An Environmental Impact Assessment of the two possible routes for the proposed magnetite slurry pipeline between Phalaborwa and Maputo
by
ILZE UECKERMANN
MINI DISSERTATION
submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
MASTER OF ARTS
in
GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
in the
FACULTY OF ARTS
at the
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
SUPERVISOR: PROF. J.T. HARMSE
OCTOBER 1998 OPSOMMING
An Environmental Impact Assessment of the two possible routes for the proposed magnetite slurry pipeline between Phalaborwa and Maputo
Student: Ilze Ueckermann Studieleier: Prof. J.T. Harmse
Die studie in verband met die plasing van 'n magnetiet pyplyn tussen Phalaborwa en Maputo, is gemotiveer omdat hierdie plasing 'n defnitiewe uitwerking op die omgewing sal he. Sedert die vroee 1970's het die omgewing en enige negatiewe uitwerking op die omgewing, 'n groter uitwerking op die mens gehad. Dit was omdat die mense meer bewus geraak het van die feit dat by afhanklik van sy omgewing is vir oorlewing. Met die nuwe omgewingswetgewing is die voltooiing van 'n Omgewings Inpak Studie (O.I.S) verpligtend voordat ontwikkeling mag plaasvind.
Wat is Omgewings Inpak Studies? Omgewing Inpak Studies is die aksie wat uitgevoer moet word om die positiewe en negatiewe inpakte van ontwikkeling op die omgewing te identifiseer. Met ander woorde alle inpakte word geidentifiseer, en die roete met die kleinste omgewings inpak sal dan eerder gevolg word. Omgewings Inpak Studies is 'n metode om die verskillende inpakte op die omgewing te identifiseer sodat alternatiewe aksies voorgestel kan word. Op hierdie wyse word die meer negatiewe aksies verminder.
Dit is 'n metode om 'n probleem te evalueer sodat 'n reaksie op die probleem geformuleer kan word. In die gaval van die navorsing, is die probleem die plasing van 'n magnetiet pyplyn tussen Phalaborwa en Maputo. Die reaksie op die probleem is om alle aspekte te oorweeg (byvoorbeeld ekonomies, sosiaal, ensovoorts) en dan die beste alternatief te volg. ABSTRACT
An Environmental Impact Assessment of the two possible routes for the proposed magnetite slurry pipeline between Phalaborwa and Maputo
Student: Ilze Ueckermann Supervisor: Prof. J.T. Harmse
The study of the two possible routes for the magnetite slurry pipeline between Phalaborwa and Maputo was motivated because of the impact it can have on the environment. Since the early 1970's the environment has become more and more important to the people that live in it. By law any development should by forgone by an Environmental Impact Assessment, and for that reason this study was undertaken.
Environmental Impact Assessment (E.I.A.) measures impacts of one or more environmental indicators on the environment. Further more an Environmental Impact Assessment means a national procedure for evaluating the likely impact of a proposed activity on the environment. It is thus a tool used to minimise the impacts of human development on the environment. This tool will be used to compare the two routes and to identify the route with less Environmental Impact.
Within the growing field of environmental science and engineering, there is increasing interest in and use of Environmental Assessment (EA). In this form of assessment, the experts evaluate the probable impact of a range of alternative actions that have been proposed in response to a problem, in this case the placing of a pipeline from Phalaborwa to Maputo. Environmental Impacts may be considered in light of economic, social, or security constraints; hence the lightest impact is not necessarily always chosen by planners. CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION 1
AIMS, OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY 3
SITE LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION 5 3.1. Phalaborwa 6 3.2. Kruger National Park 7 3.3. Kaapmuiden 8 3.4. Maputo 12
THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 14 4.1. Relief 14 4.2 Climate 15 4.3 Soil 17 4.4 Surface Water 21
IMPACTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT 25
MITIGATORY ACTIONS 32
CONCLUSION 36
REFERENCES 38 1. INTRODUCTION
In 1996 it was decided to construct a pipeline to transport magnetite from Phalaborwa in the Northern Province of South Africa, to Maputo, in Mozambique. A study to investigate the impact of such a development on the environment of the Kruger National Park and surroundings was motivated because it is a legal requirement that all construction projects of such magnitude must have an Environmental Impact Assessment study undertaken. The question that comes to mind is whether the environmental impact of these activities will be negative or positive. Using Environmental Impact Assessment as a tool it is possible to evaluate the development of an area as well as the impact thereof on the environment (Sadler, 1994). The two possible actions, development and conservation, must be balanced against each other (Ghai, 1992; Boswell, 1996). Sometimes it is necessary to develop, but such development must take place in a way that the environment will be negatively affected the least.
Magnetite is an iron ore which is produced as a by-product of the mining process at Phalaborwa. During the process approximately seven million tons of magnetite is produced per year, and over a 30 year period it has accumulated to a reserve of 210 million tons. It was decided during 1996 that the magnetite, that can be used for the production of iron, would be reclaimed from the stockpiles at Phalaborwa (GIBB Africa, 1997). This option has been previously investigated, but an economically viable option was never to realise. The idea was that the magnetite would be transferred to a magnetite preparation plant where it would then be milled to a very fine powder, and purified. The magnetite would then be transferred by slurry pipeline to the iron production plant (Alberta Round Table on Environment and Economy, 1993).
The investigation of Maputo (in Mozambique) as a location for the iron preparation plant was motivated by the idea to enrich the Southern African region. Another motivation for the location was the nearby situated Pande gas fields. These gas fields were discovered in 1961, but they were never developed because of the civil war that raged in Mozambique at that stage. Enron (an American energy company) has since obtained a concession to develop these gas fields and they need a project to justify the cost of the development of the gas fields (GIBB Africa, 1997). Magnetite can be converted in two ways to iron, by using either coal or gas as a source of energy, and the combination of the natural gas and magnetite to produce iron was found to be feasible option.
1 Since the early 1970's the environment has become more of an issue to the people that live in it (Biswas & Agrawala, 1992). The first step is to define the concept "environment". What is included when you refer to the environment that will be affected by the pipeline (Cooper, 1997)? The meaning of the term "environment" will differ from person to person on one's view of the environment (Riha, Leviton & Hutson, 1997). In this study the term environment will include all physical, natural, social and economical aspects (Berkes & Folke, 1992; Fuggle & Rabie, 1992).
The study of the two possible routes for the magnetite slurry pipeline between Phalaborwa and Maputo was motivated because of the impact each can have on the environment. In the study it will be necessary to compare the two routes with each other. The comparison is aimed at evaluating the Kruger Direct Route (the route directly through the Kruger National Park) and the Kaapmuiden Route (the route south circumventing the Kruger National Park). Which one of these two routes is more suitable and has a smaller environmental impact on the surrounding environment? In theory the route with the least impact will be preferred for the construction of the pipeline.
Environmental Impact Assessment measures impacts of one or more environmental indicators on the environment. Furthermore, an Environmental Impact Assessment entails a national procedure for evaluating the likely impact of the proposed activity on the environment (Westman, 1985).
The documentation of the state of environment is partly a description of the structure of nature because it has central relevance in respect of the tolerance of nature and the impact on nature caused by human activities. With the Environmental Impact Assessment of the different routes the impact of the two routes will be studied and mitigation of impacts will be suggested (Alberti & Parker, 1991; Corson, 1994). The study of the state of environment along the different routes will be investigated from the point of view of the tolerance of nature and the pressure caused by human activities (stress). The general aim of the Environmental Impact Assessment is to create a basis from which to achieve a better environment, better and more efficient utilisation of resources, and sustainable development (Victor, 1991; Gosselin, 1993). The question that comes to mind is whether the pipeline through the Kruger National Park will be sustainable for future generations (Riha, Leviton & Hutson, 1997).
These and other questions will be answered in the study.
2 2. AIMS, OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY
The aim of the study will be to compare the two different routes with each other. With the comparison the author will try to prove that the Kruger Direct Route (KDR) will have a severe impact on the environment while the Kaapmuiden Route (KR) will have less.
The tool or method that will be used to compare the routes is the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). The objective of Environmental Impact Assessment is to identify the negative impacts and to outline mitigation procedures so that these impacts will be minimised or avoided. Sustainable development is an approach to development and addresses the fundamental concerns of poverty, environment, equality and democracy (UNCED, 1992).
