QUALITY OF LIFE IN NEW ZEALAND’S SIX LARGEST CITIES Foreword from the Mayors
Improving the quality of life of people is perhaps the most important role of local and central government. This first Quality of Life report presents a picture of wellbeing in New Zealand’s six most populated cities. These cities are great places to live, work and play and are vibrant with a rich diversity of people from different cultures and backgrounds. However some communities are excluded from the social and economic benefits that others in our cities are enjoying. In fact the inequalities have been widening. By monitoring the complex factors that interplay in assessing quality of life, we can continue to address these issues and pinpoint areas for further action. Addressing the matters raised in this report requires a co-operative effort by local and central government, community organisations, businesses and citizens. The report is an extremely important document that will prove invaluable as we strive to measure our progress as cities and improve the quality of life of those who live in them. It is also a valuable information resource that will stimulate debate and focus planning, policies and decision making. The work provides an excellent example of how local authorities can work together to deliver common outcomes. The Councils involved remain committed to ensuring their cities are vibrant, exciting urban centres. All are already taking action through partnerships with central government and the community sector in areas such as affordable housing, health and employment. Continuing to work together can positively impact on the challenges raised in this report to ensure that quality of life in cities remains a priority for all.
Christine Fletcher Garry Moore Sir Barry Curtis Mayor of Auckland Mayor of Christchurch Mayor of Manukau
George Wood Bob Harvey Mark Blumsky Mayor of North Shore Mayor of Waitakere Mayor of Wellington
EducationForeword 2 Acknowledgements
This project has been made possible by the support of the Chief Executives of the ‘150+ Forum’, which covers the cities in New Zealand with a population of over 150,000 people. They have taken a keen interest in the project, guided us when necessary, and buoyed our spirits when the completion of this project seemed a rather distant goal. The elected representatives of the six cities have also, without exception, welcomed the report as a way of better understanding the communities over which they exercise governance. The highly co-operative nature of this project has enabled us to achieve far more than any one council could on its own, and produce a report that is valuable at both a national and city level. The team of council officers who have worked on this project has changed slightly over the course of it, but I would like to thank the following individuals in particular for their tireless effort, teamwork, and the formidable collective talent they have applied to this project:
Auckland City Council - Kathryn Nemec
Christchurch City Council - Kath Jamieson
Manukau City Council - Kate Goodfellow
North Shore City Council - Alison Reid, Karin Adelinger
Waitakere City Council - Megan Courtney, Kevin Wright
Wellington City Council - Paul Desborough
A special thank you to Louise Fawthorpe who took on the immense task of gathering the data necessary for the project from far and wide. This required a huge amount of work and determination. Many data sources were used, including government departments, council records and Census data, and the assistance of the many people involved is genuinely appreciated. Statistics New Zealand in particular was very responsive to our continual requests for detailed information at a city level. We are also indebted to the many people who gave feedback on our early drafts, often providing substantial comment that has improved the quality of the final report. A list of those consulted is printed inside the back cover. And finally to the document production team, especially Cliff Burgess at Print Strategies, and Jacqui Leclercq at Pageworks, who have presented this report in a lively and accessible style.
Leigh Gatt, Manukau City Council Project Manager
Published by: Auckland City Council, Christchurch City Council, Manukau City Council, North Shore City Council, Waitakere City Council, Wellington City Council. Quality of Life Produced and Printed by Print Strategies Limited, Auckland, New Zealand. Contents
PAGE NO.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
QUALITY OF LIFE INDICATORS Introduction 3 Background 3 Issues and Indicators 4
KEY RESULTS Demographics 6 Housing 6 Health 6 Education 7 Employment and Economy 7 Safety 8 RESULTS Urban Environment 8 Community Cohesion 8 Democracy 9
INTRODUCTION TO AND ANALYSIS OF: Demographics 11 Housing 29 Health 45 Education 59 Employment and Economy 67 Safety 81
ANALYSIS Urban Environment 89 Community Cohesion 101 Democracy 109
DATA COLLECTION 118
CONCLUSIONS 120
DEFINITIONS 122
CONSULTATION Inside Back Cover
Contents Index of Indicator Tables and Graphs
Indicators Tables and Graphs Page
DEMOGRAPHICS Population Percentage population growth, by city (1991 to 1996) 12 growth Population counts, by city (1996 to 2000) 13 Population projections to 2021, by city 13
Migration Net external migration trends, by city (1981 to 2000) 14 Country of last residence for permanent and long term arrivals into New Zealand, by city (1996 to 1999) 14
Ethnicity Ethnic composition of New Zealand’s six largest cities (1996) 15 Characteristics of ethnic groups in New Zealand (1991 to 1996) 16 Projected growth within ethnic groupings, by city (1996 to 2016) 17 Five most common languages spoken (other than English), by region (1996) 17
Age structure Age structure within New Zealand’s six largest cities (1996) 18 Current and projected median age within New Zealand’s six largest cities 19 Age structure, by ethnicity, for New Zealand’s six largest cities (1996) 19
Household Household composition, by city (1996) 20 composition Percent of households with two or more families resident, by city (1991 and 1996) 21 Average household size, by city (1996) 21
Income Median household income, by city (1991 and 1996) 22 Proportion of population aged 15 years and over in personal income brackets, by city (1996) 23 Percentage of people within each ethnic group aged 15 years and over (in six largest cities) within each income bracket (1996) 23 Total beneficiaries, by city (year to May 2000) 24 Number and proportion of beneficiaries receiving benefits for two or more years, by city (2000) 24
Social Percentage of population living in Deprivation Index deciles, by city (1996) 25 deprivation Wards within the six cities with the highest proportion of meshblocks in deciles 9 and 10 (1996) 26
Low income Percentage of families (with children) earning less than 60% families of median family income, by city (1991 and 1996) 27 with children Percentage of families (with children) earning less than 60% of median family income, by ethnicity (1991 & 1996) 27
HOUSING Home ownership Proportion of population who own a private dwelling and who rented, (1986, 1991 and 1996) 30 Proportion of private dwellings owned, by ethnicity (1996) 31
Costs and Median residential dwelling sale price, by region (year to May 2000) 32 affordability Home mortgage affordability as a percentage of the national average, by region (June quarter 1998 to 2000) 33 Median weekly rents, by city (years ended June 1998, 1999, 2000) 34 Proportion of average weekly household income spent on housing costs, by income bracket (year ended March 1998) 34 Percentage of average weekly household spending on housing, by income (years ended March 1996, 1997, 1998) 35
Accommodation Accommodation supplement recipients (years ended May 1998, 1999) supplement as a proportion of city population (at June 1998, 1999) 36
Crowded Percentage of people in private dwellings living in crowded households, by city (1991 and 1996) 38 households Percentage of people in private dwellings living in crowded households, by ethnicity (1996) 39
Central & local Housing New Zealand units as a proportion of rented private dwellings in each city government (years ended May 1998, 1999, 2000) 40 housing Percentage change in the number of Housing New Zealand units, by city (years ended May 1999, 2000) 40 Number of local authority owned houses as a proportion of rented private dwellings in each city (2000) 41 Quality of Life Housing Number of new houses and units as a proportion of all new dwellings (1998 to 2000) 43 intensification
HEALTH Infant mortality Infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births, by city (1996 to 1997 averaged) 46 Average infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births, by ethnicity (1996 and 1997 averaged) 47
Birth weights Average annual rate of low birth weight babies per 1,000 live births, by city (1996 and 1997 averaged) 47 Average rate of low birth weight babies per 1,000 live births, by ethnicity (1996 and 1997 averaged) 48
General Rate of general practitioners per 100,000 population (1997 to 1999) 49 practitioners
Meningococcal Rate of notified cases of meningococcal disease per 10,000 children aged under 15 years, disease by city (1993 to 1999) 50 Rate of notified cases of meningococcal disease per 10,000 population of children aged 15 years and under, by ethnicity (1993 to 1999 total) 51
Tuberculosis Rate of notified tuberculosis cases per 100,000 population, by city (1993 to 1999) 52 Rate of notified tuberculosis cases per 100,000 population, by ethnicity (1993 to 1999) 52
Immunisation Commentary 53
Suicide Total suicides per city, by age (1993 to 1997) 54 Number of suicides, by city (1993 to 1997) 54
Mental illness Commentary
Physical activity Percentage of active young people (aged 5 to 17 years) and active adults (1997 to 1998) 57
EDUCATION Early childhood Percentage of population aged under 5 years who attended state funded pre-school (1997 to 1999) 60 education
School decile Percentage of pupils within school decile, by city (1999) 61 ratings
Suspensions & Percentage of population aged 5 to 15 years who were suspended or stood-down, by ethnicity stand-downs (July to Dec 1999) 62
Qualifications Percentage of population aged 15 years and over who have gained qualification, by city (1991 and 1996 63 School leavers with no qualifications as a percentage of all school leavers (1995 to 1999) 64
Community Percentage of population aged 15 years or over who participated in community education, by city education (1996 to 1999) 65
EMPLOYMENT AND ECONOMY Occupational Percentage of labour force employed within occupational categories (full-time employees), by city (1996) 69 structure
Jobs Proportion of labour force employed within industry sector, by city (1999) 71 Percentage change in workforce numbers, by city (1995 to 1999) 72
Unemployment Unemployment rate, by region (1995 to 2000 - March quarter) 73
Earnings Average hourly earnings, by city (1995 to 1999) 75
Regional economy Annual average growth rate in economic activity, by region (1990 to 2000) 76
Food price Changes in the Food Price Index, by region (1994 to 1999) 77
Retail sales Annual percentage change in retail sales, by region (1997 to 1999) 78 expenditure Annual percentage change in retail expenditure, by region (1997 to 1999) 79
Index SAFETY Burglary Rate of recorded burglaries per 10,000 population, by police district (1996 to 1998) 82
Juvenile offending Total number of reported juvenile offences within police districts, by age (1996 to 1998) 83
Child, Youth and Notifications per 1,000 people aged 17 years and under, by CYF district (1997 to 2000) 84 Family Services
Feeling safe Percentage of respondents who felt ‘very safe’ or ‘safe’, overall (2000) 85
Traffic fatalities Rate of traffic fatalities per 100,000 population, by city (1994 to 1998) 86
Child injuries Total rate of unintentional injury per 100,000 children aged 14 years and under, by ethnicity (1994 to 1998 combined) 87
URBAN ENVIRONMENT City look & feel Citizens’ satisfaction with the look and feel of their City as a whole (2000) 90
Air quality Number of exceedances of air quality standard at the worst sites in each city (1997 to 1999) 91
Beach water Rate of exceedance at monitored sites (no. of exceedances ( total no. of samples) 92
Noise Complaints about noise per Local Authority (1998 to 1999) 93
Graffiti Commentary 93
Open space Open space per 1,000 population per Local Authority, by city (1999) 95
Recreation Citizens’ satisfaction with access to leisure and recreation opportunities (2000) 96
Travel to work Mode of transport to work on census day, by city (1996) 97
Public transport Number of trips made by different forms of public transport, by region (1991 and 1996) 98 Kilometres travelled (million kilometres), by region in 1991 and 1996 99 Frequency of use of public transport, by city (2000) 99 Percentage of respondents who ‘strongly agree’ or ‘agree’ that public transport is safe, convenient and affordable, by city (2000) 100
COMMUNITY COHESION Neighbours Type of contact with neighbours, by city (2000) 102
Community Perceptions that the community works together and people support each other, by city (2000) 103 strength Percentage of respondents who felt the social network or group that matters most to them was mainly based around where they live (2000) 104 Frequency of feeling lonely or isolated in previous 12 months, by city (2000) 104
Diversity Perceptions of diversity in each city (2000) 105
Unpaid work Percent of population aged 15 years and over involved in unpaid activity, by city (1996) 106 Type of unpaid work done, by city (1996) 107
DEMOCRACY Treaty of Waitangi Commentary
Election turnout Voter turnout at last general election (1999) 111 Five electoral areas with lowest voter turnout and five electoral areas with highest voter turnout in last general election (1999) 112 Proportion of voters participating in regional council elections (1992, 1995, 1998) 113 Proportion of voters participating in local authority elections 113
Community Citizens’ understanding of how council makes decisions, by city (2000) 114 involvement in Citizens’ satisfaction with the way Council involves people in decision making, by city (2000) 115 decision making Citizens’ perception of the public’s ability to influence council decision making, by city (2000) 116
Representation Percentage of school boards of trustees, by ethnicity (1999) 117 Composition of school boards of trustees, by sex (1996 to 1999) 117 Quality of Life Executive Summary
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND This report presents a picture of the quality of life in the six largest cities of New Zealand. The Councils of these cities - Auckland, Christchurch, Manukau, North Shore, Waitakere and Wellington - are concerned about the impacts of growth and urbanisation and the effects of this on the wellbeing of citizens. All are committed to ensuring their cities remain vibrant urban centres where citizens experience a high quality of life. This project began in 1999 with an objective of establishing indicators of social wellbeing in these cities - which accommodate around 40% of New Zealand’s population. The project soon grew to include economic and environmental indicators to enable monitoring of whole quality of life. The second part of the project was to use these indicators to assess trends and changes and highlight common themes relevant to an urban environment. These are recorded in this report. The next step is to work in partnership with others to address matters raised in this report and to continue the monitoring programme.
OVERVIEW OF ISSUES AND INDICATORS The process of identifying issues and indicators, collecting data, analysing, and report writing has taken almost two years. The work has been carried out with the technical assistance of a broad range of people and their organisations - to these people, a grateful thanks. The work resulted in monitoring demographic changes, housing, community safety and health, educational levels, employment and the economy, the urban environment, community cohesion and matters around democracy. The report layout shows a chapter on each of these nine issues and the indicators used for monitoring and analysing each issue. The findings and key points are also included and are summarised below.
OVERVIEW OF KEY RESULTS There are vast differences in the socio-demographic makeup across the six cities, but all share the common factor of being large urbanised areas, with inherent impacts on physical and social infrastructure. Furthermore, it is estimated that the four cities of Auckland will account for more than half of the projected population growth of New Zealand over the next 20 years. Some socio-demographic characteristics of the six cities include ethnic diversity and growing migrant populations, increasing income inequality and an increasing number of children living in low-income families, with Maori, Pacific Islands and Asian children over-represented in comparison to their proportion within the general population. Most of New Zealand’s high income earners live in the six cities but so do most of the low income earners. This latter group is most affected by the accommodation costs of city living where there are high house prices, rent and mortgage costs (particularly in Auckland, North Shore and Wellington Cities). These factors influence home ownership rates and the makeup of communities. Housing costs are also a factor impacting on the number of people living in each house. In fact 1.4% of urban households could be considered crowded compared with 0.9% of rural households. Crowded households are considered a primary factor in the incidence of disease and in 1999, for example, over half of New Zealand’s tuberculosis cases were found in our largest cities. Addressing the underlying determinants of health (such as housing) is a priority given their impact on health status and quality of life for citizens. The impact of these determinants, along with behaviours such as smoking, alcohol and drug use and level of exercise (the latter is lower in young city dwellers), impacts on longevity and mental health. There is a strong correlation between socio-economic status and health, particularly among Maori and Pacific Islands populations who experience relatively poor health outcomes. The underlying socio-economic status of communities is also reflected in big differences between educational outcomes in the six cities where one third of children attend schools with a low decile ranking. However, participation rates in education pre and post school are generally healthy. The highest qualification gained in the six cities is also showing some improvement but the percentage of the total population with no qualifications is still significant, as is the percentage of school leavers with no qualifications. An encouraging statistic is the falling levels of school leavers without qualifications in Manukau and Waitakere Cities, which otherwise tend to show poorer levels of participation and achievement in education. This lack of qualifications impacts on employment levels and therefore productivity and economic growth in the six cities. In 1999, the Auckland, Wellington and Canterbury Regions that include the six cities accounted for 60% of New Zealand’s economy and around 41% of the national workforce. Local economies are affected by factors such as the international environment, domestic factors, the regulatory environment and infrastructure issues. However, education and training, to ensure labour force skills match employer needs, are essential for a healthy local economy. ExecutiveEducation Summary 1 While the urban economies and the populations are growing, so are concerns about safety in some cities. Citizens’ perception of safety in the six largest cities indicates that people feel safer during the day than at night. Burglary and traffic fatalities are dropping, and road traffic fatalities and rates of unintentional injuries to children are considerably lower in the six largest cities than in the rest of New Zealand. Traffic fatalities can be further reduced by changing transport habits, particularly in Manukau, North Shore and Waitakere Cities. Here, citizen surveys revealed that over half of respondents never used public transport, generally preferring car based travel. Perceptions of public transport are more favourable in Wellington and Christchurch than in the Auckland Region. The high use of the motor vehicle is also a key contributor to air and water pollution and high noise levels in the cities. This affects citizens’ perception about their area. Over half of the citizens of the six largest cities are generally comfortable with the community in which they live. They are satisfied with the look and feel of their city, they perceive that their community works together, and that people support each other. Perceptions of community support were strongest in Manukau and Wellington Cities, with all cities having some positive perceptions that people from different cultures and lifestyles made their city a better place. One concern is the lower level of volunteerism in the six cities compared to the rest of New Zealand. All Councils have structures and processes in place to work with tangata whenua. The diversity of cultures and lifestyles in the six cities would ideally be evident in local governance structures. However, representation is influenced by voter turnout, which is lower in New Zealand’s six largest cities compared to the rest of New Zealand. Europeans appear to be over-represented on school boards of trustees in relation to the ethnic population of their area. Pacific Islands and Maori people are reasonably well represented in Auckland and Manukau Cities, but under-represented in all other cities. While there are no hard statistics available on the composition of local councils and community boards, the pattern appears similar to school boards.
DATA ISSUES In monitoring conditions for this report, it became clear that there were many issues around data availability and collection that could not be resolved, at least at the time of writing. These include the lack of comparable data over consecutive years, inconsistency of data, and data not being available at the six city level nor in many cases, at a ward level (except for 1996 Census data). For some indicators, the cost of the data put it beyond the scope of the current project’s budget. These factors influenced the selection of the final set of indicators and therefore the issues reported in this document.
CONCLUSIONS This project has provided valuable experience in the use of indicators, building relationships with others managing similar projects, analysis of statistics and working together as Councils. Planning is now underway to update this report in around two years (perhaps in collaboration with Central Government). The next steps include working with Central Government on some of the issues raised in this report. In particular, on the matters of: population growth and poverty pockets in the Auckland Region unemployment crowded households and housing affordability and quality immigrant and refugee health, and the underlying determinants of health school leavers with no qualifications recreation for youth risk to children and youth public transport issues and air, water, noise and graffiti pollution support for volunteers and community organisations willingness to stand for election by non-European citizens and voter turnout at elections indicator selection, data collection, perception surveys and outcome measurement.
Measuring quality of life should become a regular exercise contributing to the development of more effective partnerships. It is a key tool for looking at the effects of the work of the public sector in the effort to enhance the quality of life in New Zealand. Thank you to those who have provided time, energy, experience and thinking to this report.
2 Quality of Life Quality of Life Indicators
Introduction
There has been growing acceptance during the last two or three years of the need for public policymakers in New Zealand to embrace a model of community involvement in decision making (community governance). One reflection of this is the strategic direction of the current Government in recognising the importance of an effective partnership between themselves and local government throughout New Zealand. The outcomes sought by central and local government are common. They relate to a vision for high quality social, economic and environmental outcomes in our communities both today and for future generations. Furthermore it is evident that the outcomes will only be achieved if each partner contributes those elements which it is best placed to contribute. The importance of effective partnerships between central and local government, and also a wide range of groups in the not-for-profit and business sectors, is now widely accepted. There is less agreement as to the means of achieving this. It is clear, however, that more effective partnerships will require new ways for the spheres of government to discuss priority setting, programme design and programme implementation. This will involve the application of a battery of tools and techniques. One of the key tools will be the effective use of quality of life indicators. This report presents for the first time a consistent set of quality of life indicators for the six largest cities in New Zealand. It does not cover the whole country (although it does cover around 40% of the New Zealand population). Some of the indicators used may prove to be less useful over time, and there are indicators not included that need to be developed to aid decision-making. Nonetheless, while recognising some deficiencies, the report is a milestone in putting forward a widely based set of quality of life indicators for a significant part of the country. There has been a great deal of focus over the last two decades on measuring the success of particular programmes (output measurement). There has been considerably less focus on tracking the extent to which the quality of life in our society, which these outputs are aimed at improving, is itself getting better or worse. In launching this report the six cities invite central government to work with them on the ongoing development of these indicators and their use for improving the impacts of the programmes which we deliver. This project provides an opportunity for looking jointly at the effects of the work of both central and local government on influencing the overall quality of life in New Zealand.
Background A National Indicators Project was started in 1999 by the councils of the six largest cities in New Zealand and sponsored by their Chief Executives/City Managers. These are:
Auckland City Council Christchurch City Council Manukau City Council Bryan Taylor Mike Richardson Colin Dale
North Shore City Council Waitakere City Council Wellington City Council Rob Hutchinson Harry O'Rourke (Acting) Garry Poole
At the time, the initiative was a response to the growing pressures on urban communities, concern about the impacts of urbanisation and the effects of this on the wellbeing of citizens. The project began with the objective of selecting a set of key indicators to measure changes in social conditions in New Zealand's six largest cities. Following a period of research to identify social indicators, it became clear that to really begin to understand what was happening in the urban environments of the six cities, whole quality of life must be assessed. To do this, it was necessary to also look at economic and environmental conditions. A range of indicators was initially selected to help understand how strong these urban communities are, how they are changing and what pressures they are under. The indicators were assessed against a set of criteria* for best fit and were seen as ‘Draft Indicators’.
* Criteria for indicator selection: relevant to project, scope, measurable now, cost effective to obtain, valid, understandable and available at a six-city level. Introduction and Background 3 To check that the project was on course to assess conditions, a number of government departments, individuals and agencies were consulted. Many responded and these are listed in the final chapter of the report. This provided technical feedback on the suitability of certain data and proved invaluable as it helped consolidate the approach. As a result, the project's initial indicator set was refined. The set was also refined due to the considerable technical constraints in the selection of indicators e.g. data availability and comparability. Because of this, the most desirable or highest priority indicators, and therefore the information that they yield, are not necessarily included. Data issues related to this project have been previously documented and a summary is included in this report. It is intended to host a workshop for interested government departments on data and technical issues as a follow up to the publication of this report. Identifying indicators that would provide relevant information on the six cities concerned has taken almost two years. The process involved research on similar work overseas and in New Zealand, identification of issues and areas of concern to cities to decide what would be monitored, selection of a set of appropriate indicators, collecting and analysing data based on these indicators, and finally, the writing of this report.
Issues and Indicators The issues relating to the six cities are listed here along with underlying matters that make it a concern. These issues and concerns formed the basis of indicator selection and monitoring. The indicators are shown on the opposite page. The report begins with a demographic overview to provide a background on the basic make up of the six cities. Health, Housing and Education Health, housing and education are key social issues. The six cities are chiefly interested in the physical and mental health of the population, people's ability to meet their basic needs and their ability to be self-determining. Particular concerns are around the accessibility, affordability, quality and appropriateness of health care, housing and education. Employment and the Economy A healthy local economy contributes to employment. Secure employment and a reasonable income are fundamental for quality of life in urban communities. For members of society who might be marginalised, a basic factor in improving their situation is employment, and the associated sense of inclusion and self-worth. Safety and the Urban Environment Safety and perceptions of safety feature highly in people's view of their living environment. This includes consideration of crime levels, road safety and personal safety. The urban environment where we live is directly related to safety and quality of life. There are many concerns about the quality of urban environments but air and water quality, access to facilities, and the impacts of transport are key. Issues that informed the selection of indicators include pollution, mobility and the look and feel of the city. Community Cohesion and Democracy A sense of belonging and the ability to participate are important factors in the quality of life of individuals and communities; these are elements that help forge a cohesive community. Community cohesion is a difficult concept to define or measure directly, so indicators relating to citizens' perceptions and the existence of networks have been included as proxies. Councils also have a key role in building relationships with tangata whenua to enhance their role in governance of the city. The participation of community members in governance structures is acknowledged as a key factor in developing strong communities and improving quality of life.
