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The Role of Ethnicity and Religion in Shaping Nigeria's Foreign Policy in the Post Cold War Years

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The Role of Ethnicity and Religion in Shaping Nigeria's Foreign Policy in the Post Cold War Years University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh THE ROLE OF ETHNICITY AND RELIGION IN SHAPING NIGERIA'S FOREIGN POLICY IN THE POST COLD WAR YEARS BY BABAGANA MONGUNO THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEG ON, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS LEGON AUGUST, 2004 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of an origin~L research conducted by me under the supervision of Ambassador J. Q. Cleland, and that no part of it has been submitted elsewhere for any other purpose. Amb. 1. Q. Cleland ~.~~ (Supervisor) (Student) Date.... 2!.J~~'±:. .. Date.. ~.f!~.o/~t University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to all the innocent Nigerians who lost their lives as a result of ethnic and religious violence. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the course of preparing this work, I have incurred a lot of debt. Everyone who contributed to the research effort in any way, no matter how small needs to be acknowledged. However, the list would undoubtedly be too long but my gratitude remains profound to all. I wish to express my sincere appreciation to the Director of LECIA, Professor Kofi Kumado and all the Research Fellows of LECIA. I am especially grateful to Ambassador J. Q Cleland whose advice, assistance and patience cannot be quantified. Without his support, this work would at best have been a mirage. I have also benefited immensely from the support given by Dr. Charles Quaker Dokuboh of the NIIA, Dr. Remi Oyewumi, Dr. Nowa Omoigui and Major E. V. Onumjuru. Finally, I am most grateful to Miss Isabella Erawoc, Miss Evelyn linkorang and Mr. Eric Amartey for typing the work and Miss Reema Baksmaty for a whole lot of support. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AMC American Muslim Council AU African Union ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States FGN Federal Government of Nigeria HRW Human Rights Watch IGOs Inter-Governmental Organisations NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations NIIA Nigeria Institute of International Affairs NIPSS Nigeria Institute of Policy and Strategic Studies OAU Organisation of African Unity OlC Organisation of IslamiC Conference OPEC Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries UK United Kingdom UN United Nations USA United States of America WHO World Health Organisation University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ii DEDICATION iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS v TABLE OF CONTENTS vii ABSTRACT ... CHAPTER ONE 1.1 Background To The Problem ... 1 1.2 Statement Of The Problem 3 1.3 Objectives of the Research 4 1.4 Hypothesis ... 5 1.5 Rationale of the Research 5 1.6 Review of Existing Literature 6 1.7 Theoretical Framework 18 1.8 Definition of Key Concepts ... 19 1.9 Methods and Sources of Data Collection 21 1.10 Arrangements of Chapters ... 21 End Notes 23 CHAPTER TWO 2.0 An Overview of Nigerian Foreign Policy from Independence to the End of the Cold War... 25 2.1 The Origins of the Foreign Ministry 25 2.2 The Anglo-Nigerian Defence Pact 26 2.3 Nigeria's Membership of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). 29 2.4 Nigeria's Decision to Join the OlC ... 33 2.5 Other Significant Instances of Nigeria's Cold War Foreign Policy Decisions and their Implementation 36 2.5.1 Nigeria's Attitude Towards North Africa and the Middle East 36 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.5.2 Foreign Policy During the Nigeria Civil War Years 39 2.5.3 The Formation of the ECOWAS 42 2.5.4 Diplomatic Appointments 44 Endnotes 46 CHAPTER THREE 3.0 An Evaluation of the Role of Ethnicity and Religion in Nigeria's Post Cold War Foreign Policy (1989 - 2003) 48 3.1 Nigeria's Influence on the War Against Terror 48 3.2 Islamic Militancy 58 3.3 The Sharia Uprisings 63 3.4 The "Miss World" Riots 64 3.5 The Anglican Church Crisis ... 66 3.6 The Innoculation Crisis 67 3.7 The Niger Delta Crisis 68 3.8 The Tiv-Jukun Riots ... 72 Endnotes 75 CHAPTER FOUR 4.1 Conclusion and Recommendations 76 4.2 Recommendations 77 Endnotes 82 Bibliography '" 83 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT The end of the Cold War has brought about a new dimension in international politics, whereby the thinking of state actors and non-state is no longer guided by East-West considerations. Multi-polarity has emerged with a new set of global concerns which are influencing the domestic set up of many nation- states. Most of these concerns have tended to have ethno-religious undertones, consequently inspiring internal reaction. The "domestication" of sensitive international issues very often impacts on the foreign policy decision-making process, especially in a pluralistic society with conflicting interest groups. This has been a common