Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-49871-5 — Reversing Sail 2Nd Edition Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-49871-5 — Reversing Sail 2nd Edition Index More Information

Index

Abbasid caliphate, 37, 44 Alﬁnete, O (Brazil), 210 Abbott, Robert (United States), 210 Algerian War, 230, 243 Abena (queen mother in Jamaica), 149 ʿAlī b. Muhammad (leader of Zanj revolt), _ ʿabīd, 43 42 abolition and abolitionism Ali, Muhammad (Cassius Clay), 257–258 British Empire, 135, 151 Ali, Noble Drew, 199 Caribbean, 166–167 aliyah, 29 feminism and, 162 Almohads, 43, 45 Haiti, 165 Almoravids, 43–45 Iran and Turkey, 56 Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater, 252 Latin America, 109, 163, 166, 168, 170 amaros (repatriated Africans to Sierra North America, 135, 161–163, 167–168 Leone), 165 racism and, 124 American Civil War, 134, 168–169, 173 repatriation movement and, 163–165 American Colonization Society, 164 abortion and birth control, 137 American Federation of Labor, 193 absconding, 146, 148 American Negro Labor Congress, 193 Abū Dulāma (poet), 53 American War of Independence, 123, 134, Accompong (Jamaican maroons), 150 157, 161, 164, 167, 169 affranchis (Saint-Domingue), 104–105 and revolt in Bahia, 153 African National Congress (ANC), 272–274 Anderson, Marian, 252 African Service Bureau, 205 Andrada e Silva, José Bonifácio de Afro-beat, 254 (Brazil), 163 Afrocentrism, 10 Angel Gabriel Riots, 173 Afropolitans, 279 Angola Ahmad Bābā, 38 Cuba and, 269 _ Akan (ethno-linguistic group), 77, 97 independence movements, 267–268 in Jamaica, 97, 129, 149–150 martial arts, 153 revolts involving, 149–152 Portuguese settlement, 267 Akhenaton, 14. See also Egypt, Nubia slave capture and export, 69, 79, 81 Aksum, 28. See also Ethiopia slave mortality, 80 al-Andalus. See Iberia. Anomabu (Gold Coast), 70 Aldridge, Ira (United States), 247 ʿAntara, 51

287

288 INDEX

Antigua. mortality in, 100 British arrival, 96 peasantry, 187 maroons in, 130 slave numbers, 96 peasantry, 187 slave rebellions, 151, 173 revolt, 149 workers on Panama Canal, 189 antislavery literature, 162 Barbers’ Union Beneficent Society apartheid, 235, 258, 270–275 (Brazil), 194 Aponte Rebellion, 168 Barnett, Ida B. Wells, 202, 204 Apprenticeship (British Caribbean), 167, barracoon (slave trading phase), 79–83 171 Barrett, Emma, 250 Arawak, 132 baseball, 256 Argentina (and race), 241 Basie, Count, 249 Armstrong, Lil Hardin, 250 Bates, Daisy (United States), 234 Armstrong, Louis, 249 Bathsheba, 26. See also Queen of Sheba Arthur (slaver), 82 Baton Rouge bus boycott, 232 Artisans’ Philanthropic Union Beneficent bauxite, 187, 190 Society (Brazil), 194 Bayen, Malaku, 198 as financiers of sugar cane trade, 66 Bechet, Sidney, 219 Asante, 77 Belafonte, Harry, 253 Asantehene, 77 Bell, Cool Papa, 256 Ashe, Arthur, 258 bella, 55 asiento, 69, 110, 151 Benin, Bight of. Askia al-hājj Muhammad Ture, 35, 40 context for transatlantic trade, 73–74, _ _ Associated Colored Employees of 76 America, 193 source for transatlantic trade, 70, 82 Association of Afro-American Steam and source of captives, 70, 82 Gas Engineers and Skilled Jamaica, 97 Workers of Pittsburgh, 193 North America, 113 Assyrians, 21 Saint-Domingue, 103 Atilla the Hun, 253 Trinidad, 98 Atlanta University, 175, 203 Berbers, 42, 44, 46, 55 Augustine of Hippo, 30 Beta Israel, 28–29, 198. See also Falasha, Averroës, 46 Ethiopia Avicenna, 46 Biassou, Georges (Saint-Domingue), 155 Azikiwe, Nnamdi (“Zik”, Nigeria), 206, 230 Bible, 4, 15, 21, 23–26 Africans in, 23 Bahia (Brazil), 71, 96 Egypt and Nubia in, 21–23 maroons in, 128 influence on African experience, 21 Muslim revolts, 152–153 Queen of Sheba, 26–28 Baker, Ella (United States), 233 slavery in, 21, 25 Baker, Josephine, 219 Bilali (Sapelo, Georgia), 116 Baldwin, James (United States), 245 Birmingham church bombing, 234 Ballano (revolt leader in Panama), 125 Black Caribs (St. Vincent), 132 Bambara (ethno-linguistic group), 56 Black Codes (United States), 174 bananas, 190 Black Liberation Army (BLA), 238 Bandera, Quintín (Cuba), 169 Black Lives Matter movement, 285 Banneker, Benjamin, 211 black minstrelsy, 246–248 Baraka, Amiri (Le Roi Jones), 236, 244 Black Panther Party, 236–239 Barbados “black poor” (Britain), 164 British arrival in, 96 Black Power Conference (United States), destination of the James, 81 235

