NATIONALHumanities ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES • VOLUME 12 • NUMBER 3 • MAY/JUNE 1991

Gertrude Himmelfarb Jefferson Lecturer Editor's Note

Gertrude Himmelfarb

This issue of Humanities looks at the life and work of historian Gertrude Himmelfarb, who has been chosen as the 1991 Jefferson Lecturer in the Humanities. She is the twentieth recipient of the honor, which is the highest award the federal government bestows for distinguished achievement in the humanities. Himmelfarb, a historian of Victorian England, has been described as "one of the most gifted and trenchant interpreters of the Victorian scene." Bernard Historian Gertrude Himmelfarb, 1991 Jeffer­ Semmel likens her outlook to that of poet-critic Matthew Arnold. "Her intel­ son Lecturer. (Photo by Barbara Ries) lectual opponents, like his, are the system-makers, the enemies of culture, and the advocates of moral anarchy, those who put their faith in a mechanical and Humanities material civilization. Her allies are those who stress the values of the human­ A bimonthly review published by the ist tradition, with its belief that individual activity can be effective and that National Endowment for the Humanities individual responsibility is inescapable." Her first published work, Lord Acton: A Study in Conscience and Politics, C h airm an : Lynne V. Cheney appeared in 1952. Since then, there have been seven more, exploring different Publisher, Editorial Director: facets of the Victorian period: Darwin and the Darwinian Revolution (1959), Victo­ Marguerite Hoxie Sullivan rian Minds: Essays on Nineteenth Century Intellectuals (1968), On Liberty and E d ito r: Mary Lou Beatty Liberalism: The Case of John Stuart Mill (1974), The Idea of Poverty: England in the Assistant Editors: James S. Turner Industrial Age (1984), Marriage and Morals among the Victorians (1987), The New Ellen Marsh History and the Old (1987), and the soon-to-be-published Poverty and Compas­ Editorial Assistant: Kristen Hall sion: The Moral Imagination of the Late Victorians. Marketing Director: Joy Evans "Throughout a distinguished career combining scholarly research and teaching, Editorial Board: Marjorie Berlincourt, Professor Himmelfarb has made enduring contributions to our understanding of Harold Cannon, Richard Ekman, George the past," NEH Chairman Lynne V. Cheney said last fall in announcing the selec­ F. Farr, Jr., Donald Gibson, Guinevere tion. "Her writings and lectures affirm the value of studying the great historical Griest, James Herbert, Thomas Kingston, ideas and institutions that have influenced modern democratic societies." Jerry Martin, Malcolm Richardson Himmelfarb was born in 1922 in New York. She earned her bachelor of arts

D esig n : Hausmann Graphic Design, Inc. degree from Brooklyn College and her master's and doctorate in history from the University of Chicago. Himmelfarb taught for twenty-three years at Brooklyn The opinions and conclusions expressed in Humanities are those of the authors and do not College and the Graduate School of the City University of New York, where she necessarily reflect Endowment policy. Material was named Distinguished Professor of History in 1978. She is now professor appearing in this publication, except for that emeritus. She and her husband, Irving Kristol, live in Washington, D.C. They already copyrighted, may be reproduced. have two grown children, William and Elizabeth. Please notify the editor in advance so that appropriate credit can be given. Humanities Himmelfarb is a fellow of the British Academy and the Royal Historical (ISSN 0018-7526) is published bimonthly for Society, and a member of the American Philosophical Society and the American $11 per year by the National Endowment for Academy of Arts and Sciences. She also serves on the board of the Woodrow the Humanities, 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20506. Second-class Wilson International Center and the councils of the Library of Congress and postage paid at Washington, D.C., and addi­ the American Enterprise Institute. tional mailing offices. Annual subscription rate: $11.00 domestic, $13.75 foreign. Two Himmelfarb was chosen for the annual honor by the National Council on the years: $22.00, $27.50. Humanities, the presidentially appointed advisory body of the Endowment. The Telephone: 202/786-0435. Fax: 202/786-0240. award, which carries a $10,000 stipend, honors the intellectual and civic accom­ plishments exemplified by Thomas Jefferson. It provides a forum for a distin­ guished scholar to deliver a public lecture on issues of broad concern. This year is the twentieth anniversary of the Jefferson Lectures. To mark the occasion, we revisit some of Himmelfarb's distinguished predecessors and recall what they had to say about the state of the humanities in America. —Mary Lou Beatty

2 MAY/JUNE 1991 Contents

The Jefferson Lecture

A Conversation with ... Historian Gertrude Himmelfarb and NEH Chairman Lynne V. Cheney discuss the cultural and historical legacy of Victorian England.

Compassion: An Unsentimental View by Gertrude Himmelfarb. A more sinewy definition of the ethos of the late Victorians.

Excerpts: From the Books of Gertrude Himmelfarb. Passages on poverty, the crisis of belief, Darwin, J. S. Mill, and Lord Acton.

The Twentieth Anniversary. A milestone is remembered with words from past Lecturers.

The Victorian Inheritance

Gertrude Himmelf arb: In Celebration by Bernard Semmel. Her role in examining an age that contrasts to our own in valuing a humanist tradition.

"The Decent Drapery of Life": Morals among the Victorians by Robert Nisbet. A look at some prominent personages through the graceful medium of the essay.

Arnold's Double-Sided Culture by John P. Farrell. The celebration of perfection without a utopian motive.

The Letters of Darwin by Douglas N. Varley. How correspondence with colleagues furthered the research leading to The Origin of Species.

Other Features

Calendar

The Numbers Game by Jeffrey Thomas. The doubling of humanities Ph.D.'s in the United States to 100,000.

Ex Libris. The annual list of NEH-supported books, museum catalogues, and other publications.

The Humanities Guide

Humanities Projects in Libraries by Thomas Phelps, 45. Deadlines, 46. A Conversation w ith...

Historian Gertrude Himmelfarb

NEH Chairman example, is the humanist par excellence, culture. It was wonderful to watch Lynne V. Cheney and our culture finds him difficult to my students trying to come to terms talks with histor­ understand and respect. I know you with this book. I don't think I con­ ian Gertrude did your dissertation on Arnold. verted many of them to Arnold's point Himmelfarb, the When were you working on that? of view, but I certainly convinced 1991 Jefferson Cheney: Sixty-eight, sixty-nine. them that their ideas had been antici­ Lecturer in the pated—and powerfully criticized. Himmelfarb: That was the same Humanities, about Cheney: He is amazingly relevant. If year, 1969, that I taught Culture and the cultural and historical legacy of Vic­ you're looking for a quote on cultural Anarchy for the first time in a gradu­ torian England. Himmelfarb is professor topics or on the kind of cultural con­ ate seminar. It was an extraordinary emeritus of history at the City University flict that we've seen of late in the aca­ experience. You know it, of course. of New York and the author of eight books, demy, Arnold is rich with possibilities. among them The Idea of Poverty, The Cheney: Oh, it's wonderful. Every once in a while he sounds a lit­ New History and the Old, and the Himmelfarb: What made it especially tle elitist to my ear. He talks about forthcoming Poverty and Compassion: wonderful then was the fact that, "the masses" a little more than I'd like. The Moral Imagination of the Late exactly a hundred years after it had Himmelfarb: On the other hand, his Victorians. been written, we were in much the analysis of society is not elitist. He situation Arnold had anticipated. 1969, divided society, you remember, into Lynne V. Cheney: Why is it that the you remember, was a time of student three classes: the populace, the phil- Victorians are either ignored or vili­ riots, strikes, and a general rebellion istines (corresponding to the middle fied today? against authority, in and out of the class), and—do you remember his Gertrude Himmelfarb: They repre­ academy. There were the students, name for the aristocracy?—the bar­ sent almost everything that the mod­ priding themselves on this great new barians. The barbarians are not the ish groups in our culture denigrate— liberating movement, the countercul­ masses, not the lower classes, which morality, tradition, self-discipline, ture. And there was Arnold expos­ is what my students always assume, "high culture," the whole humanist ing that counterculture as a form of but the upper class, the aristocracy. range of values. Matthew Arnold, for anarchy, the very antithesis of real And they are barbarians because they

4 MAY/JUNE 1991 are mindless, uncultivated, because the kind of journalist today who does degrade the issues. But the interest­ they're not pursuing the free play precisely that in relation to public ing thing is that the public is more of the mind, the best that has been figures. I think you'd have to recast resistant to this than one might think. thought and said, and so on. the argument a little bit to make this In this sense, the public culture is much Cheney: Well, that whole notion of point. You'd have to talk not about healthier than the elitist culture—that the free play of the mind over ideas heroes and valets, but about public is, the culture of the media and of the has always struck me as a scholarly figures and journalists. academy. For example, the public ideal, and it is so amazing to me to be Cheney: I suppose that's why it's on wants to read biographies of great men. so often faced today with this notion my mind. Now, in the academy, biographies are that there is no such thing as the free Himmelfarb: There are, of course, looked down upon as an inferior mode play of the mind, and so the sooner journalists and commentators who of scholarship, as too traditional, not you admit that, Mrs. Cheney, the make serious and important contribu­ "innovative." History departments better off we'll all be. tions to public discourse. But there are often discourage good students from writing dissertations that are biograph­ Himmelfarb: That's right. We're con­ others who demean and degrade it, ical. "You don't want to do that. That's stantly told that everything is prede­ who know less than the people old hat, that's biography." termined by class, race, and gender. involved in public affairs but are quick to pronounce judgment upon them Cheney: And narrative history? Cheney: Everything is political. You and who tend to interpret public issues Himmelfarb: And narrative history, know, in a sense that's true, that every­ and controversies in terms of personal, exactly. Here, too, the public is more thing is political, but it's political with preferably sordid and scandalous, traditional-minded than academics. a little "p." And what happens today motives. This kind of journalist (who They want to read not only about great is that the fact that there is a general­ too often brings discredit to the profes­ men but about great events—biogra­ ized political dimension to our lives sion) cannot accept the fact that public phies of Lincoln, for example, and is used to justify politics with a big figures might have genuine differences narratives of the Civil War. "P." You have people talking about of opinion, differences of policy and how their scholarship is an extension Cheney: You said some nice things principle. Instead—in good valet of their Politics—or, worse even— about The Civil War in your Jefferson fashion—he reduces public affairs to how their teaching is. Lecture, speaking of narrative history, private interests, personal rivalries, Let's talk about your lecture. In because it certainly was a good exam­ and political maneuvers. "Of Heroes, Villains, and Valets," you ple of that. But George Will recently Cheney: To go back in time just for a point out a scholarly tendency to give wrote a column about The Civil War minute, what was it that happened us the valet's point of view of great and suggested that it was an antiwar that suddenly made this style of his­ people—a view from the underside, film. Is that how you thought of it as tory interesting to people and inter­ so to speak. Are scholars the only ones you were watching? esting to biographers? I mean, what guilty of this? I thought of journalists Himmelfarb: I thought it was a grand was the crack in the temper of the immediately when I read your essay assertion of national purpose and times that suddenly gave us this form for the first time. nationhood, a very patriotic film. But of history where there was interest in I am aware that there have been two Himmelfarb: When Hegel used the the degrading detail? views of it. On the one hand, all the word "schoolmasters," he meant his­ Himmelfarb: I think this mode of misery and the violence ... torians and critics—men of little exper­ history—to put it very sharply— Cheney: Which is true of war. ience and great pretensions, who reflects a kind of democratization of think that they know so much more Himmelfarb: That's right. But I history, a suspicion of "elites," of peo­ than a Caesar or an Augustus, that thought the genius of that film—and ple in positions of authority. There's their moral sensibilities are so much the genius of the real Civil War—was a muckraking impulse which unfor­ finer than theirs, that they can sit in that it was both things. Of course war tunately comes with democracy. judgment on them. To Hegel they are is ghastly and murderous and dirty Cheney: I see. little more than valets imposing their and miserable and tragic. But the valet mentality on their betters. In Himmelfarb: H.G. Wells once boasted Civil War was all of that for a very the lecture I trace this hero-valet theme that he would write a truly populist noble purpose, and it had a very noble through the Victorians and on to the history in which Napoleon would be end—or rather two noble ends. One present generation of historians, biog­ seen strutting on the crest of history is the emancipation of the slaves, and raphers, and literary critics, culminat­ "like a cockerel on a dung hill." there is no more noble end than that. ing with the deconstructionists. At Cheney: How much effect did it have The other is nationhood, keeping the some point there takes place a reversal on society as a whole? How much nation together, preserving the union. of roles between the hero and the effect does the valet approach to his­ In that sense it's a very patriotic film, valet, so that while the biographer or tory have on our society as a whole? it seems to me. literary critic is denigrating the hero, Are people taken in by it? Cheney: It's almost like a great poem reducing him to the level of a valet, Himmelfarb: Journalists, if not his­ in the sense that it admits different that biographer or critic is elevating torians, do have a great deal of influ­ interpretations—which is not to go so himself to the level of hero. He knows ence. They set the tone of public dis­ far as to say any interpretation is cor­ better than the hero what is going on, cussion, of public discourse. And to rect, but events are complex. he can interpret Shakespeare's plays the extent that they interpret public Himmelfarb: It admits different inter­ better than Shakespeare can, and affairs in terms of scandals and per­ pretations, but I think any interpreta­ so on. And that applies a fortiori to sonalities, they do trivialize and tion that focuses only on the one aspect

HUMANITIES 5 and not at all on the other is simply the human condition, so we're told. right to insist on civility of discourse. wrong. Only your condition and mine and But most of the examples of sentiments Cheney: It is both things. each individual's. denounced as racist, sexist, or elitist Himmelfarb: The war was not merely Himmelfarb: Exactly. that I have heard were not that at all. miserable, dirty, violent, ugly, tragic. Cheney: It's a discouraging assess­ They were expressions of the kinds of It was a heroic experience too. Those ment of the humanities when you talk opinions that have always been wonderful letters written by ordinary about the balkanization that has gone voiced, in and out of the university. soldiers to their wives—they knew on. Are there places to look and feel Professors have been accused of rac­ what they were fighting for and what positive about the humanities, or is ism, for example, for referring to they were ready to die for. your assessment of them a gloomy one? "American Indians" rather than "native' Cheney: And you did have the sense Himmelfarb: I'm not normally given Americans." To characterize this as to optimism, as you racist is outrageous. There are outra­ geous racist and sexist diatribes, may have noticed, but mainly in novels, rap records, and the I must say I now feel like. These are far more violent and somewhat optimistic objectionable than anything one hears —although for the in the university. For some reason most pessimistic rea­ the same people who are quick to sons. I think the situ­ denounce racism and sexism in the ation has gotten so university are willing to tolerate bad, so overtly, pat­ ently bad, that people much more egregious examples of these in the popular culture. are reacting against it. This is especially true Cheney: Yes. It has struck me as of the universities— extremely ironic that 2 Live Crew is the politicization of the held by some academics to be a kind universities, PC, as it of humor that we simply have failed is known —political to appreciate, when it's really violent correctness. The fact against women, extremely so. that it has acquired Himmelfarb: If s hardcore pornography. the status of an acro­ Cheney: This may be a point on which nym suggests how you and I have some difference of prevalent it is and how opinion. I think I probably am less everyone is becoming inclined to think that there are things terribly aware of it. that shouldn't be said, unless they Cheney: And satiriz­ cause danger somehow. And I know ing it. that you think—you've told me before Himmelfarb: And —that when things are allowed to be satirizing it and being said, the society is giving its blessing extremely critical of it. to the kinds of thoughts being of people who were caught up in Even those professors who've been expressed. something larger than themselves and going along with the balkanization of Himmelfarb: I think that things that ennobled by that. In My Antonia Willa the university are now pulling back are legally permitted are in a sense Cather writes that happiness is "being and saying, "Is this what I want? morally legitimized. Now, I agree dissolved into something complete Surely this can't be right." And so, with you that there should be a very and great." too, with the politicization of the large area of freedom for expression Himmelfarb: This is why I am so university. PC has been carried so far and action. Nevertheless, I think there disturbed by the enormous emphasis as to discourage and even prevent any comes a point when it's quite proper that is put on race, gender, and class. expression of dissent. Instead we have to say that some things are and should It not only reduces individuals to cate­ public denunciations, humiliations, be illegal. This applies to drugs, and gories and confines them within those consciousness-raising sessions—this also to some forms of expression— categories; it makes it difficult for them to is Orwellian thought control. And I obscenity, pornography, violence— see themselves as part of a larger, more think more and more people are begin­ which are morally as well as physically elevated, more universal whole. It is ning to realize that. harmful. The decision to prosecute this sense of universality that is being Cheney: Should people be able to say such cases is a prudential one, and I denied all the time now. anything? What we're talking about, would try to use the courts as little as Cheney: That there is anything really, is an interference with freedom possible. But I would not preclude the universal. of expression, and many of the expres­ use of the courts in extreme situations. Himmelfarb: That there is anything sions being censored are thought by As a matter of principle, I would not universal. One is a woman or one is a those doing the censoring to be racist, preclude it, because I think that soci­ black or one is gay, but one is not part to be sexist, to be homophobic. Should ety requires laws, and one of the func­ of a larger culture, a culture that tran­ people be able to say things that are tions of law is to legitimize—or illegit- scends these particularities. sexist? imize—behavior. Cheney: There is no such thing as Himmelfarb: A university has the Can I come back to a point we dis­

6 MAY/JUNE 1991 cussed earlier. This is about my being Cheney: I knew your new book was was hard-headed, rational, pragmatic optimistic. Let me give you one other on poverty, and you also have the old —and at the same time moral and ground for optimism, a very pessimis­ book on poverty, so I was confused. humane. tic ground for optimism. Together Himmelfarb: It is confusing. I origi­ Cheney: Have you started thinking with the politicization of the univer­ nally thought of the new book as a about your next book yet? sity, we are witnessing a new segre­ sequel to my Idea of Poverty. But it Himmelfarb: Yes, but I also wonder: gationist movement in the university. turns out to be not quite that, for it Must I write another book? Is there Did you happen to read an article by has a distinctive theme. The earlier any law that says I have to be work­ Dinesh D'Souza on this subject? book covers the late-eighteenth and ing on a book all the time? I've been Cheney: In The American Scholar, I did early-nineteenth centuries; the new working on books ever since I left col­ read it, yes. book is on the late-nineteenth century. lege. I'm trying now to think in terms Himmelfarb: It is a hair-raising arti­ It's called Poverty and Compassion: The of essays, although I suspect they cle. The segregation he talks about is Moral Imagination of the Late Victorians. might turn into a book. I've also very widespread, and I hadn't been It deals with a quite extraordinary decided to leave the Victorians and aware of it. Dorms, cafeterias, stu­ generation, the men and women of the enter the twentieth century—the dent unions, classrooms are, in effect, 1880s and 1890s, who were truly dedi­ period of the early modernists. I've segregated. I'm not talking about cated to public service—philanthro­ started an essay that takes off from white racist segregation but segrega­ pists, social workers, settlement house that wonderful quotation of Virginia tion on the part of blacks and minori­ residents (the first settlement house, Woolf's. ties, a self-imposed segregation, which Toynbee Hall, was started then) Cheney: About human nature is also imposed on those who would reformers, investigators, critics, and changing... prefer not to be segregated. This is an philosophers. It was a time of great Himmelfarb: That's right. "In or appalling development. social, political, and intellectual fer­ about December 1910, human charac­ Cheney: But what's the answer to it? ment about what was called the social ter changed." Even in the very early I know one school has decided to force problem, the problem of poverty. It stages of modernism, I think you can people to live together whether they was at this time, too, that several see the later developments of modern­ want to or not. I'm not sure that's an socialist parties were founded—not ism and even postmodernism. Yet answer. socialist as we understand it, but the innovators of that period would Himmelfarb: No, that's obviously socialist in a very latitudi- not the answer. That, in fact, is part narian sense, meaning of the problem. It is another form of almost any kind of social PC—the idea that there is only one reform or social change. correct, compulsory answer to every This period was interest­ problem. It's a typically totalitarian ing for two reasons. First, way of trying to handle the situation. because it witnessed a total Either you oblige students to live in personal involvement on separate dorms or you oblige them the part of these people. against their will to live together. They gave of their time and their energy and their Cheney: Where's the optimism here? money. There were no Just that this has gotten so bad? foundations to support them, Himmelfarb: It's gotten so bad that no government subsidies to liberals are beginning to rebel against finance their philanthropies, it. They are saying, "O f course we no national endowment for were all for ethnic studies, we were their research. They did it all for black studies, we were all for all by themselves out of women's studies. But this is not what their own resources, volun­ we had in mind at all. We don't want tarily and individually. to encourage separatism and segrega- The other thing that I find tionism. We're integrationists, not very interesting is the spirit segregationists." This, after all, is what in which they approached the civil rights movement was all the problem of poverty. about. And it is ironic—and tragic— As I said, the book is called that the people who were in the fore­ Poverty and Compassion. front of that movement should now Some of my friends are put find themselves unwittingly betray­ off by this title because they regard surely have been appalled by their ing it. "compassion" as a sentimental, wimp­ successors. Cheney: Why don't you tell me about ish word. I use it—as the Victorians Cheney: Do you write easily? I mean, your new book. You've just finished used it—in a totally unsentimental you write so well. In your book about a book that you had worked on for a sense. My introductory chapter is Darwin there's a description of Eras­ very long time. called "Compassion 'Properly Under­ mus, the grandfather. It's marvelous Himmelfarb: Yes. It was meant to stood.'" As the Victorians under­ in terms of the detail that makes Eras­ be a sequel to an earlier book that I stood it, there was nothing sentimental, mus come alive. Do you accomplish had written on the idea of poverty. nothing utopian about compassion. It that easily?

