inclusiveness respectively, respectively, which which I believe I believe are are important to cultivate important to cultivatethe the boundary-breaking boundary-breaking disposition. disposition. How can we then buildHow this can boundary we then-breaking build thisdisposition?boundary-breaking The parochialdisposition? sense of Theself and parochial sense of self community, politicaland factionalism, community, uncritical political factionalism,loyalty to the uncritical nation-state, loyalty and to theindifference nation-state, and and indifference and insensitivity to the sufferinginsensitivity of the to other the sufferingare threatening of the otherhumanare solidarity threatening today. human It issolidarity because of today. our It is because of our lack of an ability to recognizelack of an the ability feeling to of recognize transcendencethe feeling and to of transcendencetranslate it in andvarious to translate life activities. it in various life activities. The feeling of transcendenceThe feeling is ofan transcendenceessential part isof anhuman essential existence. part of According human existence. to the Oxford According to the Oxford Dictionary, transcendenceDictionary, is a feeling transcendence or desire to is a“exist feeling or orexperience desire to beyond “exist or the experience normal or beyond physical the normal or physical level.” Assuming thatlevel.” the transcendent Assuming that feeling the transcendentis a part of human feeling nature, is a part we ofall human have a nature,common we inner all have a common inner drive to go beyond whodrive we to goare, beyond what we who have, we are, and what where we have,we belong and where (Onah we 20 belong09). This (Onah feeling 2009 or). This feeling or desire desire is internalized,is developed, internalized, and developed, actualized and into actualized various forms into various in our formslife. According in our life. to According Albert to Albert Einstein, Einstein, if this transcendentif this transcendent feeling is feeling used isto usedrespond to respond to our to intellectual our intellectual curiosity, curiosity, it becomes it becomes science. If used for science. If used for our aestheticaesthetic expressions,expressions, it it becomes becomes art. art If. usedIf used for for our our desire desire to “establish to “establish powerful, pervasive, and powerful, pervasive,long-lasting and long-lasting moods” moods” and “formulate and “formulate conceptions conceptions of a general of a order general of existence,” order of it becomes religion, existence,” it becomesaccording religion, toaccording Clifford to Geertz; Clifford it becomes Geertz; it a “cosmicbecomes religious a “cosmic feeling,” religious said feeling,” Einstein (1939). This feeling said Einstein (1939). Thisof transcendence feeling of transcendenceleads to a boundary-breaking leads to a boundaryspirit-breaking or attitude spirit becauseor attitude it premises because the will to overcome it premises the will tothe overcome limits of thethe individuallimits of the self. individual Differing self. from Differing the people from swayed the people by post-truth swayed, the self-transcendent by post-truth, the selfindividual-transcendent constantly individual reflects constantly and reexamines reflects hisand place reexamine and reformulatess his place his and course of action. He is reformulates his coursenot of manipulated action. He byis not fake manipulated news of deceptive by fake partisan news of media deceptive outlets, partisan nor is media he easily imprisoned in an outlets, nor is he easilyecho imprisoned chamber becausein an echo he chamber has been because trained he with has the been spirit trained of differance with theand spirit the ofI-and-Thou worldview. differance and the I-and-Thou worldview. They bring creativity and flexibility in intellectuality, a deeper sense of the divine in spirituality, and a malleable sense of self and community in ontology and sociology respectively.
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They bring creativity and flexibility in intellectuality, a deeper sense of the divine in spirituality, and a malleable sense of self and community in ontology and sociology respectively.
