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JARQ 45 (2), 163 – 171 (2011) http://www.jircas.affrc.go.jp Diversity of Carotenoid Composition in Flower Petals REVIEW Diversity of Carotenoid Composition in Flower Petals Akemi OHMIYA* National Institute of Floricultural Science, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305–8519, Japan) Abstract Carotenoids are yellow, orange, and red pigments that are widely distributed in nature. In plants, car- otenoids play important roles in photosynthesis and furnishing flowers and fruits with distinct colors. While most plant leaves show similar carotenoid profiles, containing carotenoids essential for photo- synthesis, the carotenoid composition of flower petals varies from species to species. In this review, I present a list of carotenoid composition in the flower petals of various plants and discuss the possi- ble causes of qualitative diversity. Discipline: Horticulture Additional key words: flower color is a branch point in the pathway, leading to the synthesis Introduction of α-carotene and its derivatives with 1 ε- and 1 β-ring (β,ε-carotenoids) or β-carotene and its derivatives with Carotenoids are C40 isoprenoid pigments with or two β-rings (β,β-carotenoids) (Fig. 2). Subsequently, α- without epoxy, hydroxyl, and keto groups. More than and β-carotenes are modified by hydroxylation, epoxida- 700 naturally occurring carotenoids, widely distributed tion, or isomerization to form a variety of structures. The in plants, animals, and micro-organisms, have been iden- oxygenated derivatives of carotenes are called xan- tified4. Carotenoids are essential structural components thophylls. of the photosynthetic antenna and reaction center com- plexes36. Carotenoids protect against potentially harmful Carotenoid composition in flower petals photooxidative processes and furnish flowers and fruits with distinct colors (e.g., yellow, orange, and red) that at- Tables 1 and 2 show the carotenoids contained in tract pollinators and seed dispersers. Some carotenoids petals of monocot and eudicot plants, respectively. There are precursors for the biosynthesis of the plant hormones is considerable diversity in the carotenoid profiles of dif- abscisic acid (ABA) and strigolactone9,33. Carotenoids are ferent plant species. The majority of carotenoids in flow- essential components of the human diet as they are pre- er petals are yellow xanthophylls, such as lutein, cursors for vitamin A biosynthesis and have antioxidant β-cryptoxanthin, and zeaxanthin. Epoxy xanthophylls functions12. such as violaxanthin, antheraxanthin, neoxanthin, and The carotenoid biosynthesis pathway in plants is lutein-5,6-epoxide are also common. Yellow xanthophylls summarized in Figure 1 7,12,17,42. The initial step of carote- impart pale yellow and deep yellow to orange colors to 27 noid biosynthesis involves one isoprene unit, C5 isopente- flowers, depending on the carotenoid content in petals . nyl diphosphate (IPP). Four IPPs are condensed to form Some flowers contain carotenes such as lycopene and C20 geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP), and two GGPP β-carotene and have a deep yellow to orange color. molecules are converted into phytoene, the first C40 caro- The flower petals of most plants accumulate both tenoid. Phytoene is then converted to lycopene, via the β,β- and β,ε-carotenoids. Some flowers show distinctive formation of ζ-carotene, by the addition of conjugated carotenoid profiles. For example, the majority of carote- double bonds and the conversion of cis- to trans-configu- noids in the petals of sandersonia (Sandersonia rations. The cyclization of the linear carotenoid lycopene aurantiaca), Camellia chrysantha, and Ipomoea sp. are *Corresponding author: e-mail [email protected] Received 7 June 2010; accepted 19 August 2010. 