INDEX 289

black power movement (United States), Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and 231, 236, 273 Maids (Pullman Porters), 193 Black Sea, 65 Brown University. Blake, Eubie (United States), 218 and slavery, 118 Blakey, Art, 251 Brown v. Board of Education, 231 “Bloody Sunday” (Selma), 234 Brown, Clifford, 251 blues music, 248–249, 252 Brown, Elaine, 237 Blyden, Edward W. (St. Thomas), 201 Brown, John (United States), 161 Bôa Morte sisterhood, 196 Brown, Sterling (United States), 217 Bogle, Paul (Jamaica), 169, 173 Bruce, Blanche K. (United States), 175 Bolívar, Simón, 166 brutality. Bolivia, 242 in Caribbean, 100 Bolt, Usain, 257 in Saint-Domingue, 107 Bom Jesus das Necessidades e Reden ção Bussa (revolt leader), 151 dos Homens Prétos (Good Jesus of Butler Riots (Trinidad), 194 the Needs and Redemption of Byzantine (eastern Roman) Empire, 65 Black Men), 197 Bond, Horace Mann (United States), cabildos (fraternal organization in Cuba), 245 165, 197 Bonny (Bight of Biafra), 70, 79 Cabinda (West Central Africa), 70 Bontemps, Arna (United States), 218 Cabral, Amílcar Lopes (Guinea-Bissau), bori (spirit-possession cults in Muslim 267 areas), 139–143 Cabral, Pedro (Portugal), 67 boricua (native population of Puerto cacao. See cocoa. Rico), 108 Calabar (Bight of Biafra), 70 Bornu, 36 calypso music, 253 Bouchet, Edward A. (United States), Canada 212 abolitionism, 135 Bowler, Jack (United States), 159 migration to, 276 boxing, 258 Candaces, 15, 27, 30 bozales (unacculturated Africans), 108 candomblé (traditions), 196 Brazil Cape Castle (Gold Coast), 70 abolitionism, 163, 170 Cape Colony, 270–272 culture, 144, 153, 251, 255–256 Caribbean, 96–99 Golden Law, 170 abolition of slavery, 166–167 maroon communities, 127–128 Apprenticeship, 167, 171 medical experiments, 214 labor strikes, 171, 173 race and racism, 153, 191, 194–195, migration to and from, 187, 189–190, 210–211, 241–242 276 repatriation from, 165 post-independence, 239–240 Rio Branco Law of 1871, 170 revolts, 149 slave exports, 109 slave economies, 99 slave import volumes, 70, 95 slave import volumes, 70 slave revolts, 152–153 Caribs, 69, 132 slavery in, 96 carnival, 254–255 sugar production, 69, 107 Carthage, 18 urbanization, 191 Carver, George Washington (United See also Bahia States), 211 Britain, 18. See United Kingdom. Castro Alves, Antônio Frederico de Brooke, Edward (United States), 175 (Brazil), 163 Brooks, Gwendolyn (United States), 245 Castro, Fidel, 269

290 INDEX

Catherine of Austria, 92 Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), 232 Catholic Church, 140–143 convince (worship of Christian deity, Cayenne, 98 veneration of African and maroon cédula (Trinidad), 98 spirits), 195–196 Central Sudan, 36 Cook, Mercer (United States), 245 Césaire, Aimé (Martinique), 220 Cooke, Sam, 253 Charles X of France, 181 Cooper, Anna Julia (United States), 201, Charleston, 145, 148, 157 219, 233 Chicago, 192 Cordoba, 46–47 Chicago Defender, 210 Cornish, Samuel (United States), 162 China cotton. investment and inﬂuence in Africa, North America, 113–114, 118 264–265 Saint-Domingue, 105 state capitalism, 264 Trinidad, 98 Chinese “coolies” (Cuba), 111 Council on African Affairs (CAA), 206. Christianity, 28–31, 72, 92, 141, 153, 159, See also Robeson, Paul 195, 232 Court (Antigua revolt leader), 149 Civil Rights Acts, 232, 234 Crenshaw, Kimberlé, 231 civil rights movement, 5, 178, 180, 208, creole languages, 98, 106, 139–143 210, 231–232, 234–238, 245, 273, crioulos (Brazilian-born), 153, 196 283 “crows of the Arabs”, 53 Clarim da Alvorada, O (Brazil), 210 Crummell, Alexander (United States), clave (musical pattern), 251 201, 203 Cleaver, Kathleen, 237 Cruz, Celia, 251 Cliff, Jimmy, 253–254 Cuba cocoa. abolitionism, 168, 170 Saint-Domingue, 105 African independence movements and, Trinidad, 98 269–270 Venezuela, 108 early African importation estimates to, Code Noir (French slave codes), 107, 68 140–142 English occupation of, 109–110 coercion, 87, 91, 100, 102, 138–139 free blacks, 111 coffee, 98–99, 104, 106, 110, 155, 267 Guerra Chiquita, 169 Jamaica, 98 independence struggle, 168–169, 179 Saint-Domingue, 105 La Escalera, 169 Trinidad, 98, 102 maroons, 126 COINTELPRO program, 238 patronato, 169 Cold War, 206, 229, 240, 263, 265, 268 peasant population, 187 Cole, Rebecca J. (United States), 212 plantation system, 109–111 Coleman, Ornette, 251 post-slavery conditions, 179 Colombia, 108, 125, 166 race and racism, 165, 169, 179–180 colonos (European immigrants to Brazil), revolts, 168–169 192 Saint-Domingue and, 155 Coltrane, John, 251–252 slave mortality, 111 Columbus, Admiral Diego, 124 slave numbers, 68, 110–111 Combahee River Collective, 231 slave origins, 110 Congo slave trade, 70, 109–110, 114 and revolt in Bahia, 153 sugar industry, 107, 110, 157 independence, 230 Cuban All-Stars, 256 See also West Central Africa Cuban Independent Party of Color, 241 Congress of Industrial Organizations, 193 Cuban Liberation Army, 126, 169, 179