HUMANITIES 7 Himmelfarb: I do some things more or school book. We owned no books line of New York intellectuals and easily than others—lectures, essays —at least no English books. What we grew up in a hothouse environment. more easily than books. But I rewrite did have were the Bible, prayer books, Himmelfarb: It was another kind of constantly, compulsively. and some of the classics of Yiddish intellectual tradition that I grew up in. Cheney: Do you use a computer? literature. Perhaps because the book My grandfather was a learned man in Himmelfarb: The computer was was the Bible, my parents had an enor­ a very parochial, religious sense. invented for me. I don't think I would mous respect, almost a veneration, Cheney: He was a Talmudic scholar? have done this last book otherwise. for books in general. Did you know Himmelfarb: Yes, although not in It's glorious. One can write and that in families like mine (and we were the modern Enlightenment sense of rewrite and rewrite ad infinitum. only moderately religious), when a "scholar." It used to be said of him as Cheney: There's a wonderful quote religious book, even a children's text it was said of many pious, learned from E. B. White. His wife was a of the Bible, fell on the floor, one kissed Jews (the Jewish culture is full of myths writer, and she edited constantly. it when one picked it up? Something of this kind that one mustn't take lit­ And he described why her progress of that sense of sanctity carried over erally, although they do have a sym­ was so slow by saying she was like a to secular studies as well. My parents, bolic significance), that he could put county sheriff. No sooner would she for example, had no secular education, a pin through the Talmud and know get the sentence on the paper than but they were very eager that their chil­ what word was on every page that she would shoot it dead. dren have that—and not for vocational the pin had hit. Another myth in our Himmelfarb: That's wonderful. reasons but simply for the sake of edu­ family—that I later discovered was (laughter). cation. Although my parents did not shared by most Jewish families with Cheney: I'm curious about how you read to us, they encouraged us to read. any pretension to learning—was that got to be what you are. Were you a Cheney: That's very interesting. we were descended from Maimonides. Himmelfarb: My parents Cheney: Your parents came from didn't read to us because Russia. English was not their Himmelfarb: My parents and grand­ native language. They parents came just before the First could speak English, but World War. they were much more Cheney: How did they live in Russia? comfortable speaking Who were they? Yiddish, as they did with each other. My brother's Himmelfarb: Theirs was a typical first language—he is older ghetto experience of Jews in a very than I— was Yiddish; this small town. My maternal grandfather was the first of many lan­ was not a rabbi—he didn't want to be a paid functionary, so to speak. But guages that he mastered. because he was learned, he became the Cheney: What kind of village Hebrew teacher, which was school did you go to? not a demanding—or remunerative— Himmelfarb: Public occupation, and which gave him lots schools all the way through, of time for study and prayer. His and large second-rate pub­ name was Lerner, which suggests his lic schools —not the "elite" primary occupation. My grandmother schools. and mother—the oldest of the children Cheney: Did you go to —ran a little store that gave them their religious school, too? livelihood. Himmelfarb: Yes, Hebrew Cheney: So that he could spend time school, every afternoon studying. for two hours. Cheney: And what does Himmelfarb: So he could spend the one do at Hebrew school? entire day in the synagogue. Himmelfarb: Well, you Cheney: He could lead the life of the learn the language, the mind and not be expected to earn prayers, and the religious money by doing it. rituals. You read the Bible, Himmelfarb: The life of the mind the prophets, and in the and of religious devotion. This was a studious child? Did you have parents upper grades, passages from the very common ghetto pattern. And it who put books in front of you? What Talmud. Later, while I was at affected—I hadn't thought of it until was growing up like? Brooklyn College, I also attended the just now—the relations between men Himmelfarb: The main fact about Jewish Theological Seminary, so that and women. The women, as often as growing up for me was that mine was my Hebrew education paralleled, to not, worked in the store, did the an immigrant family. I think that was some extent, my secular education. purchasing and selling, took care of absolutely crucial. Did I have books Cheney: I had a stereotype of you the family finances, as well as running put in front of me? The answer is no. that turns out not to be true. I had the household. This was not your Every book I read was a library book assumed that you came from a long typical patriarchal family.

8 MAY/JUNE 1991 Cheney: Those are the grandparents Himmelfarb: This was certainly the and prudence—without, however, who came to this country? dominant motif in Acton's life and betraying those ideas and principles. Himmelfarb: Yes. I knew them— mind. He had been working for years Cheney: Whose wonderful phrase is at least my maternal grandparents— on a history of liberty, which was going it? "All intellectuals should be bound very well. I had enormous respect for to be his magnum opus. When I went by the necessity of seeing their ideas my grandfather, a very gentle, modest, to Cambridge University as a gradu­ put into practice." There is a differ­ kindly, as well as learned man. ate student, it was to do research on ence between having ideas and having Cheney: At what point did you know his manuscripts, his huge collection to make decisions. of notes, and his magnificent library, Himmelfarb: that you wanted to lead the life of A few, not many, Vic­ all of which were designed to provide the mind? torians fell into the trap of thinking the material for his great history of that ideas could be applied mechani­ Himmelfarb: I never thought of it in liberty—"the greatest book," it has cally and decisively in politics. I once such exalted terms, but I suppose I been said, "that was never written." wrote an essay called "The Intellectual had always assumed that books and In my biography of Acton, ideas would play a large part in my I speculated that he never life. It never occurred to me, mind you, wrote it because he was that I would be a professional intel­ caught up in a profound lectual, as it were. I assumed that if moral dilemma. On the one I were to write, I would do it on my hand he had an absolutist own. As for being a professor, that was notion of liberty; liberty out of the question; Jews, still less Jew­ was the ultimate, absolute ish women, did not become professors. good. But he also had an Cheney: So there were barriers based absolutist notion of mor­ on ethnicity as well as gender. ality, so that liberty could Himmelfarb: And other barriers as not be purchased at the well. When I was interviewed for expense of morality. He graduate school at the University of admired the American Chicago, Professor Gottschalk, who Revolution as a great event was later to be my mentor, told me: in the history of liberty "We are offering you a scholarship and because the degree of vio­ we would be delighted to have you in lence and murder was our program. But I want you to know minimal. But the French that you have three strikes against you Revolution, which also and that you will never have a teach­ aspired to liberty, was ing job. If you're entering this pro­ murderous and therefore gram with the expectation of teaching immoral. He could never in a university, I want to disabuse you resolve this dilemma: How of that. That's not going to happen." can the historian justify the I said, "I know two of the strikes French Revolution—or against me. What is the third one?" other events that contrib­ Cheney: I can't imagine. uted to the progress of liberty—without endors­ Himmelfarb: Well, the third one was ing immoral acts? that I was a New Yorker, and mid- western colleges had a strong bias Cheney: There was a quote about in Politics," about the Webbs, the against easterners. your book about Acton which you Fabian socialists. Now, they had a very seemed to endorse. 'The best political decided view of what politics should Cheney: So it really was a love of thinkers," he wrote, "are often very be like. They prided themselves on learning as opposed to any kind of cre- poor politicians." If you think very being "social engineers." Their ideal dentialing for a profession that inter­ closely on events, sometimes you do was a fully regulated, organized, ested you. What did you study? find yourself paralyzed even from the planned society, a society that was Himmelfarb: My master's thesis was act of writing, much less from the rational and tidy. That ideal would on Robespierre; I was fascinated by necessity of action. I suppose the have been disastrous had it been put the French Revolution—how its high question is, to what extent is strong in practice. Fortunately it was not ideals degenerated into the Terror. I intellectual drive incompatible with shared by most Victorians, who dis­ moved into English studies by way of public service, for instance? trusted such "rationality." One of the Lord Acton, who had done a very pro­ Himmelfarb: At the very least, there most interesting and admirable things vocative book on the French Revolu­ is a large degree of tension between about the Victorians is how acutely tion, on just that theme. the two. One can, and should, bring aware they were of the complexities Cheney: Most of the people that you to political service ideas, principles, of life—of political as well as private have written about have in some way even a political philosophy. But poli­ life. They valued principles in poli­ taken up the question of how to lead tical life is too complicated, too messy, tics, but they also made a principle of a good life. Sometimes they found it and too untidy to accommodate prudence. And they valued morality difficult to live according to the ethic abstractions. Ideas and principles in private affairs, but they also made they believed in. have to be mediated by compromise a virtue of tolerance. □

HUMANITIES 9 Gertrude Himmelfarb

GERTRUD E HIM M ELFARB may well be the leading

authority on Victorian intellectual history on either

side of the Atlantic. She is certai)ily one of the most

perceptive, most subtle, and most sympathetic. For her,

the period— broadly conceived as beginning in the mid-

eighteenth-century evangelical revival and extending to the

First World War— stands as a special era in the history of

mankind. Though not of the stature of the Periclean age or

the Renaissance, or of the scientific revolution and Enlighten­

ment of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Vic­

torian age possesses a distinctive intellectual and moral

elevation that makes it especially worthy of study in a century

like our own, a century that has turned its back on much that

its predecessor valued. The special achievements of the Vic­

torians stand grandly magnified by the events that followed:

the world wars, the Holocaust, the brutal regimes of Hitler

and Stalin— as well as the antihumanist, modernist streams

of academic and intellectual life today. In Celebration

BY BERNARD SEMMEL Himmelfarb's outlook is that of the of modern England." Like Macaulay nevertheless adhered to a belief in a Victorian poet-critic Matthew Arnold. before him, the French writer had in moral conscience, a residue of, as it Her intellectual opponents, like his, mind England's having avoided the became a substitute for, that faith. are the system makers, the enemies of political and social revolutions of the They turned to a self-imposed duty, culture, and the advocates of moral continent, from the great French revo­ resisting the Darwinian displacement anarchy, those who put their faith in lution of 1789 to those that rocked of a moral man into an amoral animal. a mechanical and material civilization. Europe in 1830 and 1848. Himmelfarb Even the English novel has through Her allies are those who stress the val­ has been particularly interested in the centuries born the mark of a moral ues of the humanist tradition, with its intellectual and religious revolutions sensibility quite different from that of belief that individual activity can be of the continent, to which England its French or Russian counterparts. effective and that individual responsi­ seemed similarly immune. Continen­ The subject of Himmelfarb's first bility is inescapable. They are those tal writers complained of English book, in 1952, a study of the historian who seek to achieve moral improve­ "backwardness" in failing to be moved Lord Acton, may have helped to con­ ment and to establish it on a social as by these convulsions. For a condescend­ firm rather than to establish an intel­ well as an individual basis. ing Comte, Britain was suspended by a lectual and professional model for her­ Himmelfarb was born in New York trick of history in a metaphysical stage, self, for the reader is persuaded that City, received her undergraduate with her institutions and philosophy the chief features of this ideal were degree from Brooklyn College and hovering uncertainly between an out­ already present. Acton, whose Catholi­ her doctorate from the University of moded theological stage and the final cism, maternal descent from the aris­ Chicago. She began her teaching positivistic and scientific stage that a tocracy of the Holy Roman Empire, career at Brooklyn College and the modern France had achieved. Marx, and continental education put him out­ Graduate School of the City Univer­ and later Lenin, bemoaned the failure side of the usual English mode, may sity of New York, where she was of the obtusely self-satisfied British nonetheless be understood as a quint­ named Distinguished Professor of working classes to follow the revolu­ essential Victorian moralist. He was History in 1978. Before she began tionary class-consciousness of the con­ regarded as the most erudite man of teaching, she had already, as an inde­ tinental proletariat. Nietzsche sneered his time and would become Regius pendent scholar, published books at the apparent determination of the Professor of Modern History at Cam­ and essays that attracted the attention hypocritical English to retain a Chris­ bridge. For him, as for Himmelfarb, and regard of the intellectual com­ tian morality even after they rejected history was above all the history of munity. What particularly strikes an the Christian God. But Himmelfarb ideas; as he observed, only ideas gave observer of her scholarly accomplish­ argues that these European movements "dignity and grace and intellectual ment over four decades is the wide had not so much bypassed England value to history." Acton, to paraphrase range of her interests. She has writ­ as that England had received them in Fichte, was also a morality-intoxicated ten on science and literature, politics her own fashion, not merely imbibing man, and took intensely seriously his and economics. She has produced them in homeopathic doses, but in the professional responsibility to act as a books on Acton, Darwin, and Mill, process transforming them to suit her judge and moral arbiter over the past. essays on Burke, Bentham, Malthus, own needs and traditions. For Acton, in his own words, "the Bagehot, Buchan, and many more. For Himmelfarb, England has for inflexible authority of the moral code" In the best humanist tradition, nihil centuries possessed a distinctive poli­ was "the secret of the authority, the humani alienum sibi; nothing has tical and moral identity. There was, dignity, the utility of history." He felt appeared beyond her concern. In this, she argues, a unique spirit that ran violated by the papal declaration of she has resembled a number of the Vic­ through English history from the Mid­ infallibility, which as a liberal and a torian writers of whom she has writ­ dle Ages onward, one institutionalized historian he courageously resisted as ten, the men-of-letters of their time. in the role of parliament and the rule a perversion of history and a travesty Following their example, she has skill­ of law, and characterized by a search of religion. fully turned her discussions of writers for compromise in the interest of sta­ Himmelfarb persuades us that a and ideas into articles for widely read bility. England was determined to shift in Acton's politics proved fatal journals, offering us learned yet grace­ hold on to the old even while making to his work as a historian. Up until ful contributions not merely to scholar­ room for the new and to exalt the indi­ 1870, the time of the papal encyclical, ship but to present-day intellectual vidual and his liberty without tramp­ he had been a Whiggish Burkean, and political discourse. ling on the needs of the community. stressing the importance of history and Himmelfarb has joined the histo­ While fully aware of the deficiencies tradition; after this disappointing rian of Victorian England whom she of Whig history, with its present­ event, he became a Radical, an intel­ most admires, Elie Halevy, in celebrat­ mindedness and its temptation to see lectual revolutionary who, if consistent, ing what Halevy called "the miracle British development in the altogether ought to have given up the writing of too simple terms of the steady advance history. In short, this divide between Bernard Semmel is Distinguished Profes­ of liberty, Himmelfarb admires Whig upholders of tradition and radical sor of History at the City University of historians like Macaulay who helped revolutionaries was to be one of New York Graduate School and Univer­ to preserve the English political tradi­ Himmelfarb's grand themes. Her sity Center. Among his books are Imper­ tion. At a time, moreover, when the strong preference for Burke's respect, ialism and Social Reform, The Meth­ leading Victorian writers and thinkers against Radical disdain, for the past odist Revolution, and John Stuart Mill felt deserted by the support of their defined her own position and her own and the Pursuit of Virtue. earlier, often evangelical, faith, they commitment to history as a calling.

