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Home , Ottoman Empire, Rumelia, Sanjak, Selim II

Project Education of Roma | History Roma Children Council Conseil of de l´Europe in Europe ottoman 2.1

Ottoman Empire Elena Marushiakova / Veselin Popov

Historical Sources about the “Gypsies” in the Empire | The “Gypsies” in the Tax Registers | Concerning the “Gypsies” in the of | The “Gypsy ” – Roma in the Ottoman | The “Gypsy Sanjak” – Roma in Army Auxiliary Services | The Tax Register of Suleiman I the Magnificent | Measures against Nomadism. Settling the “Gypsies” | How the Roma Earned their Living | The Decline of the | Civic Status of the “Gypsies”. Official Legislation and Everyday Reality | The Beginning of Roma Emancipation

The Roma in the did not live isolated from their cultural and historical surroundings; on the contrary, they were an integral part of it and consequently were greatly influenced by the various Balkan peoples. Significant numbers of Roma have remained in the Balkans for centuries, others migrated from there throughout the world in past and modern times, taking with them inherited Balkan cultural models and traditions. The Ottoman Empire dominated the Balkans for over five centuries and made a distinct impression on the culture and history of the . Thus the role of the Ottoman Empire is a key factor in the process of the formation and development of the Roma people.

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE Ill. 1

Hungary Nikopol The Ottoman Empire in 1359 (14th Cent.) The Sea The Ottoman Empire in 1451 Of The Ottoman Empire in 1451-81 The Ottoman Empire in 1512-20 The Ottoman Empire in 1530-66 B l a c k s e a Sliven The Ottoman Empire in 1566-1683 (17th Cent.) Rumelia Kirklareli The Ottoman Empire in 1856 Conquest - Dates Aegean Edirne 1361, Sofia 1364, SEA 1393-96, Wallachia 1393, 1453 ((Istanbul), Morea 1458-60, Serbia 1459, Bosnia 1463, Crimea 1475, Albania 1478, Moldavia 1504, M e d i t e r r a n e a n s e a 1516, Aleppo 1516, 1517, Tripoli 1521, Rhodes 1522, Transylvania 1541, damascus Cyprus 1571, Tunis 1574, Egypt Crete 1669

Introduction longer or shorter periods of time. of the Roma population of the Otto- Experts on Roma often say that the man Empire was concentrated in the The Ottoman Empire (1299-1922) Balkans are “the second home of Balkans, and thus the Balkans have had a great influence on the overall the Roma”, thus emphasising the a particular meaning for their histo- course of world history as well as the important role the Balkans played rical fate, and for understanding the specific historical fate of a number in shaping the history, culture and contemporary situation of the com- of peoples who were part of it for language of the Roma. The majority munity. Historical Sources about the “Gypsies” in the Empire The “Gypsies” in the Tax Registers Law Concerning the “Gypsies” in the Province of Rumelia The “Gypsy Sanjak” – Roma in the Ottoman Army

Some of the most important paragraphs of the “Law concerning the Gypsies in the Province of Rumelia”, issued by Sultan Suleiman I the Magnificent read as follows:

“1. The Muslim Gypsies from Stambul, Edirne and elsewhere in Rumelia pay 22 akche for each household and each unmarried person. The (Christian) Gypsies pay 25 akche, and, as for widows, they pay one akche tax. 2. They pay marriage fees as well as the fines for crimes and wrongdoings as do the rest of the subject people. [...] 3. The Gypsies who show obstinacy and stray from their judicial district, hiding in another district as well as in backyards, are to be found, admonished, strictly punished and brought back to their district. [...] 4. The fines, the usual taxes and penalties for severe criminal offences imposed on Gypsies by the Gypsy sanjak, belong to the chief of the Gypsy sanjak. No one from the local administration or the military should interfere. Exceptions to this are the Gypsies who are recorded as villains in the prebends, fiefdoms, fiefs and the sultan’s lands. 5. The taxes on the Gypsies from the above-mentioned feudal lands are collected from the Gypsies’ leader. The chief of the Gypsy sanjak, the chiefs of the in each province, the police and others have no right to interfere with them. 6. If Muslim Gypsies begin to nomadise with non-Muslim Gypsies, live with them and mix with them, they should be admonished; after being punished, the Gypsies pay their taxes as usual. 7. Those Gypsies who are in possession of an authorisation from the sultan are to pay only the sultan’s tax and do not pay land tax ... and the other usual taxes.” Ill. 2 (abbreviated from Marushiakova / Popov 2001, p.32)