INDEX 291

Cuban Revolutionary Party, 180, 187 Graeco-Roman world and, 18 Cudjoe (Jamaican maroon leader), 129 hājj of Mansa Mūsā, 38 _ Cuffe, Paul (United States), 165 Islam in, 33 Cuffy (revolt leader in Jamaica), 150 Jesus in, 26 Cugoano, Ottobah, 167 medieval period, 30 Cullen, Countee (United States), 217, 219 modern state, 229 Cush (Kush), 14, 24. See also Nubia race and, 12 Roman conquest, 18 Dahomey, 73, 152, 270. See also Benin trade, 34, 38 Dalits (“untouchables”), 56 twenty-ﬁfth dynasty, 14 Damas, Léon G., 221 See also Nubia Damnation Oath, 149 Elizabeth (slaver), 87 Dan, lost tribe of, 29. See also Beta Israel Ellington, Duke, 249 dates (produced in Sahara), 42 Ellison, Ralph (United States), 245 Davis, Angela, 237 Emancipation Act (British Caribbean), Davis, Miles, 251 166–167 Davy, Captain (of Scotts Hall, Jamaica), Emancipation Proclamation (United 149 States), 168 Delgado, Martín Morúa (Cuba), 180 embranquecimento (“whitening”), 191 Demerara Rebellion (1823), 151 engagés, 102 Dessalines (Saint-Domingue), 156 Equiano, Olaudah, 85, 162, 167 dhow, 36 Estenoz, Evaristo (Cuba), 211 Diallo, Amadou, 280 Ethiopia. Dihigo, Martin, 256 Aksum, 28 Dillard University, 244 Arabian peninsula, 50 Diop, Alioune, 245 Christianization, 27 Diop, Birago, 221 Italian invasion, 198 Diop, Cheik Anta, 10 Jewish Beta Israel, 28–29, 198 Dismal Swamp, 134 Kebra Nagast, 27 domestic service, 50, 92 Solomonid dynasty, 27–28 Dominican Republic, 102, 188, 240 Zagwe dynasty, 28 Dorsey, Thomas, 248 Ethiopian World Federation, 198 Dorsey, Tommy, 250 Etudiant Noir, L’, 220 Douglas, Aaron (United States), 218–219 eunuchs, 23, 29, 37, 41, 43, 49 Douglass, Frederick (United States), 9, Evans, Mari (United States), 245 116, 162, 201 Ewe (ethno-linguistic group), 73 Drake, St. Clair, 9 “dreads” (hair locking), 198 Faboulé, Francisque (Martinican maroon Drew, Charles, 212 leader), 130 Du Bois, W. E. B. (United States), 9, 203, Falasha, 28. See also Beta Israel 230, 233 families, 139–142 Dumas, Alexandre, 243 Fanon, Frantz, 243 Dunham, Katherine, 252 Fatiman, Cécile (Saint-Domingue), 155 Dunkley, Archibald, 198 Fauset, Jessie (United States), 216, 219 First Maroon War (Jamaica), 128, 130 East Africa, 36–37 First Nations societies (North America), Egypt 67–68, 70, 90, 103, 127, 132 ‘abid army, 43 Fisk Jubilee Singers, 246 ancient civilization, 13–14, 45 Fisk University, 175, 203, 205, 244 Biblical references, 21–23, 25 Fitzgerald, Ella, 250 Christianity in, 30 Florida, 69, 133–134, 176, 190

292 INDEX

“ﬂying Africans”, 146 Gezo, 73 Fon-Ewe-Yoruba cultures, 73 Ghana (ancient empire), 33, 44 Fonseca, Luís Anselmo da (Brazil), 163 Ghana (modern state), 165, 204, 230, food, 255 232, 267 Foreman, James, 232 Gibson, Althea, 256 Fort Blount (Florida), 134 Gibson, Josh, 256 Fort Mose (Florida), 133–134 Gillespie, Dizzy, 250–251 Fourteenth Amendment (United States), Giovanni, Nikki (United States), 245 174 Gladstone, John, 151 France Glissant, Edouard (Martinique), 246 abolition of slavery, 155 globalization, 265 African American culture and, 245–246 gnawa, 55 colonial possessions, 102 gold culture, 220 mining, 68–69, 95, 271 Haitian “independence debt”, 181 trade in, 13–14, 33, 35, 66, 77 migration to, 190, 219, 243, 275–276 Gold Coast. 70–71, 77–79, 98, 113, 129, Muslim encroachment, 44 143 race and racism, 105, 244 Gómez, Juan Gualberto (Cuba), 180, 211 Saint-Domingue and, 154, 157 Gonzalez de Léon, Juan, 68 sugar cultivation, 107 Goodman, Benny, 250 sugar industry, 105 Gordon, Dexter, 251 Francois, Elma, 207 Great Dying, 68 Frazier, E. Franklin (United States), 218 Greece (Classical), 15–19 Freedmen’s Bureau, 174 Grenada, 98 Freedom Rides, 233 Grigg, John and Nanny, 151 Freemasonry, 200 Guadeloupe, 98, 131 FRELIMO, 267–268 Guanches (of Canaries), 66 French Revolution, 123, 154 Guerre Nègre, 173 Fugitive Slave Act, 135 Guerrero, Vicente “El Negro” (Mexico), Fulani (ethno-linguistic group), 77 166 Fuller, Meta Warrick, 218 Guillén, Nicolás (Cuba), 221 Futa Jallon, 38, 77–78 Guyana (formerly British Guiana), 135, 172–173, 187, 218, 239, 277 Gabriel (Guadeloupe maroon), 130 Guianas. See Suriname Galen, 46, 54, 158 Gama, Vasco da, 37, 66 “Habshis”, 48, 56 Gambia, 81. See also Senegambia Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia, 197 Garamantes, 18 Haiti, peasantry, 187 Garifuna (or Garinagu), 132. See also Hamer, Fannie Lou, 234 Black Caribs “Hamitic Curse”, 24. See also “Table of Garnet, Henry Highland (North Nations” America), 162, 201 Hampton Institute, 175 Garrido, Juan, 68 Handy, W.C. (United States), 248 Garrison, William Lloyd (United States), Hannibal, Abram (Ethiopian?), 244 162 haratīn (Morocco), 55 _ _ Garvey, Amy Jacques, 204 harems, 40 Garvey, Marcus, 202–203, 230 Harlem Playgirls, 250 Garza, Alicia, 285 Harlem Renaissance, 215 Genoa, 65 Harrison, Hubert, 218 gens de couleur, 104–105, 155 Harvard University, 118, 201 Georgia, 113, 133–134, 158 Hatshepsut, 14. See also Egypt, Nubia