Although it may appear intuitive that meeting the basic needs of poor communities holds the promise of eliminating many of the types of situations which favour the outbreak of conflict, in many cases development can be shown to contribute to or benefit from the existence or possibility of armed conflicts (Kaplan, 1995, p.viii). The concept of sustainable development modifies this relationship considerably (Panayotou, 1994). The 1992 Rio Declaration, presented at the United Nations Conference on the environment and development, asserted in Principle 25 that " Peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent and indivisible". In other words, the idea of peace forms an integral part of the idea of sustainable development (Karshenas, 1994; Barg, Pollock & Hardi, 1994).
Sustainable development forms an intricate part of the comparison between the two routes. To have the least environmental impact a method of Environmental Impact Assessment must be used. Environmental Impact Assessment is a tool to assure that the environment will not be over exploited or damaged by development. Sustainable development is just that: it is a way of thinking where the impact of development must be minimised so that the future generations can also benefit from the environment (Abaza, 1992; Hodge, 1993; Friend, 1994).
Alternatively formulated, the Environmental Impact Assessment forms the basis of the study to achieve sustainable development. The general aim of Environmental Impact Assessment is to create a basis on which to achieve a better environment, better and more efficient utilisation of resources, and sustainable development (Cooper, 1993). Environmental Impact Assessment means a national procedure for evaluating the likely impact of a proposed activity on the environment. In South Africa the regulations that are used are contained in: "The integrated
3 environmental management Procedure"(DWAF, 1996). In these regulations the Environmental Impact Assessment forms part of a bigger Integrated Environmental Management (IEM) procedure. These regulations will soon change to become the new White Paper on Environmental affairs.
With the green paper of 1996 the government of South Africa concluded that the environment has a major role to play in the developmental needs of the people of South Africa (DEAT, 1996). This means that the environment must be used effectively so that the needs of the people is met without damaging the environment too much (again the idea of sustainable development). Environmental Impact Assessment is a phase in the South African Integrated Environmental Management (IEM), and it forms part of a good environmental management plan (Mehmet, 1995).
Is the idea of sustainable development and Environmental Impact Assessment far fetched or a reality? Is it possible to develop the environment in a sustainable manner? If this type of development is really possible then it should be used in the development of the pipeline route from Phalaborwa to Maputo. And if this type of development is really possible the effect the development will have on the environment will be minimised.
The objective of this research is to try to prove that the one route will have less negative affect on the environment than the other route. The method followed in order to reach this conclusion will be to compare the different impacts of the two routes and to finally identify the best route (i.e the route with the least negative impact).
The methodology that will be followed with the research is a combination between a literature study and field work. A mental approach that both routes have a negative impact will be used as the background. With the literature study the aim of the study will be to prove that the environmental impact of the KR will be less than the impact of the KDR.
The hypothesis is that the KDR will have a more negative impact on the environment than the KR route to the south of the Kruger National Park, and that the KR route is preferable to the KDR route. In other words, the following hypothesis can now be formulated: Ho: The KDR will impact most negatively on the environment. Ha: The KDR will not impact most negatively on the environment.
4 With this study the different physical geographical areas of the impact will be identified and discussed. These areas are as follow. Relief, climate, soil and surface water.
3. SITE LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION
The site location of the route is either from the Northern Province (Phalaborwa) south through the Mpumalanga Province, or directly through the Kruger National Park (see figure 1).
LEGEND :rarer KRUGER PARK CAMP KLASERIE RESERVE MBABAT RESERVE 71KABAVATI RESERVE SAME SANDS RESERVE Or A KAANYELET1 RESERVE I I 5
-r MOCAMBI QUE —
— I
T — 7 — I I. 7.12.7n F I A —..
RESSANO C.ARCIA go° KAAPRIUIDEN
PESSEME
N
26°00110" coop. INDIAN Imo OCEAN
Figure 1: The possible routes that can be followed with the pipeline
5 3.1 Phalaborwa
Phalaborwa is located in the Northern Province of South Africa. This province covers an area of 123 910km2 and borders Mpumalanga, Gauteng and North -West provinces in South Africa, as well as Zimbabwe and Mozambique in the North and the East.
The underlying geology at Phalaborwa is dominated by the Phalaborwa Complex of igneous rock of Protozoic age (2 000 Ma years), which are intruded into country granite - gneisses of Swazian age. The Phalaborwa Complex is seven kilometres long on its north-south axis and three kilometres wide in an east west direction. During the Mesozoic or Karoo period, some 200 million years ago, both the country granite - gneisses as well as the rocks of the Complex were extensively intruded by dolerite dykes. These dyke swarms are relatively narrow and continuous and trend distinctively in a north-easterly/south-west direction.
The Phalaborwa area supports a wide variety of fauna and flora. It is responsible for the conservation of a rich variety of animal and plant life. Many bird species are attracted to the Phalaborwa region during the dry winter season and as much as 280 resident bird species and 200 migrant bird species are found in the area. Many mammal species are found in Phalaborwa due to its close proximity to the Kruger National Park. The smaller buck such as steenbok, klipspringers and duikers frequently visit the gardens. In the surrounding Selati and Olifants rivers many Hippopotami and crocodiles are found (GIBB Africa, 1997).
Phalaborwa is situated in the Lowveld region. The area forms part of the savanna sub-region of the Aethiopian Region. Savannas form one of the worlds major biomes and are the dominant vegetation of Africa. It occupies 54% of Southern Africa, 60% of sub-Saharan Africa and 12% of the global land surface (Sholes, 1997). Phalaborwa forms part of the Savannah Bushveld, a vegetation type consisting of a two layered above ground structure: a low structure tree layer within a grass-dominated undergrowth.
In 1995 the estimated population of the Northern Province area was 5 560 000 which was 13,3% of the total population of South Africa. The population is made up of 2 572 000 males (45,7%) and 2 988 000 females (54,3%) (Central Statistical Services, 1997).
6 Age and gender distribution in the Northern Province reflects the profile of a developing country where the highest population numbers are in the younger age groups (e.g. 4-9 years). In 1995 the average life expectancy of people in the Northern Province was 62,67 years and the population density of the area was 43,8 people per square kilometre (this is the third highest in South Africa).
Due to the conflicting statements from official sources it is difficult to know if crime in South Africa is increasing or decreasing. But in 1996 there were 920 murders in the Northern province, this murder figure is down on the figure for 1994 of 1 078 (South African Police Service, 1997). This murder figure is the third lowest in South Africa. Other criminal acts that are reported are robberies, rapes, kidnapping, theft, assaults and housebreaking. The increase of crime against property is indicative of a high unemployment rate and an under-developed economy.
The adult literacy rate in the Northern Province is around 73,64%, the total pupil enrolment in the province is 1 918 000, and the average years of schooling for the population is 2,82 years. This concludes that the population of the Northern Province is under educated and in need of educational services.
The historical development of Phalaborwa started around three hundred years ago when the baPhalaborwa tribe was the only people to inhabit the lowveld. This tribe was iron smiths who worked the copper found in the koppies around Phalaborwa. The tribe was originally driven from Zimbabwe by the Bokhalaka tribe. The tribe settled in this area and named the place Phalaborwa (meaning "Better than the South"). In 1912 a geologist named Dr. Hans Merensky indicated the presence of large deposits of valuable metals and minerals in the Phalaborwa area and this led to the establishment of the town in 1953.
3.2 Kruger National Park
The world renowned Kruger National Park is South Africa's largest ecotourism attraction with more than 750 000 visitors per year. It stretches over 19 485 km 2. Its game population includes mammal species in excess of 140, more than 450 species of bird, 114 species of repile, 40 species of fish and 33 amphibian species. In 1994, the Kruger National Park was enlarged by 14 696ha by incorporating parts of five farms into the park. The new land is on the western border of the park between Orpen and Phalaborwa gates (Preston, Fuggle & Siegfried, 1989).
7 During 1995, game fencing between the Kruger National Park and private reserves was removed. This had a positive effect on the overall grazing situation and the migration of wildlife. The area is now managed as a single entity. In the near future the Kruger National Park will also be linked with other national parks in Mozambique and Zimbabwe via game corridors.
The Kruger Direct Route (KDR) for the proposed ore slurry pipeline is the direct route to Maputo as the crow flies. It will pass through the Klaserie Nature Reserve, Kruger National Park and the southern part of Mozambique before reaching Maputo.
This route transverses mainly igneous rock from Phalaborwa eastwards to Lebombo range on the Mozambique border and then crosses Cretaceous calcareous sands and gravels and the Quaternary age unconsolidated sands of the coastal region. Granite - gneiss with numerous dolerite dyke swarms that tend in a north east/south west direction are found, with minor gabbros to the east (see table 1).
