“In the Public Interest”: the Historiography of Crusade Finance by Lee Morrison Florida State University

“In the Public Interest”: The Historiography of Crusade Finance By Lee Morrison Florida State University I. Introduction the other hand, it enabled the laity who secular taxes” for the duration of this section. Logistically, a medieval crusade were not fit for combat to participate in These secular taxes proved to be models for presented many difficulties, particularly in the crusade in a tangible way, contributing later papal programs, most notably in their regards to its financing. The act of raising toward it on an individual level without methods of collection and assessment. The an army, transporting it to the Holy Land, actually traveling with the army. This was levies set a precedent for the cooperation sustaining it upon arrival, and providing meant to ensure that those funds would go between ecclesiastic and secular authorities further support in the event that it succeeded toward combatants only, eliminating the in crusade taxation, and its history is one in acquiring territory, was an enormous large portion of noncombatants who tended of adaptation and flexibility. Innocent III’s challenge that demanded considerable to follow the armies toward the Holy Land, decision to adapt similar measures in 1200 economic contribution. Crusading was as seen in the First Crusade. was not borne out of a desire to squeeze cash incredibly expensive. Pope Innocent III Crusade taxation underwent from his clergy but was instead a product of and his successors were aware of this and considerable development in the thirteenth practicality. He saw a longstanding problem realized that in order for any crusade to and fourteenth centuries, and though these (inconsistent and decentralized financing of succeed, it had to be well funded. In 1208, taxes were often contentiously received, crusades), and he saw a framework in place Innocent declared a regional income tax on they did raise valuable funding. Though that already had mixed elements of lay and a tenth of the revenues of the clergy and intended for crusade, privileges and taxes ecclesiastical participation and which had laity in France to support the crusade against were eventually granted to secular rulers, already produced successful collections, Cathar heretics in the south of the country. who enthusiastically collected them but albeit at a local level in England. The Innocent based this tax on the notion that often without using the money which was decision to apply this framework to the Latin “those acting in the public interest should raised for that express purpose. As secular clergy and base it upon papal authority was be sustained by public taxes”.1 Since 1199, rulers claimed the right of clerical taxation in a natural one. Innocent had sought to find a solution to the their domains against similar assertations by The opening of the Vatican archives inherent difficulties of organizing a successful the ecclesiastical government of the Church, in 1881 made materials that would prove crusade, especially by his push to introduce the papacy in this period increased both the invaluable to the study of the medieval widespread clerical taxation as a source of frequency of its taxation and the sources papacy available to students and scholars funding. Scholars of crusade finance have of its revenues. These abuses soured the for the first time. Prior to their opening, traced the history of taxation and established popular attitude toward crusade taxation, no comprehensive treatment of the papacy’s a connection between the early tax initiatives not because of a loss of belief in the cause of finances during this period existed. In of Henry II and the later adoption of the crusading, but due to the constant levying of 1934, William Lunt published what would income tax as papal policy by Innocent III. taxes, ostensibly for that purpose, which were become the first synthesis of medieval papal However, papal taxation was seen then not actually carried out once the money finance in which he examined the various through a lens of cynicism by mid-twentieth was raised. The financial abuses which sources of revenue available to the medieval century historians who considered the abuses contributed to the Protestant Reformation, papacy, though he made no mention of of fiscal policy observed during the late notably the sale of indulgences by the expenditures or repercussions of papal thirteenth to sixteenth centuries as a natural papacy, should be understood as having finance.2 Expenditure would be treated in development stemming from the programs developed not out of the crusading policy of depth by a myriad of later historians. Lunt of crusade finance established by Innocent the thirteenth century papacy, but through noted that papal taxation was influenced by III and his successors. Recent scholarship later abuses by secular rulers and the Avignon twelfth century secular taxes and adopted has suggested otherwise. While the popes.A their framework while simultaneously