Aesthetics As Resistance: Rasa, Dhvani, and Empire in Tamil “Protest” Theater
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AESTHETICS AS RESISTANCE: RASA, DHVANI, AND EMPIRE IN TAMIL “PROTEST” THEATER BY DHEEPA SUNDARAM DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Comparative Literature in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2014 Urbana, Illinois Doctoral Committee: Professor Michael Palencia-Roth, Chair Professor Rajeshwari Pandharipande, Director of Research Professor Indira Viswanathan Peterson, Mount Holyoke College Associate Professor James Hansen Abstract Aesthetics as Resistance: Rasa, Dhvani, and Empire in Modern Tamil “Protest” Theater addresses questions concerning the role of aesthetics in the development, production, and impact of Tamil “Protest” Theater (1900-1930) on the success of the Indian anticolonial movement in the colonial Tamil state. In addition, I explore the possibility for a Modern Tamil aesthetic paradigm that arises from these syncretic plays, which borrow from both external and indigenous narrative and dramaturgical traditions. I begin with the following question, “Can aesthetic “relishing” (rasasvāda) be transformed into patriotic sentiment and fuel anticolonial resistance?” Utilizing Theodore Baskaran’s The Message Bearers, which examines the development and production of anticolonial media in the colonial Tamil state as point of departure, my research interrogates Tamil “popular” or “company” drama as a successful vehicle for evoking anticolonial sentiment. In this context, I posit the concept of “rasa- consciousness” as the audience’s metanarrative lens that transforms emotive cues and signposts in the dramatic work into sentiment through a process of aesthetic "remembering.” This lens is constituted through a complex interaction between culture, empire, and modernity that governs the spectator’s memorializing process. The culturally-determined aesthetic “lens” of Tamil spectator necessitates a culture-specific messaging system by anticolonial playwrights that links the dramatic outcome with feelings of nationalism and patriotism. More specifically, I argue that Tamil “Protest” plays, as generic wholes, become unifying symbols of “nation” by engaging with multiple anticolonial, political, and class and gender-based sociocultural struggles taking place in the community at large. Thus, they transform the rasika (culturally-informed aesthete) into a citizen of an imagined nation-community by utilizing these tensions as markers of unity and identity. I see the implications of my work as two-fold. First, instead of maintaining Baskaran’s unidirectional movement from “elite” to “popular” drama, my dissertation argues that in fact, these plays can be said to constitute a new Tamil aesthetic predicated on rasa-consciousness. Second, my work addresses the history, influences, production, and performance of these plays to elucidate why the success of the anticolonial popular drama in the Tamil colonial state occurs gradually and largely has been ignored in literary and colonial study to this point. ii For Mom and Dad— Your love and unwavering support made this possible. and For Rajeshwari Vijay Pandharipande— My mentor, gurvī, and most ardent supporter who always believed in me. iii Acknowledgements This completed dissertation owes much to several people without whom I would not have been successful. Let me begin by thanking my parents, Kalyana and Sumathy Sundaram who provided love, support, and maintained their belief in me, when even my own faltered. Also, much is owed to my two sisters, Maaya Sundaram and Rumya Sundaram who cheered me up, supported me without restriction, and pushed me forward, even when I did not want to be pushed. And, I want to thank David Scroggins, my incredibly supportive partner, who never tired of listening to me, edited for me, and believed in me, even when it was difficult. Finally, I would like to acknowledge my beloved dog Misha and remarkable cat Mira, both of whom have passed on during this process, for being my loyal companions, my best friends, and the ultimate listeners. I was incredibly fortunate and blessed to have wonderfully supportive and insightful members on my dissertation committee who consistently encouraged my best work and supported me as my thesis developed into its own direction. I owe my training in Sanskrit and the original idea and shape for my thesis to my thesis adviser and mentor, Rajeshwari Vijay Pandharipande who provided constant affection, guidance, and assistance. Michael Palencia- Roth, my committee chair, helped me find the rigor and discipline required to finish a dissertation while urging me forward when everything seemed overwhelming. I would also like to thank Indira Viswanathan Peterson who really made this project possible through invaluable advice, critique, and suggestions. In particular, the specific comments throughout my dissertation draft were a much-needed resource in honing my final product. And, I owe much to Jim Hansen whose flexibility and openness to the various “incarnations” of my “Irish chapter” and vast expertise on Irish drama helped me see new possibilities and connections that were vital in strengthening my argument. Several friends, relatives, and various acquaintances have played important roles in helping me get here, by procuring me difficult-to-acquire texts in Tamil, getting me access to various libraries in Tamil Nadu, providing moral support when I was discouraged, providing Tamil translation assistance, etc. First, let me thank my grandparents, Shakuntala and V.T. Rajan who were so proud to learn that I wanted to write about Tamil playwrights despite having grown up in the United States. Also, a special thank you to Shanti Mohan who provided invaluable iv insight into modern Tamil politics and information on the Chennai Sangamam situation and Brindha Jayakanth who was able to jumpstart my research process by getting me access to the American consulate library. In addition, Bhuvana Natarajan’s translations of Tamil plays were incredibly helpful. The additional last-minute translation and language assistance provided by Meena and Ganesh Vaidyanathan proved invaluable and was buoyed by their ardent love and support. Thank you to Dr. Theodore Baskaran for advice and insights that provided vital leads and avenues for research for my project. The library staff at the Roja Muthiah, Konnemara libraries in Chennai, India as well as the University of Illinois Library here deserves commendation and my gratitude for procuring rare, out-of-print Tamil plays, without which this project would not have been possible. A special thank you goes out to Mr. Meenakshisundaram, the digital librarian for the Konnemara Library in Chennai, for his extensive time and effort procuring information, texts, and providing contacts for my research. Finally, I want to mention my wonderfully patient friends who played a vital role in helping me complete this project. I would like to thank Andy Heidkamp for his constant pick- me-ups, Spencer Savoie for his terrible jokes he used to keep me smiling, Mike Donnelly for listening to me complain about anything and everything, Chitra Kumar for the late-night phone conversations filled with laughter and happy childhood memories, and Annette Schimizzi and Andrea Alexander for providing stress relief by letting me come over and drink beer and watch whatever sporting event was in season. And, finally, to my dearest friend Tatiana Kuzmic for her advice, comic relief, stern lectures, and never-ending love and support throughout this process, I am profoundly grateful and indebted. I am certain there are many others who have helped me in completing this milestone not mentioned here to whom I also offer my heartfelt gratitude. Without all of you, this would not have been possible. Though it was a long and arduous journey, the contribution of so many friends, family, and colleagues makes me appreciate this accomplishment as a reflection of my hard work and determination as well as their love, belief, and support. v Table of Contents Note on Methodology ................................................................................................................. viii Note on Translations .................................................................................................................... ix Note on Transliteration .................................................................................................................x Introduction: .................................................................................................................................1 I. Foundations .................................................................................................................................1 II. Aesthetic “Incursions”: Sanskrit, English, and Irish “Borrowings” ...................................4 III. Aesthetic “Vehicles” of Resistance: Rasa and Dhvani .........................................................6 IV. The Rise of Popular Drama and Tamil “Protest” Plays ....................................................10 V. Rasa-consciousness as Aesthetic Resistance .........................................................................14 VI. The Chapters ..........................................................................................................................15 Chapter One-Towards a Rasika-Centered Poetics: The Evolution of Rasa and Dhvani ......18 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................18