4 Quality of Life HEALTH QUALITY OF LIFE URBAN ENVIRONMENT Mental illness Indicators Noise Infant mortality Open space General practitioners City look & feel DEMOGRAPHICS Meningococcal disease & TB Air / beach water quality Income Physical activity Mode of travel to work Migration Immunisation Access to recreation Population growth Birth weights Public transport Household composition Suicide Graffiti Children in low-income families Social deprivation Age structure HOUSING Ethnicity SAFETY Home ownership Burglary Costs & affordability Juvenile offending
Accommodation supplement DEMOCRACY Unintentional child injuries Central/local govt. housing Representation Notifications to CY&FS Crowded households Councils & the Treaty Traffic fatalities Intensification of Waitangi Feeling safe Involvement in decision making Election turnout
EDUCATION EMPLOYMENT & ECONOMY School decile ratings Unemployment Early childhood education COMMUNITY COHESION Jobs by industry Suspensions & stand-downs Community strength Food price & retails sales Community education Contact with neighbours Occupational structure Qualification levels Recognition of diversity Regional economy Unpaid work Hourly earnings
Issues and Indicators 5 Key Results
This chapter provides a list of the key results of monitoring against the indicators recorded in the previous chapter. A more detailed analysis is provided in the chapters following this.
DEMOGRAPHICS Around thirty nine percent of New Zealand’s population live in New Zealand’s six largest cities. Population growth in the major metropolitan areas (especially the Auckland Region) continues to be higher than in the rest of New Zealand. This has significant implications for the planning and provision of both local and central government services. One quarter (26.8%) of Maori and three quarters (73.7%) of Pacific Islands people live in New Zealand’s six largest cities. Ethnic diversity is more pronounced in New Zealand’s six largest cities than elsewhere in the country. New immigrants are more likely to settle in the six largest cities than in the rest of New Zealand. In addition, just over half of the nation’s speakers of more than one language live in the six largest cities. There are higher proportions of people aged 20 to 44 years living in the six largest cities than in the rest of New Zealand. There are proportionately more high income earners living in the six largest cities than in the rest of New Zealand. However, there are also higher proportions of those earning less than $20,000 per annum in the six largest cities than the rest of the country. Population ageing is occurring in New Zealand’s six largest cities but at a slower rate than the rest of New Zealand. This is due to the younger age structures of Pacific Islands, Maori and Asian population groups who make up a significant proportion of large urban city populations.
HOUSING Although home ownership remains the dominant form of tenure in the six largest cities, it is declining - a pattern also seen in the rest of New Zealand. Home ownership rates are lowest in Auckland and Wellington Cities, where median house prices are the most expensive. In June 2000, median weekly rents in the six largest cities varied from $173 in Christchurch to $257 in North Shore City compared with a median of $178 nationally. Rents tend to be more expensive in the Auckland Region. The six largest cities have seen an emergence of higher density housing developments (such as apartment and terraced housing developments and townhouses) over the last decade in response to a number of trends, including population growth and changing household formation and composition patterns. Auckland and Wellington Cities have seen higher levels of higher density housing development than the other large cities. In the year to June 2000, 65.3% of all new dwellings in Auckland City and 56.1% in Wellington City were higher density units, compared to 12.7% in Manukau City. With the exception of Christchurch and North Shore Cities, there are higher proportions of people living in crowded households in the six largest cities than in the rest of New Zealand. Manukau City in particular has a relatively high proportion of people living in crowded households (10.4% in 1996).
HEALTH With the exception of Manukau City, infant mortality rates in New Zealand’s six largest cities were lower than that found in the rest of New Zealand. Aligning with national trends infant mortality rates in the six cities are higher among Maori and Pacific Islands groups than other ethnic groups. Meningococcal disease in children is more prominent in the Auckland Region at 24 cases per 100,000 children under 15 years, compared to 15 cases per 100,000 children under 15 years nationally. With the exception of Wellington City, notified case rates for children under fifteen were highest among Pacific Islands children (in Wellington City rates were highest among Maori children). 6 Quality of Life In 1999, 58% of New Zealand’s tuberculosis (TB) cases were found in New Zealand’s six largest cities. Rates were highest within the ‘Other’ ethnic group, which may reflect immigrants and refugees arriving from countries where TB is prevalent. For the period 1993 to 1997, the numbers of suicides in New Zealand’s six largest cities were highest in the 25 to 39 year age group. The exception to this was Manukau City which had slightly more suicides in the 15 to 24 year age group. Hillary Commission Push Play Research undertaken in 1999 indicated that young people living in New Zealand’s six largest cities are less active than their counterparts living elsewhere in New Zealand.
EDUCATION With the exception of Manukau and Waitakere Cities, participation rates in early childhood education are comparable to, or higher than, rates for the rest of the under 5 years population in New Zealand. A third (35%) of children in New Zealand’s six largest cities attend schools with a decile ranking of 1 to 4 (lower rankings). However, in Manukau and Waitakere Cities around 60% of children attend schools in the lower decile categories. School stand-downs and suspension rates across all six cities appear to be broadly comparable. Rates of suspensions among Maori and Pacific Islands young people are higher than for other ethnic groups. The average number of people in New Zealand’s six largest cities without a qualification (20.6%) is considerably lower than the average for the rest of New Zealand (27.1%). With the exception of Manukau and Waitakere Cities, the rate of school leavers in the largest cities leaving school with no qualifications is lower than for New Zealand as a whole. In many cases, Maori and Pacific Islands young people are over represented among those leaving without qualifications. The percentage of adults participating in community education is higher in New Zealand’s six largest cities than for the rest of New Zealand. Generally speaking, females are more likely than males to participate in community education courses.
EMPLOYMENT AND ECONOMY In 1999, the Auckland, Wellington and Canterbury Regions that include the six largest cities accounted for 60% of New Zealand’s economy and around 41% of the national workforce. From 1995 to 1999 (with the exception of Christchurch City), workforce numbers in New Zealand’s six largest cities increased at a higher rate than the national average. In 1996, the proportion of labour force within each city who were employed in skilled, technical and professional occupations ranged from 34.2% in Manukau City to 58.1% in Wellington City. These are higher proportions than for the rest of New Zealand (33%). From 1996 to 1999, unemployment rates rose for New Zealand as a whole, from 6.9% to 7.5%. However, in March 2000 the rate had dropped back to 6.7%, reflecting a stronger economy. Throughout the period the Auckland Region has had lower unemployment than New Zealand as a whole, possibly due to its large and reasonably diverse economy. There are clear patterns between unemployment rates and ethnicity, with higher proportions of Maori and Pacific Islands people being unemployed than other ethnic groups. From 1995 to 1999, the average hourly wage in the largest cities increased from 13.5% (Wellington City) to 16.9% (Auckland City). Wage increases in all six cities were higher than for the rest of New Zealand, at 12.2%. From 1995 to 1999, the Food Price Index for both New Zealand and the Auckland Region rose by 9.1%. The Wellington and Canterbury Regions experienced smaller increases. Retail expenditure increased across New Zealand from 1997 to 1999. This reflected general economic growth during the period. Major changes included growth in clothing expenditure in the Auckland, Wellington and Canterbury Regions (compared to New Zealand as a whole), and a considerable decrease in motor vehicle expenditure (in the urban regions and nationally).
Key Results 7 SAFETY The rate of recorded burglaries in both the Auckland and Counties/Manukau Police Districts were higher than the rates for the rest of New Zealand and the other major urban Police Districts. With the exception of the North Shore/Waitakere Police District, there was a drop in recorded burglaries nationally over the 1996 to 1998 period. Rates of care and protection notifications to Child Youth and Family Services vary between New Zealand’s six largest cities. Between 1997 and 2000, the rate for the Waitakere office of Child Youth and Family was 39 per 1,000 people aged under 17 years, whereas the rate for the Wellington office was 17 per 1,000. Respondents to citizens’ surveys undertaken in the six largest cities indicated that they felt safe in their home both during the day and after dark. However, respondents’ perceptions of safety are higher during the day than at night. Significantly smaller proportions of Manukau respondents felt safe at night than citizens of other cities. Rates of road traffic fatalities are considerably lower in New Zealand’s six largest cities than in the rest of New Zealand. Rates of unintentional injuries to children are also lower in the six largest cities than in the rest of New Zealand. Though the national rate of unintentional injuries to children is highest among Maori, within New Zealand’s six largest cities children from European and 'Other' ethnic groups have higher rates of injury.
URBAN ENVIRONMENT Over half of citizens in New Zealand’s six largest cities were satisfied with the look and feel of their city. Satisfaction levels were highest in Wellington and Christchurch. Beach water quality levels in North Shore and air quality levels in Christchurch are key issues. The majority of complaints about noise in the urban areas are about stereos, parties and events such as rock bands and concerts. Ratios of public open space to population show that all cities have a ratio of open space greater than 4 ha per 1,000 people. Wellington City has the greatest proportion of open space per capita at 17.3 ha per 1, 000 people and Christchurch the lowest at 4.5 ha. In comparison with other large cities, Wellington and Auckland City residents are the highest daily users of public transport. More than half of the respondents to citizen surveys in Manukau, North Shore and Waitakere Cities indicated they never use public transport. In these cases, car based travel was generally preferred. Overall, perceptions of public transport were more favourable in Wellington and Christchurch Cities than in the Auckland Region.
COMMUNITY COHESION Around 66% of respondents to citizens’ surveys undertaken in New Zealand’s six largest cities indicated that they had had ‘some’ or ‘lots’ of positive contact with their neighbours. Contacts were especially high in North Shore, Waitakere and Wellington Cities. Just under one half of respondents to citizens’ surveys in New Zealand’s six largest cities indicated they strongly agreed or agreed that their community works together and people support each other. Perceptions of community support were strongest in Wellington and Manukau Cities. Around 25% of people living in New Zealand’s six largest cities felt that the social network or group that matters most to them was mainly based around where they lived. Positive perceptions of growing cultural diversity within cities were recorded in Wellington and Auckland Cities, with residents indicating that the increase in the number of people from different cultures and lifestyles made their city a better place to live. In 1996 levels of volunteerism among population aged 15 years and over within New Zealand’s six largest cities varied from 35.6% in Auckland City to 41.8% in Wellington City. Levels within the cities were lower than for the rest of New Zealand (43%). In all six cities, over half those involved in unpaid work were women.
8 Quality of Life DEMOCRACY The Councils of the six largest cities are all committed to developing relationships with tangata whenua and all have structures and processes in place to work with tangata whenua under the Treaty of Waitangi. Within the six cities, voter turnout for national general elections is higher than turnout for local and regional council elections. Wellington City electorates have the highest voter turnout at elections. Voter turnout at local authority elections is lower in New Zealand’s six largest cities than throughout the rest of New Zealand. Citizen surveys in all six cities showed that approximately a third of survey respondents were satisfied with the way their council involves people in decision making. Satisfaction levels were highest in Waitakere and Christchurch Cities. Under one half (42%) of respondents to the surveys also felt that the public has some or a large influence on council decision making. Feelings of influence were strongest in Waitakere and Wellington Cities. Representation on governance structures in the six cities is disproportionately European.
Key Results 9 socio-demographic makeup of New Zealand’s sixlargestcitiesinclude: Zealand’s New makeupsocio-demographic of the theprojected population Somecharacteristicsof growth. of Auckland accountingfor more thanhalf total populationwilltake in thenexttwentyyears growth placeintheNorthIsland,withfour citiesof Zealand’s New Furthermore, thepopulations withinthesecitiesare -itisestimated expectedtogrow that 90%of beinglargeurbanisedareas, withinherent impactsonphysicalandsocialinfrastructure. of common factor sixlargestcities,butallshare Zealand’s the New There are makeup inthesocio-demographic vastdifferences of example: For thisreport. of outcomes inallchapters peopleimpactson of changewithincitiesandthediversity Zealand.Thepaceof New largest citiesandtherest of This chapter anddisparitiesbetweenpopulation withinandbetweenthesix describesthedifferences groups thedata withinthischapter comesfrom the1996Census. example,byethnicity).Therefore,(for mostof data littlesocio-demographic available orable tobebroken eitheratThere thesix-citylevel, isvery downfurther Existing issues such as inequality and social deprivation areExisting issuessuchasinequality andsocialdeprivation likely tohave marked impacts onoutcomesinother sectors, both nowandintothefuture. sectors, Indicators include: Indicators e eemnnso ucmsars hl ag fissues. outcomesacross awholerangeof key determinantsof suchasage,ethnicity, Factors are urbancommunitiesandhowthey changing. are income,andmigration often of thenature sixlargestcitiesiscriticaltounderstanding Zealand’s New Information makeup onthedemographic of implications for healthoutcomes. inahousehold)have more living thantwofamilies householdcomposition(e.g. Changing patterns of between employment needsandthelikely locallabour force. structures, aninsightintofuturequalification gives training needsandthematch rates andindustry theworkforce which,linked with thefuture of supply Age structure withincitiesisakey determinantof and networks that provide adequate socialsupport. facilities andcommunitiestoaccessservices, individuals theability of affects Financial andsocialdeprivation communitystrength, identityandcohesion citizens’perceptionsPopulation of affects growth healthoutcomes. Income isakey determinantof ouaingot g tutr Socialdeprivation Income withchildren Lowincomefamilies Householdcomposition Agestructure Ethnicity Net externalmigration Population growth children over-represented incomparison withtheirproportion withinthegeneralpopulation. withMaori,PacificIslandsandAsian children inlow-incomefamilies, living an increasing number of withintheEuropean population especially population ageing, increasing incomeinequality withinand betweencities ethnic diversity Impacts andrelationships withotherareas inthisreport Introduction to Demographics Introduction toDemographics… What’s inthischapter? What’s Key points 11 Demographics Population Growth
What this is about…
New Zealand has one of the most highly urbanised populations in the world.1 In 1996, over one third (39%) of New Zealand’s population lived in the six largest cities (approximately 1,444,000 people). Tracking population growth in our major cities ensures that funding, services and facilities are provided to meet the needs of fast growing communities. This indicator highlights the fast pace of growth in cities, especially in the Auckland Region.
What did we find ?
Between 1991 and 1996 population growth in New Zealand averaged around 7.2%, with increased immigration being a key contributor. During this period, the rate of population growth in the four largest cities within the Auckland Region was double that for the rest of New Zealand. This trend has continued, with growth in the Auckland Region for the twelve months to June 2000 estimated to be three times higher than the average national growth. For the six largest cities, the average annual population growth between 1991 and 1996 was around 2.2% – spurred not only by immigration but from natural population increases and internal migration flows.2 Approximately 135,000 new people moved into New Zealand’s six largest cities between 1991 and 1996. Whilst the Auckland Region received more overseas immigrants than internal migrants (people moving from within New Zealand), the opposite was true in both Wellington and Canterbury Regions where internal migration was a more dominant force.
PERCENTAGE POPULATION GROWTH, BY CITY (1991 TO 1996)
14 14 12 13 13 13
10
8
PERCENT 6 7 6 4 5
2
0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH REST OF NZ
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
Although population growth has generally slowed since the last Census, it is estimated that a further 134,451 people have made New Zealand’s six largest cities their home since 1996.3 Two thirds of the nation’s population growth has taken place in the six cities, with the rest of New Zealand growing by around 4% in the 1996 to 2000 period.
1 Professor Richard Bedford. 1997. Population Change and Urban Expansion and Infrastructure. Paper presented to the NZ Population Conference. 2 Fertility rates in Manukau, Auckland and Waitakere Cities are relatively high. This reflects the population age structure and higher proportions of Maori and Pacific Islands people (populations that tend to have higher fertility rates). 3 Calculated from Statistics New Zealand estimates for 30 June 2000. 12 Quality of Life POPULATION COUNTS, BY CITY (1996 TO 2000) 1996 (Number) 2000 ( June estimate) Auckland 345,768 386,100 Manukau 254,278 286,700 North Shore 172,164 189,700 Waitakere 155,565 174,100 Wellington 157,646 167,400 Christchurch 309,028 324,900
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
It is estimated that 90% of New Zealand’s total population growth in the next twenty years will take place in the North Island, with the four cities of Auckland accounting for more than half of the growth. Manukau is expected to become New Zealand’s second largest city by around 2013 (currently Christchurch).4
POPULATION PROJECTIONS TO 2021, BY CITY Year Auckland Manukau North Shore Waitakere Wellington Christchurch 2001 391,000 290,900 192,000 176,400 169,100 327,000 2006 416,500 314,500 205,200 190,200 173,900 336,500 2011 441,500 336,000 218,000 203,300 178,000 344,500 2016 466,500 357,500 230,400 216,400 182,000 352,000 2021 492,000 380,000 242,600 229,800 185,900 358,500
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand (median projections, based on 1996 baseline)
Net External Migration
What this is about…
Net external migration is the number of overseas arrivals into each city less the number of overseas departures. The indicator highlights the number of New Zealand nationals and migrants arriving and leaving the six largest cities and provides an insight into the relative attractiveness of working and living in this country.
What did we find ?
The four largest cities in the Auckland Region saw more people arrive than leave in the 1980s. However, this was not the case in Wellington and Christchurch where there was a net migration loss until 1991, consistent with national trends. Between 1991 and 1996, the net external migration trend reversed, with all six cities experiencing significant net gains. Auckland and Christchurch City had the biggest increases over this time. The main reason for the change between 1991 and 1996 was the increasing level of immigration. For example, in 1996 around 50% of all new immigrants were living in the Auckland Region.
4 Len Cook. 1997. New Zealand Current and Future Population Dynamics. Presentation to the NZ Population Conference. Population Growth/Migration 13 The Auckland Region wasn’t the only city influenced by immigration during the 1990s. Some cities and regions undertook targeted marketing campaigns to attract new residents during the mid 1990s. For example Christchurch City went from a net external migration loss of 420 people to a net external migration increase of 12,590. External migration flows, both nationally and into the six largest cities, have slowed considerably in the last five years. For the first time since 1990, overall departures exceeded arrivals in 1999, resulting in a net outflow of 14,000 people from New Zealand.5 Since 1995, there has been a downward trend for permanent and long-term migrant arrivals. For example, in 1999 there were 26% less permanent and long term migrant arrivals in the six largest cities than in 1996.
NET EXTERNAL MIGRATION TRENDS, BY CITY (1981 TO 2000)
30,000
25,000 AUCKLAND
20,000 MANUKAU NORTH SHORE 15,000 WAITAKERE 10,000 WELLINGTON 5,000 CHRISTCHURCH 0 NUMBER OF PEOPLE -5,000
-10,000 1981 - 86 1986 - 91 1991 - 96 1999 - 2000
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
Immigrants into New Zealand tend to come from the same countries. Since 1996, Australia and the United Kingdom (UK) have been the most common source countries. However, it should be noted that New Zealanders returning home are also included in these figures and are likely to have a significant impact on results.
COUNTRY OF LAST RESIDENCE6 FOR PERMANENT AND LONG TERM ARRIVALS INTO NEW ZEALAND, BY CITY (1996 TO 1999)
Ranking #1 Ranking #2 Ranking #3 Ranking #4 Ranking #5 Auckland UK Australia Japan China India Manukau Australia UK Western Samoa Hong Kong Taiwan North Shore UK Australia South Africa Taiwan Japan Waitakere Australia UK China Western Samoa Hong Kong Wellington UK Australia USA Japan India Christchurch UK Australia Japan Taiwan Malaysia
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
5 Statistics New Zealand. 1999. Demographic Trends. Wellington. 6 Country of last residence does not necessarily indicate that the individual is a citizen of that country.
14 Quality of Life Ethnicity
What this is about…
Ethnicity is identification with those who share racial, linguistic, religious and other traits. Ethnic identity is recognised as involving personal identity and individual perception and choice. In the 1996 Census, respondents could choose more than one ethnicity and over 15% of New Zealanders indicated that they belonged to more than one ethnic group. This figure is up significantly from 5% at the 1991 Census.7 This indicator outlines proportions of the main ‘umbrella’ ethnic groupings within each city and the rest of New Zealand. Within each of these broad ethnic groupings there are many smaller ethnic populations, each with its own age structure, customs, and settlement history in New Zealand. At the 1996 Census there were more than 200 separate ethnic identities recorded nationally, although fewer than 30 had more than 4,000 members. Ethnic diversity brings with it a wide range of languages, cultural values, and spiritual beliefs. Increasing ethnic diversity has implications for the range of services that need to be provided and for the way they are provided.
What did we find ?
The ethnic composition of the six largest cities is varied. For example, while North Shore and Christchurch Cities have relatively large proportions of Europeans, others - such as Manukau and Auckland Cities - are more diverse. Compared to the rest of New Zealand, the six largest cities have a higher proportion of Asian and Pacific Islands residents. With the exception of Manukau City, the six largest cities have a smaller comparative Maori population. In 1996, Auckland City was home to the highest number of Asian residents and Manukau City was home to the highest number of Pacific Islands and Maori people.
ETHNIC COMPOSITION OF NEW ZEALAND’S SIX LARGEST CITIES (1996)8
100 9.5 8.4 8.6 4.1 2.0 12.5 6.4 2.0 2.5 1.9 4.7 6.9 7.1 10.4 17.0 12.0 20.5 7.7 13.0 9.1 16.8
83.6 PERCENT 77.7 75.0 73.8 ASIAN 64.6 58.9 PACIFIC ISLAND 47.3 NZ MAORI
EUROPEAN 0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH REST OF NZ
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
7 Data on ethnic identity used in this report has undergone a system of ‘prioritising’ multiple responses in order to allow them to total 100%. Responses are prioritised in this order – Maori, Pacific People, Asian, Other and European. For example, those who indicated both Maori and European ethnic identity in their Census form have been counted here as Maori. 8 Data for ‘Other’ ethnic groups has not been included in this graph as the numbers are very small – that is, less than 1%. Ethnicity 15 CHANGES IN ETHNIC IDENTITY People identifying as European within the six largest cities decreased from 82.5% in 1991 to 79.6% in 1996, whereas the proportion of other ethnic identities increased. The most pronounced decrease was recorded in North Shore City, from 87.8% to 77.7%. The overall proportion of New Zealanders identifying as Maori increased from 12.9% in 1991 to 14.5% in 1996, a rise of 1.6%.9 Waitakere recorded the largest increase in Maori, from 15,474 in 1991 to 20,181 in 1996. Nationally, the number of persons identifying as Pacific Islanders increased by 35,000 in the inter-censal period. There was a slight increase in the six largest cities with the exception of Auckland City, which experienced a 1% decrease in the proportion of persons identifying as Pacific Islanders. The fastest growing ethnic population between 1991 and 1996 was Asian, which rose from 99,759 to 173,502 nationally, a rise of 73%. The proportion of Asian residents increased between 1991 and 1996 in all six cities, especially those in the Auckland Region. For example, the relative proportion in Auckland City rose from 7.9% in 1991 to 12.5% in 1996. This was largely due to immigration.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ETHNIC GROUPS IN NEW ZEALAND (1991 TO 1996)
Census population Population Belonging to Aged Born Median change more than under 5 overseas age 1991 1996 1991-96 one ethnic years (%) (%) (number) (number) (%) group (%)
European 2,783,025 2,879,085 3.5 17.3 7.3 13.7 34.6 Maori 434,847 523,371 20.4 47.8 13.7 1.4 21.4 Pacific Island 167,070 202,233 21.0 38.6 15.1 42.2 20.4 Asian 99,759 173,502 73.9 18.5 8.7 74.7 26.6 Total 3,373,926 3,618,300 7.2 15.5 7.7 17.5 33.0
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
PROJECTIONS FOR MAORI AND PACIFIC ISLANDS POPULATIONS Medium range projections prepared by Statistics New Zealand estimate that both the Maori and Pacific Islands populations in New Zealand will continue to grow.
Maori Within the participating cities, the largest Maori population growth is expected to occur in Manukau City. By 2016, it is estimated that Manukau will increase by 18,300 Maori - an increase of 41% since 1996. The cities of Waitakere, Christchurch and Auckland are also expected to undergo considerable growth within this ethnic group.