INDEX 293

Hausa (ethno-linguistic group), 35, 56, India, Delhi Sultanate, 48 78, 152 India, Islam in, 48 Hausaland, 36 indigenous. See Native Americans Haward, Bartholomew, 84 indigoinfanticide Hayden, Palmer, 219 ingenio (sugar mill), 108–109, 124 Hayes, Roland, 252 insurrection, 152. See aslo revolt Haymarket Square riots, 193 International Sweethearts of Rhythm, 250 Haywood, Harry (United States), 244 Iran, 47–48, 56 Hebrews, 13, 22 irmandades (brotherhoods), 165, 196 Hemings, Sally (North America), 139. See Isaiah (prophet), 21 also Jefferson, Thomas Isis (Egyptian goddess), 19 Henri-Christophe (Saint-Domingue), 155 Islam Herodotus, 17, 57 Asia Minor, 48 Hibbert, Joseph (Jamaica), 198 central Sudan, 36 hijra, 51 East Africa, 36–37 Himes, Chester (United States), 245 Iberia, 43–47 hip-hop music, 286 Indian subcontinent, 47 Hispaniola pilgrimage, 37 division of, 102 slavery, 38–43 early African importation estimates to, West Africa and, 33–36 68, 107 Western culture and, 266 indigenous Taíno, 68, 124 Italian city states, 65 See also Dominican Republic, Haiti Ivonet, Pedro, 211 Holiday, Billie, 249 Homer, 27 Jāhiz, 53 _ _ hoodoo, 195. See also voodoo Jackson, Mahalia (United States), 248 “hot summers” (United States), 234–235 Jamaica. Howard University, 175, 205, 244, 246 as Akan preserve, 98 Howell, Leonard Percival (Jamaica), British arrival in, 96–97 197 destination for those from Bight of Huggins, Erika, 237 Biafra, 98 Hughes, Langston (United States), 216, economy during slavery, 98 219 maroons in, 128–129 Hurston, Zora Neale (United States), 217 Morant Bay Disturbances, 173 music, 253 Iberia. slave numbers, 97–98 Islam in, 43–46 smallpox experimentation, 214 Muslim architecture, 46 Spanish in, 97 Muslim technological contributions to sugar production as affected by Haitian global travel, 46 Revolution, 107 Reconqista, 65 James (slaver), 82 “rediscovery” of European knowledge James, C. L. R. (Trinidad), 205–206 in, 46 Jamestown, 111 Ibibio (ethno-linguistic group), 74 Janissaries (servile army), 42 Ibn Rushd, 46 Japan, 200 Ibn Sīnā, 46, 54 jazz, 249–252, 254 Igbo (ethno-linguistic group), 74, 76, 143, Jean-François (Saint-Domingue), 155 159 Jefferson, Thomas (United States), 139, Ilê do Axe Opô Afonjá, 196 158–159, 164 Ilê Iyá Nassô, 195–196 “Jêjes” (Aja-Fon-Ewe), 152, 195–196 images of Africans in Islamic world, 54 Jenne, 35