HUMANITIES Acton had found it impossible to write ing fathers and their successors, she munity. Feelings of guilt and fear were his long-projected history of liberty, prefers the Whiggish Blackstone. as much the basis for separation and she argues, because his new radical­ Her careful reading of the works of antagonism as was hard-hearted ism had devalued, indeed, negated his­ the economist-clergyman Malthus neglect. The Tory imagination of Egre- tory itself. Acton's apparent recogni­ uncovered a figure substantially more mont, the hero of Disraeli's novel, con­ tion that, as he wrote, "the triumph of complex than that usually presented, ceives that the condition of the poor the Revolutionist annuls the historian" one whose often unacknowledged can be bettered, in Egremont's words, makes his dilemma a more tragic one. influence, usually in highly simplified "not by levelling the Few, but by ele­ terms, continues to obsess many con­ vating the Many." A REWARDING EXAMPLE of Him- temporary writers. Much the same Himmelfarb observes that the idea melfarb's method is her study, Dar­ may be said of her controversial por­ of nationality or of national character win and the Darwinian Revolution, com­ trait of John Stuart Mill, another and has been repugnant to many recent pleted in 1959. This brilliant contri­ grander modern icon. Her On Liberty social historians, who today have a bution to the history of science is an and Liberalism: The Case of John Stuart dominant position in the profession, intellectual biography of one of the Mill, published in 1974, enlarged the because such concepts assume the Victorians whose work was of more understanding even of those who can­ importance, perhaps the primacy, of than insular moment. Her patient not accept her interpretation. politics in history—a role she herself reconstruction of the formulation and Himmelfarb has taken sharp issue is pleased to concede. With their stress reception of evolutionary theory proved with the sociological historians who on the social sciences and quantifica­ controversial. She argues that reasons create abstract models based upon tion, modish historians have in her entirely external to science had moved statistically precise calculations, ignoring view dehumanized history; in prefer­ opinion to accept Darwin's hypothesis the ideas and beliefs of the people of ring to discuss mentalites rather than so easily. Darwin himself had in fact the period, in order to create a sup­ ideas they have made puppets of the been willing to grant that his theory posedly value-free, scientific history. individual historical actors. She is remained unproven and that Bishop She calls on historians to consider troubled by the new history's readi­ Wilberforce's celebrated attack was moral data as seriously as statistical ness to see ideas as mere reflections of not, as the generally accepted view data and sees their failure to do so as economic relationships, and politics as has it, mere clerical buffoonery. The a serious defect in historical imagina­ manipulation or a derivative of indi­ Darwinian revolution, she demon­ tion. What is necessary to the writer vidual psychology rather than the strates, was a "conservative revolu­ of history is "a sensitivity to ideas, a embodiment of a political or moral tion," a final, legitimizing statement tolerance for beliefs that may not be tradition. These historians, she warns, of what other writers had been saying his own, above all a respect for moral in tearing the intricate web uniting for almost a century and which most principles as such so that he will not past and present, that of politics and naturalists already believed. Nor did dismiss them too readily as rational­ nationality, threaten to leave us with­ Darwinism, as in the generally accepted izations of interest, or deformations out any direction. view, undermine the religious convic­ of vision, or evidence of an intellec­ Himmelfarb's The Idea of Poverty, tions of the leading men and women of tual obtuseness that conceals from con­ which appeared in 1984, is a work on the period: For some like the clergyman- temporaries those economic and social the social history of Victorian England novelist Charles Kingsley, it actually facts that are so obvious to the histor­ that contrasts sharply with the pre­ confirmed religious belief, while quite ian." It is to this program that she has vailing Marxian model. different issues were responsible for dedicated herself. Here she joins the intellectual (and the failure of faith in the best-known Himmelfarb has sympathetically political) to the social in a way that religious crises of the time. described "the Tory imagination" of demonstrates the immense influence Such efforts at historical revisionism Benjamin Disraeli in two splendid of ideas. In this first of what will be on Himmelfarb's part were not exer­ essays. Disraeli in the 1840s worried two volumes, she has examined the cises in overturning conventional inter­ that the British sense of community competing outlooks of two seminal pretations simply to display virtuosity was falling apart. England was in dan­ economists, Adam Smith and T. R. or to epater les bourgeois. Her intention ger of becoming two nations, and in Malthus. Smith, optimistic but also was to dismiss—by means of a pains­ his novel Sybil he called upon that realistic, exemplified mainstream taking and perceptive examination part of the aristocracy that was con­ British political thought in seeing the of the contemporary evidence—the scious of its duty to heal the breach. poor as an order of responsible persons, legends that had entrenched them­ For Disraeli, as for Himmelfarb, the whose labor in a progressive economy selves, often for ideological reasons, issue was not the blue-book statistics would enable them to achieve both in historical writing. An example of of material poverty, but the moral material and moral improvement. this are her essays on the father of problem. The question, she writes, The clergyman Malthus, bowing under nineteenth-century utilitarianism, was one of "disposition as well as con­ the weight of original sin, distrusted Jeremy Bentham, the defects of whose dition, of moral rights and duties, [and the new industrial system, believing character and, to say the least, ambig­ of] social obligations"—of making its hopes for progress to be a snare. uous quality of whose liberalism she "connections" between the rich and the revealed. Like the American found­ poor so as to provide a sense of com­ continued on page 34

12 MAY/JUNE 1991 COMPASSION: AN UNSENTIMENTAL VIEW In her new book, Gertrude Himmelfarb looks at how the late-Victorian reformers attempted to make compassion compatible with social policy.

HE MORAL IMAGINATION of the late Vic­ osophical Idealism of T. H. Green: the "best self" as torians, in public affairs as in private, was the basis of individual morality and the "common neither sentimental nor utopian. It was good" as the basis of social morality. It is what moved T every bit as stern as the old religion—perhaps Alfred Marshall to create a "new economics" that because it was a displacement of the old. It was would reconcile "chivalry" with the free market and stern not only in the personal demands it made upon alleviate poverty without undermining the princi­ its missionaries, the commitment in time, labor, and ples and practices of a sound political economy. It is energy it extracted from philanthropists and reform­ even what most socialists tried to do in expanding ers, but also in the nature of that commitment. Com­ the role of the state to cope with particular social passion had its reasons of mind as well as of the problems and to further particular moral ends. heart. A sharp, skeptical intelligence was required Compassion—"properly understood," as Tocque- to ensure the proper exercise of that sentiment. The ville would have said—was the common denomina­ God of Humanity turned out to be as strict a task­ tor behind all these enterprises. Over and over again master as the God of Christianity. contemporaries testified to the extraordinary acces­ Compassion, Kant said, has "no proportion in it"; sion of social consciousness and social conscience in a suffering child fills our heart with sorrow, while the last decades of the century, and most conspicu­ we are indifferent to the news of a terrible battle. ously in the 1880s. "Books on the poor, poverty, The driving mission of the late-Victorian reformers, social questions, slums and the like subjects, run fast philanthropists, and social critics was precisely to and furious from the press," the Charity Organisa­ infuse a sense of proportion into the sentiment of tion Society journal reported in 1884. "The titles of compassion, to make compassion proportionate to some of then sound like sentimental novels." What is and compatible with the proper ends of social remarkable is how few of them, apart from their policy. This is what Charles Booth most notable did titles, were in fact sentimental. in his survey of the London poor, when he insisted In its sentimental mode, compassion is an exercise upon the importance of "proportion" in calculating in moral indignation, in feeling good rather than doing the "arithmetic of woe"—the proportion of the "very good; this mode recognizes no principle of propor­ poor" to the "poor" and the "comfortable," and the tion, because feeling, unlike reason, knows no propor­ ratio of "misery" to "happiness" in the daily lives of tion, no limit, no respect for the constraints of policy the poor. It is what the Charity Organisation Society or prudence. In its unsentimental mode, compas­ meant by a "science" of charity that would pro­ sion seeks above all to do good, and this vide sufficient and appropriate but not "indis- requires a stern sense of proportion, of "criminate" relief to specific groups of the reason and self-control. The late Victor­ poor. It is what the Settlement House ians, as this book abundantly demon­ movement hoped to achieve with its strates, differed greatly on the best educational and cultural pro­ way of doing good. But they were grams designed to help the agreed that what was important "earnest" poor achieve was to do good to others the full potentialities of rather than to feel good -r- of their humanity. It is themselves. Indeed, what inspired the Phil­ they were painfully

HUMANITIES 13 aware that it was sometimes necessary to feel bad in order to do good—to curb their own compassion and restrain their benevolent impulses in the best inter­ ests of those they were trying to serve. "In democratic ages," Tocqueville wrote, "men rarely sacrifice themselves for one another, but they show a gen­ eral compassion for all the human race. One never sees them inflicting pointless suffering, and they are glad to relieve the sorrows of others when they can do so without much trouble to themselves. They are not disinterested, but they are gentle." This perfectly describes the ethos of most late-Victorian reformers and philanthropists. To be truly hu­ mane, genuinely compassionate, was not to be selfless; it was only to be true to one's "best self" and to the "common good" that included one's own good. This was not a heroic goal, not the aspiration of a saint or a martyr. But it was eminently moral and humane. To be compassionate in this sense was to be practical, even "scientific." It was to utilize means that were conso­ nant with ends, and to define ends in terms that were realistic rather than utopian. Thus the Charity Organisa­ tion Society, while incessantly inveigh­ ing against "indiscriminate" charity, was no less committed to "discrimi­ nate" charity, a charity organized to dispense relief in such a manner and to such families as would best profit from it. It was in this cause that so many men and women gave so freely (liter­ ally, freely) of their time and energy to A Garland for May Day 1895, Dedicated to the Workers; by Walter Crane. a "science of charity" that, as the secre­ tary of the COS said, was the true "reli­ Beatrice Webb called that Affirma­ periods known as "early" Victorian- gion of charity." If the Fabians rejected tive Ego religion; others called it mor­ ism, "high" (or "mid-") Victorianism, that science of charity, it was in order ality. If the new philanthropy was not and "late" Victorianism; if these peri­ to replace it by a "science" of socialism as vapid and maudlin as Fitzjames ods differ markedly in economic, polit­ —an empirically scientific socialism, Stephen thought it, it was because it ical, and social respects, the "values" of they liked to think, in contrast to the had to meet the criterion of morality as these periods may be presumed to be Marxist idea of "scientific socialism." well as practicality; indeed morality was equally distinctive. It has also been Beatrice Webb expressed the tension a primary test of the efficacy of any argued that what are usually character­ between the means and ends of Fabian­ activity. The social imagination of the ized as "Victorian" values—thrift, pru­ ism in the form of a dialogue between late Victorians, the ideas and sentiments dence, diligence, self-discipline, self- the "Ego that Denies" and the "Ego that they brought to bear on social affairs, dependence—were the values of the Affirms": The former denied that any­ was an eminently moral imagination. middle class rather than of the working thing other than scientific method was And morality, as the late and great Vic­ class, capitalistic values imposed on required for social change; the latter torians knew it, was every bit as de­ workers to make them more produc­ affirmed the need for some more ulti­ manding as the old Puritanical religion. tive, profitable, and docile. Or these mate value, as ultimate as religion it­ The Victorian obsession with moral­ values are said to be neither Victorian self, to give purpose and power to the ity, as some may now think it, may be nor capitalistic but Christian, or Jewish, cause of reform. She herself had no the most difficult thing for a later gen­ or Puritan, or Methodist. Or they are doubt that the Affirmative Ego had the eration to understand. When people assumed to have been more rhetorical better of that argument. Others saw no today object to the term "Victorian val­ than real, more often invoked than conflict, no tension between means and ues," they do so for different reasons. practiced. These and other objections ends; for them the passion of public ser­ They properly point out that "Victo­ are discussed in the course of this book vice was perfectly consistent with the dis­ rian" covers a long and extremely in the context of particular movements passionate performance of that service. varied span of time, distinguished by and ideologies. [One objection that is

14 MAY/JUNE 1991 rarely heard, although it has much modem form of chivalry required no worker from the "rough" was as plain validity, is to the word "values" itself, heroic exertion but only restraint and to the working classes as to the middle which prejudices the discussion by solicitude— restraint in the pursuit and classes; it was, in fact, the main theme giving it a thoroughly relativistic cast. consumption of wealth, and solicitude of many working-class memoirs. It is interesting that when Margaret for those less fortunate than oneself. That line was all the more important Thatcher first raised the subject, she Today the language of morality, precisely because the temptations to spoke not of "Victorian values" but of applied to social problems and social cross it were so plentiful. To take "Victorian virtues."] But on the central policies, is often assumed to be the the pledge of temperance (even if not issue of morality itself, whether moral­ language of conservatism. In late- always to adhere to it) was itself a ity played a significant role in social Victorian England it was the common token of respectability. The historian affairs, the evidence is irrefutable. language of radicals, liberals, conserva­ who belittles the idea of respectability Whatever the differences (and they tives, and those of no particular politi­ by relegating it to the realm of "middle- were considerable) among those of cal disposition. The historian Stefan class values" does justice neither to all parties and classes who addressed Collini has said that "character"—not the facts of history nor to the working themselves to the subject of poverty, in the neutral, sociological sense, but in classes who struggled so hard to there was a strong consensus that the the normative, moral sense—"enjoyed attain what the middle-class historian primary objective of any enterprise or a prominence in the political thought finds it so easy to deride. reform was that it contribute to the of the Victorian period that it had moral improvement of the poor—at the certainly not known before and that it very least, that it not have a deleteri­ has, arguably, not experienced since." ONE OF THE most brilliant histori­ ous moral effect. It was on this Other historians are beginning to speak ans of modern England, Elie Halevy, ground that laissez-faireists argued of "respectability" more respectfully, coined a memorable phrase to des­ against state intervention, and on the without the quotation marks that cribe one period of that history. It same ground that socialists argued for commonly distance them from that was the "miracle of modem England," it. The key word in economics, one benighted Victorian word. "Respect­ he said, to have been spared the socialist at the time said, was "charac­ ability studies," one reviewer has agony of revolution at a time when ter": The reason why "individualist remarked, "have almost become a much of Europe was convulsed by economists fear socialism is that they formal branch of Victorian historiog­ revolutions. That "miracle" was the believe it will deteriorate character, raphy." Another historian disputes the unique conjunction of institutions and the reason why socialist econo­ assumption that the idea of respect­ and traditions—religious, political, mists seek socialism is their belief ability was confined to an ambitious social, and economic—which pro­ that under individualism character is and conservative "labor aristocracy." moted continuity and stability in a deteriorating." Unless one discounts Brian Harrison has pointed out that the period of tumult abroad and of rapid everything that contemporaries said, working class autobiographer, how­ change at home. By the end of the and the passion with which they said ever untypical of his class, articulated century, the threat of revolution had it, one must credit their abiding, over­ values that were widely diffused. "His receded, but the possibility of social riding concern with the question of works helped to recruit respectability's strife and exacerbated class tensions moral character. And the character ranks, and deserve more prominence remained. It was then that the of the poor was of special concern in the discussion than they often reformist temper helped meliorate because their situation was so precar­ receive; they spontaneously corrobo­ those tensions and perpetuate that ious and the consequences of moral rate one another on details, and they "miracle." failure so disastrous. evoke a common philosophy of life." The late Victorians did not "solve" The ethos implicit (sometimes If historians are beginning to take the their social problems, still less abolish explicit) in matters of social policy and idea of respectability seriously, it is poverty. But they did bring to their behavior was not a lofty or exalted one. because contemporaries quite plainly problems a moral imagination that was It did not celebrate heroism, or genius, did. And if historians cannot define remarkable in its intensity and "ear­ or nobility, or spiritual grace. Its vir­ the idea precisely, this too reflects nestness" (that very Victorian word)— tues were more pedestrian: respect­ contemporary usage. Victorians were and that was also remarkable free of ability, responsibility, decency, indus­ fully aware that respectability meant the complacency and hypocrisy so triousness, prudence, temperance. different things to different individuals often attributed to them. If they failed These virtues depended on no special and classes, but this did not make it to understand all the causes and breeding, talent, sensibility, or even less a fact of life or less important a fact. dimensions of their problems or to money. They were common, everyday Poverty too (like health, housing, edu­ accomplish all they hoped by way of virtues, within the capacity of ordinary cation, and most of the other facts of improvement, a later generation, aware people. They were the virtues of citi­ life) meant different things to different of its own failures (in spite of its greater zens, not of heroes of saints—and of people, and were nonetheless real and sophistication and experience), may be citizens of democratic countries, not urgent. Whether respectability was more forgiving of the Victorians than aristocratic ones. Even the "best self" signified by the wearing of clean they were of themselves. □ that Green made so much of was a best clothes, or providing for a proper fun­ self attainable by every citizen; indeed, eral, or belonging to a friendly society, Excerpt from the forthcoming book, it was the only true basis of equality or attending a mechanics' institute, or Poverty and Compassion: The Moral and the only requisite for citizenship. reading edifying books, or not being on Imagination of the Late Victorians So too the "economic chivalry" that relief, or not getting drunk and rowdy, (Knopf, 1991). (Copyright, Gertrude Alfred Marshall advocated: This the line separating the respectable Himmelfarb, 1990.)

-HUMANITIES 15 EXCERPTS From the Writings of Gertrude Himmelfarb

Historical Sensitivity is professing to describe. This, to be sure, takes an exercise of imagination on the historian's part—a To call for a restoration of sensitivity to ideas, a tolerance for beliefs that may moral imagination in the writ­ not be his own, above all a respect for moral prin­ ing of history—in the writing ciples as such, so that he will not dismiss them too of all history, but it is in socio­ readily as rationalizations of interest, or deformations logical history that it is most of vision, or evidence of an intellectual obtuseness sadly lacking —is not to give that conceals from contemporaries those economic license to the historian to and social facts that are so obvious to the historian. impose his own moral concep­ It is a modest undertaking that is called for, tions on history. This has indeed an exercise in modesty. It asks nothing been the impulse behind yet more than that moral data—the ideas, beliefs, prin­ another fashionable school of thought, that of the ciples, perceptions, and opinions of contemporaries— "engaged" or "committed" historian. In this view, all be taken as seriously, be assigned the same reality, pretensions of objectivity are suspect, the only honest as facts about production and consumption, history being that which candidly expresses the income and education, status and mobility. The political and moral beliefs of the historian. At the historian is in the fortunate position of being able opposite pole, in one sense, from the sociological to do what the sociologist cannot do; he can tran­ mode, this kind of "engaged" history shares with scend the fact-value dichotomy that has plagued sociological history a contempt for the experiences sociological thought. The values of the past are and beliefs of contemporaries and an overweening the historian's facts. He should make the most of regard for the wisdom and judgment of the historian. them, as the great Victorians did. What is wanted is not so much the exercise of the historian's moral imagination as a proper respect The New History and the Old (Cambridge: Harvard for the moral imagination of those contemporaries he University Press, 1987, paperback ed., 1989), 69.

The Crisis of Belief expose them to the temptations of immorality and the perils of nihilism, anticipating the Nietzschean If these eminent Victorians dictum that if God does not exist everything is agonized over the irregulari­ permitted, they were determined to make of ties and improprieties of their morality a substitute for religion—to make of it, personal lives, it was because indeed, a form of religion. And having forfeited they were so anxious about the sanctions of religion, they were thrown back all morality itself. And not the more on the sanctions of convention and law. because there was any actual Whatever legal reforms or social changes they breakdown of morality in sought were designed to strengthen those sanctions, their own time: Mid-Victorian to give them greater moral authority and legitimacy England was more moral, more proper, more law- by purging them of whatever might appear to be abiding than any other society in recent history. unjust or inhumane. What made morality problematic, for the future if This was the common denominator, the common not the present, was the breakdown of the religious faith, of these Victorians. The duty to be moral, they consensus. When Eliot was asked how morality believed (or wanted desperately to believe), was could subsist in the absence of religious faith, she not God-given but man-made, and it was all the replied that God was "inconceivable," immortality more "peremptory and absolute" for that. "unbelievable," and Duty nonetheless "peremptory and absolute." This is the clue to the Victorian obses­ Marriage and Morals among the Victorians (New York: sion with morality. Feeling guilty about the loss of Knopf, 1986; London: Faber and Faber, 1986; New their religious faith, suspecting that the loss might York: Vintage, 1987), 21.

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16 MAY/JUNE 1991 The Problem of Poverty and associations. Still, there was unquestionably an acute sense of uprootedness experienced by large At a time when the condition numbers of immigrants from the countryside and of man was a subject of much Ireland, by workers displaced from their old crafts agonizing, the condition of and having to seek new occupations (silk weavers, urban man, and of the Lon­ for example, driven to the docks), and by families doner particularly, began to be disoriented in unfamiliar surroundings. seen as the condition of modern Thus London, the least typical of places with the man in extremis: spiritually least typical kinds of poverty, somehow became and morally impoverished, archetypal. Not that any kind of poverty was "typical." anonymous, isolated, "alien­ Contemporaries were well aware that the kinds of ated." So, too, the London poverty were as various as the degrees, that rural poor seemed to be afflicted with a kind of poverty poverty was significantly different from urban, the in extremis, a poverty that made them not so much a poverty in a textile mill from that of a mining village, class apart, or even a "nation" apart (as in the "two the poverty of a declining trade from that of a stable nations" image), as a "race" apart. In fact the London one, the poverty of old age from that of youth. Yet poor were no poorer than the poor elsewhere and by the middle of the century the problem of poverty may even have been, on the average, less poor was more and more identified with the city, and, (although the poorest of them, the Spitalfields silk paradoxically, with that most uncommon city, the weavers, were in as depressed a state as any laborers city beyond compare, the metropolis. in the country). Nor was the "anomie" of London life as severe or pervasive as has been made out; The Idea of Poverty: England in the Early Industrial neighborhoods, streets, workshops, even public Age (New York: Knopf, 1984; London: Faber and houses, generated distinctive loyalties, sentiments, Faber, 1984; New York: Vintage, 1985), 311.

