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Resistance and Cultural Revitalisation: Reading Blackfoot Agency in the Texts of Cultural Transformation 1870-1920

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Resistance and Cultural Revitalisation: Reading Blackfoot Agency in the Texts of Cultural Transformation 1870-1920 Resistance and Cultural Revitalisation: Reading Blackfoot Agency in the Texts of Cultural Transformation 1870–1920 Blanca Tovías de Plaisted A thesis submitted to the University of New South Wales in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Sydney, Australia, 2007 PLEASE TYPE THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Thesis/Dissertation Sheet Surname or Family name: Tovías de Plaisted First name: Blanca Other name/s: Idalia Abbreviation for degree as given in the University calendar: PhD School: School of History and Philosophy and Faculty: Arts and Social Sciences School of English, Media and Performance Studies Title: Resistance and Cultural Revitalisation: Reading Blackfoot Agency in the Texts of Cultural Transformation 1870-1920 Abstract 350 words maximum: (PLEASE TYPE) The radical transformations attendant upon the imposition of colonial rule on the Siksikaitsitapi or Blackfoot of northern Alberta and southern Montana are examined in this dissertation in order to emphasise the threads of continuity within a tapestry of cultural change c.1870-1920. The dissertation traces cultural persistence through the analysis of texts of history and literature that constructed Blackfoot subjectivity in the half-century following the end of traditional lifeways and resettlement on three reserves in Canada and one reservation in the United States of America. This interdisciplinary thesis has been undertaken jointly in the School of History and Philosophy, and the School of English, Media and Performance Studies. It combines the tools of historical research and literary criticism to analyse the discourses and counter-discourses that served to construct Blackfoot subjectivity in colonial texts. It engages with the ways in which the Blackfoot navigated colonisation and resisted forced acculturation while adopting strategies of accommodation to ensure social reproduction and even physical survival in this period. To this end, it presents four case studies, each focusing on a discrete process of Blackfoot cultural transformation: a) the resistance to acculturation and cultural revitalisation as it relates to the practice of Ookan (Sun Dance); b) the power shifts ushered in by European contact and the intersection between power and Blackfoot dress practices; c) the participation of Blackfoot “organic intellectuals” in the construction of Blackfoot history through the transformation of oral stories into text via the ethnographic encounter; and d) the continuing links between Blackfoot history and literature, and contemporary fictional representations of Blackfoot subjectivity by First Nations authors. This thesis acknowledges that Blackfoot history and literature have been constructed through a complex matrix of textual representations from their earliest contacts with Europeans.This dissertation is a study of the intersection between textual representations of the Blackfoot, and resistance, persistence and cultural revitalisation 1870-1920. It seeks to contribute to debates on the capacity of the colonised Other to exercise agency. It engages with views articulated by organic intellectuals, and Blackfoot and other First Nations scholars, in order to foster a dialogue between Blackfoot and non-Blackfoot scholarship. Declaration relating to disposition of project thesis/dissertation I hereby grant to the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or in part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all property rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstracts International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). …………………………………………………………… ……………………………………..……………… ……….……………………...…….… Signature Witness Date The University recognises that there may be exceptional circumstances requiring restrictions on copying or conditions on use. Requests for restriction for a period of up to 2 years must be made in writing. Requests for a longer period of restriction may be considered in exceptional circumstances and require the approval of the Dean of Graduate Research. FOR OFFICE USE ONLY Date of completion of requirements for Award: THIS SHEET IS TO BE GLUED TO THE INSIDE FRONT COVER OF THE THESIS ORIGINALITY STATEMENT I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project’s design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged. Signed .................................................................................... Date ..................................................................................... i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The impetus for this dissertation owes much to the encouragement and support of many colleagues and friends, especially my supervisors in the School of History and Philosophy and the School of English, Media and Performance Studies. David Cahill has followed my progress with unrivalled enthusiasm, and has mentored me to develop my academic skills beyond the call of duty. I can never thank him sufficiently. Sue Kossew deserves great credit for her support and patience as I struggled to find the balance between the two disciplines that inform my research. I am also grateful to two interim supervisors: Bill Ashcroft and Roslyn Jolly. Roslyn’s advice was always insightful and served to expand my horizons. My research in Canada and the United States was funded by the UNSW Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, and I particularly wish to record my appreciation to its Research Management Committee and to Martyn Lyons, Associate Dean (Research). It would be near impossible to cite all those who provided me with practical advice and moral support during this project. My ideas were tested during discussions with colleagues and friends. I warmly thank Fernanda Duarte for being my role model, and for the confidence she has always placed in me. During my overseas research travels I received invaluable assistance from Jan Gasco and Jerry Moore, who opened their house to me, fed me, encouraged me, and gave me valuable feedback. Miki Hruska and Evelyn Ellerman were tremendous hosts in Edmonton. Evie was my point of introduction to the Siksikaitsitapi people, for which I am most thankful. I am forever grateful to Vanessa Escudero and her parents, who also received me in their home and provided much warmth and practical assistance. ii I particularly thank the members of the “Indigenous Studies Group” at UNSW for their assiduousness in attending our meetings and for great discussions, especially Martina Horakova, Ben Miller, Pia Solberg, Johanna Perheentupa, Uta Daur, Hallie Donkin, David Fonteyn, Katrin Althans, and Preethi Srinivasan. My heartfelt thanks go to Chicka Dixon for opening his door to our group and sharing his knowledge, and I thank his niece Liz Mayer for her friendship. Stephen Gregory, Sara Sutler-Cohen, Katherine Russo, and Claudia Magallanes also deserve thanks for their collegiality. I am forever in the debt of Heather Moritz, for her friendship, her unsurpassed critical and proofreading skills, and her delicious cooking. Members of the H-AMINDIAN discussion group gave me generous advice. I am especially grateful to Rod Thomas for a copy of his draft article on Native American women warriors. Roland Bohr provided me with some fragments of text from his research in progress, and Kenneth Lokensgard with useful hints to make the best out of my 2005 research trip to Canada and the USA. Yale Belanger and Mary Scriver welcomed me in their homes in Lethbridge and Valier, respectively. Mary’s contributions to the list are always incisive and generous. I am also grateful to the scholars who have paved the way for my study through their own work on the Blackfoot, especially the early Blackfoot and non-Blackfoot ethnographers who strove to document Blackfoot knowledge, and whose names I have sought to emphasise throughout the dissertation. I especially thank Hugh Dempsey, author extraordinaire whose many publications on the Blackfoot inform this thesis, and who gave me words of encouragement when he generously came to meet me at the Glenbow Archives during my 2005 research trip to Calgary. I thank Rosalyn LaPier for providing me with contact numbers and for welcoming my enquiries. iii My research was kindly assisted by many librarians and archivists. Gerald Conaty was of great assistance in opening the Glenbow Archives to me and providing me with access to invaluable materials. Patricia Molesky and Jim Bowman were also very helpful. The staff at the Library and Archives of Canada, The Provincial Archives of Alberta and The Montana Historical Society were also untiringly helpful during my consultations. I am also
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