The surface topography is relatively flat except along the Lebombo Range, with the Olifants and Komati rivers forming the major drainage channels. The KDR transverses granite - gneisses, shales, sandstone, siltstones, igneous basalt and rhyolites from Phalaborwa through the Kruger National park, and across the Mozambique border in a south-easterly direction. It then passes though calcareous shelly sands and gravels and unconsolidated coastal sands with underlying silt and clay.
3.3. Kaapmuiden
The Kaapmuiden Route (KR) would follow the existing 400kV Eskom powerline and rail servitude from Phalaborwa to Acornhoek and then straight to Culcutta where the powerline follows close to the south-western boundary of the Kruger National Park. The magnetite slurry pipeline will run adjacent to the railway line all the way to Kaapmuiden. At Kaapmuiden the pipeline along the KR will follow existing roads (National Road 4) and railway line. South east of Komatipoort the pipeline will follow the railway to Maputo.
The KR passes through various types of vegetation such as extratropical lowland grassland , tree savanna of medium altitude and river valleys, woodland and savanna woodland with extratropical species and the tree or shrub savanna with forest patches. The Mozambique part of the KR the pipeline passes through moderate altitude (between 350-800 m.a.m.s.l.).
8 There are hilly areas near the border with Swaziland. The soil are mainly shallow, reddish and clayey and they are derived from rhyolites. The rainfall in this section of the route averages between 600-1200mm per annum.
This route transverses granites and gneisses over relatively flat terrain to Kaapmuiden (see table 2). From Kaapmuiden the route is underlain by shales, sandstones and conclomorate with basalt occurring in the 10km zone before Komatipoort. Rhyolites, basalt and sedimentary sandstone and mudstone occur eastwards, with Quaternary unconsolidated sands covering the last 60 km to Maputo.
9
60) p. 1997,
a, ic fr GIBB A (
te Rou t c ire D er
0 N-- Krug he t long a t ironmen l env ica s hy p he of t ion t ip r desc A A description of the physical environment along the KR (GIBB Africa, 1997,p.71) 0 e c , 0- 3 0> O 2 GEOLOGY 0 HYDROLOGY 1 Granite-gneisses, tonolite and migmatite with Shallow sands and loams, solonetzic and Rocks have marginal aquifer potential. Groundwater where Undulating landscape (strongly indulating in plagioclase granite and gabbro intrusive in limited planposolic soils with sandy A-horizon, calcareous present, occur along dyke contracts /faults. Average borehole places) withwell defined moderatly dense areas sands. Shallow weathering profile. Hutton, yields < 0, 1-2,0 Vs. Average water table depth 10-30m Water drainage pattern. Average annual rainfall Glenrosa and Valsriver soils forms mainly quality variable. High TDS in low permeability areas 460-600mm Undifferentiated komatilite, tholeite and chemical Smectitic days with solonetzic and planosolic soils Groundwater occurrence vary variable. Weatheringffracturing Undulating to strongly undulating sediments and schists interbedded with bandiron with sandy A-horizon to east. Relatively shallow provide good aquifer conditions, shales not Average borehole topography dominated by Crocvodile river formation chert and volcanic rocks. Granodiorite, weathering profile. yields < 0,5 -5,0 Vs. Average water table depth 10-30m. Water and well-defined tributary drainage pattern. boitite-gneiss and undifferentiated sandstone and quality normally good. Vulnerability low. Annual rainfall about 600mm. Relatively shale (Karoo) to the east high runoff. Glassy basalt (Karoo) porphyritic or amygdaloidal Smetitic clays. Shallow to moderate weatering Generally poor aquifer. Average borehole yields <0,5-1,0Vs. Flat plains with individual well-defined in places. Intrusive gabbros close to Komatipoort with bedrock relatively dose to surface. Dominate Average water table depth 10-30m. Quality usually good. drainage channels, tributary to the (Komatipoort Suite) soil forms include Bonheim, Shortlands, Vulnerability low. Crocodile river Swartland, Mayo, Glenrosa and Valsriver. Rhyolite with interlayered basalt (Karoo) Poor soil development and acid igneous rocks. Poor aquifer. Average borehole yields < 0,5 Vs. Quality good. Deeply incised Crocodile river gorges in Shallow weathering profile, rock outcrop common. Vulnerability low. 100m high Lebombo range. Rainfall 700mm. Cretaceous andTe rtiary shelly sands and gravels Calcareous shelly, shallow soils Moderate aquifer. Average borehole yields < 2,0 Vs. Average Mildly undulating topography drained by water table depths 20-50m. Quality variable, with TDS reportedly tributaries of the Rio Incomati. Drainage 5 000 mg/I in some areas density moderate. Quantenary sands with silts and day of the Arenosols. hydromorphic, undifferentiated and Average borehole yields < 5,0 Vs but could be higher, improving Flat topography drained by the Rio matola coastal sedimentary basin. Unconsolidated to littoral sands towards the coast. Average water table at 20m. Quality good with a moderate to low drainage density of partially consolidated except for karoo contact area. Vulnerability moderate to high. tributary non-perennial streams 3.4 Maputo
Mozambique covers an area of approximately 802 000km 2, and features among the poorest economies in the world. Gross National Product (GNP) in 1994 was US$90 per capita (World Bank, 1996), the economy experience and average annual growth rate of 3,8% between 1985 and 1994. The cities of Maputo and Matola are old established urban settlements that originated at the turn of the century as the Portuguese colonial and commercial centres of Mozambique. The country only recently emerged from a civil war which raged for 16 years and is in serious need of development and reconstruction. Historically, these areas have been advantaged in terms of economic development (Costanza & Wainger, 1991). Most major industry, Government offices, diplomatic missions and non government organisations are located within the bounds of greater Maputo.
At this stage, apart from increasing population numbers, the only apparent limiting factor to continued investment in development of Maputo and Matola Cities is the availability of water. This is despite the recent construction of the Pequenos Limbombos Dam on the Umbeluzi River. The dam was constructed primarily to stabilise water supply to Maputo and Matola Citites for industrial and domestic uses (Heinsahn, 1997). In terms of more recent history, major social and political changes were introduced after the struggle for independence ended in 1975. Emphasis was placed on socialistic principles in the production and services provision sectors. The state is responsible for services in a Socialistic country and this burden was further increased with the onset of the civil war and resultant internal refugee problem.
Maputo province consists of seven districts which greatly differ in terms of their population density. The city of Maputo has the highest population, it was estimated to be around 876 000 people in 1991, reaching a population density of 2 920 people per km 2. By the year 2000 it is estimated that the population will reach over 4 000 people per km 2. Population predictions for the city of Maputo foresee a total of 1,1 million people in 1997.
The total population of Mozambique, estimated in 1993, was 15,5 million people, experiencing a growth rate of about 3% per annum (Panorama Damografico e Socio-Economico, 1995). Considering the age profile of the whole country, distribution between the four main categories is similar to that of most other developing countries.
12 Table 3: The age profile of Mozambique (Panorama Damografico e Socio-Economico, 1995). Percentage of population Age group 18% 0-4 years 39% 5-19 years 37% 20-54 years 6% >55 years
Age and gender distribution on a national level is an expected and typical for a developing country, displaying the highest number of males and females in the younger age groups, with the population distribution slowly decreasing with an increase in age. The gender distribution does not show significant variation between the sexes. In 1991, women constituted 52% of the population and in 1996 women constituted 51% of the population (Heinsiihn, 1997).
Data on the urbanisation rates of Maputo is sketchy and not very consistent, it difers from source to source. Data compiled in Mozambique in 1993 (Panorama Damografico e Socio- Economico, 1995) reveals that the total population living in urban areas in 1980 was about 1,5 million, increasing to 2,97 million in 1991, at a average growth rate of 5,9%. This information is however conflicting with the information received from the World Bank. These data indicate an average annual growth rate of 9,1% between 1980 and 1990 and of 7,4% between 1990 and 1994 (World Bank, 1996). Despite the data discrepancies, the general impression provided by the available information is that urban centres have been growing at a considerably higher rate than the natural population. This trend is also supported by expected national natural population growth rates at about 2,7%, until the year 2000. This can be concluded because of the civil war. Although quantitative data is unavailable, people are returning to rural areas, albeit slowly, to take up existing land rights in a perceived atmosphere of safety.