Mill's Absolute Liberalism of doing good either to the individual or to society as a whole. There was no room in his doctrine for When Mill exalted liberty and the classical concept of moderation; the aspiration individuality, it was in the of liberty was to be as absolute, not as moderate, as expectation that they would possible. Nor was there room for other ends which have infinitely beneficial might temper the passion for liberty—virtue, justice, results; but there was nothing obedience to natural or divine law. Other ends in his doctrine to prevent them might coexist with liberty, even be furthered by from having the most mischie­ liberty, but they could not be permitted to limit or vous effects. He looked to interfere with liberty. liberty as a means of achieving It is the exclusive as well as the absolute nature the highest reaches of the of his doctrine, its "simple principle" and "single human spirit, he did not take seriously enough the truth," that had been an invitation to excess. It is this possibility that men would also be free to explore that has made it difficult to justify and sustain dis­ the depths of depravity. He saw individuality as a tinctions, to discriminate among particular liberties, welcome release of energy and ingenuity, as if to weigh the good and evil attending this or that individuals cannot be as energetic and ingenious liberty in this or that circumstance, to tolerate the in pursuing ignoble ends as noble ones. Where most lesser evil of a diminished liberty in order to pre­ modern and all ancient philosophers had dwelt vent a greater evil or promote a greater good, to upon the need to check the human passions and recognize the claims of other values without deni­ had devised elaborate means to do so, the only grating the value of liberty itself. check Mill provided for was the prevention of harm to others. Where they had sought to promote On Liberty and Liberalism: The Case of John Stuart Mill the good, he sought only to promote liberty, explic­ (New York: Knopf, 1974; London: Seeker and War­ itly enjoining society from intervening for purposes burg, 1975; San Francisco: ICS Press, 1990), 320-1.

The Victorian Intellectual bred native but also, it sometimes appears, a pure­ bred intellectual. It is with some awe that one contem­ To the American intellectual who has made much plates the interlocking genealogies that tie together, (perhaps too much) of his "alienation," his opposite by birth and marriage, the great names of nineteenth- number in England seems to enjoy an enviable ease and twentieth-century English culture: Macaulay, and rapport. Where the American feels himself to be Trevelyan, Arnold, Huxley, Darwin, Wedgwood, a foreigner in his own land—is often literally a for­ Galton, Stephen, Wilberforce, Venn, Dicey, Thack­ eigner, or of such recent foreign descent as to have eray, Russell, Webb, Keynes, Strachey, Toynbee.. .. the same effect—the Englishman is not only a pure­ By comparison, American culture is a series of

HUMANITIES isolated and unrelated names, ciple of legitimacy, the Victorian intellectual might the few exceptions (the do so. His legitimacy was established by family, Adamses, Jameses, and class, education, profession, and remuneration. Lowells) being rare enough to He could move in high society, aspire to political have become the butt of jokes. power, or make money, without impugning his Thus where the American calling. He had not the typical stigmata of intellec­ intellectual has a precarious tuals elsewhere—the academicism, bohemianism, hold on fame, each individual or preciosity of the Herr Professor, the feuille- earning his title by the sweat toniste, or the esthete. He was no exotic, no sport. of his brow (hence, by some His intellectuality came as naturally to him as his Lamarckian or Darwinian language, which in turn was as natural as breath­ process, the evolution of that ing. It was his birthright, and he was as secure in peculiarly American species, the "highbrow"), that as he was in his Englishness. the English intellectual, and preeminently the Vic­ torian intellectual, seemed to come into his title Victorian Minds (New York: Knopf, 1968; New and estate almost by the right of birth. At a time York: Weidenfelt and Nicholson, 1968; New York: when few monarchs dared lay claim to the prin- Harper Torchbooks, 1970), 201-2. 1 The Impact of Darwin larly, those who had already committed them­ selves to the other side, finding naturalism The Origin was the cataclysm uncongenial or unpersuasive, tended to look upon that broke up the crust of con­ the Origin as the incarnation of all that was hateful ventional opinion. It expressed and fearful. There were, to be sure, some who and dramatized what many experienced a genuine crisis of faith upon reading had obscurely felt. More than it, as there were also those who came upon it with this: It legitimized what they an open mind and left unconverted; if the former felt. Coming from so unexcep­ have been more publicized, it may be because the tional a source, with all the loss of faith is a more dramatic affair than the authority of science and with­ retention of faith. For most men, however, the out the taint of ulterior ideol­ Origin was not an isolated event with isolated ogy, it became the receptacle of great hopes and consequences. It did not revolutionize their beliefs great fears. Those who were already partial to the so much as give public recognition to a revolution mode of thought it represented—which could that had already occurred. It was belief made mean anything from a mild naturalism or deism to manifest, revolution legitimized. a belligerent atheism —often fastened upon it as the symbol and warrant of their belief; if they later Darwin and the Darwinian Revolution (New York: loosely spoke of it as the cause of their conversion, Doubleday, 1959; London: Chatto and Windus, 1959; the error is understandable, the leap from justifica­ New York: Anchor, 1962; Boston: Peter Smith, tion to cause being all too easily effected. Simi- 1967; New York: Norton, 1968,1982), 452.

Acton's Pessimism ness of pessimism and gave meaning to his indig­ nation was his refusal to succumb to philosophical His [Acton's] remark to Creigh­ or historical determinism. Man, he believed, for all ton, "Power tends to corrupt, his propensity to evil, was a free agent capable of and absolute power corrupts choosing the good, and although original sin was absolutely," generally quoted always there to dog his steps, it did not always suc­ in its shopworn form of "All ceed in tripping him up. The forces of evil were power corrupts and absolute "constant and invariable," not so were "the truth power corrupts absolutely," and the Higher Purpose" with which they had to has become the tag by which contend. If the presumption of evil was in all good both the idea and the man are causes, the presumption of the good was in the very identified. idea of evil. The Fall itself attested to the existence By this maxim, Acton takes his place squarely of God, and God attested to the source of goodness in the tradition of political and philosophical pessi­ in man, his conscience. Power corrupted, conscience mism. His pessimism worked its way into every redeemed; history was a tug-of-war between the corner of his thought, into his politics, religion, two, with tyranny and freedom as the stakes. and history, and it took on every emotional tone from passionate indignation through exasperation, Lord Acton: A Study in Conscience and Politics (Chi­ despair, and what seemed to be a world-weary cago: University of Chicago Press, 1952; London: resignation... . Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1952; Chicago: Phoenix What saved Acton from the unredeemed bleak­ Books, 1962), 239-40.

18 M A Y/JUNE 1991 The Twentieth Anniversary of the Jefferson Lectures

The first of the Jefferson Lectures took place in May of 1972. Lionel Trilling spoke on "Mind and the Modern World." Over the years a distinguished array of philoso­ phers, historians, and other scholars have used the occa­ sion to further the Endowment's goal of bringing "the knowledge and insights of the humanities into a more central place in American life." Following are excerpts from the nineteen Jefferson Lectures to date.

Photos clockwise from upper left corner: Lionel Trilling, Erik H. Erikson, Robert Penn Warren, Paul A. Freund, John Hope Franklin, Saul Bellow, C. Vann Woodward, Edward Shils, Barbara Tuchman, Gerald Holton, Emily Townsend Vermeule, Jaroslav Pelikan, Sidney Hook, Cleanth Brooks, Leszek Kolakowski, Forrest McDonald, Robert Nisbet, Walker Percy, Bernard Lewis, Gertrude Himmelfarb. "Mind and the Modern World" "Liberty of Expression: The Search for Standards" "Jefferson's estimate of the intellectual capability "Five hundred years after Caxton, generation by of the whole people is part of the fabric of Amer­ generation, struggle by struggle, we in America— ican history. A great scholar of our past has writers and speakers, politicians and artists— traced in detail the long unhappy course of anti- have achieved, at least for a historical moment, intellectualism in American life, but Richard a degree of freedom from official control that would, Hofstadter also made it plain to us, through his I daresay, amply gratify Milton, Locke, Mill and studies of higher education in the United States, Thomas Jefferson. Meanwhile a different set of how strong in our culture is the opposite tendency, problems has emerged, centering on the adequacy to conceive of intellect as a cherished element of and responsibility of the media of communication democracy. Of this tendency Jefferson is the themselves, problems of new entry into the field presiding spirit." and access to the existing media." — Lionel Trilling, 1972 —Paul Freund, 1975

"Dimensions of a New Identity" "Racial Equality in America"

"Just because of this once-in-history chance for self- "The position of the colonists on African slavery made newness, this country has experienced greater was rendered extraodinarily difficult by the fact expansiveness and yet also deeper anguish than that human bondage was, as David B. Davis has have other countries; and few nations have seen observed, 'an intrinsic part of American develop­ their ideals and their youth divided, as has this ment from the first discoveries.' Blacks had cleared country in the recurring divisions of a national the forests, felled the trees, drained the swamps, identity. Was the happiness guaranteed in the removed the boulders, and planted and harvested Declaration that of wealth and of technological the crops. 'To live in Virginia without slaves is power or that of an all-human identity such as morally impossible/ an Anglican priest serving in resides primarily in the free person? Is there any the tidewater wrote his brother in London in 1757. other country which continues to ask itself not Patrick Henry, who preferred death for himself if only 'What will we produce and sell next?' but he could not have liberty, spoke almost casually of ever-again 'Who are we anyway?' which may well the 'general inconvenience' of living in Virginia explain this country's hospitality to such concepts without slaves." as the identity crisis which, for better or for worse, —John Hope Franklin, 1976 now seem almost native to it." — Erik Erikson, 1973 "The Writer and His Country Look Each Other Over" "Democracy and Poetry" "What a good idea it seemed to write about Amer­ "If the poet is disorganized, then out of disorder ican life.... To do this was to join this American may emerge the organized object—the image of the life, massive and hardly conscious of itself, to the 'ideal self,' the 'regenerate self,' as it were of the world and to history. People who in the past disorganized man. The disorganization of the poet would have remained inert and silent, sons and may seem, on the record, merely personal, but daughters of farmers, laborers, small businessmen, more often than not what he produces embodies have become capable of observation and comment. issues and conflict that are central to the circum­ European literature has taught them that novels ambient society, so that it finds mysterious echoes might be made about American small towns and in the selves of those who are drawn to the object backstreets, about actresses from Wisconsin, and created; that is, the object created provides a vital speculators from Philadelphia." feedback into the social process." —Saul Bellow, 1977 —Robert Penn Warren, 1974 "Europe's America" "Where is Science Taking Us?" "Living up to the demands of Europe's imaginary "In our time, a historic transition is occurring in vari­ America has always put a strain on the nation's ety available for basic research, a transition which moral resources. It also helps account for the pro­ we are only beginning to understand. In time's own liferation and durability of national myths and laboratory, a new amalgam is forming that will chal­ the energy that has gone into sustaining them. lenge the inherited notions of every scientist, engi­ If America could accommodate herself to being neer, and social planner. Undoubtedly, there will be somewhat less of a Country with a Mission, a Land battles to preserve the degree of autonomy that is and of the Future, or a Redeemer Nation—then the always will be essential. Undoubtedly, there will also strain on the nation's moral resources would be be over-enthusiastic projects that cannot deliver on lightened, and so would the burden of myth. their promises. But if the new movement develops And finally Europe's America might come nearer within the bounds of its genuine possibilities and resembling America herself." responsibilities, the spectrum of research in science —C. Vann Woodward, 1978 may well be greatly extended, its links to technology and society become more fruitful and certain, and its mandate reinforced." "Government and Universities in the United States" —Gerald Holton, 1981

"The failure to see the university as a corporate, spiritual, or intellectual whole is the crux of the "Greeks and Barbarians: The Classical Experience in matter because it makes it more difficult to discern the Larger World" the line which should separate the legitimate con­ cerns and demands of Caesar from the proper "If a culture has a building tradition that really obligations of academics to the realm of the prod­ reflects the land and the character and aspirations of ucts of the mind." the people; if the artists of that culture are trained and —Edward Shils, 1979 skilled in expressions of spiritual and human values; if its literature is powerful, memorable, and public; "Mankind's Better Moments" if its music and drama are passed down through gen­ erations; if its histories are objective and accurate; if "Amid a mass of worldwide troubles and a poor powerful minds grappled with the toughest ideas in record for the twentieth century, we see our species philosophy and mathematics; if its inventive genius —with cause —as functioning very badly, as blun­ designed new solutions to old problems in the nat­ derers when not knaves, as violent, ignoble, cor­ ural world, that culture will be remembered and rupt, inept, incapable of mastering the forces that admired when its own brief day is over." threaten us, weakly subject to our worst instincts: —Emily Townsend Vermeule, 1982 in short, decadent. "The catalogue is familiar and valid, but it is growing tiresome. A study of history reminds one "The Vindication of Tradition" that mankind has its ups and downs and during the ups has accomplished many brave and beautiful "Moses smashed the tablets of the law themselves in things, exerted stupendous endeavors, explored and protest against idolatry; Socrates was executed as an conquered oceans and wilderness, achieved marvels enemy of the tradition because he believed that 'an of beauty in the creative arts and marvels of science unexamined life is not worth living' and an unexam­ and social progress; has loved liberty with a passion ined tradition not worth following; and Jesus went that throughout history has led men to fight and die to the cross because he would not have any earthly for it over and over again; has pursued knowledge, form of the divine (not even, let it be remembered, his exercised reason, enjoyed laughter and pleasures, own) become a substitute for the ultimate reality of played games with zest, shown courage, heroism, the living God. Therefore no criticism of the tradition altruism, honor, and decency.:.." that was voiced by the Reformation or the Enlighten­ —Barbara Tuchman, 1980

HUMANITIES 21 ment or the historicism of the nineteenth century can "The Intellectual World of the Founding Fathers" ever match, for severity and power, the criticism that "Even as the Framers were rejecting doctrine as came from these, its noblest products and its most formula, they faithfully adhered to the principle profound interpreters. underlying Montesquieu's work—to its spirit. For —Jaroslav Pelikan, 1983 Montesquieu's grand and abiding contribution to the science of politics was that no form or system "The Humanities and the Defense of the Free Society" of government is universally desirable or work­ "If by the advance of the human condition we mean able; instead, if government is to be viable, it must the material improvement of the human estate, the be made to conform to human nature and to the extension of longevity, and the increase of our power genius of the people—to their customs, morals, over nature, surely none can gainsay him. Yet even if habits, institutions, aspirations. The Framers did just we grant the dubious proposition that all knowledge that, and thereby used old materials to create a new is good, surely not all of it is relevant for our political order for the ages." purpose. Henry Adams to the contrary notwith­ —Forrest McDonald, 1987 standing, no law of physics has any bearing on the "The Present Age and the State of Community" justification for a free society. Einstein's theory over­ threw Newton's, not the Declaration of Independence." "It is not that bureaucracy might develop into what —Sidney Hook, 1984 we know as the totalitarian state. No such state has emerged in any circumstances but armed revolution and the infliction of permanent terror. The danger of large, centralized bureaucracies is simply what we "Literature'in a Technological Age" already see, what is already obvious: the suffocation "The humanities cannot be eliminated from our or strangling of genuine thought, of genuine leader­ culture, but they can be debased. They cannot be ship, of genuine consensus. Marx was right: It is eliminated because as long as mankind remains indeed an appalling parasite, in the Pentagon as well human, his yearning for the song, the story, and as in the civil agencies." the drama cannot be suppressed. People are inter­ —Robert Nisbet, 1988 ested in accounts of human behavior, in suspense and conflict of interests, in the expression of emo­ "The Fateful Rift: The San Andreas Fault in the tion, in motivation. If they don't have Shakespeare Modem Mind" or Jane Austen to read, they will read something "In brief, there are two kinds of natural events in the worse, too often utter trash." world. These two kinds of events have different —Cleanth Brooks, 1985 parameters and variables. Trying to pretend there is only one kind of event leads to all the present misery which afflicts the social sciences. And even more "The Idolatry of Politics" important, at least for us laymen, it brings to pass a certain cast of mind, 'scientism,' which misplaces "Educated and even uneducated people in pre­ reality and creates vast mischief and confusion when industrial societies, whose historical learning was we try to understand ourselves___" very meager, were perhaps more historical—in the sense I mean here— than we are. The historical —Walker Percy, 1989 tradition in which they lived was woven of myths, "Western Civilization: A View from the East" legends, and orally transmitted stories of which the material accuracy more often than not was "In Islam, the struggle for good and evil acquired, dubious. Still, it was good enough to give them from the start, political and even military dimensions. the feeling of life within a continuous religious, Muhammad... was not only a prophet and a teacher, national, or tribal community, to provide them like the founders of other religions; he was also the this kind of identity which made life ordered (or head of a polity and of a community, a ruler and a 'meaningful'). In this sense it was living, and it soldier. Hence his struggle involved a state and its taught people why and for what they were respon­ armed forces. If the fighters in the war for Islam, the sible, as well as how this responsibility was to be holy war 'in the path of God,' are fighting for God, it practically taken up.'r follows that their opponents are fighting against God." —Leszek Kolakowski, 1986 —Bernard Lewis, 1990