Pacific Islands Considerable growth within the Pacific Islands population in New Zealand is expected in the next quarter of a century. This growth will be particularly strong in Manukau City, where there will be an anticipated increase of 31,800 Pacific Islands residents by the year 2016 - an increase of 58% since 1996. The cities of Waitakere and Auckland are also predicted to undergo growth in this ethnic group, but on a smaller scale.
9 Some of this increase may be due to the different way that the ethnicity question was framed in the 1996 Census.
16 Quality of Life PROJECTED GROWTH WITHIN ETHNIC GROUPINGS, BY CITY (1996 TO 2016)
MAORI PACIFIC ISLANDS 70,000 100,000 63,400 86,700 60,000 1996 2016 1996 2016 80,000
50,000 45,100 58,700 41,700
60,000 54,900 40,000 32,400 33,500 31,600 44,000 30,000
22,500 40,000 21,200 29,000 17,700 15,200
NUMBER OF PEOPLE 20,000 NUMBER OF PEOPLE 12,900 12,800 20,000 17,000 10,300 10,100 7,800 10,000 7,800 6,300 4,600 0 0 MANUKAU MANUKAU AUCKLAND AUCKLAND WAITAKERE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON WELLINGTON NORTH SHORE NORTH SHORE CHRISTCHURCH CHRISTCHURCH
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand (based on 1996 data, medium projections)
OVERSEAS BORN POPULATION According to the 1996 Census there were 605,061 overseas born people living in New Zealand. Almost three in every four New Zealanders born in the UK or Ireland, and over half of those born in Europe, had lived here for 20 years or more. Of those born in Asian and South African countries, over half had been in New Zealand for less than five years. The most urbanised of the new immigrants were the Asian and Pacific Island born with more than 98% living in urban areas.
LANGUAGES SPOKEN In New Zealand, 13% of the population speak two or more languages. Of those who do speak two or more languages, 52% live in New Zealand’s six largest cities. Manukau and Auckland appear to be the most multilingual cities in New Zealand, with around 21% of Auckland residents and 23% of Manukau residents speaking two or more languages. Across the cities, the wards with the highest percentage of people speaking two or more languages were: Otara Ward (Manukau) 38% Mangere Ward (Manukau) 34% Mt Roskill Ward (Auckland) 26% Tamaki Ward (Auckland) 26%.
FIVE MOST COMMON LANGUAGES SPOKEN (OTHER THAN ENGLISH), BY REGION (1996)
Total Population 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Auckland 1,068,645 Samoan NZ Maori Cantonese Chinese Tongan French Region (46,851) (31,980) (21,696) (16,527) (15,480) Wellington 414,048 NZ Maori Samoan French German Cantonese Chinese Region (14,931) (13,572) (7,809) (4,998) (4,401) Canterbury 468,039 NZ Maori French German Dutch Samoan Region (7,974) (6,219) (4,680) (4,233) (3,564)
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
Ethnicity 17 Age Structure
What this is about…
This indicator focuses on the age structure across New Zealand’s six largest cities. The age structure of a community is one of its fundamental characteristics and impacts on the range of services, facilities and opportunities that need to be planned for and provided at a local level - that is, different things need to be provided for different age groups.
What did we find ?
New Zealand has a higher proportion of children than in many other industrialised nations. In 1996, 23% of New Zealand’s population was under the age of 15 years. In 1996 North Shore, Auckland and Christchurch Cities had the largest proportions of people aged 65 years and over, while Manukau and Waitakere Cities had the largest proportions of those aged under 19 years. There are higher proportions of people aged 20 to 44 years living in the six largest cities than in the rest of New Zealand. This is due to work, income and educational opportunities being greater in New Zealand’s largest urban areas. Wellington City had the largest proportion of residents aged between 20 and 44 years (nearly half of its population at 46.9%) compared with 38.1% for Manukau City and 39.1% for North Shore City.
AGE STRUCTURE WITHIN NEW ZEALAND’S SIX LARGEST CITIES (1996)
100 11.4 8.3 11.4 8.4 8.8 13.6 12.3
18.8 18.6 18.9 18.2 21.6 19.8 20.4
38.1 41.0 36.2 43.4 39.1 46.9 39.7
PERCENT OVER 65 YRS
45 - 64 YRS
20-44 YRS 25.5 23.1 23.2 19.8 21.3 18.7 20.5 5-19 YRS
7.2 9.3 6.6 9.0 6.7 6.5 7.9 UNDER 5 YRS 0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH REST OF NZ
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
THE AGEING OF THE NEW ZEALAND POPULATION Like other nations, New Zealand’s population is ageing. At the beginning of the century New Zealand had a very youthful population with half of all citizens below the age of 23 years. Transitions in fertility (e.g. trends towards later child bearing age and smaller families) and mortality (longer lives due to factors such as improved medical treatments) provided the necessary ingredients for the demographic process called “population ageing”. Nationally, the median age has increased from 29.6 years in 1986 to 33 years in 1996.10 The ratio of younger people to older people has also halved from 4:1 in 1966 to 2:1 in 1996.
10 With the exception of North Shore and Christchurch Cities, the median age in New Zealand’s largest cities tends to be slightly younger than the national median.
18 Quality of Life CURRENT AND PROJECTED MEDIAN AGE WITHIN NEW ZEALAND’S SIX LARGEST CITIES
1996 (yrs) 2001 (yrs) 2011 (yrs) 2021 (yrs) Auckland 32.4 33.9 36.8 38.9 Manukau 29.5 31.0 34.1 35.7 North Shore 34.2 35.8 38.9 41.4 Waitakere 31.0 32.5 35.2 36.8 Wellington 31.9 33.3 36.0 37.7 Christchurch 33.6 35.2 38.9 41.6
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
AGE AND ETHNICITY The ageing population trend is more specific to the New Zealand European population. Maori, Pacific Islands and Asian populations tend to be younger than NZ European. In 1996, the median age for Maori was 21.4 years, well below the New Zealand median of 33 years. Maori now account for one in every four of all New Zealand children under five years and 23.6% of children under 15 years. The Pacific Islands populations have some of the youngest age structures of any ethnic group within the national population. The median age in 1996 was 20.4 years. Comparing the age structures for the six largest cities to those for the rest of New Zealand, there is a tendency for those aged 5 to 14 years and 45 years and over, to live outside the six largest cities, especially for European and Maori populations.
AGE STRUCTURE BY ETHNICITY FOR NEW ZEALAND’S SIX LARGEST CITIES (1996)
65 yrs and over 2.2 MAORI 65 yrs and over 3.3 PACIFIC ISLANDS
45-64 yrs 11.2 45-64 yrs 12.2
25-44 yrs 30.5 25-44 yrs 30.8
20-24 yrs 10.7 20-24 yrs 8.9
15-19 yrs 10.0 15-19 yrs 9.5
5-14 yrs 21.8 5-14 yrs 21.8
Under 5 yrs 13.6 Under 5 yrs 13.5
0 10203040 0 10203040 PERCENT PERCENT
65 yrs and over 2.2 ASIAN 65 yrs and over 13.9 EUROPEAN
45-64 yrs 11.2 45-64 yrs 22.1
25-44 yrs 30.8 25-44 yrs 32.5
20-24 yrs 8.9 20-24 yrs 8.1
15-19 yrs 11.8 15-19 yrs 6.1
5-14 yrs 17.0 5-14 yrs 11.3
Under 5 yrs 7.9 Under 5 yrs 6.0
0 10203040 0 10203040 PERCENT PERCENT
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
Age Structure 19 Household Composition
What this is about…
Household composition reflects living arrangements within New Zealand households, as measured in the Census. A ‘household’ for Census purposes comprises the person or persons who reside in a private dwelling, and a ‘family’ is defined as a husband or wife (in a legal or de-facto marriage) with or without children of any age living in the same dwelling – or a sole parent, of any marital status, living with children of any age.11 Household composition can reflect the impact of changing social trends (e.g. later marriages, lower fertility rates and independent living) as well as economic pressures (such as housing costs, tertiary education fees and incomes) and cultural preferences (eg. extended family and intergenerational living).
What did we find ? HOUSEHOLD COMPOSITION While most people still live in a family, the 1996 Census detected more people choosing to live alone or in relationships that do not include children. The highest proportions of non-family and one person households are in Wellington and Auckland Cities. This probably reflects the larger numbers of single, professional people and students living in the inner-city areas. The six largest cities have a lower proportion of couple only households when compared to the rest of New Zealand. Compared to the rest of New Zealand, Auckland, Waitakere and Manukau Cities have a much higher rate of two or more families living in the same house. This is may be due to increasing housing costs leading to ‘doubling’ up of families in one house and may also reflect patterns of intergenerational living common in Maori, Asian and Pacific Islands cultures. In 1996, Manukau City’s rate of households with two or more families (7.2%) was three times greater than the rest of New Zealand.
HOUSEHOLD COMPOSITION, BY CITY (1996)
100 2.5 1.8 1.6 2 3.5 7.2 4.5
40.5 42 44.5 41.4 48.8 52.6 54.4
22.3
PERCENT 24.3 TWO OR MORE FAMILIES 20 25.9 23.7 ONE FAMILY 21 18.6 22.9 COUPLE ONLY 22 23.1 17.8 20.3 13.2 14.9 ONE PERSON 8.3 9.6 3.5 4.8 3.8 7.1 4.4 NON-FAMILY 0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH REST OF NZ
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
11 It is acknowledged that Census based family data reflects predominantly European definitions of nuclear based family structures. Some have argued that this approach does not “capture satisfactorily the structures found in present day New Zealand” (Shirley, Koopman–Boyden, Pool and St. John. 1997. Family Change and family policies: New Zealand.) For example, a grandmother, mother and three children living together in the same house would “officially” be counted as two families. However, they may view themselves as being one family rather than two.
20 Quality of Life PERCENT OF HOUSEHOLDS WITH TWO OR MORE FAMILIES RESIDENT, BY CITY (1991 AND 1996)
8
7.2 1991 1996 6
4 4.4 4.5 PERCENT 3.5 2.7 2 2.5 2.1 1.8 2.0 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.2 0.9 0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH REST OF NZ
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
Between 1991 and 1996, the proportion of households with two or more families increased at a rate of at least 50% in the six largest cities, compared to a 30% increase for the rest of New Zealand.
AVERAGE HOUSEHOLD SIZE In 1996, the average number of household members nationally was 2.7 people. Four of the six largest cities were at or above this figure, especially Manukau City with an average of 3.4 persons per household. Several wards in the Auckland Region were found to have particularly high average numbers of household members, namely Massey (3.3), Manurewa (3.4), Mangere (4.1) and Otara (4.6).
AVERAGE HOUSEHOLD SIZE, BY CITY (1996)
Average number of household members Auckland 2.7 Manukau 3.4 North Shore 2.8 Waitakere 3.0 Wellington 2.6 Christchurch 2.6
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
Household Composition 21 Income
What this is about…
This section focuses on household and personal income of citizens in the six largest cities and is based on Census data. Income is a key determinant of individual, family and community wellbeing and is the single most important modifiable determinant related to health and quality of life in general. Income levels indicate the ability of citizens to meet their needs and directly correlates with their conditions of health, education, social interaction, housing, leisure and general life style. It should be noted that income data in this section has not been equivalised, that is, it has not been adjusted to take into account household composition.
What did we find ? MEDIAN HOUSEHOLD INCOME With the exception of Christchurch City, median household income tends to be higher in the six cities than in the rest of New Zealand. This is partly off-set by the higher costs of living in cities. Between 1991 and 1996 there was a national increase in median household income of 12.6%. Most cities followed the national trend, with the exception of Auckland City. In Auckland the median household income for the 1991 to 1996 period increased by 23%, from $34,189 to $42,164 per annum. A possible reason for this was the rapid pace of gentrification12 across a number of key wards and suburbs bordering the central city, drawing in young upwardly mobile professionals with higher incomes. Large variations within cities are often lost when city wide medians are focussed on. For example, in Christchurch, the 1996 median household for the Fendalton Ward was $40,935, whereas in the Hagley Ward it was only $25,335. Similarly in Manukau City, the Howick Ward had a median household income of $53,208 whereas $36,005 was the median in the Otara Ward.
MEDIAN HOUSEHOLD INCOME, BY CITY (1991 AND 1996) 1991 ($) 1996 ($) Auckland 34,189 42,164 Manukau 37,078 42,772 North Shore 41,719 46,997 Waitakere 36,335 41,605 Wellington 46,039 50,998 Christchurch 29,336 32,962 Total New Zealand 30,910 34,825
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
PERSONAL INCOME – ENDS OF THE SCALE In 1996, the median personal income nationally was $15,603 (of all persons aged 15 years and over).13 There has been much concern at the growing gap between income earners at the lower and upper ends of the scale in recent years.
12 Gentrification is where older areas are renovated and upgraded, usually by more affluent households moving into the area, thus forcing lower income households out of these areas. 13 Personal income data presented in this section covers all income sources, for example from employment, own business, asset ownership, superannuation and capital income. This data covers the general population within the age bracket, including those working, those not working, students and retired people. People who had a zero income are also included. 22 Quality of Life National income inequality increased substantially between 1986 and 1991, and continues to do so.14 The proportion of people at the lower end of the income scale outweighs the proportion at the upper end.15 The cities with a greater relative share of people in the upper income bracket generally also had a lower share of people in the lower income bracket. Of the six largest cities, Wellington had the highest proportion of personal incomes greater than $70,000 p.a. (7%). This is probably due to the high concentration of professionals living in the capital. It also appears there are more high income earners living in the six largest cities than within the general New Zealand population. In 1996 the proportion of people aged 15-64 years earning less than $20,000 p.a. in the six cities was higher than in the rest of New Zealand whereas the proportion earning less than $10,000 p.a. was similar.
PROPORTION OF POPULATION AGED 15 YEARS AND OVER IN PERSONAL INCOME BRACKETS, BY CITY (1996)
70 LESS THAN $20,000 PA8 $70,000 PA OR MORE 60 7 7 61 50 57 6 53 54 6 51 5 40 46 5 41 4 30 PERCENT PERCENT 3 3 20 2 2 2 2 10 1 0 0 TOTAL TOTAL MANUKAU MANUKAU AUCKLAND AUCKLAND WAITAKERE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON WELLINGTON NEW ZEALAND NORTH SHORE NEW ZEALAND NORTH SHORE CHRISTCHURCH CHRISTCHURCH
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
Analysis of income by ethnicity indicates that Maori, Pacific Islands and Asian populations are earning less than their European counterparts. However, this income data has not been age standardised and the younger nature of these populations will have an impact on their relative proportions in the various income groups. That is, populations with younger age structures tend to have lower incomes.
PERCENTAGE OF PEOPLE WITHIN EACH ETHNIC GROUP AGED 15 YEARS AND OVER (IN SIX LARGEST CITIES) WITHIN EACH INCOME BRACKET (1996) less than $20,000 p.a. (%) more than $70,000 p.a. (%) European 49 5 Maori 58 2 Pacific Islands 65 1 Asian 70 2
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
The large proportion of the Asian population in the lowest income brackets may be due to the following factors: younger age structure of the Asian population (many young Asian people are studying full time) lower rate of overall labour force participation by the Asian community and difficulties in obtaining employment for many new Asian immigrants undeclared or overseas income a large number of refugees within the Asian ethnic group many Asian families can be seen to be ‘asset rich’ but cash poor, that is, not generating an income through regular employment.16
14 Statistics New Zealand. 1999. NZ Now – Incomes. 15 Figures at the upper and lower end of the income scale must be treated with some caution, as upper income earners are less likely to respond to income questions and very low income earners sometimes hide income as assets and under report their incomes. 16 It should be noted that there is significant variation in income groupings within the various Asian ethnic communities. Income 23 BENEFITS RECEIVED Government benefit statistics for the six largest cities show how many working age people (those aged between 15 and 65 years) are receiving some sort of government assistance. This data includes all benefits (for example unemployment, student allowances, domestic purposes benefit) except superannuation payments. Across the six largest cities, the largest proportions of beneficiaries were in the 25 to 44 year age group.
TOTAL BENEFICIARIES, BY CITY (YEAR TO MAY 2000)
Number of beneficiaries % change from May 1999 May 2000
Auckland 39,919 -2.4 North Shore 14,712 13.0 Manukau 38,470 2.6 Waitakere 20,527 -6.7 Wellington 13,913 -12.6 Christchurch 42,124 -2.9
Data Source: Work and Income New Zealand
Maori and Pacific Islands citizens are over-represented in government benefit recipient data for all six cities. However, the opposite is true for European and Asian populations, who are under-represented. Of those people receiving benefits, just over one third have been receiving assistance for more than two years, and of those people, just under 10% are aged 19 to 24 years. Manukau and Waitakere Cities have slightly higher rates than the other cities in this younger age group - probably due to the younger age structure of these cities.
NUMBER AND PROPORTION OF BENEFICIARIES RECEIVING BENEFITS FOR TWO OR MORE YEARS, BY CITY (2000)
Number of beneficiaries % of beneficiaries receiving benefits for receiving benefits for more than 2 years more than 2 years
Auckland 14,415 36.1 Manukau 14,664 38.1 North Shore 4,714 32.0 Waitakere 7,086 34.5 Wellington 4,312 31.0 Christchurch 14,688 34.9
Data Source: Work and Income New Zealand
24 Quality of Life Social Deprivation
What this is about…
The New Zealand Social Deprivation Index combines a range of key socio-demographic factors from the 1996 Census and estimates an overall score of material and social deprivation for a particular area, on a scale of 1 (regarded as being least deprived) to 10 (regarded as being the most deprived or experiencing considerable hardship). Social deprivation scores generally reflect the ability of households in an area to achieve positive outcomes in areas such as health, education and employment.
Factors included in the Index are: Income: equivalised household income (adjusted for household composition). Income: people aged 18-59 receiving a means tested benefit. Transport: people with no access to a car. Living Space: equivalised household below a bedroom occupancy threshold. Owned home: people not living in own home. Employment: unemployed people aged 18 to 59 years. Qualifications: people aged 18 to 59 years without any qualifications. Support: people aged less than 60 years living in a sole parent family. Communication: people with no access to a telephone.
What did we find ? Auckland and Christchurch Cities follow the national pattern. North Shore and Wellington Cities also share a similar trendline - with relatively greater proportions of their populations in the less deprived areas. These two cities have more or less the opposite deprivation trendline to Manukau City. Sixty percent of people in North Shore City and 55% of people in Wellington City live in areas ranked 1 to 3 (least deprived) whereas Manukau City has a marked proportion of its population in deciles 9 and 10 (most deprived). In Waitakere City however, a different pattern emerges with a major ‘bulge’ appearing in deprivation deciles 6 to 8. This reflects a greater share of ‘below average’ areas - a grouping who have been particularly hard hit by economic and social restructuring over the last ten years.
PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION LIVING IN DEPRIVATION INDEX DECILES, BY CITY (1996) 12 34 5 6 7 8 910 (% least deprived) (% most deprived) Auckland 13 11 10 9 9 9 8 10 9 12 Manukau 12 10 7 6 6 6 8 9 13 21 North Shore 20 20 20 14 11 7 4 3 1 1 Waitakere 9 11 8 10 10 13 16 12 8 3 Wellington 26 15 12 10 9 7 8 6 3 4 Christchurch 13 12 11 11 9 10 8 10 10 6
Data Source: Health Services Research Council
Social Deprivation 25 There is considerable variation in Deprivation Index rankings at ward level. The following table notes the wards within the six cities that have the highest proportion of ‘high need’ areas.
WARDS WITHIN THE SIX CITIES WITH THE HIGHEST PROPORTION OF MESHBLOCKS IN DECILES 9 AND 10 (1996)
City % of area in decile 9 and 10 Otara Manukau 84 Mangere Manukau 71 Tamaki Auckland 62 Hagley Christchurch 56 Hauraki Gulf Islands Auckland 44 Manurewa Manukau 38
Data Source: Health Services Research Council
There are large volumes of people affected by social deprivation within New Zealand’s largest urban areas. The New Zealand Deprivation Index indicates that across New Zealand’s six largest cities, nearly one quarter of a million people are living in high need areas. For example, although North Shore City has only 2% of its population living within the ‘most deprived’ areas (deciles 9 & 10), this equates to 3,777 people experiencing deprivation.
Low Income Families with Children
What this is about…
Research undertaken by the Family Services Centre in Wellington has estimated that around 60% of median income (adjusted for household composition) is necessary for a family to provide the essentials of food, shelter, clothing, healthcare and transport.17 For the purpose of this project, family income data has been analysed to ascertain how many families (with children) in the six cities earned less than 60% of the median family income.18 Financial stress impacts on family relationships and the ability of the family to access a full range of goods, services and opportunities such as leisure, sports, tertiary education, pharmacy prescriptions, and childcare. Children living in families who are financially stressed are likely to have poor outcomes in health and education and are less likely to be able to participate fully in society because of financial constraints. Income inequality is also adversely associated with both mortality and hospitalisation rates.19
What did we find ?
Around one fifth of children in families in New Zealand’s six largest cities could be said to be living ‘in poverty’. In the four largest cities in the Auckland Region, the number of families with children experiencing poverty increased between 1991 and 1996. The rate stayed the same in Wellington (18%) and dropped slightly in Christchurch from 19% to 18%.
17 Waldegrave C, Stephens R and Frater P. 1996. New Zealand Poverty Measurement Project. 18 Within this analysis, income data was segmented into broad income categories in order to estimate the number of families ‘in poverty’. For each city, 60% of median family income was calculated. The number of families (with children) in the closest lowest income bracket and below were then assessed. Family income levels have not been equivalised, that is, adjusted for household composition, number and age of children. For example, 60% of 1996 median family income in Wellington was $35,180 – the number of families earning less than $30,000 (the closest income bracket) was calculated. ‘Couple only’ families and families with ‘non specified’ income have been excluded from the data set. In all cases, the data reflects a likely underestimate of families with children experiencing financial hardship. 19 Howden-Chapman, Blakely, Blaiklock and Kiro. 2000. Closing the Gap. New Zealand Medical Journal.
26 Quality of Life PERCENTAGE OF FAMILIES (WITH CHILDREN) EARNING LESS THAN 60% OF MEDIAN FAMILY INCOME, BY CITY (1991 AND 1996)
30 1991 1996
25 24 20 22 21 20 20 20 20 19 15 18 18 18 18 PERCENT 10
5
0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
Generally speaking, families with just one child were the most likely to be living in poverty. Nationally, 71% of one parent families received less than $20,000 each year, compared with 9% of couples with dependent children.20 With the exception of Manukau, the majority of families with children living ‘in poverty’ are European, reflecting the predominance of European ethnicities within the six largest cities.21 However, Maori, Pacific Islands and Asian families with children are over-represented. In 1996, these ethnic groups made up around 29% of the population in the six cities, but comprised 42% of families with children living in hardship.
PERCENTAGE OF FAMILIES (WITH CHILDREN) EARNING LESS THAN 60% OF MEDIAN FAMILY INCOME, BY ETHNICITY (1991 & 1996)22
Auckland Manukau North Shore Waitakere Wellington Christchurch 1991 n=9399 n=8385 n=5346 n=4539 n=4083 n=9021 %%% % % % European 41 28 58 58 60 82 NZ Maori 20 34 9 21 16 12 Pacific Island 29 32 4 16 12 3 Asian 8 6 5 4 11 2 1996 n=11382 n=11322 n=6162 n=5685 n=4332 n=8568 %%% % % % European 26 18 43 39 55 73 NZ Maori 13 24 9 17 16 13 Pacific Island 19 26 3 11 11 3 Asian 22 14 20 11 15 10
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
Looking at proportions of low-income families with children between 1991 and 1996, the general trend was a reduction in the percentage for Maori and Pacific Islands families. However, the relative proportion of Asian families with children who could be seen to be “in poverty” increased from 6% to 15% in the same period.