3. Five Big Questions against Post-Truth I have pointed out that the root cause of the post-truth world is our superficial, disconnected sense of self and parochial idea of community with an inordinately defensive view on others; I suggested that we translate our feeling of transcendence into the boundary-breaking disposition. Religious education can be very useful for this task. The type of education that I refer to here is non-confessional religious education. While the confessional religious education is intended to “impart and consolidate a set of religious beliefs and values” (Chapman 2016, p. 193), the non-confessional religious education takes religion as an interpretive paradigm through which to find various ways to understand human communities and as a methodological tool to bring in a wider spectrum of issues to enlarge our existing knowledge (Bobinac 2007). This value of religious education has long been recognized, assessed, and expanded by experts from a variety of academic communities. For instance, Gabriel Moran’s seminal work, Religious Education as a Second Language (Moran 1989), opened up a new horizon for our understanding of the utility of religious education in not only deepening personal faith but also cultivating positive skills demanded in international, interreligious, intergenerational, and interinstitutional domains. It has been also recognized as a rich source for the development of a special disposition to effectively deal with the big questions of life. Parks(2011) argued that it is faith and religious education that vitalize “the mode of making meaning,” (Parks 2011, p. 6) which I believe young adults, particularly college students, need to acquire to be able to deal with higher-order questions. Due to the unlimited scope of subjects, including metaphysics and spirituality, religion is a great resource for our intellectual inquiry. In this section, I will present a showcase of the religious education, which can cultivate a disposition to fight the post-truth mentality. The showcase is a reflection on the Five Big Questions that I formulated to guide the direction of the learning activities of my Introduction to Religion course. These questions include personal identity, ultimate meaning, transcendence, vocation, and service. They would help set up a good pedagogical framework for the new intellectual virtues discussed earlier. I will provide general descriptions of the Five Big Questions first and then a discussion of what specific learning outcomes I intend for each question. The Five Big Questions:
(1) Personal Identity: Who am I? What does it mean to be human? How can I live a life of meaning, dignity, and joy? (2) Transcendence: Is there more to life than meets the eye? Is there a higher reality that penetrates or sustains our existence? What do people think about God and spirituality? What are beauty, love, and hope? What is the true reality? What is the significance of spiritual experience? To where do I ultimately belong? Do I have reason to transcend my physical boundaries and limits and the capacity to do it? (3) Ultimate meaning: What is most important? What is of supreme value? What is truly worth caring about? (4) Vocation: What am I called to do? What obligation do I have to others and to the world? Why does it matter what work I do? What duties do I fulfill to realize my complete self? What is the ultimate meaning and purpose of my job in this world? For what do I have to use my talents? How is vocation related to my spirituality? (5) Service: How can I make a lasting contribution to others? Where is my place in the suffering of the world? How should I be related to my fellow humans? How does this religion explain the relationship between I and Thou? What is the meaning and value of community for my spiritual journey? What do I have to do for my neighbors and community? Are there certain duties and commandments that I have? Religions 2018, 9, 316 5 of 8
These Five Big Questions are placed in the syllabus of my Introduction to Religion course (RELI101). RELI101 is one of the most demanding general education (GE) courses at my institution, the University of Findlay. Just as the institutional mission statement, “Meaningful Life and Productive Career,” indicates, educating the whole person is the core value of our university. The course objectives of Religions 2018Religions, 9, x FOR 2018 PEER, 9, x FOR REVIEW PEERRELI101 REVIEWreflect clearly this institutional goal. In addition to the general5 of 7 knowledge5 of 7 of world religions and religious studies, this course intends to promote civic virtues, including religious tolerance and tolerancetolerance and interfaith and interfaith dialogue,interfaith dialogue, for which dialogue, for all which the learning for all which the learningactivities all the learningactivities are designed. activities are designed. Five are Big designed. FiveQuestions Big Questions Five Big Questions are provided are providedare provided to give ourto give students ourto give students a bigger our students apicture bigger aofpicture bigger the course of picture the objectives. course of the objectives. course I want objectives. my I want students my I want students to my students to to ponder these ponder theseponder questions these q uestionswhen theyquestions when work they whenon work the they course on workthe assignments. course on the assignments. course In particular, assignments. In particular, they In are particular, theyrequired are required they are required to use them to use themto use when them writing when theirwritingwhen weekly their writing religionweekly their religionjournal. weekly Thejournal. religion weekly The journal. religionweekly The religionjournal weekly consistsjournal religion consistsof journal two of consists two of two components: components:components: summary summary and reflection.summary and reflection. Students and reflection. Students summarize Students summarize the main summarize the points main theo fpoints the main weekly o pointsf the readingweekly of the weekly reading reading and write their and writeand their write reflection, their reflection, respondingreflection, responding to one responding of to those one ofquestions. to those one of questions. those Following questions. 