22 MAY/JUNE 1941 "The Decent Drapery of Life": MORALS AMONG THE VICTORIANS

BY ROBERT NISBET

Gertrude Himmelfarb —if she had not already been so estab­ is by wide assent the lished —as not only our premier histo­ foremost historian rian of the Victorian mind but high today on Victorian among our most distinguished histori­ ideas and values. ans, irrespective of field of study. I can think of at least If anyone unfamiliar with her works three reasons for this asked me what to begin with, I would, notable status: She I think, recommend yet another book, not has an unexcelled mentioned above, a volume of her histori­ knowledge of the Victorian age; second, cal essays with the beguiling title, Mar­ mindful perhaps of the old proverb that he riage and Morals among the Victorians, pub­ who knows one thing, doesn't even know lished in 1986. Himmelfarb is an essayist that, she has a mind well stocked with other of the first rank. What Montaigne and times, other places; finally, she has a rare gift Francis Bacon invented nearly four hun­ of style that can hold the reader's attention dred years ago as a literary form and even when interest in a subject may flag. which may have been brought to its It was four decades ago that her first book highest luster in the very age Professor appeared, an arresting study of Lord Acton. Himmelfarb has taken as her own, the In 1959 came her deeply researched and pro­ Victorian age, comes with seeming effort­ vocative book on Darwin and the Darwinian lessness from her pen. I can think of no revolution. A decade later she published her finer historical essayist now writing. Victorian Minds with its carefully drawn vis­ Marriage and Morals among the Victorians tas of the age, highlighted by portraits of has the added advantage of being a kind such worthies as Mill, Bentham, Malthus, of sampler of her lifelong historical Leslie Stephen, among others. There fol­ studies. In it are to be found personages lowed On Liberty and Liberalism, a searching and settings she has dealt with over the reexamination of John Stuart Mill. Then, in years in different formats, often at book 1984 came what will almost certainly be her length, here presented in the graceful magnum opus, The Idea of Poverty, the sequel medium of the essay. to which is due off the press almost any day. There is assuredly diversity of subject: "An admirable book," said Noel Annan in a the Victorian, evangelical roots of the long review. "A brilliant and convincing Bloomsbury group; the Victorian trinity, book," added Harold Perkin in the Times as she calls religion, science, and morality Literary Supplement. The Idea of Poverty and within the Victorian mind; social Darwin­ its reception by scholar-critics established her ism and its offshoot, sociobiology; the great historian Macaulay; Disraeli and Robert Nisbet is the Albert Schweitzer Professor the Tory imagination; Blackstone and Emeritus of Humanities at Columbia Univer­ Bentham compared in legal and philo­ sity. He delivered the seventeenth Jefferson sophical positions pertinent to the Ameri­ Lecture in 1988. can Revolution; Bentham, Godwin, and the Webbs, Sidney and Beatrice, as, of ences of decided exceptionality. Two ity; that is English consistency, let us all things, Utopians; and in conclu­ of the couples, the Carlyles and the not blame it on little bluestockings a la sion, a splendid appreciation of the Ruskins, never consummated their Eliot. In England, in response to every recently deceased English conserva­ marriages; another couple, George Eliot little emancipation from theology one tive, Michael Oakeshott. and George H. Lewes, lived together has to reassert one's position in a fear- Taken in all it is a Victorian feast. openly outside marriage, their statuses inspiring manner as a moral fanatic. Variety of the contents notwithstand­ as eminences not noticeably affected. That is the penance one pays there." ing, there is a striking unity to the The John Stuart Mills had a longstand­ Why, asks Himmelfarb acutely, did book, one that proceeds from the ing, intimate (if platonic, as they the English take the course they did— theme that Himmelfarb announces for insisted) union while she was married even worse, she allows, than Nietzsche the volume. The theme is moral imag­ to another man; and the Charles made it to be—the course of trying ination. She writes: "In most volumes Dickens marriage of twenty years and vainly, futilely, to maintain at one and of essays, the author is hard put to find ten children broke up when he fell in the same time science, including evolu­ a unifying theme. In this case I am love with the actress Ellen Ternan. tionary science, religion, in however embarrassed to discover how often— Himmelfarb writes: "If some Victori­ emaciated a spiritual content, and mor­ how obsessively, some might say— ans were rendered impotent by the ality, especially, excruciatingly, moral­ I have dwelt on the same theme." She prevailing sexual code and marital ity? The answer would appear to be acknowledges having been consider­ fetters, others, brought up under that that the religious crisis had been going ably influenced in this respect by same code and bound by the same ties, on for decades and was no longer Lionel Trilling, especially by his nota­ were evidently sexually stimulated to agonizing; there was nothing that ble volume of essays, The Liberal Imag­ a degree that could not be contained could be done even had anyone ination. She was "all the more de­ within marriage." wished to about the spirit of science, lighted" to find the phrase in "one of The author's purpose in recounting already clearly vital to a flourishing my other favorite writers, Edmund these aberrant marital relationships is industrial society; and as for morality, Burke," in his Reflections. She cites not that of flaunting them yet again. how could a society such as England's Burke tellingly in his indictment of the It is rather that of emphasizing the endure without it? revolution in France: deeply moral preoccupations of even "In a society," writes Himmelfarb, "All the decent drapery of life is to these violators of the Victorian ethic. "that accepted inequality as a fact of be rudely torn off. All the superadded Dickens went so far as to deny any life— an inequality that manifested ideas, furnished from the wardrobe of wrongdoing in his relationship with itself in every detail of life, in speech a moral imagination, which the heart Ellen Ternan, in fact, to deny the rela­ and dress as much as work and wealth owns, and the understanding tionship itself. Mill, not content with —morality appeared to be the one ratifies, as necessary to cover the legal marriage to Harriet Taylor, pro­ good that was available to all, that defects of our own naked shiver­ posed, after some brooding, that they established their common humanity ing nature, and to raise it to marry again, this time in a church. and their common nationality, that, dignity in our own estimation, George Eliot, a religious skeptic, wor­ as Nietzsche said, 'moralized' and are to be exploded as ridiculous, ried endlessly about the roots of mor­ 'humanized' them." absurd, and antiquated fashion." ality in a religionless society. Interest in the roots of morality had It must be said for the Vic­ "If these eminent Victorians ago­ to be clamant in a society in which torian moral imagination that it nized over the irregularities and impro­ need for it could, to some, appear to was capacious, highly so in prieties of their personal lives, it was mount with each step of withdrawal of Gertrude Himmelfarb's render­ because they were so anxious about the old, now irretrievable, synthesis of ing. It could be trivial, as in the morality itself." It is as though they religion and morality. In a fascinating sheathing of piano legs in panta­ could stand well enough under loss of essay, "Social Darwinism, Sociobiol­ loons, in the bowdlerizing of faith in a personal God but at the same ogy, and the Two Cultures," Himmel­ Shakespeare, the references to legs time dread the possible consequences farb shows us something of the expect­ as "limbs," the works of male and to the state of morality of this loss. ancy with which educated Victorians female authors set in separate Keep in mind, the author instructs us, looked to the evolutionary process for shelves, along with "all the other that mid-Victorian England was "more hope and guidance. proprieties of Mrs. Grundy and moral, more proper, more law-abiding The impact of Darwin's Origin of hypocrisies of Mr. Pecksniff." To than any other society in recent history." Species on Victorian religious belief was be sure, as Professor Himmelfarb What complicated the position of the minimal, as Himmelfarb made incon­ takes care to emphasize, such eminent, or at least educated, Victorian testably clear in her 1959 full-length inanities were scorned and was his desperate effort to keep intact study of Darwin and the alleged laughed at by the Victorians what Himmelfarb calls "The Victorian Darwinian revolution. As she pointed themselves. Trinity: Religion, Science, and Moral­ out then and in the essay I have just Yet it mustn't go unremarked ity." She cites a wicked thrust at cited, the roots of religious disbelief, of that in the same age, five notable the English by the arrogant atheist the whole crisis of faith, were planted couples—the Carlyles, the Nietzsche from abroad: in England and the rest of Western Ruskins, the Mills, the Dickenses, "They have got rid of the Christian Europe long before Darwin's Origin and George Eliot with George God and now they feel obliged to cling was published in 1859. Henry Lewes—could lead exist­ all the more firmly to Christian moral­ But when we turn from religion to morals and consider not Darwin's Origin but his Descent of Man, pub­ freedom will in time yield perfection. A time may be anticipated, Godwin reflects, when man will perhaps be lib­ erated from even death—since disease and vice are the principal causes of death, and their own banishment can already be anticipated. From Godwin's idyll to Bentham's Panopticon is like a journey from a romantic, tropical isle to the cauldrons of hell. The structure of Bentham's Panopticon was a circular building with the cells for the occupants at the cir­ cumference and the keeper in a tower at the center. As Himmelfarb tren­ chantly observes: "Bentham did not believe in God, but he did believe in the qualities apotheosized in God. The Panopticon was a realization of the divine ideals, spying out the ways of the transgressor by means of an ingenious architectural scheme, turn­ ing night into day, with artificial lights The Health of the Bride, by Stanope Alexander Forbes, R.A. and reflectors, holding men captive by an intricate system of inspection." lished a dozen years later, the matter morals. But the more Huxley and There remain the Webbs, the incred­ changes. The Victorians didn't have to others reflected on "nature red in tooth ible Sidney and Beatrice. After a life­ worry about repudiation of the Old and claw" being the source of morality, time of partnership in Fabian and other Testament; that was old hat by 1859. the more they began to doubt it. schemes and endeavors, they at last What did concern them, though, Himmelfarb is citing from Huxley's came upon their utopia, one that didn't sprang directly from the moral imagi­ ethical concerns in the following: have to be conjured up by fancy, one nation: to wit, the secure source of "Social progress means a checking of that was known as the USSR. morality. If in effect God had already the cosmic process at every step and Stalin, Ukrainian genocide, and been dismissed, what was the alterna­ the substitution for it of another, which the Great Terror seem not to have tive? Here the Descent of Man came, may be called the ethical process .... intruded into the Webbs' moral or tried to come, to the rescue. The The ethical process of society depends, imagination. Even Beatrice's long origins of our morals, even the most not in imitating the cosmic process, still struggle with a certain urge exalted of them, lie in the evolutionary less in running away from it, but in toward religious mysticism was at process. "The book," writes Himmel­ combating it." long last put to rest. "In the Soviet farb, "was literally reductivist, de­ No account of Himmelfarb's Mar­ Union," writes Himmelfarb, "she signed to demonstrate that the intellec­ riage and Morals could be adequate found science and religion were tual and spiritual faculties of human that failed to include mention of three perfectly complementary." To beings differed only in degree, not in essays on yet another aspect of the Vic­ scientific government and a sci­ kind, from those of animals .... The torian imagination: utopianism. The entific economy, Beatrice Webb moral sense (which John Stuart Mill author presents four Victorians to dem­ devoutly believed, the Soviets had had characterized as a uniquely onstrate the sheer range of the utopian added "soul" in the form of the human trait) became only another fancy. They are William Godwin, Communist party. The party, form of the 'sociability' exhibited by Jeremy Bentham, and the Webbs, Beatrice further believed, was a animals." Evolution thus succeeded Sidney and Beatrice. What a mixture! "religious order" complete with God as cause. Since God on high And how ingenious of the author to "strict discipline" and "vows of could no longer be credited with make that selection. obedience and poverty." One can prized Victorian morality inasmuch as In William Godwin's Political Justice only imagine Stalin's reaction a personal God didn't exist, why not we have what could well be called the when he read those Webbian lines. look to the primeval ooze and all that Holy Bible of libertarianism. For God­ It is indeed a treasury of Victori- came out of it over millions of years? win all evil emanated from the pressure ana that Gertrude Himmelfarb has Not that all Victorians, eminent or of authority upon the otherwise free brought together, one that reflects otherwise, found this relief in the evo­ and creative individual. Man is, of all her deep learning in the period but lutionary process. Thomas Henry creatures on earth, perfectible. But per­ is never weighed down with it and Huxley had first believed, and repeat­ fectibility can't be attained until human is wonderfully lightened by the edly declared, that the cherished ethics beings are liberated from church and sheer grace of her style. In one of his Victorian day could be extracted state (even democracy) all the way to book she has written for scholar directly from the evolutionary process, marriage and the family. Complete and layman alike. □ with states of animal consciousness ARNOLD'S DOUBLE-SIDED CULTURE

BY JOHN P. FARRELL

A GREAT DEAL has happened multiple meanings of "culture," his cator in his capacity as an inspector of to the word "culture"—not influence has been decisive. Late Vic­ Her Majesty's schools, a post he had to mention the idea—since torian and modern ideas of culture taken, rather reluctantly, in 1851 when Matthew Arnold made it a familiar are always, in some sense, indebted to he was preparing to marry. It was term for the activities, values, and char­ Arnold's artistry in placing the word at through his school inspecting that he acteristic subject matter associated with the center of debates about the goals of gained his detailed knowledge of the humanities. Arnold had something intellectual life and humanistic study. middle-class and, especially, Noncon­ of a genius for popularizing terms and Arnold remains the figure who gave formist life in the English provinces. phrases, so although he came rela­ the word much of its resonance, its Moreover, Arnold acquired some­ tively late to the work of shaping the reach, and its semantic resources. thing of an official platform for his By the time Matthew Arnold critical and social thought when he John P. Farrell is professor of English drafted his first discourse on the con­ was elected Professor of Poetry at literature at the University of Texas at cept of culture, he was widely known Oxford in 1857, a once inertly academic Austin and the author of Revolution as and highly regarded as both a poet and largely quaint instance of honor­ Tragedy: The Dilemma of the Mod­ and literary critic. He had also become ary life in Britain. It was as Professor erate from Scott to Arnold. an influential and hard-working edu­ of Poetry that he initially laid down

26 MAY/JUNE 1991 his idea of culture. The appointment the end of his analysis, grown wary required that he lecture several times In a d o ptin g of its complexities. His more cautious a year. As usual, he was behind in approach is to identify culture with his obligations in February 1867. He CULTURE the formulations about "criticism" he therefore decided to speak on "Cul­ had made in his famous essay of three ture and Its Enemies," a subject he AS HIS KEY TERM years earlier, "The Function of Criti­ had originally conceived as an essay cism at the Present Time." The two for the Cornhill. The lecture, which concepts share an important common A r n o ld h a d was very well received, became the ground which is signaled by Arnold's first of a series, and the series resulted emphasis, in the passage above, on the in the now classic work that Arnold SELECTED goal of getting to know the best that published in 1869, Culture and Anar­ has been thought and said. Criticism chy: An Essay in Political and Social Crit­ A WONDROUS WORD, is, then, also a study of perfection, but icism. The lectures were composed in a much more purely literary sense during a period of profound political ONE OF THE than Arnold applied in the complexly tension, and the book was addressed motivated essays that are only intro­ to a public distracted by current events. MOST CHARGED duced by the preface to Culture and These included the long and harsh Anarchy. Arnold's display of wariness struggle over the Second Reform Act must not be entirely discounted, and of 1867, horrific Fenian scares at AND SPACIOUS yet it cannot mute the brilliant tones Chester and Manchester, disturbances he initially gave to his construct. like the minor but melodramatically OF HIS TIME. In the best known section of Culture reported riots at Hyde Park, the regu­ and Anarchy, Arnold associated cul­ lar marches of London trade unions, ture with the "immense spiritual sig­ and a financial panic so severe that its nificance of the Greeks." The ancient precipitating event is still numbered Greeks understood beauty and intel­ among the "black Fridays" of econo­ ligence, or, in the familiar terms of mic history. Remarkable events were Jonathan Swift, sweetness and light. accompanied by remarkable new pub­ "In thus making sweetness and light lications. The first installment of Cul­ to be characters of perfection, culture ture and Anarchy appeared, as if on cue, is of like spirit with poetry, follows in the same year that saw the publica­ one law with poetry." What emerges tion of Walter Bagehot's genial wisdom in the central chapters of Culture and in The English Constitution, Thomas much of his preoccupation will be to Anarchy is a significant clustering of Carlyle's angry denunciation of the make culture a secular alternative to terms that colors the austere "culture" age in Shooting Niagra: And After?, and sacred authority. This early definition of the preface with distinctive and Karl Marx's transforming vision in of culture remains crucial, but it is sometimes dramatic illuminations: the first part of Capital. instructive to compare it with the care­ Greece, ancient authority, beauty, The tumult of the times required, fully phrased, fully considered defini­ poetry, and the inner laws that govern in Arnold's view, a dispassionate and tion that Arnold offered in the preface, and define these marks of perfection. yet vibrant voice. Culture and Anarchy which, in order of composition, is It could hardly be otherwise. In is, first of all, the fully elaborated really his final analysis. adopting culture as his key term, expression of the temperament and Arnold had selected a wondrous word, The whole scope of the essay is to recom­ vision characteristic of Victorian one of the most charged and spacious mend culture as the great help out of our humanism. Arnold's critical voice is of his time. He knew what he was present difficulties; culture being a pursuit both his own and, in his use of it, the doing, of course, because he wanted of our total perfection by means of getting instantiated voice of a broadly con­ the word's multiple reverberations. to know, on all the matters which most ceived humanistic consciousness. To understand these reverberations, concern us, the best which has been thought Arnold's ability to construct such a we must begin where much else in and said in the world; and through this voice constitutes the deepest layer of nineteenth-century intellectual history knowledge, turning a stream of fresh and his artistry. "Culture," he argues, "is begins—at the point of contact between free thought upon our stock notions and a study of perfection. It moves by the England and Germany in the roman­ habits, which we now follow staunchly but force, not merely or primarily of the tic era. Raymond Williams, in his mechanically, vainly imagining that there scientific passion for pure knowledge, important book Culture and Society is a virtue in following them staunchly but also of the moral and social pas­ 1780-1950 (1958), has explored the which makes up for the mischief of follow­ sion for doing good.... [T]here is no growth of the term "culture" in the ing them mechanically. This, and this better motto which it can have than British tradition. David J. DeLaura, alone, is the scope of the following essay. those words of Bishop [Thomas] in a series of essays and lectures pub­ And the culture we recommend is, above Wilson: 'To make reason and the will lished more recently, has tracked the all, an inward operation. of God prevail.'" Right at the outset, complex German sources of the term. Arnold virtually identifies culture Arnold is trying to restrict the mean­ Williams shows "the emergence of with sacred authority, even though ing of culture as though he had, by culture as an abstraction and an abso­

HUMANITIES lute." He argues that this process ARNOLD'S alive.. . . Plenty of people will try to indoc­ entailed the separation of moral and trinate the masses with the set of ideas and intellectual values, a response that judgments constituting the creed of their reflected the period's advocacy of CELEBRATION OF own profession or party.... [B]ut culture mind. Williams also shows that "cul­ works differently. It does not try to teach ture" came to represent both mind and CULTURE IS down to the level of the inferior classes.. . . morality as a court of human appeal It seeks to do away with classes. This is the specifically set in opposition to the DOUBLE-SIDED, social idea; and the men of culture are the pragmatic processes of social construc­ true apostles of equality. tion in the new world of industrial ATTESTING TO Lionel Trilling, in his majestic book capitalism. Culture offered itself as a on Arnold, is especially illuminating cleansing and energizing alternative on the imperatives that animate to the class consciousness and limited THE COGENCY OF Arnoldian culture. Trilling sees that intellectual horizons of the bourgeois culture "is reason involving the whole social order. ITS ACTION IN personality; it is the whole personality DeLaura's studies trace the conti­ in search of truth. ... It is the escape, nuity between the Goethean ideal of NURTURING BOTH in short, from Verstand to Vernuft, from Bildung and Arnold's culture. Bildung mere understanding to the creative refers to the virtually poetic process THE PRIVATE SELF reason." This is the form of individual of self-development or self-cultivation Bildung that Arnold affirms. But, as that deeply influenced Thomas Carlyle, AND Trilling also says, in "Arnold's more John Stuart Mill, and Matthew Arnold. organic conception of society, the indi­ In Carlyle's description, the ideal of THE PUBLIC REALM. vidual is... a particular aspect of an Bildung is the "great law of culture," integral whole. His individual does a law which says "let each become all not join society, but springs from it." that he was created capable of being; Though Arnold's thinking about expand, if possible, to his full growth; culture became very influential and resisting all impediments; casting off helped, in many ways, to define the all foreign, especially all noxious purposes of the liberal arts curriculum adhesions; and show himself at length as it evolved in the century following in his own shape and stature." Bildung, the publication of Culture and Anarchy, we should observe, defines an inward there were always doubting allies, process of self-development; it is the undoubting adversaries, and even culture of the person. The Germans angry dissenters. There have been reserved Kirttur for the wider meaning three concrete forms of dissent from of a civilization's whole way of life. Arnold's views that have had consid­ In Arnold's usage, both Bildung and erable impact of their own. These Kultur are present—with what conse­ light. It has one even yet greater!— the forms merge with one another on spe­ quences we shall see presently. passion for making them prevail. It is not satisfied till we all come to a perfect man; cific points, but they remain discrete The core chapters of Culture and it knows that the sweetness and light of the because of what each sees as contested Anarchy are "Sweetness and Light" few must be imperfect until the raw and by Arnoldian culture. and "Hebraism and Hellenism." These unkindled masses of humanity are touched The first form of dissent can be seen chapters construct the sources of zuith sweetness and light. as protesting Arnold's fearful desig­ culture's power and authenticity. nation of "anarchy" as culture's enemy. Bildung and Kultur do not divide quite We can say that Arnold's culture is This dichotomy seems to set up simply so neatly in Arnold's text as I am mak­ its passions: Its first passion is the per­ one more version of the old struggle ing out here, but, generally speaking, fection of the self; its second passion between a privileged power structure Arnold's celebration of culture is is to make the ideal of self-perfection and radical challenges to its author­ double-sided, attesting to the cogency publicly valued and fostered. The ity. Terry Eagleton, in a recent book of its action in nurturing both the pri­ motives of culture are located, then, on The Ideology of the Aesthetic, is one vate self and the public realm. in self-consciousness and in collective of the many critics who have taken In the full stride of his exegesis, consciousness (a sort of Zeitgeist). this view since Arnold's book first Arnold makes rich and memorable Again and again I have insisted how those appeared. Eagleton writes: "From claims for his version of culture. are the happy moments of humanity, how Burke and Coleridge to Matthew He who works for sweetness and light, those are the marking epochs of a people’s Arnold and T. S. Eliot, the aesthetic in works to make reason and the will of God life, how those are the flowering times for Britain is effectively captured by the prevail. He who works for machinery, he literature and art and all the creative power political right. The autonomy of cul­ who works for hatred, works only for con­ of genius, when there is a national glow of ture, society as expressive of organic fusion. Culture looks beyond machinery, life and thought; when the whole society is totality, the intuitive dogmatism of culture hates hatred; culture has one great in the fullest measure permeated by the imagination, the priority of local passion, the passion for sweetness and thought, sensible to beauty, intelligent and affections and unarguable allegiances,