163 A. Ohmiya Fig. 1. Schematic of the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway in plants IPI, Isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase; GGPS, Geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase; PSY, phytoene synthase; PDS, phytoene desaturase; Z-ISO, 15-cis-ζ-CRTISO; ZDS, ζ-carotene desaturase; CRTISO, carotenoid isomerase; LCYE, ly- copene ε-cyclase; LCYB, lycopene β-cyclase; CHYE, ε-ring hydroxylase; CHYB, β-ring hydroxylase, ZEP, zeaxanthin epoxidase; VDE, violaxanthin deepoxidase; NSY, neoxanthin synthase. β,β-carotenoids, such as β-cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin and β-carotene34,43,48. On the other hand, more than 90% of the carotenoids in the petals of marigold (Tagetes sp.) and chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium) are lutein and its derivatives (β,ε-carotenoids)19,27. In general, the carotenoids present in flower petals differ from those found in leaves. However, the pale yel- low petals of Ipomoea obscura48 and Eustoma sp.32 have similar carotenoid profiles to those of leaves (leaf-type Fig. 2. Structure of β,ε-carotenoid (α-carotene) and carotenoids): an accumulation of lutein, β-carotene, vio- β,β-carotenoid (β-carotene) laxanthin, neoxanthin, and zeaxanthin. At the early stag- Solid and dotted circles indicate β- and ε-rings, re- es of flower development, many flowers show a pale spectively. 164 JARQ 45 (2) 2011 Diversity of Carotenoid Composition in Flower Petals Table 1. Carotenoids contained in petals of monocot plants Family species (cultivar) Color Carotenoids Ref. Araceae Zantedeschia hybrid yellow Lutein β-Carotene 23) ‘Florex Gold’ Amaryllidaceae Narcissus poeticus orange β-Carotene Lutein Rubixanthin-like Lutein-epoxide Flavoxanthin 45) ‘Scarlet Elegance’ (corona) Auroxanthin ζ-Carotene Zeaxanthin Chrysanthe- maxanthin Narcissus poeticus pale yellow Lutein Lutein-epoxide β-Carotene Flavoxanthin Chrysanthema- 45) ‘Scarlet Elegance’ (perianth) xanthin Antheraxanthin 5,6-Monoepoxy 5,6:5’,6’-Diepoxy- Zeaxanthin -β-carotene β-carotene Naricissus yellow Lutein Auroxanthin Lutein-epoxide Flavoxanthin 5,6-Monoepoxy- 45) pseudonarcissus (corona) β-carotene ‘King Alfred’ cis-5,6:5’,6’- 5,6:5’,6’-Diepoxy- β-Cryptoxanthin β-Carotene Chrysanthema- Diepoxy-β- β-carotene xanthin carotene Naricissus yellow trans-5,6:5’,6’- Lutein Flavoxanthin Lutein-epoxide cis-5,6:5’,6’- 45) pseudonarcissus (perianth) Diepoxy-β- Diepoxy-β- ‘King Alfred’ carotene carotene 5,6-Monoepoxy β-Cryptoxanthin β-Carotene Chrysanthe- Zeaxanthin -β-carotene maxanthin Iridaceae Crocosmia× orange Crocin 38) crocosmiiflora Orchidaceae Oncidium yellow Violaxanthin (9Z)-Viola- Neoxanthin 16) ‘Gower Ramsey’ xanthin Hemerocallidaceae Hemerocallis orange Zeaxanthin cis-β-Crypto- β-Cryptoxanthin β-Carotene Lutein 41) disticha xanthin (13Z)-Lutein Lutein-epoxide Violaxanthin Neoxanthin Liliaceae Lilium spp. yellow Antheraxanthin (9Z)-Viola- cis-Lutein Violaxanthin Lutein 47) ‘Conneticut King’ (tepal) xanthin β-Carotene Lilium spp. pink Violaxanthin Lutein Antheraxanthin β-Carotene (9Z)-Viola- 47) ‘Montreux’ (tepal) xanthin cis-Lutein Lilium spp. red (tepal) Capsanthin Antheraxanthin 47) ‘Saija’ Lilium tigrinum red (tepal) Capsanthin Capsorbin (9Z)-Anthera- Mutatoxanthin Neoxanthin 26) ‘Red Night’ xanthin (9’Z)-Capsanthin (13Z)-Capsanthin β-Citraurin (9Z)- (13’Z)- Capsanthin Capsanthin Tulipa sp. deep 5,6:5’,6’-Diepoxy- Flavoxanthin β-Carotene 5,6- Chrysanthema- 45) ‘Golden Harvest’ yellow β-carotene Monoepoxy- xanthin (perianth) β-carotene Lutein Lutein-epoxide ζ-Carotene Auroxanthin Cholchicaceae Sandersonia golden β-Cryptoxanthin Zeaxanthin β-Carotene 34) aurantiaca (Hook) orange Cannaceae Canna indica yellow Lutein Violaxanthin β-Carotene Zeaxanthin β-Cryptoxanthin 44) Carotenoids are listed basically in descending order of abundance. Compound names are described according to the terms adopted in the reference manuscripts. It should be noted that the accuracy of data may vary among manuscripts. 165 A. Ohmiya Table 2-1. Carotenoids contained in petals of eudicot plants Family Species (cultivars) Color Carotenoids Ref. Nelumbonaceae Nelumbo lutea greenish Lutein Violaxanthin Neoxanthin β-Carotene 18) ‘American Yellow’ yellow Rununculaceae Adonis aestivalis blood Astaxanthin 3-Hydroxyechinenone Adonirubin Adonixanthin 8) red Papaveraceae Eschscholzia orange Neoxanthin Antherxanthin Crocetin Eschscholtz- β-Cryptoxanthin 46) californica Cham. xanthin (3S,5R,3’S)-4’5-Retro-β, β-carotene-3,5,3’-triol 25) Fabaceae Lotus japonicus yellow Violaxanthin Antheraxanthin β-Carotene Neoxanthin Lutein 40) Hypericaceae Hypericum yellow β-Carotene α-Carotene Neoxanthin Violaxanthin Zeaxanthin 37) perforatum Violaceae Viola tricolor yellow (9Z)-Viola- Violaxanthin Antheraxanthin Lutein (13Z)-Viola- 28) xanthin xanthin 29) β-Carotene (15Z)-Viola- Luteoxanthin (9Z,9’Z)-Viola- (9Z,13’Z)-Viola- xanthin xanthin xanthin (9Z,13Z)-Viola- (9Z,15Z)-Viola- xanthin xanthin Rosaceae Rosa hybrida yellow Violaxanthin Luteoxanthin 10) ‘Star of Persia’ Rosa hybrida yellow Luteoxanthin Auroxanthin 10) ‘Allgold’ Rosa hybrida yellow β-Carotene 10) ‘Alister