The vegetation found in the Maputo area is characteristic of that found on alluvial soils which are typical of the lower Limpopo and Nkomati riparian. Fringing forest occur on the immediate margins of the river banks. Beyond the fringe, extensive grassland occur on periodically flooded, badly drained alluviums. Cyperaceous and composite species are also well represented and a variety of other herbaceous species occur. On slightly higher and better drained ground a sub-arid open woodland type vegetation is found.
The regional geology of Southern Mozambique comprises a succession of Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary sediments. These sediments are of non-marine, shallow-marine, marine and estuarine origins.
13 Available geological information indicates that the Inharrime Formation, comprising predominantly siltstones of Mid to lower Tertiary age, is the lowermost intersected lithological Unit in the area. It is directly overlain by a succession of fossilifeous marine limestone, calcarenites, conglomorate lenses, sandstones and siltstones of the mid to upper Tertiary age. These Tertiary sediments are overlain by a succession of Quaternary age deposits. These comprise coastal sandstones, fluvialtile alluvium, terrestrial sands and coastal dunes. The sediments are sub-horizontally disposed with a gentle easterly dip. Near surface geology close to the Matola river and Maputo Bay comprises of unconsolidated surficial sands, with variable clay content and sandy clay areas (10-15m deep). These sediments are underlain by partially consolidated calcereous sands, highly weathered conglomoratic sandstones and sandy siltstones. Slightly weathered sandstones occur at depth.
4. THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
4.1 Relief
The KDR is relatively flat up to the Lebombo mountain range. Surface topography is relatively flat except along the Lebombo Range, with the Olifants and Komati Rivers forming the major drainage channels.
The KR's relief is hilly near the border with Swaziland with relatively flat terrain to Kaapmuiden. Areas where the relief makes the terrain unfit for the construction of a pipeline, will be avoided as to ensure that the pipeline is not subjected to unnecessary strain. The relief must be flat enough to ensure that the pipeline can continue for long distances without unnecessary bends. This is mainly a construction inhabit because the pipeline will be a continuous pipe without any joints (see figure 2).
14
800
700 —
600 --
500 — E
(5x 400 — w 300 —
200 —
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Route Profile CHAINAGE (km)
Figure 2: The cross section profile of the province the pipeline crosses.
4.2 Climate
The climate of the two different routes should be similar as there is no major deviation from the latitude from Phalaborwa and Maputo. The only major influence that contributes to the difference in temperatures (see table 3), is because Mozambique is coastal town situated next to the Indian Ocean. This causes the climate to be hot and humid compared to the hot and dry temperature of Phalaborwa. During the summer months the temperatures will often rise above 35°C, with the average rainfall of approximately 750mm that occurs mostly in the summer months in the form of thunderstorms. During the winter months the eastern part of South Africa experience about 6 months drought (South African Weather Bureau, 1998). The climates will be discussed in a table format (see table 4).
The weather will not have a affect on the pipeline's performance, but it may influence the construction of the pipeline, during the rainy season.
15 Table 4: Climatic information of the different routes (South African Weather Bureau, 1998).
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS SOUTH AFRICA MAPUTO Elevation 427-263 m Sea level Climate Hot and dry Hot and humid Temperature Summer Max: 40,3°C Summer Max: Not Winter Max: 25°C available Average: 32,7°C Winter Max: Not available Average: 20-23°C Precipitation 545mm per annum 600-1 000mm per annum Relative Humidity High: 52% Not available Low: 39% Evaporation 0,36-0,76cm per day Prevailing Wind South to south easterly South easterly to North westerly Earthquake* No Risk Seismic intensity number VII
This information was provided by the Geological Institute of Mozambique and not by the South African Weather Bureau.
16 4.3 Soil
Kruger Direct Route (KDR) The major part of Phalaborwa area is covered with a shallow transported sandy soil of granitic origin and deeper weathered soil residual from granite-gneiss, dolerite and syenite. Apart from the syenite koppies a common feature in the area, rock outcrops are rare except along the main water courses. Deep sands also occur along the Selati River.Transported soil are generally less than 300 mm thick, with weathered residual soil and rock extending to some 7-25 m below surface. The average depth of weathering is about 17m, below which fresh unweathered granite-gneiss occurs. The naturally -occurring soil have been extensively disturbed and stripped in the vicinity of the mining areas of the Complex. Weakly developed shallow sands and loams and solonetzic and planosolic soil with sandy A-horizon occur. Calcareous sands and barns with a shallow weathering profile are also commonly found in this area. Hutton, Glenrosa and Valsriver soil forms are the main soil forms found in this area. Solonetzic and planosolic soil with sandy A-horizon and poor soil drainage is also found in this area. Sterkpruit, Swartland and Valsriver soil forms; with Smetitic clays; are the soil forms that are found further down the pipeline. These soil forms have a moderate weathering profile. Dominant soil forms include Bonheim, Shortlands, Swartland, Milkwood, Mayo, Glenrosa and Valsriver. Poor soil development and acid igneous rocks are also found in some of the regions (see table 5)
These soils will have a shallow weathering profile with rock outcrop common. Lithosol soils occasionally Mispath and Glenrosa are found in certain areas surrounding the possible pipeline route. Calcareous sands with Arenosols, hydromorphic, undifferentiated and littoral sands can also be found here.
Kaapmuiden Route (KR)
Shallow sands and loams, solonetzic and planosolic soils with sandy A-horizon, calcareous sands with a shallow weathering profile. Hutton, Glenrosa and Valsriver soil forms mainly with Smectitic clays. The soils have a solonetzic and planosolic nature with sandy A-horizon to the east with a relatively shallow weathering profile. Smetitic clays also occur. Shallow to moderate weathering with bedrock relatively close to surface. The dominate soil forms include Bonheim, Shortlands, Swartland, Mayo, Glenrosa and Valsriver with a poor shallow weathering profile, rock outcrop is common with soil development and acid igneous rocks. Calcareous shelly, shallow soils. Arenosols, hydromorphic, undifferentiated and littoral sands are found on this route (see table 5).
Figure 3 shows the different soil types and the area it covers on the routes (see figure 3).
17 Figure 3: Soil types transverse by the pipeline on the KDR and KR (For key see table 5)
18 Soil information of the Mpumalanga and Northern Province areas of Southern Africa. UNDERL YING GEO L OG Y - . ' - k7 " „ . . Fb 179 a Medium grained muscovite granite of Lekkersmaak Granite, grey biotite-gneiss & magnitite of the Makhutswi Gneiss also Phalaborwa Complex IFb 183 a 1 Unnamed potassic granite and granodiorite 01 0 -C) < .— fa) Unnamed potassic granite and granodiorite LL JO c— CO CNI .0 Unnamed potassic granite and granodiorite LL XI .— CO Nr OS Unnamed potassic granite and granodiorite with Timbavati Gabbro LL -CI ..0-0I .— 03 CO 1.0 C.0.c)ICNI CIS
Unnamed potassic granite and granodiorite: Cunning Moor Tonalite; Timbavati Gabbro ■ -ai —•:• Unnamed potassic granite and granodiorite: Cunning Moor Tonalite; Timbavati Gabbro i i —
" Unnamed potassic granite and granodiorite: Cunning Moor Tonalite; Mpuluzi Granite ;M I I i• < a) ca —
Potassic gneiss, migmatite & biotite granite of Swazian age IFa 341 a Potassic gneiss and magnitite biotite granite, biotite trondhjemite gneiss (all of Swazian age) !Fa 341 b Potassic gneiss and magnitite biotite granite, biotite trondhjemite gneiss (all of Swazian age) IFb 163 d Predominantly biotite granite; potassic gneiss and magnitite in places (all Swazian age) IFb 341 b Biotite granite, biotite trondhjemite gneiss (all of Swazian age) !Fa 341 g Potassic gneiss and magnitite biotite granite, biotite trondhjemite gneiss all of Swazian age) CO O) LL JD %— C.) Potassic gneiss, magnitite, biotite granite and biotite trondjemite gneiss all of Swazian age Fb 162 f Greywacke, shale & chert of the Sheba Formation(Fig tree group), mafic & ultra mafic schists & lavas, as well as bandediro nstone & chert of the Tjakastad Formation (Onverwacht Group), shale quartzite, con. lomorate & basalt of the Moodies Group IFb 64 a Potassic gneiss and magnitite, Timbavati Gabbro, biotite trondhjemite gneiss Ea 75b Predominantly mafic and ultra mafic lavas & schists with bandediro nstone and chert of the TjakastadFo rmation (Onverwacht Group), some mafic to felsic sediments and schists of the Moodies Group (Barberton Sequence) Ea 76 a Shale and Sandstone of the Karoo Sequence dolorite Ea 79 a Green to reddish fine to medium grained mafic to rhyolitic lava of the Lobombo Group, Karoo Sequence IFb 65 a Predominantly potassic gneiss of the Nelspruit Suite andSa lisbury Kop granodiorite; some mafic and ultramafic schists and lavas