294 INDEX

Jews, 2, 24, 28–29, 66, 198 Liberia, 164 jihād (holy war), 39–40 Lincoln, Abraham (United States), 164, Jim Crow laws, 178, 180, 189, 234, 256, 168 271, 280 loas, 73 jinn (disembodied spirits), 56 Locke, Alain (United States), 217, 219 Johnson, James Weldon, 217 Lord Invader, 253 Jones, Claudia, 207 Lord Kitchener, 253 Jonkonnu festival, 143–144 Louima, Abner, 279 jornaleros (day wage workers), 111 Louis, Joe, 258 Juan Latino, 93 Louisiana, 113, 115, 134, 175–176 juju, 254 Louisiana Purchase, 102, 110 Juka (Djuka), 136 Louverture, Toussaint (Saint- Just, Ernest E., 212 Domingue), 125, 155 Jula (merchants), 35 Love, Robert (Jamaica), 205 Luanda (West Central Africa), 70 kalunga, 73 lucumí (religion), 197 Kanem, 33, 36 Lumumba, Patrice (Congo), 230, 235 Kano, 36 Lusius Quietus, 18 Katsina, 36 Luxorius, 18 Kebra Nagast (holy book), 27–28, 198 lynching, 100, 178, 190, 250 Kenu, John, 143 Kenya’s Land and Freedom Army Maceo, Antonio (Cuba), 169, 180 (“Mau Mau”), 198, 230 Machito, 251 Kenyatta, Jomo, 205–206, 230 macumba (religion), 197 Kharijism, 44 Madeira, 66–67, 69, 92 Kimpa Vita, Dona Beatrice, 72. See also Madhubuti, Haki (Don Lee), 245 Kongo, West Central Africa Mai Idrīs Alooma, 36 King Sunny Ade, 254 Makandal, François (Saint-Domingue), King, Jr., Martin Luther, 232, 234 131 Kislar Aghā (head Ottoman eunuch), 41 Makeba, Miriam, 254 Knights of Labor, 193 Makeda, 27–28. See also Queen of Sheba Kongo, 72. See also West Central Africa Malagasy, 78, 129 Korean War, 231 Malcolm X, 235, 280 Krupa, Gene, 250 malê revolt (Bahia), 152–153, 191 kumina (worship form), 195, 197 Mali (ancient), 35, 90 Kuti, Fela, 254 Malik Ambar (India), 48 mamlūks (servile army), 42 labor movements, 192–194 Mandela, Nelson, 248, 268, 273–274 Lacks, Henrietta, 213 Mansa Mūsā, 35, 38, 46 ladinos, 108, 124 Mansur, al-, 45–46 Lam, Wilfredo (Cuba), 222 manumission, 39, 51, 92–93, 166, 169 Larsen, Nella, 217, 219 Maran, René, 218 Las Casas, Bartolomé de (friar), 108 March on Washington, 233–234 Lateef, Yusef, 251 maréchaussée (in Saint-Domingue), 105 Latimer, Lewis (United States), 212 Marley, Bob, 253 Le Maniel (Saint-Domingue), 131 maroons Leeward maroons (Jamaica), 128, 149 Antigua, 130 Légitime Defense, 220 Brazil, 127. See also Palmares Leite, José Correia, 210 Cuba, 126. See also palenques Léro, Etienne, 221 Guadeloupe, 130 Liberdade, A (Brazil), 210 Guianas, 135

INDEX 295

Hispaniola, 124 Morelos, José Maria (Mexico), 166 Jamaica, 128–129 Moret Law (Spain), 170 Martinique, 129–130 Moret, Segismundo (Cuba), 168 North America, 133–134 Morocco, 55, 198, 200 Saint-Domingue, 131 Morris Brown College, 244 Martí, José (Cuba), 179 mortality estimates, 69, 80, 83, 85–86, Martinique, 98, 129–130 100, 111 Maryland, 113 description of, 79 Masekela, Hugh, 254 Morton, “Jelly Roll”, 249 Masʿudī, al-, 54. See also Galen Moses, 25 Matos, Luis Palés (Puerto Rico), 221 Motown records, 252 Mauritania, 55 Mozambique, 79, 267–268, 270, 274, Mayﬁeld, Curtis, 253 276–277 McCoy, Elijah, 211 Muhammad (founder of Islam), 33, 51 _ McKay, Claude (Jamaica), 218–219 Muhammad, Elijah (United States), 199 Medici, Alessandro de, 93 Muhammad, W. D. Fard (United States), Menelick, O (Brazil), 210 199 Menelik, 27–28 Mūlāy Ismāʿīl, 40, 43, 45 mento, 253 music Meroë, race and, 16 blues, 248–249 Meroë (Nubian kingdom), 14, 16–17, 30 calypso, 253 Mexico, 67–68, 166, 241, 256, 258 early African American, 246 Micheaux, Oscar (United States), 218 hip-hop, 286 mid-Atlantic colonies/states. Jamaican, 253 number of blacks jazz, 249–252, 254 slaves in, 112–113 “race records”, 250 Middle Passage, 69, 79, 81, 86, 141 ragtime, 248 Midrashim, 26 mutual aid societies, 200 Mighty Sparrow, 253 myalism (employing spiritual powers for migration. good), 195 Brazil, 192 Caribbean, 187, 189–190, 276 Nabuco, Joaquim, 163 France, 190, 219, 243, 275–276 naciones (nations, Cuba), 197 Great Migration, 190 nações (nations, Brazil), 195, 197 North America, 189–190, 276, 278–282 Nadal, Paulette, Jane, and Andrée undocumented migrants, 284–285 (Martinique), 220 United Kingdom, 190, 243, 276 “Nagôs” (Yoruba), 152, 196 women, 189 Nanny (Jamaica maroon leader), 129 Mingus, Charles, 251 Nanny Town (Jamaica), 128 Mitchell, Arthur, 252 Napata (Nubian kingdom), 14 Moïse (Saint-Domingue), 155 NASA, 212 Moncada, Guillermo (Cuba), 169, 179 Nasser, Gamal Abdel (Egypt), 229 Mondlane, Eduardo, 267 Nation of Islam, 199–200, 235 Montserrat, 96 National Association for the Moody, Ann (United States), 234 Advancement of Colored People Moody, Harold (Jamaica), 205 (NAACP), 37, 204 Moore, Ruth Ella, 212 National Urban League, 204 Moorish Science Temple of America. Native Americans, 80. See also First Nations See also Ali, Noble Drew nativism, 284 Moors, 45 Nefertari, 220 Morehouse College, 244 negrismo, 221