relationship between secular and ecclesiastic basing justifying extraction as an extension taxation has proven consistent throughout II. Secular Precedents to Ecclesiastical of the papal right of plenitude potestatis, by the historiography, the nature of the papacy’s Taxation which the papacy could “assert its power crusade policy can be understood as being Papal taxation of the clergy was not over the Patrimony of the Church for whom based in spirituality and practicality, as an idea without precedent. Instead, it was the crusades were fought.”3 As papal taxes opposed to materialism. A central element inspired by secular initiatives of the twelfth developed, so too, he argued, did the Curia, of crusade policy was the establishment of century. Although Innocent III is credited as and the “mere organ of the [papal] household taxation as a source of funding. Crusade the first Pope to impose direct taxation upon had become a great department of state.”4 taxation served a dual purpose. On one the clergy in 1200, he was preceded by almost Fred Cazel and James Brundage hand, it sought to provide a solution forty years of secular taxation which would furthered the notion that the twelfth century to the economic challenges created by continue to influence papal taxation after secular taxes inspired crusade taxation during crusading armies as a means of funding their his pontificate. The levies of 1166, 1183, the pontificate of Innocent III, who wanted transportation, supply, and manpower by 1185, and most famously 1187 formed the to expand and regularize them to apply to providing financial support to the magnates basis of clerical taxation. This group of taxes the papal patrimony at large.5 The twelfth who led their local forces on campaign. On will be referred to as the “twelfth century century levies were the result of an agreement Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence – Volume X History between Henry II of England and the kings also saw the first attempt at ecclesiastic further delayed its completion.23 The of France to tax the general populations of participation when Clement III requested three Archbishops assigned with carry out their realms to support the crusade.6 The use that bishops contribute to the collections in collections each held their own provincial of Templars and Hospitallers, first appointed addition to the laity.16 Cazel concluded that councils to decide on how to execute the in 1185 to collect these taxes, lent them the Saladin Tithe offered the most promising collection within their jurisdiction, and they an element of ecclesiastic representation.7 basis for crusade taxation, but its successors disagreed on the allowance of exceptions.24 Innocent wished to expand this ecclesiastic were instead appropriated by secular princes They convened in order to decide on the role while still cooperating with the kings and popes for purposes other than aiding the issue but deliberations were delayed by a to ensure that taxation went smoothly and Crusader States.17 jurisdictional dispute between Archbishop of without opposition. Cazel pointed out that Though Clement III required that Bourges and the Benedictine abbot of Deols, the 1185 tax, which Lunt had previously bishops should participate in the 1187 tax, whom the Archbishop excommunicated considered to be nonexistent and based on Innocent III’s declaration of a fortieth in according to his role as papal legate. The a forged ordinance, was not only carried out 1200 represented the first general tax on Archbishops proved overzealous in their but was instrumental in the development of clergy. In addition to the fortieth on clerical execution of the collection, excommunicating the “Saladin Tithe” of 1188. Cazel argued incomes, Innocent stipulated that he and so many clergymen for fraud that Honorius that the 1185 tax was an example of the the cardinals would pay a tenth of their own had to also grant them temporary power of blending of secular and ecclesiastic authority revenues.18 Clerical opposition to taxation absolution, as it was deemed excessive for the present in the twelfth century levies. The was immediate and largely unceasing sheer number of excommunicates to journey tax was declared by Henry II and Philip thereafter. This created collection problems. to Rome for appeal.25C Honorius turned Augustus with the consent of their bishops Whereas the English crown enjoyed a back to using curial collectors not because he and counts, consisted of a three year tax centralized authority within its territory desired it, but because it was the only feasible of a hundredth on income and moveables and some prior history of implementing method of collection, despite the clerical (personal possessions which are not attached broad crusade taxation, the papacy possessed complaints.D to the land), was backed by an indulgence neither. France, Collins, Bird, and Asbridge granted by the bishops of Normandy, Innocent III attempted to use papal furthered the work of Cazel and Kay.

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