28 M A Y/JUN E 1991 the intimidating majesty of the sub­ Snow by articulating a line of argument H u x l e y s a w lime, the incontrovertible character thoroughly indebted to Arnold but of 'immediate' experience, history as almost exclusively preoccupied with a spontaneous growth impervious to ARNOLD'S CULTURE issues of education. As Trilling puts rational analysis: these are some of it, "Dr. Leavis asserts the primacy of the forms in which the aesthetic AS A PERVERSE the humanities in education," and becomes a weapon in the hands of though he "refers more exclusively to political reaction." Raymond Williams, PERPETUATION literature than Arnold did ... in gen­ in his more subtle analysis, accepts eral effect his position is the same." that Arnold attempted to reach beyond OF CLASSICAL In many ways, the most impressive a merely well-lacquered authoritarian­ aspect of the culture-science debate ism—the best that has been thought was its rapid evaporation as a substan­ and said is open, even for Arnold, to AND LITERARY tive educational issue after looking, revision and dissent— yet, he never­ for a brief period in the early 1960s, as theless "not only holds to this but LEARNING, though it would become the defining snatches also towards an absolute: and point for any reevaluation of culture both are Culture." Williams, as usual, OUTLOOK, AND as an ideal and the humanities as its is very trenchant. Arnold certainly nurturing disciplines. History, as it tried to define the arche—the legitimiz­ PRIVILEGES transpired, had another agenda. Both ing order of value—against what he Snow and Leavis disappeared in the saw as the an-arche of existentialist swirl of the sixties, while both Amold- democracy, yet he himself was plagued IN A WORLD ian culture and Huxleyan science car­ in his soul by the blind arrogances of ried on an increasingly suspect and the reactionary powers in his world. WHERE SCIENCE often anathematized life. A significant The writer who regarded the contem­ study in the sociology of knowledge porary condition with such apprehen­ HAD BECOME might well investigate, not the emer­ sion in Culture and Anarchy is the poet gence of the culture-science debate, but who wrote "Dover Beach," not an THE NEW ARCHE. . . its sudden demise. ideologue rounding up all the usual Arnoldian culture, though it has modern suspects. lost its mystical status, has not, of Another form of opposition to course, disappeared. It is much too Arnold's idea of culture came, at first, deeply embedded in our institutions. from one of Arnold's friends, Thomas Indeed, its current life is sustained, if Henry Huxley, the highly articulate indirectly, by the many contemporary scientist who did so much after 1859 declamations against its embedded­ to explain and defend the theories of ness. Two notoriously unfocused, but Charles Darwin. Huxley saw Arnold's clearly significant, concerns of our time culture as a perverse perpetuation of trated more specifically on the goals come into play here: postmodernism classical and literary learning, outlook, of the formal curriculum than on forms and multiculturalism. Whatever post­ and privileges in a world where sci­ of consciousness. Snow ventured his modernism may be, it gestures toward ence had become the new arche and views and, more riskily, published a syndrome of disorders that begins from which any substantively new his widely read but lackluster novels, with the dispersal of meaning in lan­ order of thinking must develop. while his Cambridge colleague, F. R. guage and goes on to conjure with the A more celebrated rejection of Leavis, was still the most influential, disappearance of the self, at least as the Arnoldian culture as an outmoded not to say explosive critic in Britain. originating point of Goethe's Bildung. enterprise in the age of science came Leavis responded to Snow in his Rich­ A recent writer on postmodernism from C. P. Snow in his The Two Cultures mond Lecture of 1962. It was a per­ begins his treatment of culture by jux­ and the Scientific Revolution (1959). formance in which, as the novelist taposing Arnold and Nietzsche and Snow, who set himself up as both a John Wain reported, Leavis "threw by observing that Arnold's resistance scientist and a literary man, deplored Sir Charles Snow over his shoulder to "anarchy" has fetched up as a con­ the institutional and even tempera­ several times and then jumped on him." temporary attraction to "indetermi­ mental division between the disciplines Lionel Trilling, in a compelling nacy." Certainly one of the best ways of science and letters. Snow centered essay on the Snow-Leavis debate, of understanding postmodernism as a his attack on the nature of the educa­ observed that Sir Charles opened the ganglion of nervous impulses in our tional system, which is always taken issue in his own Rede Lecture of 1959 day is to read its texts as inversions of to be the principal vehicle through and that Matthew Arnold had used the premises and preoccupations that which Arnoldian culture operates. the occasion of the Rede Lecture in identify Arnoldian culture. Arnold himself had viewed culture 1882 to answer Huxley. Sir Charles, Multiculturalism is a much simpler as enacting its life in a much more though he did not mention Arnold, issue, largely a movement aimed at broadly conceived set of institutions. was clearly replying, belatedly, on gaining recognition for voices and But the "two cultures" debate, for Huxley's behalf. Leavis, who also visions that Arnoldian culture, and obvious reasons, has always concen­ never invokes Arnold, responded to its allied powers, have implicitly sup­

HUMANITIES 29 pressed. At the level of educational fection, Arnold was following Plato practice, the multicultural movement T h e i d e a and St. Paul. He understood the value is interested in deflating the imperious of concentrating, as they do, on the authority that "high culture" exercises OF PERFECTION idea of perfection, while concentrat­ over the curriculum while bringing ing even more on the knowledge, as into play the principle that we must MATTERED Paul said, that the time of the perfect learn what is representative, for we has not yet come. There is no utopian have overemphasized what is excep­ motive in Arnold's celebration of per­ t o A r n o l d a s tional. Arnold is often cited in multi- fection. Rather, Arnold was trying to culturalist documents as the warden stimulate perception of all the false of "high culture," which, in turn, THE ONLY HORIZON conciousness to which we are subject, opposes "popular culture." "Popular all the tinsel, all the treachery, all the culture" is situated as the medium AGAINST WHICH travesty that passes for wisdom. The through which ethnic diversity, sexual idea of perfection mattered to Arnold difference, and political dissent may WE COULD FORM as the only background against which find their authentic creative expression we could form a just image of our actual circumstances. The social critics, and source of empowerment. A JUST IMAGE The multiculturalist conflict with the defenders of science, and the multi- Arnoldian culture has clear affinities culturalists have insisted that Arnold's with the radical critique we have al­ OF OUR ACTUAL culture is simply a device for ordering ready discussed. But multiculturalism us about. Instead, it is designed to returns us more specifically to a ten­ CIRCUMSTANCES. register the gathering of ideological sion inherent in the idea of culture clouds on the horizon. This, of course, rather than to the culture-anarchy does not mean that Arnold had some­ dichotomy. Arnoldian culture uneas­ how transcended the narrowness that ily merges Bildung, the inner develop­ necessarily constricts all ideologies. ment of the individual, and Kultur, the He knew he could not, and he was notion of a publicly shared sense of careful to resist spelling out in any meaning and practice, a collective con­ detail "the best that can at present be sciousness. As long as culture, in the known in the world." But he did have latter sense, is value-laden, or alludes the guidance of knowing, in one sphere to a critical formation of collective con­ at any rate, what was involved in the sciousness, the merging is more or less form of the movement would substi­ study of perfection. He was a poet, successful. But Arnold was writing at tute cultural studies for the study of but one who had always struggled for just the time that anthropology was culture. Ironically, in some multicul­ his victories. The best insight into developing as a social science. The turalist programs it is possible to see what Arnold had in mind he himself anthropological conception of culture the emergence of a new Arnoldianism, gave, years before, in a letter to his aims to be value-free, a descriptive since the multiculturalist position sister: "Perfection of a certain kind [in rather than a critical account of soci­ aspires to a redefinition of value. the region of pure form] may be ... ety's practices, aspirations, and expres­ The Arnoldian idea of culture has attained, or at least approached, sive forms. Anthropology designates encountered opposition and generated without knocking yourself to pieces, culture as what is; Arnold designates antagonism because it is designed to but to attain or approach perfection culture as what ought to be. do so. The most important term in in the region of thought and feeling, The relationship between the anthro­ Arnold's discussion of culture— and to unite this with perfection of pological and Arnoldian conceptions though the term is often taken as a form, demands not merely an effort of culture has an important place in throwaway—is "perfection." Arnold and a labour, but an actual tearing of the whole development of literary identified culture with the pursuit of oneself to pieces, which one does not modernism. Modernism has typically "complete human perfection." Culture, readily consent to (although one is maintained an investment in the high he said, has a "single-minded love of sometimes forced to it) unless one can cultural tradition while explicitly perfection." If we were to identify devote one's whole life to poetry." recognizing that high culture is always Arnold's essential statement of his No one who has ever attempted, as indebted to, and refreshed by, the meaning, we could do no better than Yeats would have said, something broad streams of cultural imagination follow his own formulation: "What extremely difficult but not quite impos­ and expression that flow-through the we are concerned for ... is simply... sible, will fail to recognize the com­ social realm. The poetry of W. B. Yeats getting to know, whether through plex motives in this cri de coeur. We don't and the fiction of Saul Bellow illus­ reading, observing, or thinking, the get perfection, but we are in many ways trate the point. The multiculturist best that can at present be known in able to conceive unrealized perfections movement stems from the opposite the world ... and thus to get a basis for just as we can conceive finer sunsets attitude toward Arnoldian culture, a less confused action and a more com­ and unheard melodies. This capacity, one that sees high culture as an elitist plete perfection than we have at present" which all human beings possess by virtue privileging of its pantheon and a (italics added). of being human, Arnold made the foun­ silencing of other voices. The academic In thus identifying culture with per­ dation and authority of culture. □

30 MAY/JUNE 1991 T he OFL etters

BY DOUGLAS N. VARLEY

D arwin IT IS INTERESTING Yet he was not a solitary, eccentric hand and an additional 5,000 letters to contemplate a tan­ genius isolated in nature's endless written to him. These letters form a gled bank, clothed variety. He was a Victorian, a gentle­ day-to-day record of Darwin's thoughts with many plants of man scientist deeply indebted to his and activities that will give historians many kinds, with time and his society, whose social and greater depth in understanding how he birds singing on the professional contacts were essential worked, according to Burkhardt. A bushes, with various to the furtherance of his work. former philosophy professor and for­ insects flitting about, The Correspondence of Charles Darwin, mer president of Bennington College, and with worms the sixth volume of which has recently Burkhardt has been collecting Darwin's crawling through been published by the Cambridge Uni­ correspondence for sixteen years. the damp earth...." So begins the versity Press with support from the Volume 6 (1856-57) finds Darwin at final paragraph of Charles Darwin's National Endowment for the Human­ last resolved to present natural selec­ great work, The Origin of Species by ities, offers copious documentation of tion to the scientific public. A letter Means of Natural Selection. The image both these aspects of Darwin's nature from the famous Scottish geologist, suggests how Darwin approached the and the close interconnections between Charles Lyell, admonishing Darwin to study of living things. Although he is them. As Frederick Burkhardt, editor publish his ideas quickly or be scooped justly remembered for proposing a of Darwin's letters, puts it, "Darwin by Alfred Wallace, had finally goaded single generalization of vast explana­ was no armchair thinker. He was con­ him to publish. It seems it was Lyell tory power, Darwin was obsessed stantly collecting data from a great who first realized that Wallace, a with the details and diversity of bio­ many disciplines. He was a tremen­ naturalist working in the Malay archi­ logical form. He spent eight years dous experimenter and part of an pelago, was moving fast in the direc­ writing a book on barnacles, was impressive network of scientists." tion of an evolutionary theory includ­ steeped in the morphology of orchids, In part because of his poor health ing natural selection. Darwin, on the and was keenly interested in South and in part because he needed infor­ other hand, had seen only a variant of American fossils. His vision was mation about species scattered across creationism in the writings of his most based on an omnivorous curiosity. the globe, Darwin acquired much of potent rival. his evidence for the theory of natural This was a period of intense intel­ Douglas N. Varley is a writer-editor in selection through correspondence. lectual activity, as Darwin worked to the Office of Publications and Public The editors of the Cambridge edition shore up twenty years of research into Affairs. have located 9,000 letters in Darwin's the history of life on earth. With the

HUMANITIES 31 dogged persistence of a committed Darwin only to be eclipsed by him. that he conceived the general idea of empiricist, he sought information Particularly in for a reevaluation, he evolution through natural selection in on a startling range of species that says, are scholars who have all but 1838 while reading Thomas Malthus's included everything from Tibetan disappeared from the pages of his­ Essay on Population "for amusement." mastiffs to New World weeds. The tory because they were on the losing The Origin of Species did not appear result was a book that has done as side of the argument over evolution. until 1859. Burkhardt does not see much as any other to shape modern While the popular conception is much evidence for the hypothesis that man's image of himself and his place that the theory of natural selection Darwin was reticent because of the in the world— The Origin of Species by grew solely out of the observations religious uproar he knew his theory Means of Natural Selection. Darwin made while serving on the would occasion. Rather, Burkhardt The central question, of course, was Beagle, Burkhardt believes the letters says, "he knew he would have to the nature of species: Were they for­ will make readers more aware of the build a tremendously strong case to ever fixed, separate, and distinct; or role experimentation played in his convince his peers in the field." The did they change over time? The letters work. One of the problems Darwin letters make it clear that Darwin con­ represent a major source of informa­ clearly saw, regarding his theory of stantly chafed at the idea of publishing tion about his "pre-Origin" thinking descent from a common ancestor, was an abbreviated view of his arguments on this important topic. Much of vol­ the existence of related species on —"it is dreadfully unphilosophical ume 6 documents Darwin's searching opposite sides of the globe and on to publish without full details" is a for answers in the effects of domestica­ islands a great distance from land. recurring refrain. tion on various species, particularly Unable to appeal to divine action, he The reception of his "species book," poultry. In the "artificial selection" needed to find some plausible, natu­ as he sometimes called it, showed that made by breeders, Darwin found a ral mechanism for the distribution his concern in this regard was not kind of analogue to the natural selec­ of species. According to Burkhardt, unfounded. According to Burkhardt, tion he was trying to understand. Darwin "never bought the theory of none of Darwin's noteworthy col­ The differences introduced into spe­ land bridges" that was current in his leagues ever completely reconciled cies by selective breeding, for exam­ day. "That was too easy a solution himself to Darwin's theory. Hooker, ple, offered Darwin an opportunity to for Darwin," he says. aware of many unsolved problems, explore the possible limits of variation. During 1856-57, Darwin was busy accepted the theory cautiously and The issue was crucial to evolutionary devising experiments to find a better tentatively. Lyell could never accept theory, and he pursued details about explanation. Specifically, he was that homo sapiens was descended from the character of various species of fowl investigating the ability of seeds to apes. Asa Gray, the great American with astonishing zeal. Naturalists as survive in saltwater on the theory botanist and one of Darwin's most fre­ far away as Calcutta were enlisted in that ocean currents might be one way quent correspondents, balked at the his campaign. Even local pigeon fan­ plant species were dispersed. When idea that the whole of evolution was ciers were interrogated about the spe­ he discovered that most seeds sink, an accident without plan or purpose. cifics of their prize breeds. Darwin he tried feeding them to ocean fish in Even Thomas Huxley, Darwin's exploited every avenue he thought London's zoological gardens. Unfor­ ardent defender, always regretted the might increase his biological knowl­ tunately, the fish refused to cooperate absence of confirming, experimental edge. A typical instance involves an and left the seeds uneaten. Not one evidence for the theory. Darwin otherwise personal letter to a former to accept defeat, Darwin picked up on too was vexed by the gaps he knew servant who had moved to Australia. a suggestion that the carcass of a bird remained in his theory, but he held After an uneventful recounting of that had died with undigested seeds fast to the belief that any theory that events relating to shared acquaintances, in its crop might prove a better raft explained so much, in so many areas Darwin tags on an insistent request than the seeds themselves. This exper­ of natural science, could not be false. for the skins of any "odd poultry, or iment yielded success, and Darwin The letters of Darwin provide a pic­ pigeons, or ducks, imported from was able to inform a friend, botanist ture not only of his accomplishment China, or Indian, or Pacific islands." Joseph Hooker, that "a pigeon has but also of how he achieved it and Such letters are interesting for show­ floated for thirty days in salt water with "how he felt about it, how he agonized ing how wide Darwin cast his net, but seeds in crop & they have grown splen­ over it," Burkhardt says. They will be it is his correspondence with the great didly." Odd as these experiments may an invaluable tool for scholars seeking "gentleman scientists" of his day that are sound today, they demonstrate what to understand the mind of the man apt to be of most interest to historians. Burkhardt calls Darwin's "indomita­ who marshaled so much information One of the lessons of the edition, ble will to succeed in wresting facts out into so elegant a theory. □ says Burkhardt, is that the theory of of nature." natural selection "wasn't spun out of This intense desire to amass such an Since 1977, the American Council of one man's head." Darwin relied heav­ extraordinary wealth of information Learned Societies has received $420,886 in ily on his scholarly connections for may explain one of the most perplex­ outright funds and $154,000 in matching both guidance and insight. Burkhardt ing features of Darwin's life—why he funds from the Editions category of the hopes this edition of the letters will waited twenty years to advance the Division of Research Programs to sup­ lead historians of science to take a new theory of natural selection in print. port an edition of the correspondence of look at the researchers who aided In his autobiography, Darwin writes Charles Darwin.

32 MAY/JUNE 1991 CALENDAR May ♦ June

Based on the collection of folk­ lorist Henry Glassie, "Turkish "Africa Explores: Twentieth-Century African Art" opens May 15 at the Traditional Art Today" opens Center for African Art in New York City. June 1 at the Museum of Inter­ national Folk Art in Santa Fe, New Mexico.

This photo of Brewery Gulch in 1910 is part of an exhibition on the urbanization of Bisbee, an Arizona mining town; opening May 20 at the Bisbee Mining and Historical Museum.