(Onverwacht Group) andb iotite trondhjemite gneiss (Nelspruit Suite)
j j q gg e Predominantly potassic gneiss of the Nelspruit Suite and Salisbury Kop granodiorite; some mafic and ultramafic schists and lavas
(Onverwacht Group) and biotite tronghjemite gneiss (Nelspruit Suite) L L 9
e e Basalt andLe taba Formation; Karoo Sequence
q q Shale, Sandstone, Mudstone, coal, siltstone andbasa lt of the Karoo Sequence
0 •••• •• • • • •• • • • ••• UNDEPLYING'GEOLOGY ., . •
• „ . . . Ea 75 a Predominantly mafic and ultramafic lavas and shists with banded ironstone and chert of the Tjakastad Formation (Onverwacht Group) some mafic and felsic sediments and schists of the Moodies Group (Barberton Sequence). Fb 181 a Unnamed potassic granite and granodiorite Fb 180 a Migmatite banded gneiss and leucogranite of the Goudplaats Gneiss, also mafic lavas with schists of the Gravelotte Group lAb 41 c [ Bpioottaitsesgioragnnieteis&s amnadgmmiigtitmea(Ntiteelspwruitnitlgarrgane Fb 66 b arer)eas of Timbavati gabbro IFb 167 b Potassic gneiss and migmatite (Swaiian age) IFa 341 e Potassic gneiss and migmatite, biotite granite, biotite tronghjemite gneiss (all of the Swazian age) Fa 34 1 f Pp oottaassssiioc ggneiissss aanndd migmatite, blloottiittee granite, bbio tite tronghjemite gneiss (all of the Swazian age) Fa 341 b migmatite, granite, biotite tronghjemite gneiss all of the Swazian age) I U- A .l- IPotassic gneiss and migmatite, biotite granite, biotite tronghjemite gneiss (all of the Swazian age). _ Fa 341 Potassic gneiss and migmatite, biotite granite, biotite tronghjemite gneiss (all of the Swazian age) ... J Ae 106 a Potassic gneiss and magmitite (Nelspruit Suite) Ea 80 b Mafic & ultramafic schists and lavas with ferruginous chert and banded ironstone of the Onverwacht Group; potassic gneiss and migmatite of the Nelspruit Suite Fa 340 a Shale, Sandstone, Siltstone, Chert, Conglomorate, Tuff, mafic and felsic lava of the Moodies Fig Tree and Onverwacht Group (Barberton Sequence) IFb 183 a I [Unnamed potassic granite and granodionte IFb 183 a I [Unnamed •otassic granite and granodiorite 4.4 Surface Water
The two different pipeline routes KDR and KR both cross a few important rivers on the South African side of the routes. The most significant physical constraints to pipeline laying are the six major river crossings and seven minor river crossings that need to be transversed.
The major rivers in the area are marked by floodplains of sandy and silty alluvium with boulder gravels along fast flowing sections. As these rivers are crossed some erosion is taking place which should be considered for the environmental impact. It is considered that the most significant environmental impacts would be associated with trenching because it requires extensive excavations through riverine environments and the diversion of the river channel. A possible solution to the problem is the use of road and rail bridges, this is preferred because of the following reasons (Fedra, 1997): pipeline installation is relatively simple environmental impacts associated with the installation is minimal and there is ready access to the pipeline for maintenance and repair.
Potential environmental impacts include river bank disturbance and erosion and river pollution by construction materials. Pollution of the river crossings are most likely to occur throughout the construction phase and are likely to continue during the operational phase. For this reason the sensitive river drainage areas in the Kruger National Park should be avoided.
In table 6 the major rivers that are crossed are listed as well as the farms that they cross. For the prevention of environmental impact it is necessary to address the following problems, because the Water Act prohibits the alteration of the course of a public stream without the authority of a permit: quality and quantity of the water resources in the two different environments potential loss of water resources caused by a possible leakage of the pipeline the effect of the pipeline on the surface water quality and possible corrosion of the pipeline in the long term.
21 Table 6: Important river crossings
, River names Erodibilitv Farm crossing Selati river M-H Rhoda 9 Lu Olifants river M-H Doreen 8 Lu Klaserie river Not available Geurnsey 81 Ku Nwandlamuhari river M-H Edinburgh 228 Ku Saringa river M-H Kildare 277 Ku Sabie river M-H State land Ka Lethuhuze H-H State land Ka Tlothloma river H-H State land Lupisa river M-H State land Crocodile river M-H Makawusi 215 Ju Jam Tin Creek Not available Strathmore 214 Ju Salt Creek Not available Strathmore 214 Ju Komati river H-H Ruigte 484 Ju HlauHlau river M-H State land
M: Medium erodibility H: High erodibility
Should the slurry be transported to Maputo via a pipeline, a portion of Foskor's process water will be used to transport the magnetite in the form of a slurry. Foskor is, however, obliged to purify the water used for industrial purposes in accordance with the Water Act's purification standards. The treated water must be discharged into the public stream at the place where the water was abstracted - in this instance from the Lepelle Northern Water barrage in the Olifants river (GIBB Africa, 1997).
Foskor is releasing process water into the Selati river through a permit they obtained earlier from The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF). This permit comes into considerations later during 1998 and therefor Foskor should then simultaneously apply to use some of the process water for the Maputo Iron and Steel Project (MISP). The concerns in respect of the nature of the proposed mixture of magnetite and Foskor's process water, coupled with the fact that the new EIA regulations apply to the transportation route of the pipeline if the slurry is found to be "dangerous or hazardous and controlled by national legislation" necessitate a careful compositional analysis of the slurry (DWAF,1996).
A new water law, guided by the recently published White Paper on a National Water Policy for South Africa, was approved on 20 August 1998. In terms of the new policy only water required to meet basic human needs and to maintain environmental sustainability will in future be guaranteed as a right. All other uses will be subject to a system of allocation.
22 The new system of allocation will be implemented in phases beginning with already stressed water management areas. Specialist studies undertaken to access water availability in the Lower Olifants river suggest that the Lower Olifants river can be regarded as highly stressed. Once allocations for Mozambique, basic human needs and the ecology are agreed upon, the amount available for abstraction from the Olifants river may be reduced, with the consequent possibility that Foskor's existing water allocation may be reduced (GIBB Africa, 1997).
On the basis of the design information that is currently available, the terrestrial ecosystem impacts of a magnetite slurry pipeline between Phalaborwa and Maputo would be minor, and capable of mitigation at a reasonable cost (Levitan, Merwin & Kovach, 1995). The terrestrial impacts of transporting the magnetite by slurry pipeline are likely to be less than the impacts of transport by rail, considering the energy requirements of the latter, dust pollution and noise disturbance. The ecological impact due to crossing the rivers via existing structures are generally of low significance and limited to the crossing site and the short term during the construction and maintenance.
Building new structures to carry the pipeline across rivers typically has a moderate impact at a downstream scale in the medium term. Utilising impoundments to excavate trenches through rivers to lay the pipeline generally has a impact of high significance. The impacts are at a downstream scale in the medium term for both the construction and maintenance. Drilling with horizontal or directional techniques, as well as pipe jacking would have a low impact at the river crossing in the short term.
The ecological and hydrological impacts associated with the extraction from areas around the rivers may have considerable affects on the environment. The disturbance of sensitive areas could be lessened by identifying and avoiding "red flag" habitats and by crushing excavated rock to meet specification.
Pipe jacking would cause less overall disturbance of the riverine environment, but is only suitable where thick accumulation of alluvial sediment occur. A pipeline installed by pipe jacking would also be vulnerable to riverine erosion, but if overlain by sufficient depth of alluvial sediment it is likely to be less vulnerable than a pipeline installed by trenching.
The release of magnetite from a spillage is considered unlikely to cause widespread chemical pollution of the larger river systems, although localised changes in sedimentation may result. Small rivers and streams with low flow conditions have limited assimilative capacity and hence chemical impacts may have greater significance. Discharge of large volumes of slurry may give
23 chemical impacts may have greater significance. Discharge of large volumes of slurry may give rise to local increases in water temperature in flowing water courses. This would have significant impact on the river ecology (Jordan, Gilpin & Aber, 1987).