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What am Who I?defines What and me? whatdefines What am me? I? makes What What definesme makes uniqueme? me fromunique What others? makes from meothers? unique from others? What What doWhat I share do Iwith share others withdo toothers Iexist? share to withNot exist? othersonly Not would to only exist? thesewould Not questions only these would questions help these students questionshelp students feel help the students feel the feel the importance of importanceimportance of having of ahaving clear having sensea clear ofa sense clearidentity senseof identityand of confirm identity and confirmtheir and confirmexisting their their existingnotion existing ofnotion self notion but of selfalso of self but butalso also challenge them to challengechallenge them to themreassess to reassessandreassess reformulate and and reformulate reformulate it. Many it. religious it. Many Many religious religiousnarratives narratives narratives encourage encourage encourage students students studentsto to to enhance and enlarge enhance enhanceand enlarge and theirenlarge personal theirtheir personal personalidentity. identity. identity.For instance, For For instance,the sisal the(씨알 sisal) philosophy (씨알) philosophyphilosophy of Ham ofSeok HamHam- Seok-Heon,Seok- one of the most Heon, oneHeon, of the one most of the influential mostinfluential influential religious religious religious thinkers thinkers thinkersand political and and political politicalactivists activists activistsin modern in modernin modernKorea, Korea, calls Korea, callsfor calls for buildingfor personal identity buildingbuilding personal personal identity identityuponupon the upon the universal universal the universal identity identity identityof of saengmsaengmyeon ofyeon saengm (생명yeon, life).life). (생명 TheThe, life). lifelife of Theof Jesus Jesus life presents of Jesus a developing process of presentspresents a developing a developing process personalofprocess personal of identity personal identity from identityfrom being being afrom Jew a Jewbeing to the to athe Son Jew S ofon to God. ofthe God. S Theon Theof spiritual God. spiritual The journey spiritual of Buddha demonstrates a journey ofjourney Buddha of Buddhademonstrates demonstratesdramatic a dramatic shift a dramatic shift of the of selfthe shift self from of from the a social self a social from construct construct a social called construct calledvarna varna calledor jati or varnajatito the orbodhisattva jati identity and the to the bodhisattvato the bodhisattva identity identityandenlightened the andenlightened the state enlightened of state consciousness. of stateconsciousness. of Theconsciousness. notion The of notion Atman, The of thenotion Atman, essential of Atman,the self, in the Changdogya Upanishad, essentialessential self, in the self, Changdogya in the Changdogyadisrupts Upanishad ourUpanishad, disrupts idea of, disruptsour physical idea ourof self physical idea asnormative. of physicalself as normative. self All as of normative. these All ideasof these All are of not these meant to undermine the ideas areideas not meantare not to meant undermine toexisting undermine the notionsexisting the of existingnotions personal ofnotions identitypersonal of pe of identityrsonal my students identityof my butstudents of tomy empower students but to them but to to have authorship and empowerempower them to havethem authorship to haveownership authorship and ownership in and this ownership profound in this profound task. in this They profound task. encourage They task. encourage students They encourage to students explore, students to clarify, and to deepen their personal explore, explore,clarify, and clarify, deepen and theirdeepenidentities personal their by personal identities questioning identities by questioning anything by questioning that anything can be anything considered that can thatbe a consideredboundary can be consideredparticularly in the dimension of a boundarya boundary particula particularly in therly dimensionontology in the dimension andof ontology anthropology. of ontology and anthropology. and anthropology. The questionThe question of transcendence of transcendenceThe tackles question tacklesour of transcendence cognitive our cognitive tacklesissues ourandissues cognitive aesthetic and issuesaesthetic sensibilities and aestheticsensibilities. sensibilities.. Transcendence TranscendenceTranscendence means “extendingmeansmeans “extending or “extendinggoing or beyond going or goingbeyondthe limits beyond the of limits ordinary the of limits ordinary experience” of ordinary experience” (Merriam experience” (Merriam- (Merriam-Webster- 2018). Webster Webster2018). Students2018). Students are Studentsasked ar e to areasked think asked to about tothink think ultimateabout ultimateultimate reality reality fromreality fromboth from bothphysical both physical physical and