20 Statistics New Zealand. 1997. Census 1996: Highlights – Income. 21 Ethnicity of family was calculated using ethnic identities of the adults and data on ethnicity used in this analysis has undergone a system of ‘prioritising’ responses. For example, where one parent identified as Maori and another as European, the family has been categorised as Maori. 22 Figures do not add up to 100% as the ‘Other’ ethnic category has not been listed. Low Income Families with Children 27 Home Ownership
What this is about…
Home ownership is traditionally seen as the most secure form of tenure in New Zealand. Levels of home ownership are used as a guide to population stability, community participation, the relative wealth of the community and changes in lifestyles and household patterns. Home ownership has been assessed using the proportion of private dwellings that were owned, with and without mortgages, in the previous three Censuses.23
What did we find ?
Home ownership remains the dominant form of tenure in the six largest cities, as it does in the rest of New Zealand. In 1996, Manukau (67.5%), Christchurch (69.8%), Waitakere (71.9%) and North Shore (72.7%) Cities all had home ownership rates that were similar to the national rate of ownership (67.7%). The proportion of the population who own their own home (with or without a mortgage) has declined in all six cities and in the rest of New Zealand over the last three Censuses. However, home ownership is steadily declining in New Zealand as rising home mortgage interest rates are reducing affordability and consumer confidence in the housing market. The changing nature of household formation (especially trends toward later forming couple households and smaller families), the formation of private family trusts, unemployment, and lower incomes relative to house prices are also impacting on tenure patterns. There has also been a lack of specific government policies over the last decade aimed at assisting low income households into home ownership. In 1996, ownership was lower in Auckland (56.2%) and Wellington (62.5%) Cities, because home ownership is a less affordable option in cities where median dwelling prices are high. Both of these cities have large student populations in their inner cities that are more likely to rent their accommodation due to lower incomes and the short term nature of their accommodation requirements. Wellington’s public service and diplomatic populations also contribute to patterns of lower home ownership.
PROPORTION OF POPULATION WHO OWN A PRIVATE DWELLING AND WHO RENTED, BY CITY (1986, 1991 AND 1996)
1986 1991 1996 Own (%) Rent (%) Own (%) Rent (%) Own (%) Rent (%) Auckland 62.1 35.1 60.9 35.4 56.2 32.3 Manukau 77.5 20.4 74.1 22.5 67.5 22.4 North Shore 81.0 17.3 78.7 18.4 72.7 20.4 Waitakere 82.2 16.0 79.9 17.2 71.9 19.9 Wellington 66.1 30.6 65.4 30.8 62.5 29.8 Christchurch 75.5 22.5 74.0 22.7 69.8 23.9 Rest of NZ 72.8 22.1 73.4 20.8 68.9 21.2
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand NB: Figures do not add up to 100 as other types of private dwelling are not included.
23 Statistics New Zealand defines a private dwelling as any building or structure that is used (or intended to be used) for the purpose of human habitation, but is not available to the public. This definition includes dwellings such as houses, flats, residences attached to businesses and holiday homes, but does not include hotels, hospitals or hostels.
Quality of Life In all six cities and in the rest of New Zealand rates of home ownership tend to be lower among Maori and Pacific Islands populations than other ethnic groupings, particularly the latter. For example, in 1996, 32.9% of Maori and 27% of Pacific Islands people within Auckland City owned their home (with or without a mortgage) compared with 64.7% of the European population. These groups are more likely to have younger population age structures, have larger and younger families and are more likely to be on lower incomes.
PROPORTION OF PRIVATE DWELLINGS OWNED, BY ETHNICITY (1996) 24
European (%) Maori (%) Pacific Islands (%) Asian (%) Other (%) Auckland 64.7 32.9 27.0 50.7 27.0 Manukau 78.7 46.2 42.2 70.7 36.9 North Shore 75.7 49.0 44.3 67.3 32.8 Waitakere 77.9 51.5 50.5 69.8 48.1 Wellington 67.4 35.5 30.6 60.3 29.0 Christchurch 72.1 42.1 34.3 59.4 32.2 Rest of NZ 73.2 47.3 40.0 56.4 50.7 Total NZ 72.7 46.0 37.8 59.2 38.0
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
People on lower incomes and/or on welfare benefits tend to live in rented accommodation rather than in owner-occupied dwellings. Employment (especially sustained full time employment) increases the likelihood of home ownership. High median dwelling sale prices and high home mortgage interest rates lower the affordability of housing and lower the rate of home ownership. Trends toward the later formation of couple households and smaller families, separation and divorce, the ageing of the population (and older people living alone) are resulting in lower rates of home ownership.
Housing Costs and Affordability
What this is about…
Housing is the largest component of many households’ expenditure and is central to the ability to meet basic needs. The costs of housing are particularly significant for those on lower incomes. When housing costs are too high relative to income, people have less residual income to spend on other essential household costs such as food and power. People facing substantial housing cost burdens may be forced to live in unsafe, unhealthy or inappropriate accommodation to mitigate those costs. Access to affordable housing of a reasonable quality is important because of the impact of housing on other areas - notably health, education, employment and community cohesion. Housing cost and affordability indicators presented here outline the relative costs of obtaining housing and indicate how affordable accommodation is for people in New Zealand’s six largest cities.
24 This analysis looks at the proportion of private dwellings that are owned by each ethnic group, as a proportion of the total number of private dwellings for that ethnic group. While ethnicity is an individual characteristic, this analysis assigns the ethnicity of the ‘occupier’ (who filled in the Dwelling form on Census night) to the household.
Home Ownership/Costs and Affordability What did we find ? MEDIAN RESIDENTIAL DWELLING SALES This indicator looks at monthly median residential dwelling sales figures for each of the six cities and by region.25 Median residential dwelling sale prices in all cities in the Auckland Region are generally higher than in other regions.26 Strong economic growth has resulted in migration into the Region and has created a greater demand for housing. In particular, it costs more to buy a house in Auckland City than anywhere else in New Zealand. In May 2000, Auckland City’s median dwelling sale price was $270,000 while the New Zealand median sale price was $172,000. There are, however, large suburban variations in median dwelling sale prices within cities in the Auckland Region. For example, in Auckland City, Onehunga / Penrose had a median of $195,000 whereas Mount Eden / Epsom’s was $355,000. Median house sale prices are also high in Central Wellington and approximate Auckland City sale prices. In May 2000, at $266,000, the median was well above the national median sale price. Wellington’s economy has been performing above the national average and consumer confidence in the housing market has remained higher than in other areas.27 In May 2000, Christchurch City’s median dwelling sale price was below the national median at $154,000.
MONTHLY MEDIAN RESIDENTIAL DWELLING SALE PRICE, BY REGION (YEAR TO MAY 2000) January ($) February ($) March ($) April ($) May ($) Auckland 262,000 274,000 271,000 280,000 270,000 Manukau 225,000 236,000 232,500 222,500 235,500 North Shore 240,000 260,000 257,500 262,000 262,000 Waitakere 190,000 205,000 199,000 210,000 190,000 Auckland Region 230,000 240,000 240,000 242,000 236,000 Central Wellington 275,000 245,000 272,500 290,000 266,000 Wellington Region 184,000 184,000 179,000 190,000 184,000 Christchurch 157,000 154,500 160,000 154,000 154,000 Canterbury/ 147,000 141,250 150,000 140,000 146,000 Westland Region Total NZ 169,250 171,000 175,000 177,000 172,000 Data Source: Real Estate Institute of New Zealand (REINZ city and regional groupings approximate territorial local authority and regional boundaries)
HOME MORTGAGE AFFORDABILITY The Home Mortgage Affordability Index assesses the relative affordability of home buying at a point in time. The Index incorporates national and regional average weekly earnings, regional median dwelling price and average mortgage interest rates for new borrowers. Regional sub-indices compare affordability by region and with the national average.28 The higher the percentage, the less affordable is that region’s housing compared to the national average - which is represented by 100%. In line with findings on median house sale prices, the Index indicates that home mortgage affordability is lower in the Auckland Region (at 131.8% of the national average in the June 2000 quarter) than in any other region. Auckland is the only region to have exceeded the 100% national average consistently over the last few years.29 There are significant variations in house prices within cities in the Auckland Region and it is likely that these will be reflected in variations in mortgage affordability in different locations. Similar patterns will be found in the Wellington and Canterbury/Westland Regions.
25 Compiled by the Real Estate Institute of New Zealand (REINZ). 26 One reason for the increase in house prices in the Auckland Region in the last decade has been high levels of Asian immigration. However, there has been a downturn in the number of Asian business migrants coming to New Zealand in the last couple of years, as well as departure by many Asian immigrants which has had the effect of reducing demand for higher priced housing and thus the prices of these properties. 27 ASB Quarterly Housing Report May 2000. 28 The index is created by the Massey University Real Estate Analysis Unit. Data are not available to city level. Massey University Real Estate Analysis Unit’s regional boundaries approximate regional council boundaries. 29 Statistics New Zealand. 1998. New Zealand Now: Housing.
Quality of life Home mortgages were more affordable in the Canterbury/Westland Region (at 90.6% of the national average in the June 2000 quarter) than in either the Wellington (96.8%) or Auckland Regions.30 However, annual mortgage affordability declined in all regions in New Zealand in the June 2000 quarter.
HOME MORTGAGE AFFORDABILITY AS A PERCENTAGE OF THE NATIONAL AVERAGE, BY REGION (JUNE QUARTER 1998 TO 2000)
160 140 1998 1999 2000 120 135.2 131.8 100 129.8 80 99.9 98.9 95.2 97.4 98.1 96.8 96.0 94.9 90.2 90.9 94.1 90.6 83.8 87.1 PERCENT 84.3
60 83.1 78.4 76.8 69.0 63.3 65.5 64.8
40 61.3 55.3 57.5 55.5 54.4 45.0 44.1
20 40.3 0
AUCKLAND WELLINGTON CANTERBURY NORTHLAND WAIKATO HAWKES MANAWATU TARANAKI NELSON OTAGO SOUTHLAND WESTLAND BAY OF PLENTY BAY WANGANUI
Data Source: Massey University Real Estate Analysis Unit
Housing affordability is influenced by home ownership trends and conditions, the rate of population growth in a city and its absolute size, and economic conditions (such as changes in median dwelling sale prices, housing market and business confidence, housing demand and supply, inflation, mortgage interest rates, currency fluctuations, government economic and housing policies and adjustments in the rate of economic growth). Home ownership trends and conditions are themselves affected by the affordability of housing.
AFFORDABILITY OF RENTING Rental affordability is a significant issue in our larger cities, particularly for low income earners. This indicator shows the median weekly rent level for each city, for all landlord types, as produced by the Ministry of Housing through its Tenancy Bond Data Base.31 Median rent prices vary between our larger cities, from $257 per week in North Shore City for the year to June 2000 to $173 per week in Christchurch City. As with house prices, there are large variations in median rents in different locations in the cities. Rents tend to be higher where the demand for housing is high. Median rent variations may also be due to physical differences in the housing stock between cities (for example, quality and age of house and number of bedrooms) or to housing demand caused by demographic and socio-demographic factors, such as migration. Research indicates that 80% to 95% of variations in median rents within a city can be explained by the number of bedrooms.32 Housing costs for renters have risen more sharply than for all households combined, fuelled by the move to market rents for state sector rentals. Housing costs for New Zealanders renting rose by 62% between 1988 and 1997 compared to 48% for all households. Census figures show that median weekly rents increased by 135% between 1986 and 1996. In areas such as southern Auckland, where over 40% of the rental stock is owned by the state sector, median rent increases of over 200% were recorded over this ten year period.33
30 The Auckland and Wellington Regions are largely built up urban areas where house prices tend to be higher, whereas Canterbury/Westland includes a large rural base where house prices tend to be lower. This will affect the Mortgage Affordability Index ratings. Further, mortgage affordability in Wellington City will be lower than in the rest of the Wellington Region. 31 The Tenancy Bond Data Base covers only rental properties that have changed hands in that year and where a bond has been lodged with the Ministry of Housing. The same property may have changed hands a number of times and will therefore have been recorded more than once. 32 Massey University Real Estate Analysis Unit. 2000. NZ Residential Rental Market – March 2000 Quarterly Survey. 3(1). 33 Statistics New Zealand. 1998. New Zealand Now: Housing. Housing Costs and Affordability Overall, median rents have not fluctuated greatly in New Zealand over the last three years, but have fallen slightly in most of our major cities between 1998 and 2000. Migration patterns have influenced this trend. In times of migration outflow and population loss, demand for housing is lower so median rents, house sale prices and building consent levels do not rise. It is predicted that weekly rents in the main urban areas are unlikely to increase in the short term due to the exodus of New Zealanders overseas.34 Announcements of government intervention in state housing rents may put downward pressure on private sector rents at the bottom end of the market.
MEDIAN WEEKLY RENTS, BY CITY (YEARS ENDED JUNE 1998, 1999, 2000) 1998 ($) 1999 ($) 2000 ($) Auckland 261 250 247 Manukau 251 240 228 North Shore 271 254 257 Waitakere 251 240 228 Wellington 230 240 242 Christchurch 180 175 173 Total NZ 185 185 178
Data Source: Ministry of Housing These figures have been adjusted using annual average Consumer Price Index figures
PROPORTION OF AVERAGE WEEKLY HOUSEHOLD INCOME SPENT ON HOUSING COSTS Housing costs are one of the largest expenditure items in New Zealanders’ budgets and are considered to be one of the greatest contributors to deprivation and hardship in this country for people on low incomes. This indicator looks at findings from the Household Economic Survey, which has been undertaken by Statistics New Zealand.35 It shows the proportion of income that households spend on housing costs, once net capital expenditure is excluded.36 There is a relationship between income and housing costs. In 1998 in all regions, the higher the household income, the lower the proportion of income spent on housing costs.
PROPORTION OF AVERAGE WEEKLY HOUSEHOLD INCOME SPENT ON HOUSING COSTS, BY INCOME BRACKET (YEAR ENDED MARCH 1998)
60
50 AUCKLAND REGION 40 WELLINGTON 30 REGION CANTERBURY PERCENT 20 REGION REST OF 10 NEW ZEALAND 0 UNDER $19,900 $19,900 - $31,399 $31,400 - $48,099 $48,100 - $71,599 $71,600 0R OVER HOUSEHOLD INCOME PER ANNUM
Data Source: Household Economic Survey
34 Massey University Real Estate Analysis Unit. 2000. NZ Residential Rental Market –June 2000 Quarterly Survey. 3(2). 35 The Household Economic Survey was last undertaken in 1998. It has a national sample of 3000 respondents. However, when data are broken down to a regional level and then into income quintiles, the actual numbers of respondents in each category can be relatively low. Historically, people on higher and lower incomes tend to have lower levels of participation in the survey. Therefore, figures presented in this section need to be read with caution as they may be subject to relatively high levels of sampling error. 36 Net capital expenditure is defined as the difference between receipts from housing sales and outlays for housing purchases.
Quality of Life Between 1996 and 1997 in the Auckland Region there was a large increase in the proportion of income spent on housing for those in the lowest income quintile from 39.2% in 1996 to 54.8% in 1997.37 This reflects factors such as: Private landlord rental increases following rises in Accommodation Supplement levels and maximas in the Auckland Region and other high cost areas during 1996 and 1997. Reductions in the income levels of those on very low incomes. Any reductions will have a big impact on the proportion of that income spent on housing. The fallout from the last round of Housing New Zealand rent rises in 1996 that mainly affected low income earners.38 The increase in proportion of income spent by low income households on housing costs is particularly noticeable in the Auckland Region because it contains cities such as Manukau where there is a high proportion of state houses to total rental stock.39 The high level of sampling error associated with the Household Economic Survey, which may be skewing this result. In 1998, low income households in the rest of New Zealand spent a similar proportion of their income (32.6%) on housing as low income Canterbury households (32.2%).
PERCENTAGE OF AVERAGE WEEKLY HOUSEHOLD SPENDING ON HOUSING, BY INCOME (YEARS ENDED MARCH 1996, 1997, 1998)
1996 1997 1998 (% under $18,800 p.a.) (% under $18,500 p.a.) (% under $19,900 p.a.) Auckland Region 39.2 54.8 51.3 Wellington Region 36.8 35.2 39.3 Canterbury Region 36.1 34.3 32.2 Rest of NZ 35.3 37.4 32.6 Total NZ 36.4 41.1 37.8
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
The affordability of accommodation must be seen in the context of changes in household income levels. The real incomes of low income households have decreased in recent years while housing costs have increased, resulting in affordability problems. For example, between 1982 and 1996, the median household disposable income of the poorest 20% of households in New Zealand fell from $15,600 to $14,800 due to welfare benefit cuts, continuing high unemployment rates and a trend toward part time labour.40 In line with this, ethnic groups with patterns of lower household income are more likely to be facing housing affordability difficulties. Affordability is particularly an issue in cities with high proportions of people of Maori and Pacific Islands ethnicity. One study found that in 1996, Maori formed 13% of New Zealand’s population yet comprised 39.3% of those in poverty once housing costs are included. Similarly, Pacific Islands people formed 5% of the national population, but comprised 51.5% of those in poverty once housing costs were taken into account.41
37 For the purpose of analysis, household income has been distributed into five equally sized groups or ‘quintiles’. The bottom quintile contains the 20% of the population with the lowest 20% of household incomes. The top or fifth quintile contains households with the highest 20% of household incomes. This indicator does not specify a point at which the proportion of income spent on housing costs becomes unaffordable as the households included in the analysis face different circumstances. 38 However, rent increases in the last round of rent rises were reasonably minimal for most Housing New Zealand tenants. 39 Census figures show that median weekly rents increased by almost 200% in south Auckland between 1986 and 1996 (Statistics New Zealand 1998 New Zealand Now: Housing). If state house rent rises had been the main contributor to the dramatic increase in the proportion of income spent on housing costs in the Auckland Region between 1996 and 1997, we would have expected to see a similar pattern in the Wellington Region where over 40% of the rental housing stock is owned by Housing New Zealand. However, while median weekly rents also increased by around 200% in Porirua City between 1986 and 1996, the income proportional to housing cost pattern for 1996 / 1997 was not repeated in the Wellington Region data. 40 Statistics New Zealand. 1999. New Zealand Now: Income. 41 Waldegrave C, Stephens R and Frater P. 1996. ‘Most Recent Findings in the New Zealand Poverty Measurement Project’. Social Work Review 8 (3).
Housing Costs and Affordability Accommodation Supplement Receipt
What this is about…
The Accommodation Supplement is a weekly benefit paid to welfare beneficiaries and low income earners who are spending over 25% of their income on rent or 30% of their income on mortgage payments. The amount of supplement received is determined using a formula that takes into account the individual’s income and assets, household size and the level of regional maxima payments available to the person depending on the geographical region in which they live. The number of Accommodation Supplement recipients provides an indication of housing affordability by looking at the number of low income people reliant on government assistance to meet one of their most basic of needs. It is also an indicator of levels of hardship and low income. This indicator looks at the number of people who are receiving the Accommodation Supplement as a percentage of the population in each city.42
What did we find ?
Similar proportions of people in Auckland (10%), Christchurch (10.6%) and Waitakere (11%) Cities received the Accommodation Supplement in 1999, while Wellington’s rate was slightly lower at 8.3%. The rest of New Zealand had similar rates of people receiving the Accommodation Supplement to most of the large cities.
ACCOMMODATION SUPPLEMENT RECIPIENTS (YEARS ENDED MAY) AS A PROPORTION OF CITY POPULATION (AT JUNE 1998, 1999)43
1998 1999 2000 Number % Number % Number Auckland 37,728 10.0 38,245 10.0 38,258 Manukau 32,644 11.8 34,297 12.2 36,190 North Shore 9,412 5.1 10,199 5.4 12,398 Waitakere 17,616 10.5 18,853 11.0 18,201 Wellington 13,815 8.3 13,833 8.3 12,249 Christchurch 33,397 10.4 34,238 10.6 34,400 Rest of NZ 221,306 9.6 226,577 9.9 226,729
Data Source: Department of Work and Income
The level of people receiving the Accommodation Supplement tends to be closely associated with other indicators of hardship.44 In areas where the proportion of people on lower incomes is high, where the proportion of state housing to rental dwellings is high and where there are high rates of Maori and Pacific Islands people, the number of Accommodation Supplement recipients also tends to be high. As such, Manukau City, at 12.2% had the highest proportion of residents receiving the Accommodation Supplement in the year to May 1999 of any of New Zealand’s six largest cities. It also had the highest proportion in 1998 (11.8%).
42 Statistics New Zealand does not provide annual estimates of the number of households at a city level. Nor does it provide age specific estimated population break- downs. Breakdowns such as these might give a more accurate reflection of Accommodation Supplement receipt as children are not eligible to receive the Supplement. 43 Statistics New Zealand population estimates for 30 June 2000 were not available until approximately November 2000, so rates were not calculated for 2000 figures. Readers should note that population changes or changes in housing costs between 1999 and 2000 may account for changes in the numbers of Accommodation Supplement recipients. 44 The rate of Accommodation Supplement recipients reflects overall welfare benefit uptake rather than just uptake of the Supplement. Quality of Life North Shore had the lowest proportion of residents receiving the Accommodation Supplement in 1999 of any of the six cities (5.4%). It also had the lowest proportion in 1998. No allowance is made within Supplement maxima for rental variations within regions and cities. Thus, in cities such as North Shore where housing costs are higher relative to other areas, residents potentially face greater affordability pressures. The result is that low income tenants are priced out of high cost suburbs.45 The number of Accommodation Supplement recipients as a proportion of the population did not change between 1998 and 1999 in Auckland and Wellington Cities and rose slightly in the other four largest cities. There was also a slight increase in the rest of New Zealand. However, uptake of the Accommodation Supplement in New Zealand has slowed from 1994 onwards with the completion of rent reviews for Housing New Zealand tenants who had become eligible to receive assistance. In all cities, people of European ethnicity were under-represented, while people of Maori, Pacific Islands and Other ethnicities were all over-represented amongst Accommodation Supplement recipients, as they are amongst welfare recipients in general. The over-represented groups are generally more likely than other ethnic groups to be either beneficiaries and/or low income earners and therefore eligible for the Supplement. Accommodation Supplement recipients are more likely to live in rented accommodation than in their own homes. The higher the median weekly rent, the less affordable the housing (particularly for low income earners) and therefore the greater the likelihood that people will need financial assistance (such as the Accommodation Supplement) to meet these costs.
People Living in Crowded Households
What this is about…
Crowding is an indicator of housing need as well as affordability. It provides information on the suitability of a dwelling to the household occupying it. Crowding is usually associated with low incomes as those with higher incomes can usually afford suitable housing. People living in crowded households often have lower personal incomes, higher unemployment and greater reliance on income support. Crowding is connected with other issues such as poor health status, particularly respiratory diseases, the communication of infectious diseases and psychological stress. As such, it brings with it significant social and health costs to the individuals directly affected and to society. The potential future effects for society include lowered academic achievement, high rates of ill health and community breakdown. Crowding often results in insufficient privacy and personal space and is connected with low educational attainment. Ill health and sleeplessness associated with crowding make it hard for children to study at school and make homework completion difficult. This indicator measures the proportion of people in private dwellings who are living in crowded households. Crowding refers to situations in which the number of people residing in a household exceeds the capacity of the household to provide adequate shelter and services to its members.46 There is no official crowding statistic or index to measure crowding in New Zealand. This indicator uses the Australian Bureau of Statistics Index47, which is sensitive to household size and composition, in establishing a household’s bedroom requirements. Initially developed by the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation in the 1980s, the Index allocates a separate bedroom to: each couple each pair of adolescents of the same sex aged 10 to 18 years each pair of children under 5 years any other person aged 18 years or older. For our analysis, crowded households are those requiring two or more additional bedrooms.48
45 New Zealand Council of Christian Social Services. October 1999. Taking Stock! A Report on the Problems and Possibilities for Housing Policy in New Zealand. 46 Statistics New Zealand. 1998. New Zealand Now: Housing. 47 The definition of crowding used for this analysis is not an official definition for New Zealand in that it covers reported overcrowding only. In addition, this indicator provides a static picture of crowding, whereas in reality the issue is actually more dynamic. Measures based on bedroom occupancy (such as the Australian Bureau of Statistics Index) are limited. First, bedroom size is not accounted for and second, actual bedroom or room usage cannot be ascertained. Further, households vary in their need for space and in their perception of crowding. 48 It is difficult to gauge the true extent of crowding as those living in these conditions are often unwilling to admit it for a variety of reasons. These include fear of eviction and fear that overstayers will be discovered. This is particularly the case for Pacific Islands households. Accommodation Supplement/Crowded Households What did we find ?