Pollution of the groundwater as a result of leakage of slurry is considered unlikely due to the geological conditions. However, if the wastewater should reach the groundwater this could have a significant impact on large scale users of the resource.
The KR crosses the upper portions of the catchment of most of the east-flowing rives, these rivers eventually passes through the Kruger National Park and it can influence the environment of the KNP. However, preliminary chemical analyses of the likely slurry water indicates that toxicological impacts would represent low risk to the environment (Garetz, 1993).
In Mozambique the shallow water table is up slope from both the sites selected for the plant. The risk of contamination is therefor considered not to be to big. The only possibility of groundwater pollution is in Mozambique at the two identified sites where the following can occur: spillage of liquid wastewater impoundments (e.g. evaporation ponds) water extraction stockpiling of slag stockpiling of municipal waste atmospheric fallout.
Environmental Laws of Mozambique are almost non existent, but the Water Law is in fact very stringent. If the identified sites need to be used the client should obtain a multitude of permits, a few of these permits will now be listed: environmental impact licence licence for the use and benefit from the land or licence for existing economic activity, depending on whether the plant will be installed within the 100m boundary of the coast. licence for the establishment of the plant licence for the construction of the plant licence for procuring water and licence for disposal of industrial residual wastewater.
24 Prior to the promulgation of Environmental Impact Assessment regulations under the Environment Conservation Act during September 1997, EIA's were not compulsory. This situation has been altered by the aforesaid regulations, in terms of which certain identified activities that may have detrimental effect on the environment will in future be subject to compulsory scoping studies.
The following components of the proposed project are subject to the new regulations: the transfer of water between catchments Foskor's proposed "allocation" of a portion of its process water to the project The transportation route of the slurry pipeline - only if the slurry is found to be "dangerous or hazardous and controlled by national legislation" any diversion of the normal flow of water in a river bed the magnetite preparation plant
5. IMPACTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT
Different impacts on the environment will occur during and after the construction of the pipeline. These impacts will be discussed and the route with the least impact on the environment will be identified. For this discussion to be effective, it will be discussed as the following two entities: Kruger Direct Route (KDR) Kaapmuiden Route (KR).
The relief of the two regions are more or less the same, the regional relief slopes in an easterly direction towards the coast and Maputo. The extremely hilly areas should be avoided because it can only increase the erosion of the area. For that reason the following routes are suggested:
KDR: The route that will be followed through the Kruger National Park is the same as the current 400 kV Escom sub-line. The pipeline will be put in the area underneath the powerline that is already scarred. This means that the environment has already been damaged by the impact of human activities and that a further impact will not be so noticeable. It can be said that the impact will be low or minimal. The pipeline will be buried 1,5m underground and the area will be rehabilitated. The KDR is relatively flat up to the Lebombo mountain range. Surface topography is relatively flat except along the Lebombo Range, with the Olifants and Komati Rivers forming the major drainage channels. The area in Mozambique is also relatively flat up to Maputo.
25 KR: The Kaapmuiden Route also follows the current 400kV electrical powerline from Phalaborwa southwards towards Culcutta. By using the powerline as a guide for the construction of the pipeline it is ensured that the impact on the environment will be minimal. It also ensures that the mountainous areas are avoided and that not too much damage is done to the environment. Where this route reaches Kaapmuiden it swings eastwards and follows the powerline again for the largest remainder of the route up to Komatipoort. The pipeline will leave South Africa just south of Komatipoort at a area where the hilly Lebombo mountains are broken by a flat area. The route used in Mozambique is also relatively flat up to Maputo with some mountains in the south where Mozambique and Swaziland borders.
As mentioned before the climate does not have an adverse effect on the construction of the pipeline on either of the routes. Therefor it will not really be discussed. The effect of the pipeline on the fauna and flora of the two routes should rather be discussed, because this has a major environmental impact.
Expansive soils are developed over terrain where rock types have high calcium and magnesium contents, typically found in basalts, gabbros, ultramafic rocks and their metamorphosed equivalents. As seen in table 5 (Soil information of the Mpumalanga and Northern Province areas of Southern Africa) these soils types are found in most of the Mpumalanga and Northern Province areas. Expansive soils can have a negative impact on the pipeline - the shrink-swell behaviour of the soils can cause excessive stresses on the pipeline which should be avoided. If these soil types should be avoided it eliminates a large portion of the Kruger National Park that can not be used.
With the KDR there are no alternative routes through the Kruger National Park that can be used for the construction of the pipeline. This however is not true about the KR where the pipeline can be constructed to avoid areas where the soils have a clayey nature.
The topsoil on the slopes over granite gneiss terrain is very thin and often consists of a silty fine sand. The underlying weathered rock is more clayey and the permeability contrast between the two soil horizons often results in surface erosion of topsoil (GIBB Africa, 1997). If the vegetation is removed to construct the pipeline, it is likely that erosion will occur until the vegetation is re- established. The soils of both identified sites in Mozambique have relatively low permeability and will retard the migration of any contaminant plume that may result from pollution. The significance of the contamination plume to migrate to the estuary is estimated a medium to low at both the sites in Mozambique.
26 Pipe failure can occur when the pipeline is subject to stresses resulting from undermining by surface erosion. Surface erosion in the trench are more likely to occur where the backfill is not
adequately compacted, or where the backfill material is dispersed. The situation is aggravated where the pipeline is on too steep slopes without vegetation cover. A possible reason for pipe distress and failure is excessive soil movement due to the presence of expansive clays or compressible material such as organic-rich soils. The environmental impact of pipe failure are two-fold: impacts associated with the leakage of the slurry into the environment and impacts associated with the repair activities of the pipeline.
The proposed site in Maputo is situated next to a cement factory. Most of the area has been affected by previous development and this caused the species diversity to be low. Agricultural and other activities e.g. human settlement has negatively affected the environment but the general condition can still be classified as being relatively good. The area is especially known for the amphibian species found, as well as reptiles and other mammals.
At the sites in Maputo great numbers of inland and shore birds are found. Shore birds do not have restricted activity areas and exploit the inter-tidal zones of the area. Aquatic bird species is also abundantly found close to the two identified sites in Maputo, and they should get special attention during the Environmental Impact Assessment.
The area is characterised by wetlands (e.g. mangroves and swamps) but due to the impact of humans on the environment the pattern has changed over the years. Human intervention has changed the vegetation within the industrial area of Maputo, but this can be rectified by the proper mitigation which can have a positive impact on the environment.
The Fauna and Flora, of especially the KR, is presently disturbed due to the impact of human activities on the environment. The route can be divided into five sections for the discussion of the Fauna and Flora. The section from Phalaborwa to Acornhoek passes through Mopane woodland straight after it leaves Phalaborwa. This section of the route is highly disturbed by activities associated with mining operations. The impact of these slimes dams on the vegetation is considered low. The only major impact of the pipeline on the animals of this area will be during the construction of the pipeline. The animals found in this area are constrained by the game fences along the route. Once the pipeline is buried it will not constitute a barrier to animal movement.
27 In the area from Phalaborwa to Acornhoek the environment is also disturbed by infrastructure such as roads and other tourism attractions. Commercial cattle ranching is practised in places and orchards and croplands are present. From Acomhoek to the Sabie river the environment (fauna and flora) is disturbed by the informal settlements that is found in this area. The informal settlements give way to communal grazing fields, which have impacted on the natural vegetation. Large mammal wildlife is virtually absent and the bird life is reduced to areas with less disturbed vegetation. In this section of the route no rare large birds or plants are known to exist, so it is safe to say that no significant new impacts on the terrestrial ecosystems are anticipated in this section.
From the Sabie river to Kaapmuiden the pipeline will cross a area that was a former homeland. The area has some patches of near-natural vegetation, but the vegetation has been cleared for crop fields and cattle grazing. In general it can be said that the vegetation in this area is highly disturbed, large mammals are absent and the bird life has been reduced due to human activities. From Kaapmuiden to the Lebombo mountains the pipeline will cross orchards and fertile soils in the Crocodile valley. Most of the route is through medium-tall broad leafed and fine leafed savanna. This part of the route is under grazing or wildlife management, and is currently relatively undisturbed.
From the Lebombo mountain range to Maputo the route follows a planned future 400kV powerline between Arnot power station and Maputo. It crosses low thorn savanna, with sparsely treed grassland. Close to Maputo the vegetation changes to a fragmented strip of low forest. This forest is floristically related to the Maputo dune forest. These forests are rare in South Africa but prevalent in the southern parts of Mozambique. During the construction of the pipeline these areas should be avoided, to avoid unnecessary environmental impact on the area.