and metaphysicaland points of view. metaphysicalmetaphysical points of points view. ofReligiousReligious view. Religious materials materials materials push push them them push to to themstretch stretch to their theirstretch imagination imagination their imagination of of reality. reality. of reality. They are exposed to various They areThey exposed are exposedto various to typesvarioustypes of of typesreasoning reasoning of reasoning from from different different from different traditions traditions traditions and and required required and required to to comp compare areto comp andare contrast these with their and contrastand contrastthese with these their with ownown their thoughts. thoughts. own thoughts. They They come come They to to comerealize realize to that realize that religion religion that religionhas has a alot lot has to to offera offer lot to to offer enhance to their knowledge of enhance enhancetheir knowledge their knowledge of reality.reality. of Forreality. For instance, instance, For instance, skeptics skeptics skepticsand and atheists atheists and atheistswould would learn learnwould about learn the about rich intellectualthe rich history of religion intellectualintellectual history ofhistory religion of inreligionin explaining explaining in explaining the the origin origin the and and o therigin the working andworking the principle working principle of principle theof the universe. universe. of the Theists universe. would be introduced to a Theists wouldTheists be would introduced be introduced tovariety a variety ofto persuasivea ofvariety persuasive of expressions persuasive expressions ofexpressions the of divinethe divine of from the from non-theisticdivine non from-theistic pointsnon -theistic of view. Similarly, students points ofpoints view. of Similarly, view. Similarly, studentsfrom thestudents from religious the from religious mainstream the religious mainstream would mainstream be surprisedwould bewould by surprised the be creativity surprised by the of the by unorthodox the traditions such creativitycreativity of the unorthodox of the unorthodox traditionsas Kabbalism, traditions such as Sufism, Kabbalism,such andas Kabbalism, Catholic Sufism, mysticism. andSufism, Catholic and Students Catholicmysticism. also mysticism. experience Students Students the encounter between religion also experiencealso experience the encounter the encounter andbetween science between religion in unlocking religionand science the and unknown. inscience unlocking in Examples unlocking the unknown. would the unknown. be Examples exploring Examples the quantum physics with the would bewould exploring be exploring the quantum theBuddhist quantum physics philosophy withphysics the with Buddhist of interconnectedness the Buddhist philosophy philosophy of and interco dependent ofnnectedness interco co-arising,nnectedness and the and evolutionary theory with dependentdependent co-arising, co -thearising, evolutionary processthe evolutionary theology, theory with theory and process the with inflationary theology,process theology, theory and the of inflationaryand the universethe inflationary theory with Islamic of theory cosmology. of 2 Considering the universethe universe with Islamic with cosmology.Islamicthe questioncosmology.2 Considering of transcendence2 Considering the question isthe intended question of transcendence to of shake transcendence the is students’intended is intended to epistemological to boundary for a shake theshake students’ the students’ epistemological epistemologicalpositive boundary change. boundary for a positive for a positivechange. change. The questionThe question of ultimate of ultimatemeaning meaningaims at presentingaims at presenting the students the students with religious with religious teachings teachings and and narrativesnarratives that could that offer could different offer different ways to waysfeel the to valuefeel the of valuelife and of lifeget andthe senseget the of sensedirection of direction in in hardship.hardship. While secular While humansecular2 skillhumanSee Qur’an,s and skill intelligence 51:47.s and intelligence are intended are intended primarily primarily for survival, for survival, success, success, and prosperity,and prosperity, the common the common core message core message of most ofreligious most religious traditions traditions teaches teachesotherwise. otherwise. For For instance,instance, organizational organizational and personal and personal success is success a common is a common indicator indicator of happiness of happiness in the non in- religiothe nonus-religio us world. However,world. However, the life and the ministrylife and ministry of Jesus defiedof Jesus this defied norm. this He norm. wanted He towanted “serve to instead “serve of instead rule, of rule, suffer insteadsuffer ofinstead inflicting of inflicting suffering, suffering, and cross and social cross lines social instead lines ofinstead reinforcing of reinforcing them” ( Nikolajsenthem” (Nikolajsen 2015, p. 912015). Similarly,, p. 91). Similarly, while the while ultimate the ultimate meaning meaning in the pre in- Islamicthe pre -societyIslamic was society based was on based the tribal on the tribal mentalitymentality that caused that acaused whole ahost whole of barbarichost of barbariccustoms, customs, Muhammad Muhammad abolished abolished female infanticide, female infanticide, exploitationexploitation of the poor, of the endless poor, tribalendless warfare tribal warfareand religious and religious intolerance. intoler Studentsance. Students also learn also about learn about