Crowding is particularly an issue in urban areas in New Zealand where 1.4% of households fall within our crowding criteria, compared to 0.9% of rural households.49 Crowding is an important issue in the Auckland Region because of its unique population structure and housing affordability problems for some sectors of the population and because of high rates of migration into the Region. However, there are large variations in crowding rates within the Region. Manukau City has the highest level of crowding of the six largest cities, with 10.4% of all residents living in crowded households. Crowding in the six largest cities did not change significantly between 1991 and 1996, with only small increases in Auckland, Manukau, Waitakere and Wellington. Crowding decreased slightly in the rest of New Zealand and remained static in Christchurch and North Shore Cities. While proportionally the level of crowding has not increased, the numbers living in crowded households have, in fact, increased and this trend was expected to continue following the 1996 Census due to housing affordability issues for low income people.
PERCENTAGE OF PEOPLE IN PRIVATE DWELLINGS LIVING IN CROWDED HOUSEHOLDS, BY CITY (1991 AND 1996)
12
10 1991 1996 10.1 10.4 8
6
PERCENT 5.5 6.0 4 4.4 4.6
2 2.7 2.1 2.4 2.1 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.5 0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH REST OF NZ
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
Crowding is especially an issue for people of Pacific Islands and Maori ethnicity. These ethnic groups tend to have large households, younger age structures, higher proportions of children in families, prevalence of extended family living arrangements (which most New Zealand homes do not cater for), lower personal incomes, higher unemployment and consequent welfare dependency.50 Where there are higher concentrations of Pacific Islands people and Maori (such as in Otara and Mangere), crowding is higher. Pacific Islands people tend to live in urban areas and have higher concentrations in the Auckland Region. The rate of crowding amongst Pacific Islands people is 28.5% (14,379) in Manukau and 25.5% (10,140) in Auckland City.51 Waitakere City also has a reasonably high level of Pacific Island crowding. While not as exaggerated as the Manukau and Auckland experiences, similar patterns emerge in our other large cities when looking at the ethnic composition of crowded households. Crowding among people in the ‘Other’ ethnic category is high in some areas, particularly in Wellington and in the Hagley Ward in Christchurch. This category may include refugees and recent immigrants who tend to gravitate to larger cities in search of employment and support services. Doubling up of families is seen as a way to reduce overall housing costs for some people on low incomes who are establishing themselves in New Zealand. Differing cultural attitudes to the number of people living in a house and differing cultural propensities for the pooling of resources can also help account for higher numbers of people in some households among some non European population groups. Extended family groupings are common, as are larger nuclear families with more children than the New Zealand average.
49 Statistics New Zealand. 1998. New Zealand Now: Housing. Please note that this analysis looks at the number of people in private dwellings or households, whereas Statistics New Zealand’s analysis looks at the number of households. It should be noted that high housing costs in urban areas have driven some low income people and marginalised groups to rural areas. 50 For example, Housing New Zealand stock continues to be dominated by low density suburban single unit dwellings, yet, particularly in the Auckland Region, the need is for larger dwellings. The tension is that high land prices make such dwellings more expensive to build. 51 In fact, 55% of all Manukau residents living in crowded households were Pacific Islands people. Quality of Life Crowding is not a significant problem for Europeans in our large cities, nor is it in the rest of New Zealand. Europeans do not feature prominently in indicators of deprivation and have lower unemployment rates, higher educational attainment and feature in higher income brackets than other ethnic groups. Further, Europeans with families tend to live in nuclear family arrangements, rather than in extended family situations.
PERCENTAGE OF PEOPLE IN PRIVATE DWELLINGS LIVING IN CROWDED HOUSEHOLDS, BY ETHNICITY (1996)52
30 28.5 EUROPEAN MAORI PACIFIC ISLAND ASIAN OTHER 25.5 25
20 20.0 16.6 15.9 15.7 14.4 15 14.0 12.0 11.1 PERCENT 10.4 10.1 9.4 8.3
10 8.1 7.6 6.4 6.1 5.7 5.7 4.9 4.9 5.0 4.8 4.7 4.0 4.2 5 3.8 0.9 1.0 0.6 0.7 0.9 0.6 0.4 0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH REST OF NZ
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
Central and Local Government Housing Provision
What this is about…
The level of central and local government owned housing in a city gives an indication of the city’s ability to provide housing for people on low incomes who might not otherwise be able to afford their accommodation.53 The percentage change in the number of Housing New Zealand units by city indicates whether the level of government housing is increasing or decreasing in each city (and thus the government’s policy commitment to the provision of housing). This indicator outlines the proportion of all rented private dwellings in each city that were Housing New Zealand units, for the years ended May 1998, 1999, and 2000 and the proportion that were owned by local authorities.54
What did we find ? CENTRAL GOVERNMENT OWNED HOUSING Housing New Zealand properties make up the largest proportion of state sector rentals in New Zealand. However, the majority of the country’s rented dwellings are leased from an individual or private trust. Higher state housing densities are usually found in areas where indicators of deprivation are strongest and in turn, low income households have traditionally been given priority for state housing in New Zealand. Low income households have tended to move to areas where there are high concentrations of Housing New Zealand homes. Manukau City is strongly reflected in indicators of deprivation and serious housing need and had a higher number of Housing New Zealand units as a proportion of all rented private dwellings than any of our other large cities and proportionally more than the rest of New Zealand, at 51.5% in the year to May 2000. State housing tends to be located in areas of housing need.
52 Proportions of each ethnic group in crowded conditions were calculated as a proportion of that ethnic group’s population in the city. 53 It should be noted that when Housing New Zealand implemented income related rents in December 2000, not all tenants received a rent rebate. Some tenants were ineligible (some are paying over 25% of their income on rent and some are paying full market rents). It must also be noted that private sector low income households are eligible for the Accommodation Supplement which, in some cases may provide a subsidy that is very near to what they would receive if in Housing New Zealand accommodation. 54 Total number of private dwellings by city from the 1996 Census was used as a base for calculating the number of Housing New Zealand units and Council houses as a proportion of all rented private dwellings in each city. We do not have estimates of the number of rented private dwellings between Census periods. The provision of housing stock data by the Councils was inconsistent and varied greatly in its comprehensiveness. This prevented a more detailed analysis of the data. Rented private dwelling figures include private sector rental dwellings (ie. those leased from a person, private trust, business or other private organisation). Central and Local Government Housing High median house prices in Auckland City have resulted in affordability problems for those on low incomes. The city has a reasonably high number of Housing New Zealand houses proportional to total rented dwellings at 27.4% as does Waitakere on 23.6%, compared to our other larger cities such as Wellington (10.7%), North Shore (10%) and Christchurch (18.4%).
HOUSING NEW ZEALAND UNITS AS A PROPORTION OF RENTED PRIVATE DWELLINGS IN EACH CITY (YEARS ENDED MAY 1998, 1999, 2000)
60
50 1998 1999 2000 51.5 50.6
40 49.5
30 PERCENT
14 28.8 28.1 27.4 23.6 22.9 22.6 20.0 19.7 19.0 10 18.4 18.4 17.6 11.5 10.7 11.0 10.0 10.4 0 10.0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH REST OF NZ
Data Source: Housing New Zealand
The need for government housing is high in the Auckland Region as low income people face affordability problems due to high housing costs. However, most of the growth in the number of Housing New Zealand homes in the Region has occurred in two cities - Manukau and Waitakere. Lower land values in these two cities has encouraged growth - land and dwelling prices influence the level of state housing provision. In areas where prices are high, it is less economically viable to build state housing and usually the provision is lower in these areas. In turn, the need for such dwellings is often lower in these areas as low income earners have been excluded from living there due to high housing costs. High population growth in cities such as Manukau, particularly among low income groups, has necessitated more subsidised housing. All the other large cities have shown a decline in the number of Housing New Zealand units as a proportion of rented dwellings. This reflected the decline that occurred nationally. Central government provision of housing in New Zealand has changed over the past decade. The focus of housing policy for much of the last decade was on income support for those with housing affordability difficulties rather than on housing stock development.
PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN THE NUMBER OF HOUSING NEW ZEALAND UNITS, BY CITY (YEARS ENDED MAY 1999, 2000) 1999 (%) 2000 (%) Auckland -2.5 -2.4 Manukau 2.1 1.8 North Shore -4.2 0.1 Waitakere 1.5 2.8 Wellington -3.7 -3.0 Christchurch -3.4 -2.9 Total NZ -4.9 -2.6
Data Source: Housing New Zealand
Quality of Life LOCAL AUTHORITY OWNED HOUSING All of our large cities provide some form of local authority owned housing for residents, mainly for older people.55 Proportional to all rented dwellings, Wellington City (at 13.6%), provides around three times as much housing as any other large city, with the exception of Christchurch City. Proportionally, Christchurch (at 9.3%), provides around twice as much as the other cities. The nature of the political environment and council housing policies reflect the commitment of local authorities to the provision of subsidised housing stock. For example, Christchurch City has embarked recently on partnerships with central government and the community sector to increase housing stock. The appropriateness and location of central and local government housing stock for meeting the diverse needs of potential tenants is an issue. An identified area of need in relation to both central and local government stock, particularly in the Auckland Region, is for three to four bedroom dwellings for larger (and often extended) families.
NUMBER OF LOCAL AUTHORITY OWNED HOUSES AS A PROPORTION OF RENTED PRIVATE DWELLINGS IN EACH CITY (2000)
% of Rented Number Status Private Dwellings
Auckland 1,802 4.6 Older person’s housing (1,672); General residential (130)
Manukau 518 3.1 Older person’s housing (518). Sometimes made available to special needs groups
North Shore 495 4.0 Older person’s housing (458); Owner occupied dwellings that must be sold back to the Council when the owner ceases living at the address (37)
Waitakere 335 3.4 Older person’s housing (335)
Wellington 2,359 13.6 Wellington’s housing policy targets low income older people, people with mental health issues, etc. 70% of the stock is one bedroom units or bedsits
Christchurch 2,557 9.3 Older person’s housing (2,119); Public rental units (407); General housing (7); Roading houses (24). Housing is available to older people and special needs groups with limited assets
Data Source: Data supplied by each Council
55 During the 1990s, Auckland City sold off housing stock. However, with a change in the political environment and recognition of increasing housing affordability problems in the City, this trend has been halted.
Central and Local Government Housing Urban Housing Intensification
What this is about…
High density living can put pressure on services and amenities and on the social and physical resources of a city. Housing intensification can indicate that gentrification56 is occurring, particularly in inner city areas. Low income households are often forced out of gentrified areas because of housing affordability problems as house prices rise and because of the decline in the number of lower priced houses available in the area. This indicator examines the number of new units as a proportion of all new private dwellings in the six largest cities over the previous three years. Units include apartment blocks, terraced housing developments, townhouses, units, flats, studio units, unattached granny flats, dwellings added to other buildings, communal accommodation and other residential accommodation.57 This provides contextual information about changing housing patterns in our large urban areas.
What did we find ?
The six largest cities have seen an emergence of higher density housing developments such as apartment and terraced housing developments and townhouses over the last decade in response to a number of trends, including: Population growth, which has resulted in land use competition, particularly in inner city areas. Changing household formation and composition patterns due to an increase in couple only and single person households, smaller household sizes and later family formation which has resulted in increased demand for smaller dwellings. Changing lifestyle and leisure needs and demands, including the desire to live in inner cities. Local authority planning changes in an attempt to curb urban sprawl by limiting green space housing development.58 Auckland and Wellington Cities have seen higher levels of higher density housing development than the other large cities. In Auckland this is due to higher rates of population growth and competing land use demands. In the year to June 2000, 65.3% of all new dwellings in Auckland City and 56.1% in Wellington City were new units, compared to 12.7% in Manukau City. From the start of 1995 to mid 1999, the inner city apartment market in Auckland City grew at a rate of 98.5% per annum.59 By the end of 2001, it is projected that Auckland City will have over 6000 apartments in the inner city, up 69% on the 1996 figure of 3807.60 Growth in apartment and terraced housing developments has been slower in Wellington City than Auckland City due to barriers to expansion including a lack of available office space and geographical constraints. Manukau City has a lower rate of new unit development because of the availability of cheaper land, which has encouraged single unit greenfields development rather than higher density units. Much of the initial higher density development in Auckland and Wellington Cities was concentrated in the commercial hearts of the cities, but development is now occurring on the city fringes and in cities with lower land values, such as in Manukau and Waitakere.
56 Gentrification is where older areas are renovated and upgraded, usually by more affluent households moving into the area. 57 Apartment blocks refer to high density, high rise developments. Terraced housing refers to low rise apartments of up to four or five levels. Townhouses are medium density and tend to be built on cross-leased or subdivided sections, either on the same property as already existing older houses or in blocks where older dwellings have been demolished. This definition does not include houses not attached to others, sleep-outs, garages and other outbuildings of residential buildings. 58 This process is not simply demand driven. The development of different types of housing in new locations (such as multi-density units) have encouraged people to explore new patterns of living and to think in new ways with regard to their living arrangements. On an international scale, much of this development is of medium density rather than high density. However, from a New Zealand perspective, it is of a higher density than has traditionally been seen before. 59 Bayleys Residential Research. June 1999. Auckland Inner City Apartment 1999 Annual Review www.bayleys.co.nz/publications. 60 Bayleys Residential Research. June 2000. Apartments and Terraced Housing June 2000. www.bayleys.co.nz/publications.
42 Quality of Life Christchurch City has not experienced the population pressures of Wellington City or of the cities in the Auckland Region. As such, the rate of new unit development to new developments overall has not been as high in Christchurch (at 36.8%). Planning amendments have resulted in the release of vacant land on the city fringe. This has encouraged low density new house development. Much of Christchurch’s new unit development has been medium density townhouse developments on cross-leased or subdivided sections throughout the city rather than in the inner city, although some inner city apartment development is occurring. In the last few years, rates of growth of new higher density housing developments have begun to decline relative to all new dwellings in Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch Cities. Economic conditions, government policy, land and building availability and market demand have resulted in fluctuations in growth rates. However, a continued market for higher density developments will be buoyed by cities wanting to encourage inner city revitalisation (such as in Christchurch) and in regions keen to limit urban sprawl (such as in the Auckland Region).61
NUMBER OF NEW HOUSES AND UNITS AS A PROPORTION OF ALL NEW DWELLINGS (1998 TO 2000)
1998 1999 2000 Houses Units Houses Units Houses Units No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Auckland 1,082 40.1 1,618 59.9 903 33.5 1,793 66.5 1,021 34.7 1,918 65.3 Manukau 1,815 87.3 263 12.7 2,078 92.1 179 7.9 2,149 87.3 312 12.7 North Shore 883 57.8 644 42.2 757 61.9 465 38.1 822 61.3 520 38.7 Waitakere 1,090 78.3 302 21.7 1,124 68.5 516 31.5 1,104 62.4 664 37.6 Wellington 396 28.8 979 71.2 368 33.0 748 67.0 519 43.9 662 56.1 Christchurch 1,120 52.9 997 47.1 1,177 61.8 729 38.2 1,102 63.2 642 36.8
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
Population growth puts pressure on already existing land uses, leading to the need for intensified infill housing. New developments are usually located around existing transport nodes. Population growth also puts pressure on transport systems. People often make a trade off between living closer to the inner city in higher density developments (with lower transport costs) and living further from the inner city in lower density developments but with higher transport costs. Local and central government policies and zoning restrictions will also affect urban housing intensification. Changing lifestyles and attitudes have led to a desire by many to live near services and near work locations (eg. in the inner cities or in suburbs with office growth). New unit development also reflects levels of economic vitality in cities.
61 However, recent research evidence suggests that increasing the number of dwellings per hectare does not always lead to an increase in the number of people per hectare. In Wellington the reverse pattern has been happening in a significant number of cases where dwelling density of area units has been increasing but the corresponding population density of these area units has actually fallen across Census periods (Email correspondence 18 September 2000 with Philip Morrison, a demographer at Victoria University, Wellington). Further, consolidation does not always act as an antidote to urban sprawl. The relationship is complex and indirect. Recent New Zealand research has found, as has overseas research, that the primary purchasers of inner city apartments tend to be long term residents of the inner city rather than suburb dwellers. However, there are indirect effects linking city and suburban housing markets (Morrison P and McMurray S. 1999. “The Inner City Apartment Versus the Suburb: Housing Sub-Markets in a New Zealand City” Urban Studies 36 (2).)
Housing Intensification 43 Infant Mortality
What this is about…
Deaths in infancy are recognised internationally as a sensitive indicator of social and economic conditions and the adequacy of health services.66 The indicator used is the average annual rate of infant mortality per 1,000 live births by ethnicity (for 1996 and 1997 combined).67 An infant death is defined as a live-born infant dying before their first birthday.
What did we find ? Overall, the New Zealand infant mortality rate (IMR) declined steadily until 1992 but has levelled off since. It has not improved at the same rate as in other developed countries. In 1960, New Zealand’s infant mortality rate ranked sixth out of twenty-one Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, but in 1995 our IMR dropped to fifteenth.68 Manukau City has the highest rate of infant mortality of 7.6 deaths per 1,000 live births. This is higher than the rate of 7.3 for the rest of New Zealand. This may be linked to the higher level of socio-economic deprivation that exists within the city. INFANT MORTALITY RATE PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS, BY CITY (1996 AND 1997 AVERAGED)
8.0 7.0 7.6 7.3 6.0 6.9 6.6 6.5 5.0 6.3 4.0 5.0 3.0 2.0
RATE PER 1000 LIVE BIRTHS RATE 1.0 0.0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH REST OF NZ
Data Source: New Zealand Health Information Service
The rate of infant mortality is highest for Maori and Pacific Islands people across all the cities. The Maori IMR has declined but remains higher than that of non-Maori, mostly due to a higher rate of sudden infant death syndrome (cot death). The gap between Maori and non-Maori IMRs has widened since the mid-1980s. The IMR for Pacific Islands infants was consistently lower than the European rate until the mid-1980s, but it has been above the European rate for three out of five years since 1990.69 Smoking is known to be strongly associated with socio-economic status, and has also been associated with sudden infant death syndrome. One in four New Zealanders smoke, and the young are more likely to smoke than older people. Maori smoking rates are almost twice those of non-Maori, and the prevalence of smoking among young women, particularly young Maori women, is of concern.70
66 National Health Committee. 1998. The Social, Cultural and Economic Determinants of Health in New Zealand: Action to improve health. 67 Data for 1998 is unavailable due to ‘unresolved data issues’. Owing to changes in the coding of ethnicity on birth and death certificates during 1995, pre 1995 data has not been included. 68 National Health Committee. 1998. The Social, Cultural and Economic Determinants of Health in New Zealand: Action to improve health. 69 The National Health Committee analysis of IMR by ethnicity is based on pre 1995 data. Due to changes in the coding of ethnicity on birth and death certificates during 1995 pre 1995 and post 1995 ethnicity data is not comparable. Data for this indicator is based on post 1995 data and serves as a baseline for future reporting. 70 Statistics New Zealand. 2000. Looking past the 20th Century, a selection of long - term statistical trends that influence and shape public policy in New Zealand.
Quality of Life INFANT MORTALITY RATE PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS, BY ETHNICITY (1996 AND 1997 AVERAGED) European Maori Pacific Islands Other
Auckland 4.3 9.7 10.4 3.8 Manukau 2.9 10.4 7.2 11.6 North Shore 4.2 10.4 6.8 12.0 Waitakere 4.4 14.8 2.6 4.4 Wellington 4.8 9.7 7.9 0.0 Christchurch 5.7 11.6 17.5 3.3 Rest of NZ 5.0 11.2 8.0 6.2
Data Source: New Zealand Health Information Service
Low Birth Weight Babies
What this is about…
A low birth weight baby weighs less than 2,500 grams. Babies weighing 2,500 grams or less are at greater risk of death within the first month of life as well as increased risk of illness, disability and health problems in later life. Birth weight is affected by the overall health of the mother and her environment, and the quality of and level of access to prenatal care. This indicator measures the average annual number of low birth weight babies per 1,000 live births (1996 and 1997).
What did we find ?
Manukau City has the highest rate of low birth weight babies compared to the other five largest cities. As for infant mortality, this may be linked to the higher level of socio-economic deprivation that exists within the city.
AVERAGE ANNUAL RATE OF LOW BIRTH WEIGHT BABIES PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS, BY CITY (1996 AND 1997 AVERAGED)
80 70 60 70.9 68.3 62.9 64.3 63.1 50 58.4 64.0 40 30 20
RATE PER 1000 LIVE BIRTHS RATE 10 0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH REST OF NZ
Data Source: New Zealand Health Information Service
Infant Mortality/Birth Weights Between 1980 and 1993 the proportion of low birth weight babies increased in New Zealand. The increase occurred predominantly among people of European ethnicity. This may be partly due to an increase in the survival of very low birth weight babies (under 1,500 grams) as a result of improved medical technology.71 However, the Maori rate of low birth weight is considerably higher than the European rate. Smoking is one of the most important preventable determinants of low birth weight babies. Proportionately more Maori women smoke during pregnancy and are more likely to have low birth weight babies.72 The rate is lowest for Pacific Islands infants, remaining steady at around 43 per 1,000 live births during 1980 to 1993.73 The table below shows a high rate of low birth weight babies amongst other ethnic groups which may reflect generally smaller babies, or a range of other issues such as access to prenatal care and socio-economic factors. However, as for infant mortality, the numbers are small.
AVERAGE RATE OF LOW BIRTH WEIGHT BABIES PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS, BY ETHNICITY (1996 AND 1997 AVERAGED) European Maori Pacific Islands Other
Auckland 51.2 83.8 42.9 92.5 Manukau 75.2 82.4 45.2 105.4 North Shore 49.5 79.9 37.7 87.2 Waitakere 53.3 84.6 36.0 109.1 Wellington 53.9 96.7 49.4 84.3 Christchurch 63.2 82.2 31.5 108.8 Rest of NZ 55.1 68.9 45.6 137.6
Data Source: New Zealand Health Information Service
Other factors that may increase the likelihood of low birth weight babies is poor nutrition and drinking alcohol during pregnancy.74 These are influenced by socio-economic status, access to prenatal care and information, and education levels.
71 National Health Committee. 1998. The Social, Cultural and Economic Determinants of Health in New Zealand: Action to improve health. 72 National Health Committee. Maternity services for ‘hard to reach’ women not so satisfactory. News and Issues 15, www.nhc.govt.nz 73 The National Health Committee analysis of low birth weight is based on pre 1995 data. Due to changes in the coding of ethnicity on birth and death certificates during 1995 pre 1995 and post 1995 ethnicity data is not comparable. Data for this indicator is based on post 1995 data and services as a baseline for future reporting. 74 National Crime Prevention Council. 2000. The Determinants of Health and Children. Canada. www.crime-prevention.org
Quality of Life General Practitioners
What this is about…
The number of General Practitioners (GPs) per city reflects accessibility to health services. A lower rate of GPs per population may indicate difficulty with accessing primary health care and may be associated with higher rates of hospitalisation. This indicator uses the rate of full time equivalent GPs per 100,000 population within the six largest cities.
What did we find ?
Waitakere and Manukau Cities have the lowest rate of GPs per population, with an average rate of 65 and 71 per 100,000 population respectively. In comparison, Auckland and Christchurch Cities have the highest rate of GPs, with averages of 104 and 102 per 100,000 population respectively. This is a significant difference, and suggests that areas of greatest need may not be adequately provided for in terms of primary health care.