The Fauna and Flora of the KDR is protected by the laws against development in the National Parks of South Africa. Some of the mammal and plant species found in the Kruger National Park are listed in table 7.
28 Table 7: A list of the fauna and flora found in the Kruger National Park
Mammals Plants Giraffe Steenbok Magic Guarri Kudu Wildebeest Bushwillow Impala Zebra Knob thorn Duiker Cheetah Marula Tree Elephant Black backed jackal Various Acacias Hippo Sable antelope Sycamore Fig Buffalo Ostrich Sausage Tree Leopard Eland Tamboti Lion Tsetsebe Round leafed teak Wild Dog Roan antelope Lala Palm Hyena Side striped jackal Wild date Palm Black Rhino Warthog Umbrella Thorn White Rhino Bushbuck Apple leaf
The Fauna and Flora of the Kruger National Park are highly sensitive to development and the impact of human activities on the environment. In a sense they have adapted to the impact of human activities, but only to a limited extent. General activities associated with the installation of the pipeline include the transport of equipment and daily activities of the work force (Southern African Research and Documentation Centre, 1994). Adverse impacts associated with these activities are generally temporary and the risk of occurrence can be reduced by good site management.
The construction of the pipeline will inevitably result in the cutting and up-rooting of trees. The Forest Act and the Transvaal nature Conservation Ordinance contain provisions aimed at the protection of certain plant life. The measures provided for in both the Ordinance and the Act to protect trees on private land are of specific relevance to the environmental impact of the pipeline on the environment. The impact will leave visual scars in the environment that should be avoided in areas like the Kruger National Park (Macdonald, van Wijk & Boyd, 1993).
"Impact" means any effect caused by a proposed activity on the environment including human health and safety, flora, fauna, soil, air, water, climate, landscape and historical monuments or other physical structures or the interaction among these factors; it also includes effects on cultural heritage or socio-economic conditions resulting from alterations to those factors (Westman, 1985).
The release of magnetite from a spillage is considered unlikely to cause widespread chemical pollution of the large river systems, although localised changes in sedimentation may result. Smaller rivers and streams with low flow conditions have limited assimilative capacity and hence 29 chemical impacts may have greater significance (Foster, 1995). Discharge of large volumes of slurry may give rise to local increases in water temperature, which can have an impact on the river ecology.
Pollution of the groundwater as a result of leakage of slurry is considered unlikely due to the geological conditions. However, if toxic wastewater reaches the groundwater this could have a significant impact on large scale users of the resource (Fedra, 1993b). There is, however, an absence of toxic waste in the slurry so the likelihood of this happening is small. The most significant environmental impacts are considered to be associated with underground river crossings due to the potential for physical disturbance of river systems during construction and maintenance (Foster, 1995; Fedra, 1993a). These impacts can be mitigated to a large extent by selection of the most appropriate type of river crossing. In the majority of cases, the use of an existing bridge will be preferable. The discharge of slurry into a major river are not likely to be significant in the long term. Mitigation measures in terms of river clean up is likely to be difficult and in most instances may not be necessary. Impacts on smaller rivers with lower dilution ability may be significant and the clean up measures may be required in the event of a major spill.
Along the KDR adverse impact will be experienced during the construction of the pipeline due to the excavation of hard rock. Areas of hard rock will be encountered along approximately 16% of the pipeline route. These areas will require blasting and ripping, which can lead to the generation of sparks and a potential fire risk. Noise and dust can also result because of this action and it can impact on the environment. It would appear that the noise during operation of the plant is inevitable. This will result not only from the plant itself but also from the transport of materials, including noise from motor vehicles. Noise is known to drive many birds away from an area although the effect of noise on invertebrates is unknown (Fedra, 1992). Another area where noise may have an effect on the environment is at the different booster stations along the routes. These booster stations are used to boost the slurry along the route, and it will be hidden underground at about 1,5 metres below ground level.
Another impact on the highly sensitive KDR will be the spillage of polluting substances such as diesel and hydraulic oil during the construction of the pipeline. The spillage of the oils and diesel can result in the consequent pollution of the river drainage courses that flow through the Kruger National Park.
30 Oversized material that cannot be used for trench backfill must be disposed of in a controlled manner to minimise visual impact and damage the sensitive environment.
Atmospheric pollution is an environmental impact that can influence the selection of a plant site in Mozambique. It will not have an impact on the environment from Phalaborwa to Maputo (using both routes). The predictable atmospheric emissions from the proposed steel plant was modelled using the Industrial Source Complex Suite of models. The findings of this study are summarised as follow: There are three identified gaseous components (sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds). A model for the dispersion of the peak concentrations at ground level was modelled and the fine particles did not reach more than 4% of the statutory guidelines. It was found that the concentrations were safe, based on health. The impacts are considered insignificant. The deposition of dust was also modelled and the results indicated moderate values within the plant areas. The proposed impact of the dust is insignificant. It can be concluded that atmospheric pollution is insignificant and will not influence the route the pipeline will follow from Phalaborwa to Maputo.
A comparison of the potential environmental impacts before mitigation of the two proposed slurry pipeline routes will show impacts on a scale of 1-10. This comparison is listed in table 8.
Table 8: Potential environmental impacts before mitigation (GIBB Africa, 1997).
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR KDR KR landscape with rare, endangered or landscape-specific 5 2 species Distance through Kruger National Park 114km 0km Major river crossings 5 3 Potential ecological impacts in South Africa Negative Neutral Potential mitigation Not available Not applicable Potential ecological impacts - Mozambique Neutral Neutral Potential disruption - people ?? Yes Potential disruption - agriculture ?? Yes Duration of disruption Short term Short term Capital and operational costs Lowest Highest Visual intrusion ?? ??
31 6. MITIGATORY ACTIONS
Magnetite ore produced at Phalaborwa is to be transported to the Maputo steel plant as a slurry within a pipeline skirting the western borders of the Kruger National Park, or going directly through the Kruger National Park. The pipeline, which is to be buried approximately 1,5 metres below ground level, will have one booster station along each of the proposed routes. After identifying different environmental impacts it is now necessary to develop mitigatory actions to minimise the impacts. This process will pay attention to direct, indirect and cumulative impacts on the environment (Clark, 1993)
The slurry booster station will operate continuously during a 24-hour period. Night-time sound level criteria are therefore applicable. It however, brings the KDR to mind. If the booster station is sited within the Kruger National Park, the noise of the booster station will cause unnecessary disturbance to the area and the animals of the Kruger National Park. If a 24-hour production schedule is followed it will not be possible to shut the booster station down, and this may cause problems when the KDR are considered. In terms of the SABS 0103-1997 the rating level of sound at the boundary of the booster station is not to exceed 35 dBA. In terms of the Noise Control Regulations the noise level at the boundary may exceed the ambient level by 6dB.
An increase in ambient sound level of 6 dB represents a significant increase in terms of loudness and would have a severe impact on a rural area. It is considered that the noise limits in terms of the Noise Control Regulations are not appropriate to the proposed booster station installation in a rural area. It is strongly recommended that the maximum equivalent continuous A-weighed sound pressure level at the boundary of the booster station site will not exceed 35 dBA. Beyond 56 metres the level of noise from the booster station will then be below 20 dBA. The significance of the noise impacts (without mitigation) of the booster station was rated as high.
However, with mitigation measures (e.g. enclosure of noise generation activities) the significance of the noise impacts were rated as medium. The extent and intensity of the noise impact can both be reduced by enclosing all machinery and pipe-work within a brick or concrete building with a concrete roof and without windows. In order to prevent noise breakout from the slurry pipeline, it will have to go below ground while still inside the building. The noise impacts associated with noise breakouts from the slurry pipeline adjacent to the booster station was rated as having moderate significance within a 56m radius. During construction of the plant and buildings the noise due to heavy vehicles would reduce significantly and would be replaced by occasional drilling and impacting of metal. It is estimated that during night-time construction noise may be heard up to 1 000m from the noise source. It is expected that the pipeline will be
32 constructed at a rate of completion of one kilometre per work day. The impact on surrounding people and fauna will thus be limited to a few days The significance of the noise impacts during the construction phase of the pipeline was rated as low.