feature in Nigeria'S foreign policy since independence. This study examines the influence of ethnicity and religion in shaping Nigeria's foreign policy in the post-Cold War era. The research has revealed that Nigeria's multi-cultural, multi-religious, multi-ethnic characteristic is to a very large extent, influential in her foreign policy process. The numerous crises in Nigeria are predominantly triggered by ethno-religious factors which have equally impacted on Nigeria's relations with state and non­ state actors in the international community. Some contemporary global issues, particularly the war against terrorism have engendered resentment within certain segments of the Nigeria nation. Recommendations are made to reverse the destabilizing role of ethnicity and religion in Nigeria's foreign policy process and improve the existing climate of suspicion and acrimony. vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM Foreign policy is rarely conceptualized or implemented in isolation in any country. Influential domestic constituencies of all kinds - political, economic (business), intellectual, religious, cultural, environmental, military, among others have always tended to have a say in one way or the other. Thus, reflecting the usually poly-national, multi-religious and non-secular character of many modem "Third World" states, ethnicity and religion play a significant role in their foreign policy decisions. The heterogeneous nature of African "nation-states', most of which were crafted at the 1884-85 Berlin Conference which was without regard to internal cohesion, makes this a particularly significant issue on the continent. Beyond intra-state ethnic and religious cohesion, however, there is the issue of artificial borders which have divided entire nationalities into several "modern" multinational states. With a population of well over120 million, divided into 250 ethnic groups (some of which can also be found in neighbouring countries), the Nigerian population may be almost evenly split between Christians and Moslems, many of whom also concurre~tly practise traditional religions, although reliable figures are hard to come by, given the political sensitivities of enumeration. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Since independence, Nigeria's foreign policy has placed Africa high in its priorities. Nigeria was indeed among the early agitators in the quest to create the QAU. In the 1970s it became intellectually fashionable to describe Nigerian foreign policy in terms of concentric drcles in which Africa was the centerpiece. More recently, however, some observers have expressed concern that in spite of the rhetoric, Nigeria's foreign policy is increasingly gravitating towards the developed world. In other words, the centerpiece may not really be Africa, but the United States in particular and the Western world in general. After shaking off an initial colonial hangover, Cold War era Nigerian foreign policy was dominated by an aggressive desire to assist in the total liberation of the African continent from colonialism and Apartheid, while remaining either non aligned in the East -West ideological basis or benefiting on a case by case basis by playing the East against the Western bloc and vice versa. Among other factors, Nigeria's religious and ethnic antecedents have conspired to impose internal and external strains in a world which often appears, perhaps unfairly, as if it is striving to "westernize" and "integrate", taking the Judaism and Christianity as the most appropriate standard. Nigeria's____ post-Cold War years have been characterized by increasingly aCrimonious domestic bickering among competing ethno-religious power blocs, 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh consequently affecting foreign policy issues. Indeed, Nigeria's aspirations for a leading role in continental and world affairs may have been frustrated by her inability to free herself from divisive internal dynamics and controversial external alliances, even though she has made far reaching contributions towards freeing other states from such tensions. 1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM The highly volatile ethnic and religious atmosphere which characterizes the internal affairs of the Nigerian nation may have limited the range of freedom of the central government to such a degree that foreign policy decision making is often controversial. This is particularly so, taking into account the behaviour of the state in making foreign policy commitments without consultation with the component nationalities of the country. For example, many international treaties and agreements are signed without internal consultation. Very often, these treaties are in conflict with local customs of Nigerian nationalities who were not consulted before Nigeria entered into such agreements. Many human rights, gender and child agreements and treaties are like that. This problem may have eroded the influence enjoyed by Nigeria at regional, continental and global levels.
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