RATE OF GENERAL PRACTITIONERS PER 100,000 POPULATION (1997 TO 1999)
120 1997 1998 1999
100 106 105 107 100 102 99 80 101 91 87 83 82 78
60 72 71 70 68 63 63 44
20 RATE PER 100,000 POPULATION RATE 0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH
Data Source: New Zealand Medical Council’s Annual Workforce Survey
It is not clear how GPs are spread throughout the community - that is, whether practices are located close together or spread evenly throughout the city, or the number of GPs working in ‘super clinics’. Poor access to health care, especially preventative health and early intervention services such as those offered by GPs, partly explains the link between socio-economic status and health. Social, cultural and economic factors influence the use of preventive and treatment services and the more affluent generally have better access to high quality health services. New Zealand studies demonstrate that individuals in lower socio-economic groups use general practitioner services less than would be expected given their health status, and that financial constraints act as a deterrent to consultation for those with lower family incomes and from more deprived areas.75 In particular, a considerable number of Pacific Islands people are admitted to hospital with conditions that would be largely preventable through access to primary care.76 Therefore, improving the affordability of general practice services, and addressing issues of availability and appropriateness of services for different ethnic groups would assist with reducing socio-economic differences in health status. There has been a restriction on the issuing of Section 51 notices by the Health Funding Authority (Section 51 of the Health and Disability Services Act (1993) enables GPs to claim payments from the government for consultations). This has limited the number of new GPs able to open up practices, especially in the Auckland area. These limitations have been strongly challenged by many GPs and communities who say that GPs need to be located where there are fast growing populations.
75 National Health Committee. 1998. The Social, Cultural and Economic Determinants of Health in New Zealand: Action to improve health. 76 Health Funding Authority. 2000. Improving our Health in Wellington – a discussion document for community involvement.
General Practitioners 49 Incidence of Meningococcal Disease among Children What this is about…
New Zealand is now in its tenth year of a meningococcal disease epidemic, which is showing no sign of decreasing. The epidemic has now resulted in a total of 3,300 cases and 150 deaths within New Zealand.77 The Auckland Region continues to be the worst affected region in the country with a rate of 24 cases per 100,000 population, compared to 14.8 cases per 100,000 for New Zealand overall.78 The indicator used here is the rate of notified cases of meningococcal disease (meningitis) per 10,000 children under 15 years.79
What did we find ? The rate of meningococcal disease among children under 5 years is considerably higher than in any other age group.80 This finding is consistent across all of the six largest cities. There was a steady increase in cases until 1997 when the epidemic peaked (particularly in Auckland and Manukau Cities). Christchurch, Wellington and North Shore Cities do not appear to have experienced the peak of the epidemic in 1997. Overall, the rates post-1997 are higher than pre epidemic rates (pre-1993).
RATE OF NOTIFIED CASES OF MENINGOCOCCAL DISEASE PER 10,000 CHILDREN AGED UNDER 15 YEARS, BY CITY (1993 TO 1999)81
25 AUCKLAND
20 MANUKAU NORTH SHORE 15 WAITAKERE 10 WELLINGTON
5 CHRISTCHURCH RATE PER 10,000 CHILDREN RATE REST OF NZ 0 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Data Source: Environment Science and Research Ltd.
Between 1993 and 1999, the rate of total notified cases among children aged less than 15 years was highest among Pacific Islands people in all cities except Wellington, where it was highest among Maori. The rate amongst both Maori and Pacific Islands communities has been highest in Auckland and Manukau Cities.
77 Institute of Environmental Sciences and Research (ESR), Auckland Health Protection Service and the University of Auckland. 2000. Household Crowding: A major risk factor for epidemic meningococcal disease in Auckland children. Press release 11 August 2000. 78 Public Health Quarterly Advice. July 2000. Meningococcal disease increasing again – Household crowding the most important risk factor. 6 (3). 79 Meningococcal disease is a notifiable disease, which means that a GP is required to notify their local Public Health Unit when a patient presents with the disease. 80 Public Health Quarterly Advice. July 2000. Meningococcal disease increasing again – Household crowding the most important risk factor. 6 (3). 81 Rates have been calculated using 1991 census data for 1993 to 1995 and 1996 census data for 1996 to 1999, for the population aged under 15 years.
Quality of Life RATE OF NOTIFIED CASES OF MENINGOCOCCAL DISEASE PER 10,000 POPULATION OF CHILDREN AGED 15 YEARS AND UNDER, BY ETHNICITY (1993 TO 1999 TOTAL)
European/Asian/Other Maori Pacific Islands
Auckland 17.3 56.1 118.7
Manukau 19.2 76.9 122.8 North Shore 6.6 24.9 50.1 Waitakere 16.5 18.0 63.4 Wellington 4.8 40.4 22.9 Christchurch 14.0 19.0 33.1 Rest of NZ 13.6 48.0 102.7
Data Source: Environment Science and Research Ltd. Rate calculated using 1996 Census data.
Household crowding is a significant risk factor for meningococcal disease in children. A three-year study shows that while household crowding is unlikely to have caused the meningococcal disease epidemic in New Zealand, crowding has almost certainly intensified its effect among the most vulnerable, notably Maori and Pacific Islands people living in Auckland.82 For example, if a family living in an average sized house of six rooms increased the number of adolescents or adults by two, there would be a doubling in risk of meningococcal disease for any child living in the household.
Incidence of Tuberculosis
What this is about…
Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the more common of the notifiable infectious diseases. It is a disease of poverty and the risk of transmission is inversely related to socio-economic status.83 As a result, the cities with the lowest socio-economic status are at greater risk of TB. While TB was more common during the depression, the incidence declined as New Zealand became more affluent. TB is usually associated with underdeveloped countries, and the data suggests that New Zealand is demonstrating increasing levels of underdevelopment. The indicator presents the notification rate of TB per 100,000 population in New Zealand’s six largest cities and for the rest of New Zealand.
What did we find ? In 1999 there were 451 notified cases of TB nationally. Of these, 58% were in the six largest cities. The number of notifications within the cities increased from 67 in 1993 to 261 in 1999. Notification rates were variable between 1993 and 1999 but indicate overall increases in Auckland, Manukau, Wellington and Waitakere Cities. There were significant increases in notification rates between 1993 and 1994 in Auckland and Manukau. Notification rates in the North Shore and Christchurch Cities and the rest of New Zealand were lower compared to the other cities and remained fairly static between 1993 and 1999.
82 Institute of Environmental Sciences and Research (ESR), Auckland Health Protection Service and the University of Auckland. 2000. Household Crowding: A major risk factor for epidemic meningococcal disease in Auckland children. Press release 11 August 2000. 83 Public Health Quarterly Advice. 2000. Tuberculosis increasing in young Aucklanders. (6) 1.
Meningococcal Disease/Tuberculosis RATE OF NOTIFIED TUBERCULOSIS CASES PER 100,000 POPULATION,84 BY CITY (1993 TO 1999) 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Auckland 0.3 23.8 27.8 18.8 21.1 24 28.3 Manukau 7.1 22.1 25.2 20.1 15.3 24.8 25.2 North Shore 6.6 7.9 10.5 10.5 7.6 4.1 7.6 Waitakere 10.2 5.8 8.8 13.5 14.1 12.2 15.4 Wellington 4.0 14.2 18.9 10.2 14.6 15.9 22.9 Christchurch 7.0 12.1 9.3 5.2 6.8 11.3 8.4 Rest of NZ 12.1 7.2 7.0 7.6 6.0 6.1 8.5
Data Source: Environment Science and Research Ltd.
Rates calculated from the total number of notifications between 1993 and 1999 indicate that rates are significantly higher amongst ‘Other’ ethnic groups. This is largely due to the arrival of visitors, immigrants and refugees from countries where there is a high incidence of TB, such as the Pacific, Asia and Africa.
RATE OF NOTIFIED TUBERCULOSIS CASES PER 100,000 POPULATION, BY ETHNICITY (1993 TO 1999)86
NZ EUROPEAN MAORI PACIFIC ISLAND OTHER 900 827.4
800 788.4
700 654.1 620.9 600 500
400 368.7 316
300 258.6 234.4 243.1 226 214.8 210.1
200 160.6 150.5 126.3 91.1 88.5 103.4 79 64.4
RATE PER 100,000 POPULATION RATE 100 49.4 29.1 25.5 31.7 19.9 15.7 19.7 0 17.2 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH REST OF NZ
Data Source: Environment Science and Research Ltd.
In Auckland, the proportion of TB among New Zealand born, particularly young people, has increased since 1998.85 TB has also been linked to overcrowded housing.87
84 Rate calculated using 1991 Census data for 1993 to 1995, and 1996 Census data for 1996 to 1999. 85 Public Health Quarterly Advice. 2000. Tuberculosis increasing in young Aucklanders. (6) 1. 86 Rate calculated using 1996 Census data. 87 Institute of Environmental Sciences and Research (ESR), Auckland Health Protection Service and the University of Auckland. 2000. Household Crowding: A major risk factor for epidemic meningococcal disease in Auckland children. Press release, 11 August 2000.
Quality of Life Immunisation
What this is about…
Improving immunisation coverage to levels that will be protective for both the individual child and the whole community is probably the most cost-effective treatment available in the health sector, especially as it costs more to care for sick children in hospital than it does to vaccinate them.88
What did we find ?
Reliable regional or city wide data of incidence of immunisation is not available, highlighting a significant gap in data. However, in 1996 the Northern Regional Health Authority commissioned an immunisation coverage survey in Auckland and Northland.89 The survey estimated that 63.1% of children were fully immunised by age 2 years; a modest but not statistically significant increase on the 55.4% coverage estimated in a 1992 survey. It also found that Maori and Pacific Islands children were less likely to be fully immunised at age 2 years compared to other children (44.6% and 53.1% respectively, compared to 72.3%). The survey results indicate that immunisation coverage may be improved by measures which facilitate physical access to immunisation services, promotion of the first immunisation event, promotion of the use of Well Child Health Books and Immunisation Certificates, and greater use of opportunistic immunisation. Factors which reduce immunisation coverage include transience of families, access to, affordability and appropriateness of primary health care, awareness and education, and socio-economic status. Immunisation programmes which have successfully targeted ‘hard to reach’ children have the following features in common: provider commitment
a locally developed, systematic approach
good information systems
well developed teams
culturally appropriate workers, or the ability to link with appropriate community workers
a capacity to visit children at home. Parents’ opposition to immunisation also impacts on immunisation coverage. However, successive surveys show that less than 5% of parents are opposed to immunisation. Therefore, it is possible that there is a big group of people who would agree to immunisation but who are not being offered the service in ways that encourage uptake.90
88 National Health Committee. Action on immunisation of New Zealand’s ‘hard to reach’ children. News and Issues 15. www.nhc.govt.nz 89 Rainger, W., Solomon, N., Jones, N. et al. 1998. Immunisation coverage and risk factors for immunisation failure in Auckland and Northland. The New Zealand Public Health Report. 5 (7). 90 National Health Committee. Action on immunisation of New Zealand’s ‘hard to reach’ children. News and Issues 15, www.nhc.govt.nz Immunisation Suicide
What this is about…
The increase of psycho-social disorders across all OECD countries is also reflected in New Zealand statistics. Suicides are one measure of such disorders, and while the earlier statistics may be marked by a tendency to call suicides ‘accidents’, the number of suicides among young people aged 15 to 24 years has trebled from 1948 to 1997.91 To assess the significance of this, we have measured the number of suicides by city and age.92
What did we find ? New Zealand has the highest suicide rate in the world for males between 15 and 24 years old.93 The high rate of suicide for this age group may be under-represented, as some suicides may be identified as road deaths where this age group is over-represented. While considerable attention has been given to youth suicide in recent years, it is also a concern amongst other age groups. For example, the last few years have shown a marked trend for 25 to 39 year olds to suicide, with rates within that age group doubling. European and ‘Other’ males and females have considerably higher rates of suicide compared to Maori and Pacific Islands groups. In addition, there is a considerably higher rate of suicide among males than females. Suicides and attempted suicides are usually the result of a complex interplay of longer-term risk factors and stressful immediate events. Research has identified four main factors that distinguish young people who make suicide attempts from other young people.94 These include social and education disadvantage, and a history of exposure to multiple family and parental disadvantages during childhood and adolescence. The development during adolescence of significant mental health problems or adjustment and exposure to a serious or stressful life event immediately prior to the suicide attempt are also factors.
TOTAL SUICIDES, PER CITY, BY AGE (1993 TO 1997) 10-14 yrs 15-24 yrs 25-39 yrs 40-59 yrs 60 yrs and over Auckland 151914529 Manukau 349473419 North Shore 014323120 Waitakere 040442219 Wellington 034393616 Christchurch 179916533 Data Source: New Zealand Health Information Service
NUMBER OF SUICIDES, BY CITY (1993 TO 1997) 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Auckland 42 40 53 36 46 Manukau 21 31 34 39 27 North Shore 917222425 Waitakere 17 19 38 21 30 Wellington 27 23 29 31 15 Christchurch 49 54 50 52 64 Data Source: New Zealand Health Information Service
91 Statistics New Zealand. 2000. Looking past the 20th Century, a selection of long - term statistical trends that influence and shape public policy in New Zealand. Wellington. 92 Suicide is a statistically rare event and differences between cities are not significant. Any differences between cities will be attributable to different demographic characteristics. 93 Injury Prevention Research Centre. Suicides: Fact Sheet 1. The University of Auckland. 94 Beautrais, A. 1997. In Our Hands: The Research Evidence. Ministry of Health.
Quality of life Physical Activity
What this is about…
The importance of being active has been well documented, with some of the attributes of an active life being identified as: A better quality of life - getting more people active saves lives and money. In New Zealand, around a third (just over 7,800) of adult deaths in 1994 were from coronary heart disease, colon cancer and diabetes. Around a fifth of these deaths can be attributed to physical inactivity. Even a modest increase (10%) in physical activity levels among adults could prevent over 300 of these premature deaths and save around $55 million a year in health costs. Young people who are active are healthier and perform better at school. Active communities are more unified, more likely to share an identity, and experience less anti-social behaviour, especially among young people. Active lifestyles bring tangible benefits to the economy. The sport and active leisure sector contributes over $1.7 billion to GDP and supports 31,000 people in employment.99 This indicator presents the percentage of active adults and young people within New Zealand, on a regional basis (‘activity’ is defined as doing 2.5 hours or more of sport and active leisure a week). Data for this indicator is drawn from research conducted for the Hillary Commission’s Push Play Campaign which aims to get all New Zealanders enjoying the benefits of healthy active lifestyles.100
What did we find ?
Young people’s involvement in sport and active leisure is high in all areas of the country, but there are differences in their activity levels and the way they play sport. Young people in the Auckland region were less active than those in the rest of the country, while those in the far south are the most active. Their involvement in club sport varies. Almost a half of the young people in the Canterbury/Westland area play sport with a club, compared with only 30% of those in Wellington and Auckland. Adults living in different parts of the country are equally active and have similar rates of participation in sport and active leisure. For adults regional figures reflect national ones. In all regions, more than 50% of the population is engaged in physical activity of some type. Types of activity may range from gardening and fishing to netball and badminton.
99 Hillary Commission. 1999. Push Play Facts. Report published by Hillary Commission for Sport, Fitness and Leisure. 100 Regional data was available from the Sport and Physical Activity Survey carried out by the Hillary Commission (1999) which formed the basis of their Push Play campaign. The survey was carried out from May 1997 to April 1998 during which over 5,400 adults and 1,700 5 to 17 year olds living in 12 regions of New Zealand were surveyed. Quality of Life PERCENTAGE OF ACTIVE YOUNG PEOPLE (AGED 5 TO 17 YEARS) AND ACTIVE ADULTS (1997 TO 1998)
ALL ACTIVE ADULTS ALL ACTIVE YOUNG PEOPLE
CENTRAL AUCKLAND 68 60
COUNTIES MANUKAU 63 57
NORTH HARBOUR/WAITAKERE 64 67
WELLINGTON 66 69
CANTERBURY/WESTLAND 71 71
TOTAL NZ 67 69
0102030 40 50 60 70 80 PERCENT
Data Source: Hillary Commission, Sport and Physical Activity Survey
One of the trends currently occurring in relation to sports clubs is amalgamation, especially in the Auckland Region. As a result, a range of small clubs offering particular sports are being replaced by multi-sport facilities. This will increase the range of sports opportunities for people. However, accessibility and affordability of such facilities may need to be monitored to ensure they provide sporting opportunities for a range of community members.
By international standards, New Zealand is an active nation. However, inactivity and obesity are on the increase in the western world, and the number of people who are obese or overweight is increasing in New Zealand. Obesity is influenced by poor diet and physical inactivity.101
101 Statistics New Zealand. 2000. Looking past the 20th Century, a selection of long - term statistical trends that influence and shape public policy in New Zealand.
Physical Activity before aclearpicture canbedeveloped. report able tohighlightareasfirst isonly where ourinformation andfurtherresearch isinsufficient isneeded education that -insomecasesthis affect themanyfactors of The chapter analysis doesnotprovide adefinitive participatingthis latter willhave intheworkforce. group difficulty community asawhole,andtheproportion that leave schoolwithnoqualifications. There isasignificantriskthat the focuses onthequalifications education of Achievement (ages5to15years). before andaftercompulsory sixlargestcities.Theparticipation lookat Zealand’s indicators theperiods inNew participation andachievement educational todraw key indicators somegeneralconclusionsaboutThis chapter thestate selectsseveral of education andlearningcanbeanenrichingexperience leadingtoamore fulfilledlife. A literate andwell-educated population islikely toleadamore vibrantandenlightenedsociety. Ongoing skills situations. tomanydifferent aportfolioexpect manyjobchangesandmustapply of jobshaschangedtotheextentthat workers should changingwork rapidly environment.today’s Thenature of are they tokeep pacewith citizenstore-skill andup-skill duringtheirworking isneededif lives The ability of education. of low levels theneedtomake sure peopleare notmarginalisedthrough economiesandof theoverallcapacity of in termsof itspeople.Thisisimportant both becoming lessimportantthantheknowledge,skills, capacity andinnovative of possessesareGlobal societyisincreasingly aknowledge-basedone,where thephysicalresources acountry school withnoqualifications. young peopleare stillleaving Zealand.However, New asignificantpercentage of or school)thanintherest of educational vocational, qualification (degree, residents inthesixcitieshave someform of A higherpercentage of participation andachievement. of show poorer levels withoutqualifications schoolleavers andWaitakere inManukau Cities,whichotherwisetendto of levels falling healthy. Sinceschoolageeducation iscompulsory, thishasnotbeenmeasured. Anencouragingstatistic isthe sixlargestcities.Participation Zealand’s rates ineducation preoutcomes inNew andpostschoolare generally communitiesisreflected between educational inbigdifferences socio-economicstatusThe underlying of theeducational outcomesfor theirownchildren.and eventually income,withalltheimplications thishasfor health,housingquality, of good levels toachieve some groups Overthelongterm,pooreducational performance atachievement. schoolwilltendtomake itharder for educational participation and There are of strong linksbetweensocio-economicstatus andthelevel ourcommunity. for of theyoungest members example participation childhoodeducation inearly canputinplacethefoundation learningpath for apositive future issuesorproblems. For The indicator setincludesmeasures warningof ussomeearly that shouldgive societytoparticipate intheeconomyisjustasimportant. of allmembers attainment, sincetheability of of thecommunityasawholewehave notfocused onthehighestlevels this report isabout thewellbeingof isacomplexarea andisnotattempted toeducational indetail. As achievement Linking socio-economicfactors include: Indicators A high standard of education and of educational achievement is essential for effective participation insociety. isessentialfor effective educational achievement education andof A highstandard of School decile ratings School leavers withoutqualifications Schoolleavers incommunityeducation Participation Highestqualificationgained School suspensionsandstand-downs School decileratings childhoodeducation inearly Participation Impact andrelationships withotherareas inthisreport Introduction to Education Introduction toEducation… Why thisisimportant… Why What’s inthischapter? Key points 59 Education Participation in Early Childhood Education
What this is about…
The stimulation of learning at an early age has an important bearing on future educational achievement. Social interaction with other children at pre-schools is healthy and is likely to make the transition to formal schooling easier. This indicator measures participation rates in early childhood education at state funded pre-schools, as a percentage of the under 5 years population in each city and the rest of New Zealand. A small percentage of children attend private pre-schools that receive no government assistance, and it is difficult to collect statistics on these children as they are not yet legally required to attend school.102
What did we find ?
In most of the six cities, early childhood education levels are stable or increasing slightly. Over the period 1997 to 1999 these were generally around 60% to 70% of the population aged under 5 years, which is average for OECD countries. The level of participation for Auckland, North Shore, Wellington and Christchurch Cities was similar to the rate for the rest of New Zealand. Waitakere and Manukau Cities were significantly lower than other cities, but both recorded gains in participation rates over the period reviewed. Both of these cities had the highest proportion of under 5 year olds in the 1996 Census.
PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION AGED UNDER 5 YEARS WHO ATTENDED STATE FUNDED PRE-SCHOOL, BY CITY (1997 TO 1999)103
75
70
65 AUCKLAND
60 MANUKAU NORTH SHORE 55 PERCENT WAITAKERE 50 WELLINGTON
45 CHRISTCHURCH REST OF NZ 40 1997 1998 1999
Data Source: Ministry of Education. Includes all licensed services (eg creche, kohanga reo) and license exempt services (eg Barnados Family Care).
It is difficult to link this indicator to educational achievement in later life because of the mobility of students, who may achieve qualifications in other parts of the country. It is also difficult to demonstrate the effect of early childhood participation on educational achievement at primary and secondary school because many other factors come into play, including the quality of the education itself and support of parents and caregivers. However, it is accepted that in the formative stages of growth (up to 8 years old), education and socialisation has a significant effect later in life.
102 It is also possible that some children are enrolled at both a kindergarten and an early childhood centre, and this may lead to some double counting. Participation rates are generally for under five years (children are not legally required to attend school until their sixth birthday, but the vast majority commence on or soon after their fifth birthday) at registered early childhood education centres. 103 Total population figures for the 1997, 1998 and 1999 years are based on medium growth projections calculated by Statistics New Zealand for each year.
60 Quality of Life School Decile Ratings
What this is about…
The decile rating of a school is determined by the Ministry of Education and takes account of a number of factors including the socio-economic status of the families of the pupils at the school.104 A low decile rating indicates a school with a significant number of disadvantaged children. Children at low decile schools face difficulties other than the level of resources at the school itself. Their families may be disadvantaged and the parents may have difficulty supporting the learning process.
What did we find ?
Two cities, Waitakere and Manukau, stand out as having a much larger proportion of children in low decile schools. Both have 60% to 65% in decile 1 to 4 schools, compared to the average of 35% across the six largest cities.105 While school decile rankings are not directly comparable with socio-economic deciles, there is a high correlation to overall socio-economic conditions in the relevant city.
PERCENTAGE OF PUPILS WITHIN SCHOOL DECILE, BY CITY (1999)
AUCKLAND (n = 66,988) 19.7 23.5 19.09.5 28.4 2.6
MANUKAU (n = 56,628) 49.6 15.9 3.7 28.2 1 AND 2 (lowest score) 0.7 3 AND 4 NORTH SHORE (n = 34,306) 7.8 17.5 72.1 2.0 5 AND 6 WAITAKERE (n = 29,512) 6.6 52.6 16.515.6 8.7 7 AND 8 2.1 9 AND 10 WELLINGTON (n = 26,070) 4.6 12.5 18.1 62.7 (highest score)
CHRISTCHURCH (n = 54,535) 7.0 15.5 20.119.3 37.2
0 PERCENT 100
Data Source: Ministry of Education Percentages are rounded
There may be connections between lower socio-economic status, which is reflected in the school deciles, lower participation in early childhood education, and high levels of school leavers with no qualifications. This applies to Waitakere and Manukau Cities particularly.
104 The decile rating for a school is used to determine school resourcing and is not directly comparable with socio-economic deciles. It is therefore possible that the decile ratings for schools may be more ‘polarised’ than the decile ratings of the supporting community. The rating is based on families with school age children and includes ethnic makeup, household income, benefit dependency, household crowding, and other factors. Some “cross border” issues may exist, such as boarding schools in main centres with children not normally resident in the area, and (particularly in Auckland) children from one city attending a school in another. 105 We would not expect an exact 10% of all schools or pupils in each decile for the following reasons: the criteria used are not aimed at producing this split as an average across the whole country; the rating is for the school, not pupils and therefore averages across all pupils; and the data above is not for the whole country. Given this, four deciles would theoretically include 40%, so at 35% the figures are comparable.