"People and Computers: Mile­ stones of a Revolution" is an A symposium on "Nature and interactive exhibition opening Civilization: Shakespeare's King June 29 at the Computer Museum Lear" will be held June 10 in Conferences: in Boston. conjunction with performances Performing Mozart's music will be the focus of the play at American Reper­ of a conference May 20-24 at the Juilliard School tory Theater in Cambridge, in New York. Massachusetts. The occult in modern Russian and Soviet cul­ ture will be examined June 26-29 at Fordham University in New York. —Kristen Hall

HUMANITIES 33 Gertrude Himmelfarb: In Celebration Continued from page 12

Such expectations, he argued, would gious ideas (specifically in the rise of would be limited to disseminating fall victim to the lustful procreation Methodism) the cause of England's simple and useful truths rather than of a population so much greater than avoidance of violent revolution. More seeking to uncover any truth that the means of nourishing it as to require immediate in forming her outlook was might prove dangerous or unsettling. the services of famine, disease, war, her late friend Lionel Trilling, the lit­ As a historian of ideas, Himmelfarb is and death to bring about a balance. erary critic and the biographer of disturbed by the way in which the aca­ It was in the pessimistic spirit of Matthew Arnold, whose dedication demy has "scientized" itself, with his­ Malthus that the New Poor Law of to the moral role of literature and tory becoming social science, literary 1834 was framed so as to avoid this whose work on "the liberal imagina­ criticism becoming semiotics, philoso­ apocalyptic fate. That act extended tion" helped to shape her historical phy becoming linguistic analysis. To relief only to those incarcerated in imagination. Like these men, Himmel­ deconstruct these traditional disciplines, workhouses, thereby dehumanizing farb is a believer in the power of ideas she writes, has been to "desocialize, the poor. It was the general acceptance and in their ability to move both dehumanize, demoralize them by by the liberal middle classes of the dis­ ordinary and extraordinary men and stripping them of any recognizable mal Malthusian prophecy rather than women, in contrast to the dominant social and human reality." And, thereby, Smith's more sober and more accurate mode of seeing people as helpless crea­ to inhibit further the pursuit of truth. prescription, Himmelfarb argues, that tures of society, economic position, or What is remarkable about Gertrude helped to undermine the moral and childhood traumas. Himmelfarb is the virtually seamless social legitimacy of the industrial sys­ In a recent essay on the controversy unity of her professional calling, intellec­ tem. Linked to Malthus's vision was over sociobiology, Himmelfarb's tual pursuits, and moral and political the similarly pessimistic Marxist view humanist perspective is decisive. Him­ ideals. As a historian of ideas, she has that the growing number and immis- melfarb observes that both the socio­ retraced the often tangled intellectual izeration of the industrial proletariat biologists and their critics have reject­ development of past thinkers so as to would be brought about by the contra­ ed the position rooted in culture, in better comprehend their intentions, dictions of a grinding capitalism. philosophical tradition, and in man's and thus to free them from the moulds These false prophesies have played ability to choose freely. The debate later generations have mistakenly cast. particularly pernicious roles, she notes, has been framed as one between bio­ She has spent her scholarly life in a because despite the facts to the con­ logical and social science, and each study of the period that displayed at trary, they were so widely credited side has with justice accused the other its center the ideas and sentiments and acted upon by ideologues and of being simplistically reductionist. which she finds most congenial, the system makers. The sociobiologists have argued that period whose central problems— not only human emotions but even liberty and community, science and HIMMELFARB HAS WRITTEN her ethical ideals, such as altruism, were religion, environment and heredity, history as an American whose life has genetically programmed by natural free will and determinism—are those spanned over half of a very troubling selection; their most articulate oppo­ that continue to beset us. But she is century. She has presented the leading nents have been the spokesmen of a wise enough not to yield to the temp­ Victorian writers not, in the manner historical materialism and an environ­ tations of a Whig history that imposes of Lytton Strachey, as a sport for mental determinism. In utopian fash­ the present on the past; nor does she debunkers, but as having much to con­ ion, the latter have seen men as almost believe that the past can be readily tribute to our thinking today. There infinitely malleable; while the sociobi­ transposed to the present. She does is not only a political but a moral mes­ ologists have argued for firm limits to not imagine that the ethical impera­ sage at the heart of her humanism, a such malleability, they have insisted tives of the Victorians, their sense of cause which at this time has few such that scientists, not philosophers, must duty, so clearly drawn from the then- learned and eloquent defenders. As a determine such limits. Himmelfarb fading evangelical impulse, can be historian of ideas, Himmelfarb has been has chosen instead the more complex recovered. Yet, she writes—and this most attracted to those thinkers who position of Victorian humanists like is a great, perhaps the great, underly­ responded to a perceived call of duty, Arnold or the later T. H. Huxley, men ing theme of her history—of her hope even when, as in the instances of George who, critical of the pretensions of that the memory of the Victorian ethos Eliot and Beatrice Webb, their political scientism, arrived at their "affirmations may not be lost. "That memory," she attitudes may fail to satisfy her. Among by way of doubt and fear." writes, "of a culture living on sheer more recent writers who share her pos­ For Himmelfarb, modern intellec­ nerve and will, the nerve to know the ture, and whose considerable influence tual and academic life, on almost every worst and to will the best, may fortify she has acknowledged, is the great front, draws on sentiments alien to us as we persist in our quest for some liberal historian of Victorian England, humanist values—even, she argues, new synthesis that will herald some Elie Halevy, who though fully appre­ to the human condition. Yielding to brave—or not so brave—new world." ciating the importance of economics social and political pressures, aca­ A noble objective, boldly yet carefully in shaping institutions and events, demics have gone the way of the uto­ stated, which is satisfyingly embod­ saw in religion and in moral and reli­ pian Comte, in whose world scientists ied in her writings. □

34 MAY/JUNE 1991 THE NUMBERS GAME

Humanities Ph.D.'s Over Time

BY JEFFREY THOMAS

UMANITIES Ph.D.'s in the United States Nontraditional Employment now exceed 100,000, an increase of more Although educational institutions continue to be the primary than 50 percent since 1977. In recent employer of humanities Ph.D.'s, the proportion in teaching years,H they have become increasingly diverse in declined by 9 percent since 1977, while those in business grew their demographic characteristics and employ­ from 3 to 10 percent (Table 2). ment patterns, as shown by the Survey of As part of this shift toward nonteaching jobs, Ph.D.'s in Humanities Doctorates, an NEH-supported larger numbers have moved into management/administration, survey series conducted biennially since 1977. consulting and professional services, and other activities. In 1989, The survey polls a nationally representative one in five doctorates in American history claimed management/ sample of humanities Ph.D.'s. Here are some administration as his or her primary job. □ highlights.

Growth of Small Disciplines TABLE 1: Population of Humanities Ph.D.'s by Field, 1977-1989 While traditional fields such as English, history, and modern foreign languages continued to claim Field of Doctorate 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 the greatest numbers of Ph.D.'s in 1989 (Figure 1), smaller fields such as art history and music have All Fields 66,400 72,100 78,600 85,100 90,600 95,000 100,700 substantially increased their proportions since American History 5,400 7,200 8,500 8,400 8,800 9,500 10,000 1977 (Table 1). Conversely, the proportions of Other History 11,400 10,700 11,000 12,000 12,500 12,500 12,700 Ph.D.'s in philosophy and in classical languages and literatures have declined. In no field, how­ Art History 1,500 1,800 2,100 2,400 2,700 2,800 3,100 ever, has the absolute number of Ph.D.'s declined. Music 3,700 4,400 5,200 5,900 6,700 7,400 8,300

Speech/Theater 3,200 3,000 3,200 3,700 3,800 4,100 4,200 Other Humanities History Philosophy 5,400 5,700 6,200 6,500 7,000 7,200 7,500

English/Amer Lang & Lit 18,500 20,100 21,700 22,800 23,800 24,600 26,000 Modern Other l.ang & Lit Classical Lang & Lit 1,700 1,800 1,800 1,900 1,900 1,900 2,000 History Modem Lang & Lit 11,800 13,200 14,300 15,100 16,000 16,600 17,400

Other Humanities 3,800 4,100 4,600 6,500 7,500 8,400 9,600 Art History Classical NOTE: Numbers are rounded to the nearest hundred; therefore subcategories may not add to totals. Lang & Lit Music

Speech/Theater TABLE 2: Type of Employer of Humanities Ph.D.'s, 1977-1989 (in %) English/ American Lang & Lit Philosophy Type of Employer 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989

FIGURE 1. Humanities Ph.D. population, Employed Population (No.) 58,400 63,700 70,400 75,500 81,600 84,200 88,400 by field of doctorate. Educational Institution 89.9 86.3 85.3 82.9 82.3 81.0 81.0

Women and Minorities 4-Year CoU/Univ/Med Sch 82.4 79.3 77.6 74.8 74.3 73.0 73.4 2- Year College 5.1 4.3 4.9 5.1 5.1 4.9 4.6 The proportion of minority Ph.D.'s, although Elem/Secondary Schools 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 2.9 3.2 small, has risen since the 1977 survey, as have the 3.1 numbers and proportions of women. In 1989, Business/Industry 3.2 5.4 6.5 8.8 8.7 9.8 9.8 women constituted nearly a third of humanities U.S. Government 1.7 1.8 2.2 2.1 2.4 2.1 2.7 doctorates, up from less than a quarter in 1977. State/Local Government 0.8 1.0 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.1 1.1

This article is part of a series deriving from statistical Nonprofit Organization 3.5 4.5 3.7 4.2 4.6 5.5 5.1 studies supported by NEH. No Report 0.7 0.9 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2

Jeffrey Thomas is assistant director for humanities NOTE: Percentages for those reporting other types of employers are not included in this table; therefore, totals may not add to 100 percent. studies in the Office of Budget and Planning