296 INDEX

négritude, 5, 219–220, 246 Obama, Barack, 5, 280–281 Negro National League, 256 Obbah (or Aba, revolt leader in Antigua), Negro World, 95–96 149 Nevis, 264 obeah (spiritual manipulation), 129, 137, New England, 112 195 New Testament, 26, 30 Oliver, King, 249 New York City, 113, 119, 151–152, 190, Olympic Games, 256 198, 206–208, 215, 218, 237–238, Olympius (black athlete), 18 247, 249, 252, 269 O’Neill, Eugene (United States), 218 migration to, 189 orishas (gods), 197, 251 revolts in, 151–152 Othello, 93 Nicaragua, 204, 230 Ottoman Empire. 41–42, 48–49, 56, 93, Nimrod, 25 249 Nkrumah, Kwame, 204, 209, 230, 267 Ovando, Nicolás de, 108, 124 Noah, 24–25 Owens, Jessie, 257 Noël, 131 Norman, Jessye, 252 Padmore, George (Trinidad), 205–206, North Africa. 230 Christianity in, 29–30 Paige, Satchel, 256 Islam in, 33 palenques (maroons), 125, 127 North America Palmares, 127 black population by 1860, 113 pan (steel drum), 253 black slaveholders, 117 Pan-African Congresses (and W. E. black-owned property, 117 B. Du Bois), 204–205 captives from Bight of Benin, 113 pan-Africanism, 201–202, 205, 230, 235, captives from Bight of Biafra, 113 254, 272 captives from Gold Coast, 113 Panama. captives from Senegambia, 113 early revolts in, 125 captives from Sierra Leone, 113 introduction of American Jim Crow, captives from West Central Africa, 113 189 “clustering”, 114 Panama Canal, 188–189 differentiation among enslaved, Senegambian presence in, 108 116–117 “Panama money”, 189 domestic slave trade, 114 Paraguay (and race), 241 early African presence, 111–113 Paraguayan War, 170 enslaved population, 114–115 pardo (as a mixed race category), 111, 191, “free” blacks, 116–117 196 literacy among enslaved, 116 Paris, 219 maroons in, 133–135 Park, Mungo, 80 Muslims in, 116 Parker, Charlie “Bird”, 250 pre-Columbian African presence, 90 Parks, Rosa, 232 Slave Codes, 114, 116 partus sequitur ventrum, 140 various skills of the enslaved, 115 patois. See creole languages white slaveholders, 113–114 Patrocíno, José do (Brazil), 163 See also United States, Canada Paul (Saint-Domingue), 155 Nova Scotia, 150 Pelé, 256 Nubia, 14–15 Pernambuco (Brazil), 69, 96, 127 Biblical references, 21–23 petroleum, 187, 190 Christianity in, 29 Pinchback, P. B. S. (United States), 175 Egypt and, 13 Pineda, Policarpo (or Rustán, Cuba), 169 women, 13 Pinkster (holiday), 143–144

INDEX 297

Pinnacle, the (Jamaica), 198 Cuba, 110–111, 179 plaçage, 138 deﬁned, 11 plantations. European views, 124 Caribbean and North American, 99 Graeco-Roman Antiquity, 15 Saint-Domingue, 102, 106 Iberian peninsula, 46 Plessy v. Ferguson (United States), 178, 231 Islam and, 50–51, 54–55 poisoning (Saint-Domingue), 131 Latin America, 240–241 Poitiers, Battle of, 44 Mexico, 241 Ponce de Léon, 69 Qur’ān, 50 Portugal, 91, 267–268, 277 Saint-Domingue, 102, 105 African imperialism, 37, 69, 266–270 South America, 241–242 African population, 244, 276 United States, 176, 212, 240 Brazil and, 69, 94, 128 ragtime, 248 Christian reconquest (1267), 65 Rainey, Ma (United States), 248 circumnavigating Africa, 66 Ramos, Marcelino Arozarena, 221 enslaved population, 91–92 Randolph, A. Philip, 193, 202 gold trade, 66 Rastafarianism, 197–198, 253 Madeira and, 66, 69, 92 ratios. Palmares and, 33, 127 male-to-female in Caribbean, 99 slave trade, 66, 69, 79, 91 male-to-female in Saint-Domingue, 106 abolition, 170 Rebouças, André Pinto (Brazil), 163 Indian Ocean, 66 Reconstruction (United States), 174–178 See also Iberia “forty acres and a mule”, 175 Pratt, Geronimo, 238 Radical Reconstruction, 176 prêto (black), 191, 196 Reconstruction Act of 1867, 175 Price, Leontyne, 252 Southern Homestead Act of 1866, 176 Prince Buster, 253 Red Summer of 1919, 192 Progresso, 210 religion. Prophet, Nancy Elizabeth, 219 African inﬂuences in Americas, 195 Prosser, Gabriel (United States), 159 and resistance, 139–141 provision grounds (Saint-Domingue), renewed African religions in Americas, 106–107 195, 197 Puente, Tito, 251 transformation of Christianity, 195 Puerto Rico. Renaissance period, 91–94 early African presence in, 108 repatriation movements, 163–165 early revolts in, 125 resistance to slavery, 136–148 Punic Wars, 18 Revels, Hiram R. (United States), 175 Pushkin, Alexander, 244 revolts, 149 aboard slavers, 84, 124 Quakers, 161 Antigua, 149 Queen of Sheba, 23, 26–28 Bahia, 152–153 Quier, John, 214 Brazil, 151–153 quilombo (or mocambo, maroon), 128. circum-Caribbean, 149 See also Palmares Demerara (Guiana), 151 Jamaica, 149–150 race and racism, 284 New York City, 151–152 ancient Egypt, 11 North America, 157–161 Brazil, 153, 191, 194–195, 210–211, Saint-Domingue, 155 241–242 seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Central America, 241 Latin America, 125 contemporary nativism, 284 sixteenth-century Latin America, 125