Stella’ Brassicaceae Brassica napus yellow Luteoxanthin Neoxanthin Violaxanthin Flavoxanthin Chrysanthema- 22) xanthin Tropaeolaceae Tropaeolum majus yellow Lutein Violaxanthin Antheraxanthin Zeaxanthin Zeinoxanthin 35) β-Cryptoxanthin α-Carotene β-Carotene Malvaceae Hibiscus syriacus pink Lutein-5,6-epoxide Auroxanthin Chrysanthema- 15) xanthin Rutaceae Boronia megastigma brown β-Ionone Lutein β-Carotene cis-ζ-Carotene 5) 10’-Apocaroten- Hydroxy 10’- 10’- Methyl 10’- 6) 10’-oic acid apocaroten-10’- Apocaroten- apocaroten- oic acid 10’-al 10’-oate Theaceae Camellia chrysantha pale (9Z)-Violaxanthin Violaxanthin Antheraxanthin Luteoxanthin β-Cryptoxanthin 43) yellow β-Carotene Carotenoids are listed basically in descending order of abundance. 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    i ANALYSIS OF CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF COWPEA FLORAL VOLATILES AND NECTAR BY CONSOLATA ATIENO AGER, B.Ed (Kenyatta) I56/7423/2001 THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN THE SCHOOL OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES, KENYATTA UNIVERSITY NOVEMBER 2009 1 DECLARATION I hereby declare that this is my own original work and it has not been presented for award of a degree in any other university. Signed………………………..Date……………………… Consolata Atieno Ager Department of Chemistry Kenyatta University We confirm that the work reported in this thesis was carried out by the candidate under our supervision. Signed……………………..Date……………………… Prof. Isaiah O. Ndiege Department of Chemistry Kenyatta University Signed……………………..Date……………………… Dr. Sauda Swaleh Department of Chemistry Kenyatta University Signed……………………..Date……………………… Prof. Ahmed Hassanali Behavioral and Chemical Ecology Department (BCED) International Center of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) Signed……………………..Date……………………… Dr. Remmy Pasquet Molecular Biology and Biochemistry Department (MBBD) 1 2 International Center of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) DEDICATION To my husband Godfrey Isaac Ochieng‟ and my children Mercy, Humphrey and Jeffrey 2 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Above all, I want to glorify and exalt the Almighty God for giving me sound health and mind during the entire research period. I register my sincere appreciation to my research supervisors: Prof. Isaiah Ndiege, Prof. Ahmed Hassanali, Dr. Remmy Pasquet and Dr. Sauda Swaleh for the guidance, comments, discussions, supervision, advice, support and encouragement they gave me during my research. Special thanks to all the staff of BCED and MBBD departments at ICIPE for technical assistance and cooperation during my stay at the center.
  • Pigment Palette by Dr

    Pigment Palette by Dr

    Tree Leaf Color Series WSFNR08-34 Sept. 2008 Pigment Palette by Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School of Forestry & Natural Resources, University of Georgia Autumn tree colors grace our landscapes. The palette of potential colors is as diverse as the natural world. The climate-induced senescence process that trees use to pass into their Winter rest period can present many colors to the eye. The colored pigments produced by trees can be generally divided into the green drapes of tree life, bright oil paints, subtle water colors, and sullen earth tones. Unveiling Overpowering greens of summer foliage come from chlorophyll pigments. Green colors can hide and dilute other colors. As chlorophyll contents decline in fall, other pigments are revealed or produced in tree leaves. As different pigments are fading, being produced, or changing inside leaves, a host of dynamic color changes result. Taken altogether, the various coloring agents can yield an almost infinite combination of leaf colors. The primary colorants of fall tree leaves are carotenoid and flavonoid pigments mixed over a variable brown background. There are many tree colors. The bright, long lasting oil paints-like colors are carotene pigments produc- ing intense red, orange, and yellow. A chemical associate of the carotenes are xanthophylls which produce yellow and tan colors. The short-lived, highly variable watercolor-like colors are anthocyanin pigments produc- ing soft red, pink, purple and blue. Tannins are common water soluble colorants that produce medium and dark browns. The base color of tree leaf components are light brown. In some tree leaves there are pale cream colors and blueing agents which impact color expression.