HUMANITIES 35 AWARD WINNERS Women in Music, Pauline Alderman Award Singerman, Howard, ed. Blueprints for for New Scholarship on Women in Music, Modern Living: History and Legacy of the ♦ American Association of State and Local 1989 Case Study Houses (museum catalogue). History, Award of Merit Vander, Judith. Los Angeles: Museum of Contemporary Art, Garvin, Donna-Belle, and James L. Songprints: The Musical Urbana: 1989. Garvin. On the Road North of Boston: New Experience of Five Shoshone Women. Hampshire Taverns and Turnpikes (museum University of Illinois Press, 1988. ♦ Music Library Association, Vincent catalogue). Concord: New Hampshire ♦ Association of American Publishers, Duckies Award, 1988, for best book-length Historical Society, 1988. Prize for Excellence in Professional and bibliography Scholarly Publishing, Most Outstanding Mathiesen, Thomas J. Ancient Greek ♦ American Federation of Arts, Award of Book in Architecture and Urban Planning, Music Theory: A Catalogue of Manuscripts. Excellence 1990; and Society for American City and Munich, Ger.: G. Henle Verlag, 1988. Lentz, Thomas W., and Glenn D. Lowry. Regional Planning History, Lewis Mumford ♦ New York State Historical Association, Timur and the Princely Vision: Persian Art Prize, 1989 and Culture in the Fifteenth Century Henry Allen Moe, catalogue of distinction in Wilson, William H. (museum catalogue). Los Angeles: The City Beautiful the arts, honorable mention Movement. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Museum Associates, 1989. Idzerda, Stanley J.; Anne Loveland; and University Press, 1989. Marc H. Miller. Lafayette: Hero of Tzvo ♦ American Historical Association, Alfred ♦ Association of American Publishers, Worlds: The Art and Pageantry of His Fare­ Dunning Prize, 1990, for American history; Prize for Excellence in Professional and well Tour of America, 1824-1825 (museum Joan Kelly Memorial Prize, 1990, for Scholarly Publishing, Most Outstanding catalogue). Flushing, N.Y.: Queens women's history Book in Business and Management, 1990 Museum, 1989. Ulrich, Laurel T. A Midwife's Tale: The Life Edison, Thomas A. The Papers of Thomas of Martha Ballard, Based on her Diary, 1785- ♦ New York Times, one of the best photo A. Edison. Vol. 1, The Making of an 1812. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990. books of the year, 1990 Inventor, February 1847-June 1873. Edited Davis, Keith F. George N. Barnard: Photo­ ♦ American Historical Association, Herbert by Reese V. Jenkins et al. Baltimore: grapher of Sherman's Campaign. Kansas Baxter Adams Award, 1990, for distin­ Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989. City: Hallmark Cards, Inc., 1990. guished book in the field of European history ♦ Association for Asian American Studies, Hoffman, Richard C. Land, Liberties, and Outstanding Book, 1990; and Before ♦ Phi Beta Kappa Society, Christian Gauss Lordship in a Late Medieval Countryside: Columbus Foundation, American Book Award, 1990 Agrarian Structures and Change in the Duchy Award, 1990 Barish, Evelyn. Emerson: The Roots of of Wroclaw. Philadelphia: University of Freeman, James M. Hearts of Sorrow: Prophecy. Princeton: Princeton University Pennsylvania Press, 1989. Vietnamese-American Lives. Stanford: Press, 1990. ♦ American Historical Association, Stanford University Press, 1989. ♦ Print Magazine Certificate of Excellence J. Franklin Jameson Prize, 1990, for outstand­ ♦ Before Columbus Foundation, American ing achievement in the editing of historical Kimball, Greg D., and Marie Tyler- Book Award, 1989 sources McGraw. In Bondage and Freedom Elliott, Emory, ed. Columbia Literary (museum catalogue). Richmond: Valen­ Lewis, Meriwether, and William Clark. History of the United States. New York: tine Museum; Chapel Hill: University of The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedi­ Columbia University Press, 1988. North Carolina Press, 1988. tion. Vols. 1-6. Edited by Gary Moulton. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, ♦ Choice, Best Academic Books, 1989-1990, ♦ Seminar on the Acquisition of Latin 1983-1990. joint winner American Library Materials, Jose Toribio Medina Award, 1989 ♦ American Historical Association, Leo Simplicius. On Aristotle Physics 6. Trans­ Gershoy Award, 1990, for outstanding book lated by David Konstan. Ancient Com­ Davidson, Martha, ed. Picture Collections. on 17th- or 18th-century Western European mentators on Aristotle. London: Duck­ Mexico: A Guide to Picture Sources in the history worth & Co. Ltd., 1989. United Mexican States. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1988. Herr, Richard. Rural Change and Royal ♦ Historical Society of New Mexico, Finance in Spain at the End of the Old Regime. Gaspar Perez de Villagra Award, 1990, for ♦ Society of Colonial Wars, Distinguished Berkeley: University of California Press, outstanding book; and Mountains and Plains Book Award, 1990 1987. Booksellers Association, Regional Book Penn, William. The Papers of William Penn. Award, nonfiction category ♦ American Library Association, Dartmouth Vols. 1-5. Edited by Mary Maples Dunn de Vargas, Diego. Remote Beyond Compare: Medal, 1990 and Richard S. Dunn. Philadelphia: Uni­ Letters of don Diego de Vargas to His Family. versity of Pennsylvania Press, 1981-1986. Wilson, Charles Reagan, and William Edited by John L. Kessell. Albuquerque: Ferris, eds. Encyclopedia of Southern Culture. University of New Mexico Press, 1989. ♦ Southern Historical Association, Francis Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina B. Simkins Prize, 1989 Press, 1989. ♦ Los Angeles Conservancy, award for Ford, Lacy K., Jr. regional architectural history; and Society of Origins of Southern ♦ American Society of Composers, Authors, Architectural Historians, Outstanding Cata­ Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, and Publishers, ASCAP-Deems Taylor logue of an Architectural History Exhibition, 1800-1860. New York: Oxford University Award, 1989; and International Congress on 1988-1989 Press, 1988. ♦ Southern Historical Association, Smith Schildkrout, Enid, and Curtis Keim. African Oystein Sakala LaBianca. Berrien Springs, Book Award, 1990, for best book on Euro­ Reflections: Art from Northeastern Zaire. New Mich.: Andrews University Press, 1987. pean history York: American Museum of Natural History; LaBianca, Oystein Sakala, and Larry Lacelle, Popkin, Jeremy D. Revolutionary News: Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1990. eds. Environmental Foundations: Studies ofCli- The Press in France, 1789-1799. Durham, Schultz, Franz. Mies van der Rohe: Critical matical, Geological, Hydrological, and Phytologi- N.C.: Duke University Press, 1990. Essays. New York: Museum of Modern Art, cal Conditions in Hesban and Vicinity. Hesban 1989. 2. Berrien Springs, Mich.: Andrews Univer­ ♦ University of Illinois, Elliott Rudwick sity Press, 1986. Award, 1990, for outstanding book on black Smith, Barbara Sweetland, and Redmond experience Barnett. Russian America: The Forgotten Fron­ Martin, M. Marlene, and Timothy J. O'Leary. tier. Tacoma: Washington State Historical Ethnographic Bibliography of North America. Schweninger, Loren. Black Property Society, 1990. 4th ed. Supplement 1973-1987. Vol. 1, Owners in the South, 1790-1915. Blacks in Smith, Jane Webb. Smoke Signals: Cigarettes, Indexes. Vol. 2, Citations. Vol. 3, Citations. the New World. Edited by August Meier. New Haven, Conn.: Human Relations Area Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990. Advertising, and the American Way of Life. Richmond: Valentine Museum, 1990. Files Press, 1990. ♦ University of Illinois, Herbert G. Spongberg, Stephen A. A Reunion of Trees: Palaima, Thomas G., ed. Aegean Seals, Seal­ Gutman Award, 1989 The Discovery of Exotic Plants and Their Intro­ ings and Administration. Aegaeum 5. Liege, Gerber, David A. The Making of an Ameri­ duction into North American and European Belgium: Universite of Liege, 1990. can Pluralism: Buffalo, New York 1925-60. Landscapes. Cambridge: Harvard University Schaub, R. Thomas, and Walter E. Rast. Bab Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989. Press, 1990. edh-Dhra : Excavations in the Cemetery Directed Sprague, Paul E., ed. Frank Lloyd Wright and by Paul W. Lapp (1965-67). Reports of the ♦ W. Ross Winterowd Prize, 1989, for best Expedition to the Dead Sea Plain, Jordan, book on composition theory Madison: Eight Decades of Artistic and Social Interaction. Madison: Elvehjem Museum of vol. 1. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1989. Miller, Susan. Rescuing the Subject: A Cri­ Art; University of Wisconsin Press, 1990. Vann, Robert Lindley. The Unexcavated tical Introduction to Rhetoric and the Writer. Stich, Sidra. Anxious Visions: Surrealist Art. Buildings of Sardis. Oxford: BAR International Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Series 538,1989. Press, 1989. New York: Abbeville Press, 1990. Uhlenbrock, Jaimee P. The Coroplast's Art: ARTS—HISTORY AND CRITICISM NEH-FUNDED MUSEUM CATALOGUES Greek Terracottas of the Hellenistic World. New Rochelle: State University of New York; Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel. Carl Philipp Andrews, Richard, and Milena Kalinovska. Aristide D. Caratzas, Publisher, 1990. Emanuel Bach Edition, 1st ser. Vol. 24, Key­ Art into Life: Russian Constructivism 1914-1932. Wardwell, Allen, ed. Yoruba: Nine Centuries board Sonatas, 1763-1766. Edited by Claudia Seattle: Henry Art Gallery; New York: Rizzoli Widgery. Oxford and New York: Oxford International Publications, Inc., 1990. of African Art and Thought. New York: Center for African Art in association with Harry N. University Press, 1989. Braden, Donna, and Judith E. Endelman. Abrams, Inc., 1989. Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel. Carl Philipp Americans on Vacation. Dearborn, Mich.: Weeder, Erica H., ed. The Rise of a Great Tra­ Emanuel Bach Edition, 2d ser. Vol. 15, Key­ Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, board Concertos Nos. 38 and 39. Edited by 1990. dition: Japanese Archaeological Ceramics from the Jomon through Heian Periods (10,500 B.C.-A.D. Elias N. Kulukundis and Paul G. Wiley II. Foshay, Ella A. Mr. Luman Reed's Picture Gal­ 1185). New York: Japan Society, 1990. Oxford and New York: Oxford University lery: A Pioneer Collection of Anferican Art. New Press, 1989. York: New-York Historical Society, 1990. ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY Barcham, William L. Clarendon Studies in Hirsch, Susan E., and Robert I. Goler. the History of Art: Religious Paintings of A City Comes of Age: Chicago in the 1890s. Bennett, W.J., Jr., and Jeffrey A. Blakely. Giambattista Tiepolo—Piety and Tradition in Chicago: Chicago Historical Society, 1990. Tell el-Hesi: The Persian Period (Stratum V). Eighteenth-Century Venice. Oxford: Clarendon Edited by Kevin G. O'Connell, S.J., with Fred Press, 1989. Horne, Catherine W., ed. Crossroads of Clay: L. Horton, Jr. The Joint Archaeological The Southern Alkaline-Glazed Stoneware Tradi­ Expedition to Tell el-Hesi, vol. 3. American Billings, William. The Complete Works of tion. Columbia: McKissick Museum, Uni­ Schools of Oriental Research Excavation William Billings. Vol. 4, The Continental Har­ versity of South Carolina, 1990. Reports. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, mony (1794). Edited by Karl Kroeger. Boston: Isaac, Barbara, ed. The Hall of the North Amer­ 1989. American Musicological Society, Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1990. ican Indian. Cambridge, Mass.: Peabody Crawford, J. Stephens. The Byzantine Shops Museum Press, 1990. at Sardis. Archaeological Exploration of Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus. Jessup, Helen Ibbitson. Court Arts of Sardis, 9. Cambridge: Harvard University Fundamentals of Music. Translated by Calvin Indonesia. New York: Asia Society Galleries in Press, 1990. M. Bower, and edited by Claude V. Palisca. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989. association with Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1990. Fienup-Riordan, Ann. Eskimo Essays: Yup'ik Josephy, Alvin M., Jr.; Trudy Thomas; and Lives and How We See Them. New Brunswick, Britton, Allen Perdue, and Irving Lowens. Jeanne Eder. Wounded Knee: Lest We Forget. N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1990. American Sacred Music Imprints 1698-1810: Cody, Wyo.: Buffalo Bill Historical Center, A Bibliography. Worcester, Mass.: American Freeman, James M. Hearts of Sorrow: Antiquarian Society, 1990. 1990. Vietnamese-American Lives. Stanford: Stanford Maguire, Eunice Dauterman; Henry P. University Press, 1989. Bryan, John M., ed. Robert Mills, Architect. Maguire; and Maggie J. Duncan-Flowers. Washington, D.C.: American Institute of Gauthier, Philippe. Archaeological Exploration Architects Press, 1989. Art and Holy Powers in the Early Christian of Sardis: Nouvelles Inscriptions de Sardes II. House. Urbana-Champaign: Krannert Art Geneva, Switz.: Libraire Droz S.A., 1989. Buerger, Janet E. French Daguerreotypes. Museum; Urbana and Chicago: University Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989. of Illinois Press, 1989. Healan, Dan M. Tula of the Toltecs: Excava­ tions and Survey (with Urban Survey Data Burns, Sarah. Pastoral Inventions: Rural Life in Munakata, Kiyohiko. Sacred Mountains in Diskette). Iowa City: University of Iowa Nineteenth-Century American Art and Culture. Chinese Art. Urbana-Champaign: Krannert Press, 1989. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989. Art Museum; Urbana and Chicago: Univer­ Busnoys, Antoine. Antoine Busnoys' Collected sity of Illinois Press, 1991. Herrera, Luisa Fernanda; Robert D. Drennan; and Carlos A. Uribe, eds. Prehispanic Chiefdoms Works. Part 2, The Latin-Texted Works, Music. O'Neill, John P., ed. Mexico: Splendors of in the Valle de la Plata. Vol. 1, The Environmen­ Part 3, The Latin-Texted Works, Commentary. Thirty Centuries. New York: Metropolitan tal Context of Human Habitation. University Masters and Monuments of the Renaissance, Museum of Art and Bulfinch Press, 1990. of Pittsburgh Memoirs in Latin American vol. 5. Edited by Richard Taruskin. New Robbins, David, ed. The Independent Group: Archaeology, no. 2. Pittsburgh: University of York: Broude Trust, 1990. Postwar Britain and the Aesthetics of Plenty. Pittsburgh Press, 1989. Byrd, William. The Byrd Edition. Vol. 5, Los Angeles: Museum of Contemporary Art; Hyslop, John. Inka Settlement Planning. Gradualia I (1605), The Marian Masses. Edited Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990. by Philip Brett. London: Stainer & Bell Ltd., 1989. Saliga, Pauline. 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Sod Ha-Shabbat: The Mys­ N.Y.: St. Bonaventure University, 1988. tery of the Sabbath from the Tola At Ya Aqov of Parent, David J. Friedrich Nietzsche on R. Meir ibn Gabbai. Albany: State University Rhetoric and Language. New York: Oxford of New York Press, 1989. University Press, 1989. Grimes, Ronald L. Ritual Criticism: Case Sanford, David H. If P, Then Q: Conditionals Studies in Its Practice, Essays on Its Theory. and the Foundations of Reasoning. London: Columbia: University of South Carolina Routledge, 1989. Press, 1990. Hall, David D. Santayana, George. The Sense of Beauty: Being Worlds of Wonder, Days of the Outlines of Aesthetic Theory. The Works of Judgment: Popular Religious Belief in Early New George Santayana, vol. 2. Edited by William England. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989. G. Holzberger and Herman J. Saatkamp, Jr. Hooker, Richard. Tractates and Sermons. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1988. The Folger Library Edition of the Works of Santayana, George. Interpretations of Poetry Richard Hooker, vol. 5. Edited by Laetitia and Religion. The Works of George Santayana, Yeandle and Egil Grislis. Cambridge: Belk­ vol. 3. Edited by William G. Holzberger and nap Press of Harvard University Press, 1990. Herman J. Saatkamp, Jr. Cambridge: MIT Neusner, Jacob. The Canonical History of Press, 1989. Ideas. The Place of the So-Called Tannaite Mid- Schaeffer, John D. Sensus Communis: Vico, rashim: Mehkilta Attributed to R. Ishmael, Sifra, Rhetoric, and the Limits of Relativism. Durham, Sifre to Numbers, and Sifre to Deuteronomy. N.C.: Duke University Press, 1990. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990. Soble, Allan. The Structure of Love. New Neusner, Jacob, trans. The Talmud of Baby­ Haven: Yale University Press, 1990. lonia: An American Translation. XXIB: Tractate Bava Mesia, chapts. 3-4. XXIC: Tractate Bava Vives, Juan Luis. Declamationes Sullanae. Mesia, chapts. 3-4. XXID: Tractate Bava Mesia, Part 1. Edited and translated by Edward V. chapts. 3-4. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990. George. Leiden, Holland: E. J. Brill, 1989. Neusner, Jacob. Tradition as Selectivity: Scrip­ Vives, Juan Luis. Somnium et Vigilia in Som- ture, Mishnah, Tosefta, and Midrash in the Tal­ nium Scipionis (Commentary on the "Dream of mud of Babylonia. The Case of Tractate Arakhin. Scipio"). Edited and translated by Edward V. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990. George. Greenwood, S.C.: Attic Press, Inc., Religion Index Two: Multiauthor Works, 1989. 1976-1980. Vol. 1, Author-Editor Index. Vol. Wright, Kathleen. Festivals of Interpretation: 2, Subject Index. Evanston, 111.: American Essays on Hans-George Gadamer's Work. Albany: Theological Library Association, 1989. State University of New York Press, 1990. Segal, Robert A. Joseph Campbell: An Intro­ duction. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., REFERENCE 1987. Goyer, Doreen S., and Eliane Domschke. Thomas, Evangeline, CSJ. Women's Religious The Handbook of National Population Censuses: History Sources: A Guide to Repositories in the Latin America and the Caribbean, North America, United States. New York: R. R. Bowker Com­ and Oceania. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood pany, 1983. Press, 1983. Titon, Jeff T. Speech, Chant, and Song in an Hensen, Steven L., comp. Archives, Personal Appalachian Baptist Church: Powerhouse for Papers, and Manuscripts: A Cataloging Manual God. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1988. for Archival Repositories, Historical Societies, and Wenzel, Siegfried, ed. and trans. Fasciculus Manuscript Libraries. 2nd ed. Chicago: Soci­ Morum: A Fourteenth-Century Preacher's Hand­ ety of American Archivists, 1989. book. University Park: Pennsylvania State RELIGION University Press, 1989. Zabkar, Louis V. Hymns to Isis in Her Temple Albanese, Catherine L. Nature Religion in at Philae. Hanover, N.H.: University Press of America: From the Algonkian Indians to the New New England, 1988. Age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Credits for page 19: (Trilling) Photo by Jill 1990. SOCIAL SCIENCE Krementz; (Erikson) photo by Jon Erikson; Aquinas, Thomas. The Literal Exposition on (Warren) photo by Harold Strauss; (Freund) Germino, Dante. Antonio Gramsci: Architect Job: A Scriptural Commentary Concerning Harvard University Archives; (Bellow) of a New Politics. Baton Rouge: Louisiana Providence. Classics in Religious Studies. University of Chicago; (Woodward) photo by Edited by Carl A. Raschke. Translated by State University Press, 1990. Mary Sullivan; (Tuchman) photo by Robert Anthony Damico. Atlanta: Scholars Press, Harris, Alice K. A Woman's Wage: Historical L. Knudsen; (Holton) Harvard University; 1989. Meanings and Social Consequences. Lexington: (Pelikan) Yale University; (Kolakowski) Auerbach, Jerold S. Rabbis and Lawyers: The University Press of Kentucky, 1990. photo by Layle Silbert; (McDonald) photo Journey from Torah to the Constitution. Bloom­ Herzog, Don. Happy Slaves: A Critique of Con­ by C. James Gleason; (Nisbet) photo by Nora ington: Indiana University Press, 1990. sent Theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Stewart; (Percy) photo by Curt Richter; Press, 1989. Cobo, Father Bemabe. Inca Religion and Cus­ (Lewis) photo by Robert P. Matthews; (Himmelfarb) photo by Barbara Ries. HUMANITIES GUIDE FOR THOSE W HO ARE THINKING OF APPLYING FOR AN NEH GRANT

Humanities Projects in Libraries and Archives

BY THOMAS PHELPS

IBRARIES, sometimes known as scholars— Arnold Rampersad (Columbia and the strong local collection. the "people's university," are a University) and David Levering Lewis Successful proposals demonstrate not Lnatural setting for citizens, librar­ (Rutgers University)— to plan public only the fulfillment of a community ians, and humanities scholars to come programs on the life and work of need or interest but also the judicious together to explore connections and Langston Hughes. Plans include a lec­ use of a library's collection and human relationships in history; to study ideas, ture series and public symposia, a book resources. For example, the Newberry ideals, and values; to examine experi­ fair, and the screening of the film on Library's D'Arcy McNickle Center for ences; and to find a context for under­ Hughes from the noted Voices and the History of the American Indian will standing the past and the future. Through Visions television series. The programs hold a major exhibition about native its program for Humanities Projects in will use the resources of the Hughes American cultures, drawing from its Libraries and Archives, the Endowment library at Lincoln University, which holdings of rare books, manuscripts, and supports public humanities programs Hughes attended, and encourage read­ maps, and from an extraordinary array in academic and public libraries and ing and discussion of works by and of affiliated scholars to interpret the in archival institutions throughout the about him at local public libraries. exhibition through lectures, teacher- country. With this support, humanities Other successful applicants propose training workshops, and school tours. programs have become a significant projects that simply make their libraries' Libraries in relatively small, rural part of library services in rural, subur­ existing collections more appealing and communities can use NEH support to ban, and urban communities and on accessible to the public. For example, bring scholar-led reading and discus­ academic campuses throughout the the community library in New Rochelle, sion programs to their communities. nation. where Thomas Paine was awarded a For example, themes carefully chosen Although public programs in librar­ farm for his revolutionary service, had to interest local communities were ies and archives employ a variety of amassed a large collection of works by selected by the Utah Library Association approaches and formats, including read­ and about Paine, arguably the leading for reading and discussion programs at ing and discussion groups, conferences, phrasemaker and pamphleteer of the small libraries in six intermountain exhibitions, and lecture series, all suc­ American Revolution. Working in states: Utah, Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, cessful applicants have at least two cooperation with the Thomas Paine Montana, and Wyoming. The theme things in common: 1) their projects National Historical Association and the package, "Trails of the West," features are feasible within the context of their College of New Rochelle, the New works by A. B. Guthrie, Wallace libraries and the communities they Rochelle Public Library produced a Stegner, and W illa Cather. Discussions serve, and 2) they ensure the intellec­ variety of programs examining Paine's of the works are led by scholars from tual rigor of a project by involving life and work. Book discussion groups institutions within the six-state area. scholars with appropriate credentials featured works by Eric Foner, Edmund Several evaluators commended the to help plan and execute the programs. Burke, and Paine himself. Noted excellent outreach to small and rural Many successful project proposals scholars— Gordon Wood from Brown communities and the choice of themes bring together public librarians, aca­ University, Eric Foner from Columbia, and works of interest to westerners. demic librarians, scholars, and mem­ and Sean Wilentz from Princeton— Deadlines for implementation appli­ bers of the community. In one such lectured and discussed Paine as an cations are semiannual, in March and project, underway at Lincoln Univer­ intellectual, a radical, and a figure of September. Deadlines for planning sity in Pennsylvania, librarians from fluctuating repute. Several reviewers applications are quarterly, in February, Chester and Exon public libraries and commended the cooperation between May, August, and November. For infor­ from libraries at Temple and Lincoln a public and a college library and the mation, contact the Division of Public Universities are working with noted local historical association. NEH staff Programs, National Endowment for the noted the topic's strong appeal to resi­ Humanities, 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, Thomas Phelps is a program officer in dents of the New Rochelle area because N.W., Washington, DC 20506 (202/ the Division of Public Programs. of Paine's association with the town 786-0271).

HUMANITIES 45 Area code for all telephone numbers is 202. Deadline For projects beginning

D ivisionn of Education Programs — James C. Herbert, Director 786-0373

Higher Education in the Humanities - Lyn Maxwell White 786-0380 April 1, 1992 October 1992

Institutes for College and and University Faculty- Barbara A. Ashbrook 786-0380 April 1, 1992 October 1992

Core Curriculum Projects- Frank Frankfort 786-0380 April 1, 1992 October 1992

Two-Year Colleges-Judith Jeffrey Howard 786-0380 April 1, 1992 October 1992

Elementary and Secondary Education in the Humanities - F. Bruce Robinson 786-0377 December 15,1991 July 1992

Special Opportunity in Foreign Language Education March 15,1992 October 1992 Higher Education - Elizabeth Welles 786-0380 Elementary and Secondary Education - F. Bruce Robinson 786-0377 Teacher-Scholar Program -Angela lovino 786-0377 May 1, 1992 September 1993

Division of Fellowships and Seminars — Guinevere L. Criest, Director 786-0458

Fellowships for University Teachers-Maben D. Herring 786-0466 June 1, 1991 January 1 , 1 992

Fellowships for College Teachers and Independent Scholars - Joseph B. Neville 786-0466 June 1,1991 January 1 , 1 992

Fellowships on the Foundations of American Society - Maben D. Herring 786-0466 June 1,1991 January 1 , 1 992

Summer Stipends - Thomas O'Brien 786-0466 October 1, 1991 May 1, 1992

Travel to Collections - Kathleen Mitchell 786-0463 July 15, 1991 December 1, 1991

Faculty Graduate Study Program for Historically Black Colleges and Universities March 15,1992 September 1, 1993 Catherine B. Tkacz 786-0466 Younger Scholars -Leon Bramson 786-0463 November 1,1991 May 1, 1992

Summer Seminars for College Teachers - Stephen Ross 786-0463

Participants March 1,1992 Summer 1992

Directors March 1, 1992 Summer 1993

Summer Seminars for School Teachers - Michael Hall 786-0463

Participants March 1, 1992 Summer 1992

Directors April 1, 1992 Summer 1993

OfflCe of Challenge Grants -Harold Cannon, Director 786-0361 May 1, 1992 December 1, 1991

OfflCe Of Preservation — George F. Farr, Jr., Director 786-0570

National Heritage Preservation Program - Vanessa Piala 786-0570 November 1, 1991 July 1992

Preservation - George F. Farr, Jr. 786-0570 June 1, 1991 January 1992

U.S. Newspaper Program - Jeffrey Field 786-0570 June 1,1991 January 1992

46 MAY/JUNE 1991 Area code for all telephone numbers is 202. Deadline For projects beginning

D ivisionn of PubllC Programs— Donald Gibson, Director 786-0267

Humanities Projects in Media-James Dougherty 786-0278 September 13,1991 April 1, 1992

Humanities Projects in Museums and Historical Organizations- Marsha Semmel 786-0284 June 7,1991 January 1, 1992

Public Humanities in Libraries - Wilsonia Cherry 786-0271 September 13,1991 April 1, 1992

Humanities Projects in Libraries- Thomas Phelps 786-0271

Planning August 2,1991 January 1, 1992

Implementation September 13,1991 April 1, 1992

D iv isio n of Research Programs — Richard Ekman, Director 786-0200

Texts- Margot Backas 786-0207

Editions - Douglas Arnold 786-0207 June 1,1991 April 1, 1992

Translations - Martha Chomiak 786-0207 June 1,1991 April 1, 1992

Publication Subvention - Gordon McKinney 786-0207 April 1, 1992 October 1, 1992

Reference Materials-Jane Rosenberg 786-0358

Tools - Helen Aguera 786-0358 September 1,1991 July 1, 1992

Access -Barbara Paulson 786-0358 September 1,1991 July 1, 1992

Interpretive Research- George Lucas 786-0210

Collaborative Projects- David Wise 786-0210 October 15,1991 July 1, 1992

Archaeology Projects - David Wise 786-0210 October 15,1991 July 1, 1992

Humanities, Science and Technology - Daniel Jones 786-0210 October 15,1991 July 1, 1992

Conferences- Christine Kalke 786-0204 January 15,1992 October 1, 1992

Centers for Advanced Study- David Coder 786-0204 December 1,1991 July 1, 1992

International Research - David Coder 786-0204 April 1,1992 January 1, 1993

Division of State Programs — Marjorie A. Berlincourt, Director 786-0254 Each state humanities council establishes its own grant guidelines and application deadlines. Addresses and telephone numbers of these state programs may be obtained from the division.

To receive guidelines for any NEH program, contact the Office of Publications and Public Affairs at202/786-0438. Guidelines are available at least two months in advance of application deadlines.

Telecommunications device for the deaf: 202/786-0282.

HUMANITIES 47 SECOND CLASS MAIL NATIONAL ENDOWMENT POSTAGE & FEES PAID FOR THE HUMANITIES NATIONAL ENDOWMENT 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW FOR THE HUMANITIES PUB. NO. 187526 Washington, D.C. 20506

Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300.00 ISSN 0018-7526