298 INDEX

Revue du Monde Noir, 220 São Tomé, 68 Ricard, Cyrian (Louisiana), 117 Sapelo (Georgia), 116 rice, 77, 113 saqāliba, 39–40 Rigaud (Saint-Domingue), 157 Saramaka, 136 Rillieux, Norbert (United States), 212 saros (repatriated Africans), 165 Roach, Max, 251–252 Savage, Augusta, 219 Roaring Lion, 253 Schomburg, Arthur (Puerto Rico), 218 Robeson, Paul (United States), 93, 206, science, 211–214 218, 252 black scientists and engineers, 211–213 Robinson, Jackie, 256 experimentation on black subjects, Robinson, Jo Ann (United States), 213–214 234 Scott, Emmett J., 192 Rogers, J. A. (Jamaica), 218 “seasoning”, 100 Rome (Classical), 15–19 “secret societies”, 77. See also Sierra Leone. Roosevelt, Franklin D., 212 Sembene, Ousmane, 245 Roumain, Jacques, 221 Seminole Wars, 134 Russia, 243 Seminoles, 133 Russwurm, John (North America), 162 Senegambia. Rustin, Bayard (United States), 232 context for transatlantic trade, 78 source for those in revolt in Hispaniola, Saba (Yemen), 27 125 Saint-Domingue source of captives for Costa Rica, captives from Bight of Benin, 102 Panama, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, captives from West Central Africa, 70, 108 102 source of captives for North America, economy during slavery, 105–106 113 engagés in, 102, 105 Senghor, Léopold (Senegal), 220, 230 labor, 106 Senhor dos Martírios (“Lord of the life expectancy of enslaved, 105 Martyrs”), 197 market activity, 106 Septuagint, 24 maroons in, 131 Serra y Montalvo, Rafael (Cuba), 180 numbers of enslaved in, 102, 105 Seville, 47, 92, 94, 126 plantations in, 103 Shakur, Assata, 238 provision grounds in, 106–107 Shango (religion), 197 relative wealth of, 102 sharecropping (United States), 176 See also Haiti, Hispaniola. sharīʿa (Islamic law), 39 Sạ̄ lih al-Fulānī, 38 “Siddis”, 56 _ salsa (dance and music), 251 Sierra Leone. “salt-water” blacks, 100 resettlement site for recaptives, 164 San Martin, José de (South America), site of those resettled from Trelawny 165–166 War, 150 Sanchez, Sonia (United States), 245 source for transatlantic slave trade, 71 Sánchez, Ventura (Cuba), 126 Siete Partidas (Spanish laws that include Sanders, Pharoah, 251 slave codes), 140–143 santería (religion), 196, 222 Sika Dwa, 77 Santo Domingo, 102. See also Hispaniola, Simon of Cyrene, 26 Dominican Republic Simone, Nina, 253 Santos, Arlindo Veiga dos (Brazil), 210 Sissle, Noble (United States), 218 Santos, Eugenia Anna dos (Aninha), sit-in movement (United States), 232 196 ska, 253 São Paulo, 96, 170, 191, 210 Slave Codes (North America), 114

INDEX 299

slave trade. South Carolina. Atlantic, 64, 69 captives from West Central Africa, 113, abduction and transport to coast, 157 78–80 early African presence in, 112 European nations involved, 69 south-east Africa, 71, 78, 110 mortality rates, 80, 86 southern Arabia. origin of slaves, 70–78 domination by African powers, 27 sale and purchase in Africa, 82 Southern Christian Leadership scope of trade, 67–70 Conference (SCLC), 232. See also slave ships, 81–82 King, Jr., Martin Luther domestic North American, 114 southern Europe. Iberian peninsula, 91–92 Africans in, 16, 19 Islamic, 37 Spelman College, 244 Old World, 37–38, 64 sports, 255–258 transatlantic trade “abolished” in St. Augustine (Florida), 133–134 North America, 113, 161 St. Jan (slaver), 82 slavery. St. Kitts (St. Christopher), 96 Brazil, 96 St. Lucia, 98 British-claimed Caribbean, 99, 102 St. Vincent. economic development of Americas Vox Populi Riots, 173 Europe, 118–119 Stevenson, Teóﬁlo, 257 Islam and, 39–40 Stono Rebellion, 133, 157 Islamic world Stowe, Harriet Beecher (United States), eunuchs, 41 162 military slaves, 42–43 Strayhorn, Billy, 249 slave labor, 42 Student Nonviolent Coordinating status of slaves under sharīʿa, 39 Committee (SNCC), 233 women and children, 40 suffragette movement, 162 North America, 111–118 sugar cane. Ottoman Empire, 40, 56 Barbados, 96, 110 Renaissance Europe, 91–94 Brazil, 107, 128, 191 Saint-Domingue Caribbean, 97–98, 100, 103, 105, 107, Spanish-claimed lands, 107–111 109, 188, 190 slaves, humanity of, 64 Central America, 108, 189 smallpox, 214 Cuba, 107, 109–110, 157, 179 Smith, Bessie (United States), 248 France, 107 Smith, Mamie (United States), 248 Iraq, 42 Smith, Tommie, 258 Madeira, 67 soca (music), 253 Mediterranean, 66 soccer (sport), 256 North America, 114–115 social Darwinism, 124 Peru, 109 Society for the Protection of the Needy Saint-Domingue, 105–107, 155 (Brazil), 194 South America, 69, 95, 108–109 Solomon, 23, 26–28 trade, 112 Solomonid dynasty, 28. See also Ethiopia Suhaym (poet), 35 _ Songhay (ethno-linguistic group), 56 suicide, 146 Songhay (imperial state), 35–36, 38, 40 “surgeons”, 86 South Africa, 206, 230, 258, 268–275, Suriname, 135, 276 277, 279 Swahili (ethno-linguistic group), 36–37, 78 South America. Swahili coast, 36–37, 49 captives from West Central Africa, 70 syphilis, 214