2 See Qur2 ’an,See 51:47. Qur’an, 51:47.
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The question of ultimate meaning aims at presenting the students with religious teachings and narratives that could offer different ways to feel the value of life and get the sense of direction in hardship. While secular human skills and intelligence are intended primarily for survival, success, and prosperity, the common core message of most religious traditions teaches otherwise. For instance, organizational and personal success is a common indicator of happiness in the non-religious world. However, the life and ministry of Jesus defied this norm. He wanted to “serve instead of rule, suffer instead of inflicting suffering, and cross social lines instead of reinforcing them” (Nikolajsen 2015, p. 91). Similarly, while the ultimate meaning in the pre-Islamic society was based on the tribal mentality that caused a whole host of barbaric customs, Muhammad abolished female infanticide, exploitation of the poor, endless tribal warfare and religious intolerance. Students also learn about different understandings of, and approaches to, meaningful life. They learn, through Abrahamic religions, that people can find meaning in life by reconnecting with God and thereby reconstructing everything under God’s guidance and providence. However, Indian religions suggest that we disconnect from everything and detach ourselves from desire, including even the desire to search for God. Therefore, the question of ultimate meaning is intended to challenge or broaden the student’s axiological boundary. The question of service leads students to reflect on the deeper meaning and value of serving others. For some religious thinkers such as Reinhold Niebuhr, recognizing and serving others is a way to find the self (Niebuhr 2011, p. 4). Serving others is a central message of most religious traditions. Students learn about the Buddhist emphasis on love through Jataka tales such as The Selfless Hare. The suffering of Jesus is a dramatic example of unconditional love. The Prophet Muhammad said, “O ‘A’ishah! Never turn away any needy man from your door empty-handed. O ‘A’ishah! Love the poor; bring them near to you and God will bring you near to Him on the Day of Resurrection.”3 Fellow humans are not opponents in the battle of the survival of the fittest. They play an important role to fulfill our whole being. They are brothers and sisters in the eyes of Christians and Muslims; they are part of my being and consciousness in the eyes of Hindus. They are the bodhisattvas or the Buddha nature in the eyes of Zen Buddhists. Students come to explore different rationales for serving others. We serve others not just because it brings rewards but because it is a commandment of God, a divine duty (dharma), or a part of a larger cosmic principle. Finally, the question of vocation expands students’ understanding of work. They are encouraged to think about the relationship between their future careers and the meaning of their lives. Differing from a job or a profession, a vocation is a purpose-driven work that brings deep satisfaction and fulfillment. The Latin word vocare means an awareness of a higher purpose or a divine calling. Thus, the driving force of one’s vocation should be more than the desire to secure financial means or not to fall behind other competitors in attaining well-being. It should be something internal that can give a strong sense of order and a clear sense of direction to all we do. This question challenges students to think about what would be an enduring source or force for them to experience meaning and value in different works they engage in. Students learn from various examples of divine calling such as God’s calling of Jesus in the Judean desert, Allah’s calling of Muhammad in a cave of Hira, and Siddhartha’s inner calling through his experience of the Four Sights in Kapilavastu. These Five Big Questions allow my students to anticipate the type of learning materials that RELI101 offers and the overall tone and direction of my teaching. The lesson activities that these questions guide would not lead to a particular set of answers but rather a cognitive disquietude, which would push students to reflect and confirm their own belief system and readjust them, if needed. Exposed to a variety of ways to understand and respond to the problems of life, students would not only enhance their critical thinking but also cultivate the art of intellectual patience that Karl Rahner believes would demand both the intention to seek clarity of their knowledge and humility from their acknowledgment of the limitations and incalculability of knowledge. He said, “Those who really
3 See Qur’an 3:159. Religions 2018, 9, 316 7 of 8 manage to have intellectual patience with themselves will also be tolerant toward their neighbors and will not behave as though they were absolute truth in person” (Rahner 1965, p. 47).
4. Conclusions I have argued that the fundamental problem of post-truth is the boundary-drawing/building mindset manifesting as a parochial sense of self and community and an inordinately defensive stance toward others. Religious education offers abundant resources to promote the boundary-breaking disposition by translating the feeling of transcendence into creative pedagogical contents and strategies. It cultivates various moral ideals and civic virtues: tolerance, reconciliation, hospitality, forgiveness, unconditional love, justice, etc. In this paper, I have presented as a showcase the Five Big Questions that are used for my Introduction to Religion course. Helping students engage deeply in a variety of religious stories and practices, these questions expose them to a plethora of truth claims and worldviews from different traditions and academic fields. I believe that the practical functions of religious education such as enhancement of critical thinking and promotion of civic virtue should be more recognized and encouraged in higher education, and it would help our students better prepare for the post-truth epidemic.
Funding: This research received no external funding. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflicts of interest.
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