craftsmen serving in the army), or were mely complex and interlocking milita- Historical Sources about among the population which accompa- ry-based administrative, economic and the “GYPSIES” in the nied the invasions. Some of these Roma religious structure. This complicated Empire went along with the army further into system encompassed the entire popu- Europe, but a considerable number re- lation and strictly controlled their daily The first migration of Roma into mained in the Balkans. life. The inhabitants were also classed Minor and the Balkans, in the lands of They figure in various official hierarchically into various categories, the , dates back well documents of the Ottoman government the main two being the “true believers” before the . Large numbers and local administration, mainly in de- (the ) and the “infidels” (the of Roma arrived in the Balkans later tailed tax registers, as well as in nu- subjected Christian population). These at the time of the Ottoman invasions merous court orders relating to a varie- categories were treated differently, the in the 14th-. They were eit- ty of matters (civic, economic, religious members of each having a different sta- her directly taking part in the invasi- and family). The Ottoman social, politi- tus and varying obligations towards the ons (mainly as auxiliary soldiers or as cal and economic system was an extre- central state.

quarter in each village or town. Each of respective territorial units, for instance The “GYPSIES” in the Tax these units had its own leader, meaning in the collection of and regulations Registers that, here, the principle of limited group relating to the population of the Province responsibility was applied. of Rumelia (including almost the entire All subjects of the Ottoman Empire were The very first mention of “Gypsies” Balkan peninsula) from 1475 during the obliged to pay different taxes and were in the tax documentation of the Ottoman time of Mehmet II (The Conqueror). described in numerous tax registers. The Empire dates from 1430 and is found in There are also special registers preserved, existing Ottoman documents reflect in the Register of (a kind of land pro- concerning only “Gypsies”, such as the great detail the desire of the administra- perty) for the Nikopol “sanjak” (territorial tax register for the Christian “Gypsies”, tion to incorporate the “Gypsy” popula- unit), in which 431 “Gypsy” households paying “jizie” (a for non-Mus- tion into its registers and to make them are registered, 3.5% of the total listed. lims) from 1487-1489. It records 3,237 pay the necessary taxes. The “Gypsies” From this first register and from later his- “Gypsy” households plus a further 211 were fully described by age, occupation torical documents it becomes clear that the widows’ households. The register in ques- and family status and, according to these majority of “Gypsies” there were settled tion has a special regulation dating from and other factors, were grouped into tax and were differentiated by their ethnicity, 1491 attached to it which reflected the poll units (“jemaats”), each with its respective and not by their way of life. tax dues, and also further specified taxa- leader; the communities in turn were divi- In many cases the “Gypsies” were tion, e. g. the “ispenche” (a land tax for ded into smaller units, based on the Roma included in common tax registers of the Christians, i.e. the settled “Gypsies”). The

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Sultan Selim II’s decree reads:

“The Gypsy communities who are found in Bosnia are entirely freed from the personal tax (m’af), from the other occasional taxes (takalif-i yor- fiye), and from any additional taxes (avariz). For the above mentioned Gypsies, one of their own should be elected and appointed for each group of 50 to be the leader (jemaat bashi). No one should interfere in his affairs, or limit him in any way. If anyone should break the law, they should be detained and, provided that guaran- tees are given by the community, and by its leader, there should be an oral hearing.” Ill. 3 Ill. 4 Decree of Sultan Selim II in 1574 (from Marushiakova / Popov 2001, p. 33) (Detail) (abbreviated from Marushiakova / Popov 2001, p. 34)

data on large numbers of settled Chris- conquest, when the predominant religion apparently predominated in the region of tian “Gypsies” indicate that they have was . Judging from the regi- (which roughly corresponds with settled in these lands before the Ottoman ons mentioned, the Christian “Gypsies” the European part of modern ).

lims, paid a poll tax, which was coll- to ensure that taxes were collected in Law concerning the “GYP- ected only from the non-Muslims. The full from everyone, including the itine- SIES” in the Province of Christian “Gypsies” had to pay slightly rant “Gypsies”. In this respect, the clear Rumelia higher taxes than the Muslim ones, but tendency to encourage members of the the discrepancies in the taxes between “Gypsy” communities to be responsible Sultan Suleiman I the Magnificent who the different categories of “Gypsies” for the collection of taxes as guaran- ruled the empire during its glory (1520- were not clearly and coherently out- tors of their payment on time deserves 1566) issued a special “Law concerning lined. An exception was made for tho- special attention. At the same time, the the Gypsies in the Province of Ru- se “Gypsies” who were included in the responsibility for any possible non-pay- melia” in 1530. This law helps us to a so-called “Gypsy sanjak”, including ment of obligations to the authorities better understanding of the information those involved in providing services to was in the hands of these members of gleaned from the tax registers. [Ill. 2] the army – for example the “Gypsies” the “Gypsy” community. This is confir- The rules included in the law who lived in fortresses and maintained med by further evidence, for example demonstrate once more the special them, the blacksmiths making or repai- a decree by Sultan Selim II in 1574, place of the Roma in relation to the two ring different kinds of arms, the milita- which obliged “Gypsy” mine workers main categories in the Ottoman Empire ry musicians and other auxiliary troops. from Banya Luka, who enjoyed a spe- – the “true believers” and “the infidels”. [Ill. 5] cial status, to form groups of fifty, each All of the “Gypsies”, irrespective of In addition, this law reveals the group choosing its leader who was re- whether they were Christians or Mus- ambition of the Ottoman administration sponsible to the authorities. [Ills. 3, 4]

the extended rights to taxation self-go- usual sense of a territorial unit but in The “Gypsy Sanjak” vernment for those living in the “Gypsy the sense of a special category of the – Roma in the sanjak”. Dating from 1541, there was “Gypsy” population which was invol- Ottoman Army also a special law concerning the leader ved in a number of auxiliary activities of the “Gypsy sanjak”. This institution in the service of the army. The “Law concerning the Gypsies in originated in but was modified Roma were, however, recruited the Province of Rumelia” confirms the to suit the “Gypsies” in the Balkans. into the actual army as well. There is special administrative legal status and In this case “sanjak” is not used in the evidence, dating from 1566, that some

  The “Gypsy Sanjak” – Roma in Army Auxiliary Services Tax Register of Sultan Suleiman I the Magnificent Measures against Nomadism. Settling the “Gypsies”

Ill. 6 Impression and cast of a blood red Carneli- an Seal, the kind of which was Ill. 5 used by Ottoman authorities to declare that Ottoman army with (probably Roma) army musicians before the gate of and Pest. taxes had been paid properly. (from Marushiakova / Popov 2001, p. 21) (from Marushiakova / Popov 2001, p. 40)

members of the taxable population who basis of the data preserved shows that must have been involved in the Otto- were called up for military duties were during the 16th and the 17th centuries man army undertaking various services, Muslim Roma. Estimations made on the between 15,000 and 20,000 “Gypsies” mostly auxiliary military duties.