The visual impact of the pipeline will largely be determined by whether it will be located above or below ground in the approach to the iron and steel plant. Should the pipeline be above ground, the visual impact will be considered high in the local context. This is due to the following: The pipeline will create a barrier both physically and visually at approximately 1 metre above the ground If the valve chambers are constructed above ground level they will create a large adverse visual impact and The servitude will become a corridor used by the community and thereby viewed along its length presenting a visual anomaly in the area
Should the pipeline be sited underground, the visual impact will be low because of the following reasons: effective rehabilitation of the surface would make the servitude indistinguishable from open terrain and the valve chambers will be less visually obvious since only a small portion of them will project above ground level. Wherever possible the existing vegetation should be supplemented if it will improve the screening of the structures from the adjacent land uses. This should be particularly considered where the land uses are residential or recreational (e.g. Kruger National Park). The visual impact during the construction will be significant and little can be done about reducing the effect since excavations, machinery and haulage etc, can not be screened. The mitigation measures for the pipeline during operation will need to focus on effective rehabilitation of the construction corridor and work sites. These specifications must be explicit and detailed and included in the contract documentation so that the tasks can be costed and monitored for compliance and result (Alberta Round Table on Environment and Economy, 1993; Mehmet, 1995; Kennedy, 1997). Each booster station, depending on its location (i.e. bush or urban) will require individual relevant treatment by way of colouring and berming to minimise visual contrast with the surroundings.
It is expected that air pollution impacts will be low. The only place where a probable air pollution problem may develop is the plant site in Mozambique. This site is close to the Matola river in Mozambique which is immediately downwind (in the prevailing wind direction) of the plant. It is essential that the plant management program must have a well defined scope for the
33 management of air pollution. In additions it is strongly recommended that permanent and continuous on-line monitors be installed on the outlets of all the important emission points or stacks to demonstrate continued effective abatement. A permanent ambient monitoring network system be established. Such a network should as a minimum consist of two suspended particulate monitors at a distance of 1 to 2km from the centre of the plant in a south- westerly and a northerly direction. The atmospheric pollution study found that the levels of sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxide and volatile organic compounds are low enough to warrant no mitigation. The particulate matter levels will be within acceptable standards and the abatement equipment proposed will be sufficient to control fallout from the plant. Failure from the bag filters may be expected from time to time and adequate process condition monitoring is called for on a continuos basis.
Negative impacts pertaining to the loss of fauna and flora and their habitat during the construction phase are difficult to mitigate. However, selected habitats can be either maintained intact or restored at a later phase. Wherever possible, the intact and the natural reed swamps should be maintained and the streams which feed them should be protected. There is a big need for the maintenance of the surface hydrology. During the decommissioning phases the contamination of the surface water can be mitigated by capturing and treating the wastewater before release. Special measures should be taken to protect the wetland system at the Coal Terminal Site if that site is chosen (Legal services, Chamber of Mines of South Africa, 1985). This should be taken into account during the design, construction and operational phases. During the construction phase, infrastructure such as roads, accommodation for workers and depots for storing material should be build in areas where they do not impact upon wetland habitats. In the case of the KDR the Fauna and Flora is protected from development through the law, and this inhibits the construction phase because the construction materials can impact on the ecology of the Kruger National Park.
The fringing mangrove in Mozambique should be protected during the construction and operational phases. Once constructed the operators should actively promote the regeneration of the mangrove thereby further protecting the inter-tidal mudflats which appear to be an important feeding ground for aquatic avifauna. After construction, the areas that have been disturbed should be rehabilitated as soon as possible for aesthetic reasons as well as suitable habitat for local fauna. The opportunity exists for the developer to minimise the impact of development on the environment and so ensure that a sustainable future is guaranteed (Daly, Cobb, & Cobb, 1994; Brown, 1993).
During the construction phase an environmental control officer should ensure that the minimum of vegetation is cleared, damage or disturbed and that the wildlife is not disturbed. This person
34 can do this by imposing contractually-enforced fines on the construction contractor for infringement of agreed guidelines. The contractor should also ensure that the correct refilling of the trench occur and that the appropriate steps have been taken to prevent future erosion. The trench must be suitably protected against erosion where it runs up and down slope. The construction team should be educated in the ecology of the environment to ensure that they will not damage the vegetation or soil and cause animal disturbance. A system of bonuses should give motivation to minimise damage, on the other hand a system of fines for excessive damage to the environment or animal mortality should be instituted (Kennedy, 1997). In the event of a pipeline rupture, the spilled magnetite must be removed and the site rehabilitated. After the construction phase all visible structures above ground should be removed, and disturbance resulting from this operation should be rehabilitated.
The majority of environmental impacts associated with the geothechnical conditions along the pipeline routes can be mitigated by: Adhering to a safety and environmental management plan during construction and maintenance activities and regular inspection and maintenance of the pipeline routes. The most significant environmental impacts are considered to be associated with underground river crossings due to the potential of physical disturbance of river systems during construction and maintenance. These impacts can be mitigated to a large extent by selection of the most appropriate type of river crossing. In the majority of cases, the use of an existing bridge will be preferable (Sesseville, Wilson & Lawson, 1997; Fedra, 1995). All underground river crossings, and low bridges over minor rivers have been identified as risk areas with respect to pipe failure. The environmental impacts associated with the discharge of slurry into a major river are not likely to be significant in the long term. Mitigation measures in terms of river clean up are likely to be difficult and in most instances may not be necessary. Impacts on smaller rivers with lower dilution ability may be significant and clean up measures may be required in the event of a major spill. The mitigation measures should focus on the prevention of pipe failure, these measures include: the implementation of a rapid leak detection system, rapid response by repair crews and selection of the most appropriate type of river crossing.
The mitigation actions to handle the impact of waste on the environment are, it should be removed from the site as soon as possible (Petts, 1994). This appears to be standard practice for modern iron and steel plants world-wide. Such rapid removal would also reduce the probability of wind-blown pollution.
35 7. CONCLUSION
This study of the effect of the construction of a pipeline from Phalaborwa to Maputo has identified various impacts on the environment. As stated in the approach the route where less impact takes place, is preferable to the one with more impact.
Choosing the KR is rather strange if one considers that it is the longest of the two proposed routes. It crosses the upper portions of the catchments of most of the major eastward flowing rivers, the majority of which flow through the Kruger National Park.
The river crossings present the greatest potential for environmental impacts during the construction of the pipeline. The KR involves more major river crossings than the alternative route and there is therefor a greater chance of significant environmental impacts occurring.
Furthermore, large portions of this route are located upstream of the Kruger National Park and therefor a major river pollution event resulting from pipeline failure could, in theory, have adverse impacts on the Park. However, preliminary chemical analysis of the slurry water indicate that toxicological impacts would represent low or negligible risk.
The KR was aligned along an existing powerline servitude, in order to minimise disturbance to established vegetation and to enable existing access roads to be utilised. However, the ability of overhead powerlines to span rugged terrain means that a powerline servitude is not necessarily ideal for the installation of an underground service. As indicated in the study steep slopes would exacerbate potential environmental impacts associated with this pipeline (largely related to erosion of the trench backfill).
Alternative servitude, such as road and railway reserves, could provide more suitable alignments for portions of the route. The advantages of using these servitude are that : access for construction is easier the gradients are less steep, and the environmental impacts associated with the creation of a physical barrier have already occurred.
Regarding the tolerance of nature of the KDR it can be identified as a area of great pressure. In other words the soil is erosion-sensitive in this area, the waterways may be sensitive to eutrophication and the scenery is vulnerable to the effects of construction. The impacts of pipeline construction on this area will be high and mitigation will be difficult. Even noise caused by the construction vehicles can cause stress with the animals which can lead to behavioural
36 problems. It can be concluded that the KDR should be an area where the lowest pressure caused by human activities, should take place (Adger,1992).
The only other reason why the KDR should not be used is the expansive soils found in that area, that can have a negative impact on the pipeline. The shrink-swell behaviour of the soils can cause excessive stresses on the pipeline which should be avoided. If these soil types should be avoided it eliminates a large portion of the Kruger National Park.
Because the impact on the KDR is higher than the impact on the KR it will be better in terms of environmental impacts to choose the KR. Even though it is the longest of the two routes, and even though it crosses the major river crossings, the impact of the KR will be less because it avoids a highly sensitive area. The KDR should also be avoided because of the emotional connotation involved there in, the interested and affected parties (IA&P's) over react when they hear of the planned development in the area. For this reason it can be concluded that the null hypothesis can be accepted and the alternative hypothesis be rejected.
Certain areas in this research were not investigated and can therefore be studied at a later stage. Areas where further research is possible are: Economic implications of the development Social implications of the development Demographic influence of the extra job seekers in the area (possible increase in crime) Infrastructure and Services in the area and Cultural Profile of the area.
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