300 INDEX

“Table of Nations”, 24–25 Umar b. Said (United States), 116 Tabot (Ark of the Covenant), 27–28 Umayyad (caliphate), 37, 44 Tackey (Antigua revolt leader), 149 umbanda (Brazil), 197 Tackey (Jamaica revolt leader), 149 United Fruit Company, 189 Talladega College, 219 United Kingdom, 243, 276 Talmud, 25 abolition of slave trade, 161 Tanner, Henry Ossawa, 218–219 African diaspora, 243 tennis, 256 Caribbean and, 102 Thirteenth Amendment (United States), Caribbean imports, 102, 105 168 colonial soldiers, 192 Thousand and One Nights, 42, 53–54 culture, 208, 254 Tiant, Sr., Luis, 256 Marcus Garvey and, 203 timber, 187 migration to, 190, 243, 276 Timbuktu, 35, 38 music, 254 Tiye, 14. See also Egypt, Nubia repatriation movements, 164 tobacco, 96, 110, 113, 130, 213 textile industry, 119 Tobago, 149, 173, 187, 207, 239, 246, United States 277, 279 culture, 244–253 Belmanna Riots, 173 migration to, 189, 278–282 Tometi, Opal, 285 postwar social movements, 231–239 Toomer, Jean (United States), 216 Public Health Service syphilis Toots and the Maytals, 253 experiments, 213 Tosh, Peter, 254 See also American Civil War, American trade, East Africa, 36 War of Independence, Jim Crow Trelawny Town (Jamaican maroons), 150 laws, North America Trelawny Town War, 150 Universal Negro Improvement Trinidad. Association, 202–203, 208, British seizure of, 98 215 cédula, 98 uprisings, 152. See also revolts free and colored smallholders, 99 urban ghettoes, 232 French in, 98 urbanization. numbers of enslaved, 98 Brazil, 191 percentage from Bight of Benin, 98 United States, 190 percentage from Bight of Biafra, 98 Uruguay, 241 percentage from Gold Coast, 98 percentage from West Central Africa, 98 Vasconcelos, Mario de (Brazil), 210 under Spanish, 98 Venezuela, 108, 125, 166, 188, 242 Trotter, Monroe, 204 Venice, 65, 93 Truth, Sojourner, 162 Vermejales, Los (Jamaican maroons), 128 Tuareg, 35, 37, 42 Vesey, Denmark (United States), Tubman, Harriet (North America), 135 158, 159, 201 Tula (revolt leader in Curaçao), 154 Vietnam War, 168, 231, 233, 236, Tulun, Ahmad, 43 238 Ture, Kwame (Stokely Carmichael, Virgin Islands. Trinidad), 254 American purchase, 188 Turkey, 48. See also Ottoman Empire Virginia. Turner, Nat (United States), 160 and captives from Bight of Biafra, 113 Tuskegee Airmen, 192 voodoo (or vodu or vodun), Tuskegee syphilis experiments, 214 and Cécile Fatiman, 154 Twelve Tribes of Israel, 198 and François Makandal, 131 Tyner, McCoy, 252 inﬂuence upon Christianity, 195

INDEX 301

Wailer, Bunny, 254 in Islamic societies, 38, 40, 48, 52 Walcott, Derek (St. Lucia), 246 leadership, 30, 127, 149, 196 Walker, David (United States), 9, 160 manumission petitions, 169 Walker, Madam C. J., 212 maroon communities, 131 Waller, Fats, 249 migration, 189 Walrond, Eric (British Guiana), 218 music, 250 Washington, Booker T., 192, 203 political activism, 162, 207–209, 234, Waters, Ethel, 249 237–238, 285 Weathermen (revolutionary group), 238 rape and sexual exploitation, 40–41, 83, West Africa. 100, 138, 231, 285 domestic slave trade in, 36 reproductive issues, 137–139 gold trade, 33 scientiﬁc work, 212 Islam in, 33 secret societies, 78 West Central Africa, 73 slave transport, 83 as source of captives soldiers, 192 Cuba, 110 status in African societies, 75, 77 North America, 113 Woodruff, Hale, 219 Saint-Domingue, 103 Woods, Granville T., 212 South Carolina, 157 Woodson, Carter G. (United States), 9 Trinidad, 98 world war West Computers, 213 African American participation, 192 West Indies Federation, 239–240 and migration in US, 190 Weston, Randy, 252 diasporic participation, 192 white terrorist organizations (United Wright, Richard (United States), 245 States), 178 Whydah (Bight of Benin), 70, 73 Xenophanes, 17 Williams, Daniel Hale, 212 Williams, Eric (Trinidad), 90, 118, 207, Yale University, 118 246 Yemen, 27, 50 Williams, Henry Sylvestre (Trinidad), 205 Yoruba, 73, 78, 132, 152, 165, 196–197, Williams, Mary Lou, 249–250 238, 255 Williams, Venus and Serena, 256 Yoruba (ethno-linguistic groups), 73 Wilson, Isaac, 87 Young Lords, 237–238 Windrush (ship), 243, 276 Young, Lester “Prez”, 249 Windward Coast, 79. See also Sierra Young, Roger Arliner, 212 Leone Yūsuf b. Tāshīn, 43 Windward maroons (Jamaica), 128, 149 women Zagwe dynasty, 28. See also Ethiopia absconding, 148 Zambos Mosquitos, 132 agricultural labor, 65, 72, 77, 100, 106, Zanj, revolt of, 42, 53, 160 112 Zanzibar, 42 ancient world, 13, 15, 18, 23 Zephaniah, 23 Caribbean, 100, 102 Zheng He, 37 commercial activity, 106, 145, 172 zouk, 253 domestic service, 40, 50, 65, 92 Zumbi (of Palmares, Brazil), 127