usellem” (platoons) and their au- ties, 449 in total, situated in 17 regi- The “Gypsy Sanjak” xiliary units. At the head of each ons of Rumelia. The members of the – Roma in army auxiliary “myusyulem” was the “-liva” (ma- “myusellem” undertook auxiliary mi- services jor), a non-“Gypsy”, who was in char- litary duties. The head of the “Gypsy ge of four captains and eleven corpo- sanjak” was based in the town of Kırk The “Gypsies” included in the “Gy- rals. For their service the “myusellem” Klise (modern Kırklareli) in Eastern psy sanjak” were grouped into “my- (altogether 543) received land proper- Thrace.

nities, situated in nine judicial districts of 5 people, this made a total of 66,000 THE Tax Register of encompassing big parts of what is now “Gypsies” in the Balkans, of which about Sultan Suleiman I the the Balkan peninsula. This is a unique do- 47,000 were Christian. Magnificent cument with a huge quantity of data about Further calculations made on the the “Gypsy” population in the Balkans in basis of this register are also of great 1522-1523, during the reign of Sultan the beginning of the . interest. According to these, a total of Suleiman I the Magnificent, another tax The register recorded 10,294 Christian 17,191 “Gypsy” households – in what register was prepared, entitled “Compre- and 4,203 Muslim “Gypsy” househol- became the territory of the present-day hensive roll of the income and taxation of ds (in the total a further 471 widows’ Balkan states – were distributed as fol- the Gypsies of the Province of Rumelia”. households were included). Apart from lows: Turkey – 3,185, – 2,512, This vast register consisted of 347 pages these, there were a further 2,694 Muslim Albania – 374, former and specifically dealt with the “Gypsies”. households in the “Gypsy sanjak”. Ac- – 4,382 and Bulgaria 5,701, while the It recorded the number of “Gypsy” house- cording to the same calculations, coun- exact locality of 1,037 households is holds classified according to tax commu- ting each household having an average uncertain. The Ottoman tax registers are

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The traveller Evlia Çelebi had the opportunity to make use of the list of craftsmen’s (“sinifs”) in Istanbul. This list contained fifty-se- ven guilds, the “Gypsies” being mentioned for the first time in the 10th , that of bear-breeders, which consisted of seventy men in total. In the 15th guild the -traders (“jambazes”) consisting of 300 men were to be found, and as Evlia Çelebi wrote: “The horse- traders are wealthy traders, each one of them having stables of 40-50 Arab hors- es; most of them are Gypsies although there are some who belong to other people.” The 43rd guild, that of musicians, consisted of 300 people, also Ill. 7 mostly “Gypsies”. Words written down in Romani by Evlia Çelebi in Sheyahat-name, 1668. Ill. 8 (from Marushiakova / Popov 2001, p.43) (Detail) (from Marushiakova / Popov 2001, p.44)

also a source for understanding the re- rally speaking, summarising the data yet said that Christian Roma predominated ligious confessions of the Roma. Gene- available from the tax registers, it can be in the 15th and 16th centuries.