Early Childhood Education/School Decile Ratings 61 School Suspensions and Stand-Downs
What this is about…
Suspensions are the formal removal of a student from school until that school’s board of trustees decides the next step at a suspension meeting. Stand-downs are the formal removal of a student from school for a specified period. The more formal process for a suspension means that these usually relate to longer time periods away from school, and are usually for more serious matters. Ultimately a student may be expelled from a school, but the school must usually arrange a new school if the child is under the legal leaving age. There may be substantial differences between the application of these procedures between schools. Both are subject to guidelines issued by the Ministry of Education but are strongly influenced by the policies set by school boards of trustees. It is also possible that some schools may be able to deal with issues at an early stage and so avoid the necessity for these more formal procedures. This indicator presents the percentage of the population aged 5 to 15 years in each of the six largest cities who were suspended or stood-down, for the period July 1999 to December 1999. Some children may have been suspended or stood-down more than once during this period but the numbers are likely to be small because the figures are for six months only. Figures for suspensions and stand-downs have been aggregated because suspensions are relatively few on a per school basis and thus there may be a significant margin of error.
What did we find ?
There appears to be broad consistency in the application of stand-down and suspension policies across cities, because the percentages are comparable. Proportions of suspension and stand-downs are higher among Maori and Pacific Islands children. Asian students are rarely stood-down or suspended.
PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION AGED 5 TO 15 YEARS WHO WERE SUSPENDED OR STOOD-DOWN, BY ETHNICITY (JULY TO DEC 1999)106
3 EUROPEAN MAORI PACIFIC ISLANDS ASIAN OTHER 2.6 2.6
2 1.9 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 PERCENT 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 1 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0 AUCKLAND MANUKAU NORTH SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH
Data Source: Ministry of Education
There is no evidence of a relationship between socio-economic status of cities and rates of suspensions and stand-downs. There may be a connection however, between high rates and subsequent juvenile offending rates. For example, Christchurch shows the highest level of suspensions and stand-downs over this period and has high levels of juvenile offending (refer page 83).
106 Proportion has been calculated using 1996 Census ethnicity data and the proportion is per ethnic grouping. There may be some differences between the 1996 Census data and ethnicity identified by the students when a suspension or stand-down is recorded.
62 Quality of Life Highest Qualification Gained
What this is about…
The level of qualifications in a population is related to employment take-up. An educated population adds to the vibrancy and creativity of the community and is needed to remain competitive in the global economy. This indicator measures the highest qualification gained within the New Zealand population aged 15 years and over. It is useful as an indicator of the capability of a workforce to meet the labour demand.107 Because this is a measure of the whole population it will reflect qualifications that were gained over the previous 40 to 50 years. The level and quantity of study for a degree is now defined by the New Zealand Qualifications Authority and tertiary institutions. The difference between a ‘degree’ and ‘vocational’ qualification, is becoming less distinct as a much wider range of degree qualifications has developed, and many courses can now be recognised as part of a degree qualification.
What did we find ?
Between 1991 and 1996 there was a significant drop in vocational qualifications and rise in degree qualifications. This may reflect changes in national qualification standards during that period. The percentage of the population who have no qualifications dropped but the shift is small over a five year period where the importance of a well-qualified workforce has been increasingly recognised. There are significant differences in achievement at the higher level between New Zealand’s six largest cities. In particular, the percentage of the population with degree qualifications varies widely from 4% in Manukau to 18.9% in Wellington. The proportions of people with no qualifications in the six largest cities are lower than in the rest of New Zealand. Among the six cities however, Manukau, Waitakere, and Christchurch Cities have relatively high levels of people aged 15 years or over who have no qualifications.
PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION AGED 15 YEARS AND OVER WHO HAVE GAINED QUALIFICATION, BY CITY (1991 AND 1996)108
Degree (%) Vocational (%) School (%) None (%) 1991 1996 1991 1996 1991 1996 1991 1996 Auckland 8.9 12.3 23.8 18.6 20.9 24.2 21.0 18.4 Manukau 2.7 4.0 20.4 16.3 18.1 22.4 26.2 25.6 North Shore 6.3 8.8 27.6 21.7 24.7 27.7 18.1 17.8 Waitakere 3.2 4.4 23.5 18.4 20.9 24.0 24.2 23.6 Wellington 15.4 18.9 24.4 19.5 21.8 25.2 15.0 14.0 Christchurch 5.7 7.4 24.2 19.5 21.8 26.5 24.7 24.2 Rest of NZ 3.4 4.4 21.7 18.4 19.1 22.6 27.0 27.1
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
It is difficult to draw conclusions on the linkages between educational participation and quality at progressive stages of the lifelong learning process. One reason for this is the difficulty of ‘tracking’ population groups as they become more mobile (for example, seeking university education in different parts of the country from the place of normal residence).
107 The categories of qualifications were updated between the 1991 and 1996 censuses. They have been grouped into similar qualification types to allow clearer reporting. The category “None” includes those aged 15 years and over who are still at school with no qualifications, although this group is not large (1.0 to 1.5% of the total population). 1996 categories are: Degree - Higher and Bachelor Degrees; School - Higher School, Sixth Form, School Certificate, Overseas School Qualifications; Vocational - Advanced Vocational, Intermediate Vocational, Skilled Vocational, Basic Vocational Qualifications; None - No Qualification. 108 Percentage calculated using 1991 and 1996 Census population counts.
Suspensions/Qualifications 63 School Leavers without Qualifications
What this is about…
As the economy and the labour market change, there is an increasing demand for a skilled labour force. School-level qualifications are an indirect indicator of a level of literacy and skill. School leavers without qualifications are more likely to have difficulty finding sustained and skilled employment than those who leave school with qualifications. Individuals who leave school without qualifications may find employment or acquire alternative qualifications at some stage, but measuring school leavers with no qualifications as a percentage of total school leavers in a year helps identify the job readiness of the future labour force.
What did we find ?
Over the last five years, the percentage of school leavers without qualifications as a percentage of all school leavers has fallen across the six largest cities, with the exception of Wellington City. Auckland, North Shore and Wellington Cities have the lowest proportion of school leavers with no qualifications.
SCHOOL LEAVERS WITH NO QUALIFICATIONS AS A PERCENTAGE OF ALL SCHOOL LEAVERS (1995 TO 1999)
35 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
30
25 28.7
20 25.2 23.6 22.9 22.4 21.6 21.0 20.9 19.8
15 20.2 PERCENT 19.2 19.3 19.2 18.2 17.4 17.2 16.6 16.4 16.0 14.8 14.3 10 14.2 13.7 11.7 11.1 9.1 10.5 10.4 9.3 9.2 5 8.3 7.5 8.0 6.8 6.4 0 AUCKLAND MANUKAU NORTH SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH REST OF NZ
Data Source: Ministry of Education
In many cases Maori and Pacific Islands school leavers are over-represented among those leaving without qualifications. For example, in Auckland in 1999 Maori made up only 8.6% of school leavers, but were 23.1% of those without qualifications. In Waitakere the figures were 16% and 32.6%, and in Manukau 15.7% and 30.6%. In Auckland 20.3% of school leavers in 1999 were of Pacific Islands ethnicity, but they made up half of the 617 students who left with no qualifications. Asian students tend to be under-represented among those leaving without qualifications. For example in 1999 in North Shore City, 555 school leavers were Asian, but only 19 left without qualifications. There is a critical link between leaving school without a qualification and youth unemployment. Young people lacking skills, qualifications and work experience are vulnerable to unemployment. Research has shown that young people without a minimum of a secondary school level qualification can expect to encounter employment problems throughout their working lives.109 As employers increasingly demand skilled labour in specific areas, high numbers of school leavers without qualifications points to a possible mismatch between the needs of employers and the skills of the labour force. This may have implications for the local economy in the longer term. School qualifications are undergoing major changes which, together with raising the school leaving age to 16 years, is hoped will impact positively on the rates of school leavers without qualifications.
109 OECD research, cited in Te Puni Kokiri. 2000. Progress Towards Closing Social and Economic Gaps between Maori and Non-Maori.
64 Quality of Life Participation in Community Education
What this is about…
In recent years, on-going education and learning have become increasingly regarded as significant contributors to life enrichment and as essential requirements for competitive advantage. The changing nature of the economy means that it is important that people up-skill and re-skill to retain their employment position. No or low qualifications can restrict a person’s employability and their ability to generate a livable income. This indicator shows percentage of the population aged 15 years and over who have participated in community education. Community education includes study post secondary school, but not study for degree or higher level qualifications.110
What did we find ?
Participation rates across the six largest cities vary widely and are generally higher than in the rest of New Zealand. There was a decline in participation in North Shore and Christchurch Cities between 1995 and 1999. The proportion of adult population participating in community education appeared to double between 1997 and 1998 in Waitakere City. This may be due to data collection or recording issues.
PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION AGED 15 YEARS OR OVER WHO PARTICIPATED IN COMMUNITY EDUCATION, BY CITY (1996 TO 1999)111
20 1996 1997 1998 1999
15 16.1 14.8 13.8 13.4 13.4 13.0 13.0 12.6
10 12.3 11.7 PERCENT 8.4 7.8 8.2 7.2 7.0 5 7.0 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.0 5.8 5.5 5.4 4.9 3.9 3.9 3.8 3.6
0 AUCKLAND MANUKAU NORTH SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH REST OF NZ
Data Source: Ministry of Education
Data breakdowns for gender show that participation rates for females are universally higher, and that they are particularly high in the cities of Waitakere, Wellington and North Shore. Some investigation may be warranted to find out why this difference exists. Levels of educational achievement in the six cities show that participation rates are high in cities that already have residents with more qualifications, the notable exception being Waitakere City.
110 Community education data is collected by the Ministry of Education and covers a wide variety of subjects, for example: English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL), School subjects - e.g. School Certificate English and Sixth Form Accountancy, Art, music and crafts - e.g. pottery, guitar, carving and photography, Business office skills - e.g. word processing and spreadsheets, Fitness sport and recreation - e.g. aerobics and self defense, Transport certificates - e.g. defensive driving and boatmasters. 111 Total population figures for the 1996 year are taken from 1996 Census and for 1997, 1998 and 1999 years are based on medium growth projections calculated by Statistics New Zealand for each year.
Qualifications/Community Education 65 Introduction to Employment and Economy… This chapter discusses the economy and employment within the six largest cities and how these affect quality of life and wellbeing.
Why this is important…
Economic growth and development help underpin quality of life in urban communities. Economic growth and greater economic activity enhance prosperity in a city or region. The strength of the economy and levels of employment are closely related. A local economy that is growing and developing contributes to employment opportunities and participation in paid employment is the main factor determining adequate income. In our society, income is necessary to purchase good housing, many health services and other goods and services that contribute to wellbeing and quality of life. Paid employment also serves an important social function. It gives a sense of purpose, self-worth and status, as well as providing a basis for interaction with other people. Employment contributes to people’s sense of belonging and to feeling part of a community and society. Employment is a key factor especially for marginalised members of society, in improving their situation.
What’s in this chapter? Occupational structure of the labour force Regional economic activity Jobs by industry Food price index Unemployment Retail sales expenditure Average hourly earnings
Impacts and relationships with other areas in this report A number of factors affect employment levels and the type of jobs that people do. There is a key link between education and employment. Where a higher proportion of young people leave school without qualifications, this will increase the numbers of low-skilled workers in the local labour force. These people are more likely to be vulnerable to unemployment and to earn a lower income when they are employed. Increasingly, qualifications and skills are a prerequisite for employment, particularly for secure, long-term and reasonably paid work. This is of particular concern where there is a younger population structure, as there is a higher level of registered unemployment among young people. A skilled workforce contributes to a strong economy. Changes in the economy link to other areas such as housing affordability and purchasing power in relation to other goods and services. Those on low incomes in particular will be adversely affected if the food price index and the inflation rate increase significantly as their real income will be eroded. Low household income is associated with poorer health outcomes and health risk factors.112 Participation in paid employment also has a social function and contributes to people’s sense of belonging and to community cohesion. There is a clear pattern of association between unemployment and ethnicity, with Maori and Pacific Islands people being over-represented among the unemployed. This is an association reflected in other areas of disadvantage. Employment and Economy and Employment
112 Ministry of Health. 2000. Social Inequalities in Health: New Zealand 1999.
Introduction to Employment and Economy 67 Key points
In the year to March 1998, the Auckland, Wellington and Canterbury Regions (within which the six largest cities exist) accounted for 60% of the New Zealand economy, with the Auckland Region alone making up a third (34%).113 Local economies are affected by factors such as the international environment, domestic factors, the regulatory environment (as set by central government and by local authorities) and infrastructure issues, particularly roading and transport. Diversification and the development of business clusters is also important. The economy and the shape of the labour market are gradually changing.
The economies of the six large cities are diverse and this is reflected in their employment structure. The six cities have higher proportions of skilled, clerical and service workers than the rest of New Zealand. Average hourly earnings are higher in the cities (apart from Waitakere) than in the rest of New Zealand.
While unemployment rates have fallen, economic growth co-exists with persistent unemployment for some sectors of the population - particularly the less skilled and lower qualified. Education and training are essential if labour force skills are to match employer needs and ‘skills gaps’ are removed.
Occupational Structure of the Labour Force
What this is about…
The spread of occupations gives an indication of the skill base in the community. It is useful to look at the occupational structure of the labour force when looking at the development of local economies. A strong skill base in the labour force is becoming increasingly important in economic development. If there is a mismatch between the skills of the labour force and the needs of employers and business, employers may find it difficult to fill positions requiring particular skills, which may have a negative impact on business productivity and growth. For those parts of the community that lack the skills needed, unemployment is likely to increase, in turn reducing income and putting pressure on individual and family wellbeing. This indicator shows the occupational structure of the labour force resident in each of the six largest cities.114 The labour force includes those aged 15 years and over, in full and part-time paid employment. The indicator reflects the skill set of people who live in an area rather than where they work. Many people, particularly in the Auckland Region, may work in a different local authority area to that in which they live.
What did we find ? Residents of the six largest cities are involved in a wide range of occupations. The large cities have a higher proportion of their labour forces working in skilled technical and professional occupations than the rest of New Zealand. Wellington City has the highest proportion of technical and professional workers, with 58.1% of full time employees falling into these categories, compared with 50.5% in Auckland, 48.7% in the North Shore, and 40.5% in Christchurch in 1996.
113 Auckland Regional Council. 1999. Auckland Region: Business and Economy 1999. 114 This indicator uses data from the 1996 Census. Categories are clustered as follows: Elementary - elementary, plant and machine operators and assemblers; Primary and trades - trades workers and agriculture and fisheries workers; Clerical and service - service and sales workers and clerks; Skilled - technicians, associate professionals, professionals, legislators, administrators and managers. 68 Quality of Life Just over a third of the labour force of Waitakere (36.2%) and Manukau (34.2%) are in the technical and professional category. Similarly, 32.7% of the labour force in the rest of New Zealand are in this category. In the rest of New Zealand, 42.5% of the full time employed labour force is in elementary occupations, primary sector or trades. Only about one-fifth of the labour forces of Auckland and North Shore in 1996 were in these areas, and just 13.1% of Wellington. In Manukau, Waitakere and Christchurch these areas account for around a third of the labour force. Manukau had the highest proportion of those in elementary occupations at 19.8%, reflecting Manukau’s manufacturing base and lower qualification levels in its population. Waitakere and Christchurch also have relatively higher levels of people with no qualifications. Those in part-time employment across the six cities and the rest of New Zealand are more likely to be working in the clerical and service sectors.
PERCENTAGE OF LABOUR FORCE EMPLOYED WITHIN OCCUPATIONAL CATEGORIES (FULL-TIME EMPLOYEES), BY CITY (1996)
SKILLED CLERICAL AND SERVICE PRIMARY AND TRADES ELEMENTARY
AUCKLAND 50.5 23.4 9.5 10.9
MANUKAU 34.2 25.4 14.4 19.8
NORTH SHORE 48.7 26.2 12.3 9.2
WAITAKERE 36.2 25.8 17.1 16.3
WELLINGTON 58.1 24.7 6.9 6.1
CHRISTCHURCH 40.5 24.9 14.6 16.2
REST OF NZ 32.7 20.6 26.0 16.6
0 PERCENT 100
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
The Manukau and Waitakere economies in particular have been affected by the removal of tariffs, which has had a strong impact on the manufacturing sector. There is evidence that some manufacturers have increased productivity, with some growth in manufacturing sales. However, this is being achieved with less labour.115 This may mean that the labour force in Manukau and Waitakere Cities is more vulnerable to job losses as manufacturing declines and demand for low and semi-skilled workers decreases. Higher skill and status occupations are usually more highly paid, and have greater long-term earning potential, than lower skill occupations. Wellington and Auckland Cities have a greater proportion of people in skilled occupations and also have a greater proportion of high-income earners. Occupation, as an indicator of socio-economic status, also links to health. The Ministry of Health reports that there is “strong evidence that important risk factors for adverse health outcomes (such as smoking) show an occupational class gradient, with the highest exposure among those of the more disadvantaged (lower) occupational classes.”116 When the local skill base does not match employer needs, this may boost the number of people working outside their local area. It is estimated that around 40% of North Shore City residents commute to work outside their area, and in Waitakere around 60% of the workforce commutes to work outside Waitakere each day.117 Fewer Auckland City residents commute across the region, with over 70% working within the city.118 In the Auckland Region cross-city and cross-region commuting tends to be mostly by motor vehicle which contributes to greater traffic congestion, and pollution (refer page 91).
115 Manukau City Council. May 2000. State of Manukau Economic Environment. Report to Council 116 Ministry of Health. May 2000. Social Inequalities in Health: New Zealand 1999 117 Regional Growth Forum. 1998. Employment Location in the Auckland Region. 118 Auckland City Council data. Occupational Structure 69 Jobs by Industry
What this is about…
The structure of an economy changes over time. Sectors grow and decline, affecting the numbers of jobs available and the financial significance of a sector in the overall economy. The different sectors require different skills and different numbers of people. The flexibility of local economies and the pace of structural change reflects ability to adapt to changes in the wider national and international economic and technological environment. While the number of workers is not itself an indicator of business productivity, it nevertheless does give some feel for the strength and activity in a sector. Growth in numbers employed is related to increasing economic activity. This indicator presents data on the number of workers within industry sectors, in each of the six largest cities.119 While occupational structure relates to the occupations of the resident labour force, this indicator shows the structure of employment in a city, rather than where employees live. This indicator complements the indicator of occupational structure.
What did we find ?
In 1999 there were 269,290 employees in Auckland City, 98,810 in Manukau City, 73,690 in North Shore City and 46,000 in Waitakere City. Wellington City had 117,250 and Christchurch City 154,060. Together, these make up nearly half (48.5%) of filled jobs in New Zealand (1,565,430).120 The total workforce in all cities and New Zealand increased from 1995 to 1999. Auckland City is dominated by the service sectors, with the distribution, restaurant and accommodation sectors the largest employer in 1999 by proportion, at 27.1%. North Shore City is also service dominated, with distribution, restaurant and hotel sectors accounting for 32.2%, business and financial services 17.2%, and personal and social services 22.8%. Communications, while still a small sector, has grown rapidly in North Shore, up by 48.7% from 1995 to 1999, with total numbers employed rising from 2210 to 4310. A large factor in this is the move by Clear Communications to base itself on the North Shore. In Manukau, manufacturing remains one of the major employment sectors, employing 22,710 people in 1999. The service sectors have grown in the 1995 to 1999 period. Business and financial services grew particularly strongly, up by 27.5% in the period 1995 to 1999, but the total workforce numbers remain relatively low compared to other sectors, at 10,730. Transport and communications had a workforce of over 11,000 in 1999, but 84.5% of these were in transport. While services employment is growing, the traditional and lower skilled industries remain major employers, which is of some concern when looked at in conjunction with skills and income. Waitakere is also more dependent on the manufacturing, distribution and construction sectors, although as elsewhere numbers in manufacturing have shrunk. Within the Auckland Region, Auckland and North Shore Cities have economies more strongly oriented to the service sectors, while Manukau and Waitakere Cities are more dependent on a manufacturing, production and construction base.121 Manukau and Waitakere Cities have higher proportions of people with lower levels of educational qualifications in their populations. If other sectors of the economy grow - for example if the business and financial services sector in Manukau continues to grow - and the demand for new skills and higher levels of qualifications increases there may be a shortage of these skills within the local workforce. Manukau City also has a younger population structure, but a relatively high proportion of school leavers with no qualifications.
119 The data comes from Statistics New Zealand Business Frame. 120 Workforce figures equal the sum of full-time employees and working proprietors, plus the sum of part-time employees and working proprietors. 121 The nature of some manufacturing is changing, for instance the emergence of high-value marine manufacturing in Waitakere. Assessment of Regional Employment Barriers and Opportunities: Waitakere, prepared for the Maori Employment and Training Commission, 2000.
70 Quality of Life Manufacturing is a significant employer in Christchurch, although it has declined slightly in the last five years, standing at 18.6% in 1999. Personal and social services and business and financial services have grown from 1995 to 1999, with a combined workforce of 63,730, up 9,780 since 1995. Employment patterns in Wellington are markedly different to those in the Auckland Region and Christchurch City. Manufacturing plays only a minor role, at less than 6%. The distribution sector is proportionally smaller than in the other cities, and Wellington is dominated by the service sector. Business and financial services accounts for 30.1% or 35,500 people, and personal and social services also provides for 30.0% (35,170 people). This correlates with the higher qualification levels and higher incomes in Wellington, and also reflects the important part that public sector work plays in Wellington.
PROPORTION OF LABOUR FORCE EMPLOYED WITHIN INDUSTRY SECTOR, BY CITY (1999)
100
21.1 18.9 22.9 22.2 PERSONAL AND 30.0 26.6 26.3 SOCIAL SERVICES
10.9 BUSINESS AND 25.1 12.0 17.0 14.8 11.3 FINANCIAL SERVICES 11.5 4.6 5.9 5.6 TRANSPORT AND 7.0 30.3 6.5 COMMUNICATION
PERCENT 28.5 28.8 DISTRIBUTION, 27.3 32.2 27.0 RESTAURANTS & HOTELS 9.1 27.1 6.8 12.0 CONSTRUCTION 20.4 5.9 8.0 4.9 7.9 MANUFACTURING 0 23.0 20.1 14.3 13.3 3.8 18.6 16.4 5.7 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH REST OF NZ
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand Graph does not add up to 100. ‘Other’ category not included.
CHANGES OVER TIME The total numbers employed across New Zealand increased between 1995 and 1999. Numbers of those employed have grown at a greater rate in the six large cities than in the rest of New Zealand. Growth has been strongest in the cities in the Auckland Region, reflecting the growth of the region and the strength and size of the regional economy. The number of manufacturing jobs declined between 1995 and 1999 in the six cities and the rest of New Zealand. As the economy has picked up the construction sector has grown, particularly in Auckland and Manukau Cities.
Jobs 71 PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN WORKFORCE NUMBERS, BY CITY (1995 TO 1999)122 Auckland Manukau North Shore Waitakere Wellington Christchurch Rest of NZ (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Manufacturing -13.2 -8.0 -10.3 -1.7 -22.0 -6.4 -6.1 Construction 24.4 26.9 16.6 19.6 18.4 4.5 11.1 Distribution, restaurants 5.3 12.3 13.2 13.8 5.0 4.9 6.4 and accommodation Transport and communication 8.6 10.2 48.7 18.3 24.1 5.3 5.8 Business and financial services 19.5 27.5 19.5 26.6 11.6 19.8 11.4 Personal and social services 14.4 19.1 15.2 8.0 4.4 10.4 7.8 Total 9.1 11.1 14.2 11.6 7.3 6.1 5.1
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
Jobs by industry reflects the developing shape of local economies, and the workforce needs of employers.123 It is important that the skills of the labour force are developed in line with, and in anticipation of, the changes in the skill requirements of the economy. A lack of skills in the local labour force may result in higher levels of unemployment and may also hinder local economic development. Relevant skills and qualifications are increasingly important. Lower levels of post-school qualifications among the population, as in Manukau, Waitakere and Christchurch, and higher numbers of school leavers without qualifications, as in Manukau, need addressing if a workforce skill levels are to be developed (see also page 64).