should impose the restrictive measures least to restrict the area of their noma- Measures against on the nomadic “Gypsies” (and how); dism. This can be seen from a regulation Nomadism. this shows that, for some reason, the of Sultan Suleiman I the Magnificent Settling the “Gypsies” Ottoman authorities did not regard the- from 1551, repeated almost literally by se issues (nomadism, and the irregular Sultan Murad III in 1574. However, it Part of the Roma in the Ottoman Empire payment of taxes) as very serious. is evident that these, and possibly other lead a nomadic way of life, which cre- Usually the main taxation com- such administrative measures, were un- ated problems for the state administra- munity (“jemaat”) in the Ottoman Empi- successful. In practice, it seems that for tion. That is why laws and regulations re was linked to a specific territorial unit, the authorities nomadism was not a seri- provide penalties for Muslim “Gypsies” even when this encompassed nomadic ous problem. who “wandered” (i.e. followed a noma- “Gypsies”, as there were no differences In Balkan towns and villages dic way of life) alongside non-Muslim in the tax obligations of the “Gypsies” settled Roma lived in isolated “Gypsy “Gypsies”. according to their way of life (settled or quarters” (“mahallas”) – a basic principle The reasoning behind this policy nomadic). The register of 1522-1523 re- of settlement for all minority communi- becomes clear from the previously quo- cords only eleven nomadic groups regis- ties in the Ottoman Empire. The number ted “Law concerning the Gypsies in the tered for tax purposes in certain villages. of settled Roma was high. A similar im- Province of Rumelia” issued by Sulei- This hardly reflects the real situation. It pression was recorded in Anatolia at the man I the Magnificent, which explaines is likely that itinerant people were often beginning of the by the well that the problem was not so much the as- registered as a settled population, but in known Ottoman traveller Evlia Çelebi sociation of the Muslim “Gypsies” with reality continued their (mostly seasonal) (1611-1679). He remarked that the ma- non-Muslims, but the fact that, when nomadic way of life. jority of the “Gypsies” living there were travelling, they did not pay their taxes Ottoman documents reflect the settled. [Ills. 7-8] regularly. However, it is quite signifi- desire of the administration to force the The tax registers reflect perma- cant, that there is no clear outline who nomadic “Gypsies” to settle down or at nent settlement as well as of a certain

  How the Roma Earned their Living The Decline of the Ottoman Empire Civic Status of the “Gypsies”. Official Legislation and Everyday Reality The Beginning of Roma Emancipation

In the 1522-1523 tax regis- ter, among the recorded oc- cupations of the “Gypsies”, are musicians, tinsmiths, far- riers, goldsmiths, -ma- kers, stove-makers, shoema- kers, slipper-makers, makers of clout-nails, leather wor- kers, tailors, carpet-makers, dyers, ironmongers, cheese- makers, butchers, -ma- kers, gardeners, muleteers, guards, prison guards, man- servants, couriers, monkey- breeders, well-diggers and others, occasionally inclu- ding army officers, janissa- ries, policemen, doctors, sur- Ill. 9 geons and monks. Closely related to the of the “Gypsy” musicians was the development of some specialised forms Ill. 10 of musical theatrical performances, for example, the puppet shows. (from Marushiakova / Popov 2001, p. 44) (from Marushiakova / Popov 2001, p. 66)

degree of wealth among the “Gypsies”. paid by the “Gypsies” is a one-off tax on fan” sold his house in Sofia as well as his Such kind of information is, for examp- sale of a residence, levied on 20 houses, shop and some fruit trees for 2,400 akche le, contained in the judicial proceedings as well as a tax on sheep. Moreover, the- (quite an impressive amount, given the of the Sofia region from the beginning of re is further evidence of comparatively usual sum of annual taxes per “Gypsy” the 17th century. Listed among the taxes rich “Gypsies”: in 1611 the “Gypsy Ste- household, some 25 akche).

times different string instruments). Along tensive from the 17th century onwards. How THE Roma Earned with this, there is much evidence about [Ills. 9, 10] their Living “Gypsy” ensembles with dancers (mainly In some cases the Roma abandoned Roma and sometimes Jewish women). their former occupations and became in- Roma in the Ottoman Empire worked in In many places around the world volved in agriculture, which they practi- a range of occupations. In the tax register the Roma are known as smiths. This oc- ced within the framework of the existing of 1522-1523 the “Gypsies” were most cupation has a long tradition, and has feudal possessions of military officers. often recorded as musicians (military or been well preserved in the Balkans until For example, in an inventory of fiefdoms “free lanced”), which is also confirmed the present day. Although during certa- in the Sofia region, dating to 1445-1446, by other sources. The musical instru- in periods of time – as in the early 16th there is detailed information on one belon- ments most commonly mentioned are the century – Roma blacksmiths and iron- ging of , which included the village of “zurnas” (a kind of oboe) and drums, but mongers were relatively uncommon Dabijiv; it consisted of 15 complete and 3 other instruments were also used (most in the Ottoman Empire, evidence con- widows’ households; the inventory cate- often the and in more recent cerning blacksmiths becomes very ex- gorically states that “they are Gypsies”.

of onwards the long peri- ful wars and loss of territory. Due to The Decline of the Otto- od of gradual (but deepening) decline almost permanent political and econo- man Empire started. This period (18th and 19th cen- mical crisis the various state registers turies) was characterised by permanent (tax, judicial, and others) gradually lost After its era of power and glory in the crisis that affected social and economic their importance. The historical sour- 16th - 17th century, the Ottoman Empire conditions as well as the complex ad- ces about the Roma in the empire, the- entered a period of stagnation and from ministrative system, and was accompa- refore, became more fragmentary and the end of the 17th and the beginning nied by a long sequence of unsuccess- uncertain.

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Working-Class Roma

In 1836, the Bulgarian Dobry Jeliazkov, known as “The Factory Man”, opened the first modern textile mill in the Ottoman Empi- re in the town of Sliven, to make cloth for the state - primarily for the Ottoman army. The main work force were Roma from the town of Sliven, since at the time the were craftsmen, traders, or involved in agriculture, and the only uncommited labourers were the Roma (men, women and even children). Gra- dually, a working class was established con- sisting of Roma families engaged in the tex- industry which increased considerably after the liberation of Bulgaria (1878) when a number of new factories opened in Sliven and it became an important centre of the textile industry. Ill. 11 Ill. 12 (from Marushiakova / Popov 2001, p. 69) The factory of Dobry Jeliazkov in Sliven, around 1870. (from Marushiakova / Popov 2001, p. 69)

During this period of time a sig- The Ottoman authorities con- established “” (big farms) also nificant change in religious affiliation tinued to use administrative measures appeared, entirely populated by “Gyp- of the Roma became visible. During to make the nomadic “Gypsies” settle sies”, from where they were recruited as the 15th and the 16th centuries Christian down permanently, but, as with earlier hired agricultural workers. Roma predominated, while during the attempts, in most cases these efforts tur- Some Roma established them- the balance had been radi- ned out to be ineffective. From the end selves in completely new crafts. This is cally altered and the Muslims were in the of the 18th century onwards, however, the case with the “Gypsy proletariat” in majority. The ratio of Christian to Mus- sources reveal an increase in the perma- the town of Sliven (Bulgaria). In 1836 lim has been calculated as 1:3 or 1:4 in nent settlement of the “Gypsies” in vil- the first modern textile mill in the Ot- various estimations, but it is difficult to lages and their reliance on work, a toman Empire was opened, which made obtain precise figures. We can conclude tendency which had first appeared centu- cloth to meet the needs of the Ottoman that there was a continuing trend over ries earlier in the Ottoman Empire. New army. Most of the workers hired for this the centuries to convert to the . villages in the of newly factory were Roma. [Ills. 11, 12]

between Muslim and Christian “Gyp- of the “Gypsies”, however, was rooted in Civic Status of the “Gyp- sies”, between nomadic and settled. On the general feeling towards them: Many sies”. Official Legislation the whole, they were close to the local sources reveal the evident contempt felt and Everyday Reality populations, with some small privileges towards them by the rest of the populati- for the Muslim “Gypsies”, and consi- on – Ottoman and local population alike The “Gypsies” occupied a special place derable larger benefits for those in the – who considered them to be inferior in the overall social and administrative service of the army. people who did not merit any attention, structure of the empire. In the first place This ethnic differentiation of the a long-standing social stereotype, which they had been “Citizens” of the empire “Gypsies” is not connected to the so-cal- has survived in the Balkans to this day. since its establishment. Notwithstanding led “Milliet System”, as is often wrongly In spite of these persistent social the division of the empire’s populati- thought. The “Milliet System” in the sen- attitudes, and perhaps because of them, the on into two main categories (the “true se of differentiation of separate peoples Roma managed to preserve – or develop believers” and the “infidels”), they had (in ethnic, not in religious terms) was in- – many ethnic cultural characteristics under their specific statute and were differen- troduced as a consequence of the efforts Ottoman rule, for example a (semi-)noma- tiated on the basis of their ethnicity. for reforms in the Ottoman Empire from dic way of life as well as certain traditional There was not a strong differentiation the 19th century onwards. The separation crafts, and ultimately remained a relatively

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Roma as fighters for freedom

The Roma also took part in the national liberation struggles of Sliven, killed in 1856). Roma from Sliven (the brothers Yordan the Balkan peoples. The Rom Aliya Plavich and his brother Muyo and Georgy Hajikostovi, Yordan Ruschev) took part in the Russi- (who died in 1807) took part in the Serbian uprisings against an- war (1877-1878) in the ranks of the Russian army as the Ottoman Empire at the beginning of the 19th century. One of Bulgarian volunteers. the most famous “haiduts” (freedom fighters) in the 19th century Ill. 13 is the Rom Mustapha Shibil (born in the Gradets village, near (from Marushiakova / Popov 2001, p. 70)

closed ethnic community. On the whole, the Ottoman Empire was more favourable Europe, where, during the same historical however, the civil status of the Roma in than it was for their cousins in Western period, the Roma were persecuted.

their own society and take care of their ternal” social and cultural reality. The The Beginning of Roma education”, to have “Gypsy priests” general atmosphere in the Balkans at Emancipation and so on. that time predetermined the shape of As a whole the letter illustrates this new social activity. Like the rest of In 1866 Petko Rachev Slaveikov, a fa- the beginning of a new stage in the de- the Balkan peoples (for whom the 19th mous Bulgarian author, published an velopment of self-awareness among at century is the century of modern nati- article signed by “an Egyptian” (“a least some members of the Roma com- onalism) the Roma, too, were actively Gypsy”) in the Istanbul-based newspa- munity in the Balkans during the 19th seeking a glorious past as well as the per Gaida. In this letter, the author, Ilia century. Typical of this new stage is the creation of a national historical mytho- Naumchev from the of Prilep, de- process of leaving the “internal” tradi- logy. This was necessary in order to fends the glorious past of the “Gypsies‘ tional community framework in order support them in their struggle for civil right” to be treated equally, to “have to seek an equal place in the new “ex- emancipation.

Conclusion evolution as communities have been and the related customs and traditions interwoven with those of the majority inherited by large numbers of Roma After the breakdown of the Ottoman populations of these countries. Howe- in the Balkans, or in the form of the Empire Roma remained permanent- ver, the heritage of the Ottoman Em- influence that Ottoman cultural and ly within the new boundaries of the pire remains present in various ways historical traditions still have on life one-nation Balkan states. From then – either in the form of established in the single Balkan states. on, their historical destiny and their ethnic cultures such as that of Islam

Bibliography

Crowe, David M. (1995) A History of the Gypsies of and . London / New York: I. B. Tauris Publishers | Fraser, Angus (1992) The Gypsies. Oxford / Cambridge: Blackwell | Gilsenbach, Reimar (1994) Weltchronik der Zigeuner. Teil 1: Von den Anfängen bis 1599. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang | Gronemeyer, Reimer / Rakelmann, A. (1988) Die Zigeuner. Reisende in Europa. Köln: DuMont Buchverlag | Inalçik, Halil (1997) An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press | Marushiakova, Elena / Popov, Veselin (2001) Gypsies in the Ottoman Empire. A contribution to the history of the Balkans. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press | Todorov, Nikolaj (1972) Balkanskiat grad XV – XIX vek. Socialno-ikonomichesko i demografsko razvitie. [The Balkan town: social, historical and demographic development]. Sofia: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences

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