People in low-skill jobs tend to be more vulnerable to downturns or changes in the economy, to unemployment and to earn lower incomes when they are working, which can have flow-on effects in other areas such as health and housing. In the six largest cities many of those worst affected will be Maori or Pacific Islands people.
122 A negative percentage means that the workforce decreased over the period 1995 to 1999. Categories are clustered as follows: Distribution, restaurants and accommodation - wholesale trade, retail trade, accommodation, cafes and restaurants.
Transport and communications - transport and storage, communications services.
Business and financial services - finance and insurance, property and business services.
Personal and social services - government, administration and defence, education, health and community services, cultural and recreational services, personal and other services
123 Economic diversification and use of approaches such as clustering can be an effective way of encouraging enterprise development.
72 Quality of Life Unemployment
What this is about…
Paid employment is the main factor determining income. Income affects ability to purchase goods and services and can therefore affect housing quality, health, education, and nutrition. Employment provides social contact and is also related to other aspects of wellbeing, and can affect the ability of people to participate in and have a sense of belonging to their community. The official measure of unemployment in New Zealand defines the unemployed as: all persons in the working-age population who are without a paid job and are available for work, and who have actively sought work in the past four weeks, or who are starting a new job within four weeks.124 This indicator presents data on both the unemployment rate by regions, and the registered unemployed.
What did we find ? UNEMPLOYMENT RATE The unemployment rate is the number of unemployed people expressed as a percentage of the labour force. From 1996 to 1999, unemployment rates rose for New Zealand as a whole, from 6.9% to 7.5%. However, in March 2000 the rate had dropped back to 6.7%, reflecting a stronger economy and increasing employment levels. Throughout the period the Auckland Region has had lower unemployment than New Zealand as a whole, possibly due to its large and reasonably diverse economy. In comparison unemployment rates in Wellington Region stayed lower from 1997 to 2000, while rates increased in Canterbury in the late 1990s as the economy slowed, before dropping in 2000.125 Unemployment rates respond to changes in the economy. The New Zealand economy slowed in the wake of the Asian economic crisis but subsequently strengthened. The stronger economy is reflected in decreases in the unemployment rate. However, this is not evenly spread. For example, while Manukau’s economy grew in 1999, the estimated unemployment rate for Manukau fell more slowly and remained above the regional rate.126 This is related to the nature of the labour force in Manukau, with a greater proportion of low skilled and low qualified workers, and a younger population.
UNEMPLOYMENT RATE, BY REGION (1995 TO 2000 - MARCH QUARTER)
9
8
7 AUCKLAND 6 WELLINGTON PERCENT 5 CANTERBURY 4 TOTAL NZ 3 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
124 Official unemployment is measured by Statistic New Zealand through the quarterly Household Labour Force Survey. 125 Levels of joblessness, which in addition to the officially unemployed includes those without jobs but not actively seeking work or not currently available for work, will be higher than the official unemployment rate. At a national level the officially unemployed made up 61% of the jobless in June 2000. 126 Manukau City Council. May & November 2000. Report on social conditions. Unemployment 73 REGISTERED UNEMPLOYED Registered unemployment is a count kept by the Department of Work and Income of those seeking work. While the count of registered unemployment is sensitive to administrative and policy changes, such as the widening of work test requirements, it provides an alternative way of looking at jobseekers.127 The number of registered jobseekers has risen sharply across the six cities and New Zealand as a whole from 1998 to 2000. This is in large part due to administrative changes, which have extended work-test requirements to a wider range and greater number of beneficiaries than previously.
Registered unemployment tends to have large proportions in younger age groups. This pattern is relatively consistent across the six cities and in the rest of New Zealand. In March 2000 the proportion of registered jobseekers under the age of 25 was highest in Wellington (33% or 2625 people) and Christchurch Cities (32% or 6514 people).
In the last three years the pattern of duration has shifted, with an increase in the proportion of long-term unemployed (on the register for more than six months). While it is probable that some at least of this increase is due to the changes in policy that have extended work test requirements, it is often harder for the long-term unemployed to move back into employment.128 Increasingly, qualifications and skills are a prerequisite for employment, particularly secure, long-term and reasonably paid work. There is also evidence that people who are unemployed for a time are at greater risk of becoming unemployed again within the next two years.129
As the economy fluctuates and changes shape, some groups are likely to be more vulnerable to unemployment, particularly the unskilled, those without qualifications, and those working in areas where employment is declining. To counter this training and education to increase levels of skills relevant in the economy is needed. Continuing to raise education levels among young people is also important.
Paid employment is the main way to earn income, and income is an important factor in having access to a good quality of life. Access to good quality housing is primarily dependent on income. Income is also a factor both in maintaining a healthy lifestyle and in accessing health services. Research shows that unemployment has adverse effects on mental health and is associated with higher smoking rates.130 Employment can also provide social contact with others which also contributes to psychological wellbeing and a sense of belonging.
There are clear patterns between unemployment rates and ethnicity, with higher proportions of Maori and Pacific Islands people being unemployed than other ethnic groups. For example, in March 1999 the rate of unemployment for Maori in the Auckland Region was 14.6%, as compared with a general rate of 6.9%. Registered unemployment figures show a similar pattern, with Maori and Pacific Islands people over-represented among registered jobseekers. This pattern of ethnic representation among statistics of disadvantage is repeated in other areas such as income levels, health and housing.
127 Historically this has tended to track in the same direction as the official unemployment rate, but through 1999 they have diverged, in large part reflecting policy and administrative changes. 128 Some of the increase in registered unemployment (both of numbers and duration) is due to changes in the work-testing requirements particularly for the Domestic Purposes Benefit. This means that more beneficiaries than previously are work-tested and therefore registered as unemployed. 129 Acheson, cited in Ministry of Health. 2000. Social Inequalities in Health: New Zealand 1999 130 Ministry of Health. 2000. Social Inequalities in Health: New Zealand 1999 74 Quality of Life Average Hourly Earnings
What this is about…
Average hourly earnings link to overall income levels, which is a key contributor to quality of life. Earning levels affect how much disposable income people have, and therefore how much they can spend on food and other retail goods, and on housing and services such as health care. Low household income is associated with poorer health outcomes and health risk factors.131 Wage growth is also an indicator of economic vitality and activity. The indicator of average hourly earnings is the amount earned in dollars, averaged on an hourly basis.132 133
What did we find ? From 1995 to 1999, the average hourly wage increased in New Zealand. In dollar terms, average hourly earnings are highest in Wellington, at $21.26 in 1999 and lowest in Waitakere, at $15.81 in 1999. Waitakere is the only one of the six largest cities in which the average hourly earning in dollars is less than that for the rest of New Zealand ($16.34). This is in line with findings that Waitakere also has a high proportion of low-income earners - in 1996, 54% of the population aged over 15 years had a personal annual income of less than $20,000 p.a.. This is likely to be related to the younger population structure and to a greater proportion of the population being in lower occupational groups. While Manukau similarly has a high proportion of low income earners, slightly more of its population is in the highest income bracket, which may be increasing the overall average hourly rate. While on average people earn more per hour in the large cities than in the rest of New Zealand, this is to an extent off-set by higher living costs in some areas in the cities, and particularly higher housing costs.
AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS, BY CITY (1995 TO 1999) 1995 ($) 1996 ($) 1997 ($) 1998 ($) 1999 ($) Auckland 16.71 17.29 18.00 18.49 19.54 Manukau 15.42 15.94 16.63 17.17 17.69 North Shore 14.93 15.48 16.38 16.78 17.14 Waitakere 13.77 14.22 14.80 15.31 15.81 Wellington 18.73 19.47 20.53 20.90 21.26 Christchurch 14.70 15.16 15.85 16.34 16.83 Rest of NZ 14.56 14.94 15.56 15.96 16.34
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
A clear gender gap remains in earnings. In all cities and across New Zealand average hourly earnings for women are below those of men. The labour force participation rate for women is significantly lower than for men, and women are more likely to have interrupted working lives due to child care, to be in part-time employment and tend to be concentrated into a narrower range of less well paid occupations.134 In 1999, the gender gap in earnings ranged from 8.1% in Waitakere up to 24% in Wellington. However, in Waitakere both women and men earn less per hour on average than women in Wellington, reflecting lower overall income levels in Waitakere. Across New Zealand and in North Shore, Waitakere, and Christchurch Cities the gender gap has diminished during the period 1995 to 1999. However it has remained relatively static in Auckland, Manukau and Wellington Cities.
131 Ministry of Health. 2000. Social Inequalities in Health: New Zealand 1999 132 Data source for the indicator is Statistics New Zealand Quarterly Employment Survey. 133 As this indicator uses averages, it may hide wide disparities between very high and low amounts. For example, while Manukau City has a relatively high and increasing average hourly figure, there are significant discrepancies among high and low income earners in that city. 134 Ministry of Women’s Affairs. Briefing for the Incoming Minister 1999. www.mwa.govt.nz. In 1996 just under half of all employed women in New Zealand worked as either clerical or sales and service workers. In September 1999, 37% of employed women worked part-time compared with 11% of employed men. Earnings 75 Regional Economic Activity
What this is about…
Economic activity generates regional growth and prosperity. High levels of activity contribute to business and enterprise development, and ongoing growth. Higher levels of economic activity contribute to employment levels and through this to income levels and quality of life. This indicator discusses shifts in economic activity, which are measured through percentage changes in an index of regional economic activity.135
What did we find ?
Trends for Auckland, Wellington and Canterbury Regions have broadly followed the national pattern, but have fluctuated around the national rate. Constraining factors on growth have been rising interest rates, high levels of household debt and a flat housing market. Through the mid-1990s growth rates in Auckland and Canterbury Regions were higher than the national rate but have dropped back recently, while since 1997 the Wellington Region has grown more strongly. Regional economic activity grew at the highest rates in 1994 and 1995, declining in the late 1990s in the wake of the Asian economic crisis, but recovering in March 2000. Contributing to this were international factors such as strong economic growth in New Zealand’s major trading partners and low exchange rates.136 Unemployment has decreased as economic activity has strengthened. However, more recently the impact of rapid rises in oil prices and the decline in the value of the New Zealand dollar has contributed to a slow-down in economic activity.
ANNUAL AVERAGE GROWTH RATE IN ECONOMIC ACTIVITY, BY REGION (1990 TO 2000)
8 7 6 5 AUCKLAND 4 3 WELLINGTON
PERCENT 2 CANTERBURY 1 TOTAL NZ 0 -1 -2 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Data Source: National Bank of New Zealand
135 Compiled by the National Bank of New Zealand. The overall regional index is based on other indicators of economic activity, including: Short term interest rates Exchange rate Commodity prices Retail sales Dwelling approvals Commercial building permits Employment Unemployment rate Private and commercial motor vehicle registrations.
136 Auckland Region Business and Economy, June 2000.
76 Quality of life Food Price Index
What this is about…
Food is a basic item of household expenditure. Affordable food is important for nutrition and general health, and is particularly important for children. Food prices are affected by seasonal factors and by changes in the broader national economy as well as the international environment. Those on lower incomes are particularly vulnerable to changes in price. They have limited ability to adjust to increases in the price of food, as it tends to make up a significant proportion of household expenditure. The food price index measures changes in food prices and includes four subgroups: Fruit and vegetables Meat, fish and poultry Grocery food, soft drink and confectionery Restaurant meals and ready-to-eat food.137
What did we find ? For the years from December 1994 to December 1999 the food price index rose across New Zealand, reflecting some increase in food prices. Through this period inflation has remained low - within the Reserve Bank’s target range of zero to 3%.138 Over the five years from 1994 to 1999, the greatest increase in the food price index has been in the Auckland Region, which has risen by 9.1% over the whole period, the same rate as for New Zealand as a whole. In comparison, the Wellington Region has seen a lower overall increase of 8.1% and Canterbury Region, 7.9%. For the year ending December 1999 annual percentage increases were markedly lower than in previous years, ranging from 0.2% in Canterbury to 1.4% in Wellington connected to the recovering economy.
CHANGES IN THE FOOD PRICE INDEX, BY REGION (1994 TO 1999) Auckland Wellington Canterbury Total NZ 1994 916 931 930 918 1995 932 937 943 929 1996 952 953 959 942 1997 976 971 976 963 1998 998 996 1005 994 1999 1003 1010 1007 1005
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
Price and income determine access to food and the cost of food varies regionally - basic family food costs are higher in Christchurch Region than in Auckland Region. Food costs in rural areas are often more expensive than in large urban areas. Prices are affected by factors including transportation and distribution costs, competition and economies of scale. These factors tend to work in favour of larger urban areas. Persistent high petrol prices will increase transport costs and are likely to be reflected in rising prices for food and other goods. People on lower incomes, such as beneficiaries and those in lower-skill occupations, will tend to spend a greater proportion of their income on food. They may also try and economise on food when faced with high housing costs, utility bills and other costs, which are relatively fixed. Often the best value for money food in the short term tends to be high-fat foods. These foods provide more energy per gram of weight than lower-fat, healthier foods, which can make them an attractive option when shopping on a very restricted income.139
137 The food price index is one of the nine groups that make up the Consumer Price Index (CPI) and is calculated at a regional level by Statistics New Zealand. The index was set at 1000 in June 1999. 138 The most recent CPI figures show inflation at its highest rate for years, at 3% for the year to September 2000. This reflects in large part increases in petrol and tobacco prices. Increases in oil prices and the weak New Zealand dollar will flow through into other areas of the economy over time. 139 NZ Network against Food Poverty. 1999. Hidden Hunger – Food and Low Income in New Zealand. Regional Economy/Food Price 77 Retail Sales Expenditure
What this is about…
Changes in retail expenditure reflect the strength and liveliness of the local or regional economy. Locally spent dollars potentially contribute to more jobs for local residents and higher profits for local businesses. Retail spending indicates how well the regional economy is meeting the needs and wants of its residents. Increases in retail spending may also be linked to increased disposable income and higher levels of employment, although this is not a simple link. This indicator explores changes in retail sales expenditure by major sectors over time.140
What did we find ? Retail expenditure involves significant amounts of money. In the year ended December 1999, there was $41 billion retail expenditure in New Zealand, of which $13.4 billion was in the Auckland Region, $5.1 billion in the Wellington Region, and $5.5 billion in Canterbury Region. Overall retail spending fell slightly in the Auckland Region in 1997 and 1998, reducing by 1.4% and 0.6% respectively. The Canterbury Region and New Zealand as a whole were also relatively static in retail expenditure in 1997 and 1998, with expenditure reducing in Canterbury slightly in 1997 but growing by 3% in 1998. In New Zealand as a whole expenditure shrank by 0.4% in 1997 and grew by only 1.1% in 1998, reflecting a slower economy. In the year to December 1999, as economic activity grew, retail expenditure jumped substantially in Auckland (by 5.8%), in Canterbury (by 8.4%) and across New Zealand (by 5.2%). The large increase in Canterbury was driven primarily by significant increases in retail spending on clothing and drink. In contrast Wellington experienced relatively stable growth through this period, with 3.7% in 1997, 2.7% in 1998 and 3.8% in 1999. This is similar to the Wellington experience in the housing market, which was also relatively buoyant in this period. In the 1997 to 1999 period expenditure increased overall, in all regions. This reflects the growth in levels of economic activity in this period. It is also a period when unemployment was starting to decrease.
ANNUAL PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN RETAIL SALES, BY REGION (1997 TO 1999)
1997 1998 1999 9
8.4 7
5 5.8 5.2
3 3.7 3.8 PERCENT 3.1 2.7 1 1.1 -0.6 -1 -1.42 -0.2 -0.4 AUCKLANDWELLINGTON CANTERBURY TOTAL NZ
-3
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
140 The data source is the Statistics New Zealand Retail Trade Survey. The categories for retail sales are: Clothing – clothing and softgoods, footwear Drink – accommodation, clubs & pubs, liquor, cafes and restaurants, takeaways Food – food retailing Household – appliance, retailing, furniture and floor coverings, hardware Motor – automotive vehicle retailing Other – chemists, department stores, vehicle services, personal and household services, recreational goods
78 Quality of Life There were regional differences in expenditure patterns from 1997 to 1999, such as: Household expenditure increased over the period, except in the Auckland Region, where it shrank in 1997 and 1998, recovering slightly in 1999. Clothing expenditure grew strongly overall in Auckland, Wellington and Canterbury, but increased very little in New Zealand as a whole and actually decreased in the rest of New Zealand. Expenditure on drink, food and other (including department stores, services, and recreational goods) increased over the period in all the regions. Motor vehicle (retailing) dollar expenditure decreased substantially in Auckland, Canterbury and across New Zealand. While it also decreased in Wellington, the decrease was less dramatic. This decrease in dollar expenditure on vehicles is likely to have been affected by the removal of tariffs on imported vehicles. This has reduced the price of vehicles but not necessarily the number of vehicles bought.
ANNUAL PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN RETAIL EXPENDITURE, BY REGION (1997 TO 1999) Auckland Region Wellington Region Canterbury Region Rest of NZ (%) (%) (%) (%) CLOTHING 1997 1.6 6.53 1.7 -5.9 1998 5.4 11.6 -3.2 -8.5 1999 7.5 10.3 17.6 -2.6 DRINK 1997 1.4 9.9 -2.3 1.6 1998 0.8 0.8 4.4 3.4 1999 6.8 2.6 15.2 3.6 FOOD 1997 4.3 6.8 8.8 3.9 1998 3.1 4.2 5.8 5.2 1999 6.9 5.2 5.4 4.1 HOUSEHOLD 1997 -3.4 1.7 -7.4 2.9 1998 -10.1 6.2 2.5 3.5 1999 5.4 5.7 5.9 4.3 MOTOR VEHICLES 1997 -14.6 -4.8 -13.5 -15.8 1998 -9.1 -3.1 3.8 -3.7 1999 -0.6 0.2 5.4 1.3 OTHER 1997 3.0 3.1 4.0 2.3 1998 3.0 3.1 1.4 0.7 1999 7.8 3.3 8.3 6.2
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
Where retail expenditure drops, less is spent and less is fed into the local economy. It also links to employment, income levels and economic growth. In general, retail expenditure will increase in times of economic growth. With the most recent changes, the weak New Zealand dollar and high oil prices, prices of imported goods and goods with imported components are likely to increase, and as transport costs increase these are likely to feed through to the final price of goods. This may see a slow-down in retail expenditure.
Retail Sales Expenditure 79 Introduction to Safety… This chapter concerns two key areas of safety - crime and personal safety from accident related fatalities and injuries. Both these factors impact on people’s personal perception of safety and their view of the level of safety within their living environment, communities and urban areas. The indicators included in this section provide a general overview of crime and safety within the six largest cities.
Why this is important…
Feeling and being safe and secure within our homes, communities and cities is a basic human right. It is key to the overall health of the community as well as individual perception about quality of life. These are important issues for cities because in order to build community cohesion, we need safe social and physical environments where people are able to participate fully and safely in their community, schools and neighbourhoods.
What’s in this chapter? Burglary Notifications to Child, Youth and Family Services Road traffic fatalities Juvenile offending Perceptions of feeling safe Unintentional child injuries
Impacts and relationships with other areas in this report Criminal and social research internationally and in New Zealand has linked social and economic disadvantage to adverse outcomes such as offending. Factors including unemployment, low incomes, low educational achievement, and family instability are indicators that are believed to increase the likelihood of offending.141 Therefore, the cities and areas within cities that experience lower socio-economic status are more at risk of higher crime levels and lower perceptions of safety. For example, parts of Waitakere City and Manukau City have both low socio-economic status and relatively low perceptions of safety. In some areas this is further compounded by the urban environment, with high levels of graffiti, and urban design that fails to take into account features such as lighting, visibility and access. Addressing these issues, combined with building a sense of neighbourhood ownership can help reduce opportunities for crime in public spaces and can impact positively on levels of community cohesion, perception of the look and feel of a city, and use of public transport.142
Key points
There are some positive indicators in this section. Burglary and traffic fatalities are going down nationally and to Safety some extent these patterns are being duplicated in the six cities. A reduction in burglaries has been attributed to a range of police strategies, the establishment of Safer Community Councils, and the involvement of communities in the development of local initiatives. A reduction in traffic fatalities is due to ongoing work in the area of education, enforcement and engineering and a multi-agency and community based approach. The role of local authorities in supporting and funding Safer Community Co-ordinators and Road Safety Co-ordinators who work from a community development model, contributes to reductions in these areas. A recurrent theme in most of these indicators is children and youth. The risks for these groups are high - both for being intentionally or unintentionally harmed or as offenders. Social and economic insecurity is undermining efforts to improve the wellbeing and living conditions of children and youth. Factors that increase the risks for these groups, and that are increasing in our cities, include inadequate living conditions, poor parenting skills, childhood abuse and neglect, racism and other forms of discrimination, difficulties in school and peer pressure. Media reporting on crime rates and events also has a significant influence on perception of safety. Some groups within cities may be more concerned about safety and security as a result of such reporting, such as the elderly and women living alone. These groups will become larger as a proportion of overall city populations in the future, indicating that demand for secure housing choices, such as apartments and terrace housing (which are features of housing intensification) will continue to grow.
141 Ministry of Justice, cited in Manukau City Council. 1999. Changing Face of Manukau – A report on the social, economic and environmental conditions in Manukau City. 142 Ministry of Justice: 1997: Directory of Criminal Justice Research: Part 2 Cohort Studies. Introduction to Safety 81 Burglary
What this is about…
Burglary is an indicator of attitude towards personal property and influences community perceptions of safety. The rate of reported burglary of dwellings and commercial buildings per 10,000 of population is described in this indicator.143 Data is based on Police Districts, not city boundaries. Burglary is a useful indicator because: It is more likely than some other offences to be reported - victims are perhaps more likely to report a burglary than domestic violence. Perpetuators of burglary may go on to commit more serious types of crime, therefore it may indicate future crime patterns. It affects a large proportion of the population (i.e. not only victims but also their families and neighbours) and is therefore likely to influence perceptions of safety.
What did we find ? The rate of burglary of both dwellings and commercial buildings is highest in Auckland, followed by Counties/Manukau Police District. NZ Police indicate that half of the offenders who are arrested for burglary in Auckland reside outside the city, which highlights that for this indicator, city boundaries are blurred within the regional context. Overall, the rate of recorded burglaries within most police districts has generally decreased between 1996 and 1998. This is also reflected in national statistics, which show a drop of 5.1% in total recorded crime for the year ending December 1999, and a 5.5% drop for burglary, representing 4,300 fewer offences.144 This compared well to the year ending December 1998 when there was 2.7% fewer burglaries. The national decline in burglary has been attributed to police strategies in place around the country, and work by the justice sector and local community groups such as Neighbourhood Watch. In addition, Safer Community Councils have been set up throughout the country through partnerships with the Crime Prevention Unit and local authorities to implement crime prevention programmes. These involve communities taking ownership of solutions to crime and developing local initiatives targeting offenders and potential offenders.
RATE OF RECORDED BURGLARIES PER 10,000 POPULATION, BY POLICE DISTRICT (1996 TO 1998)145
1996 1997 1998 350
300 308
250 302 290 271 270 200 267 232 230 217 206 201
150 201 193 185 185 172 157
100 152
RATE PER 10,000 POPULATION RATE 50
0 AUCKLAND NORTH SHORE/ COUNTIES/ WELLINGTON CANTERBURY REST OF NZ WAITAKERE MANUKAU
Data Source: New Zealand Police
143 Victims do not always report burglaries as they may perceive that the Police can not help to retrieve the stolen goods. 144 New Zealand Police. 20 April 2000. Media Release “Continued downward trend in crime”. 145 Rate calculated using 1996 Census data. 82 Quality of Life Juvenile Offending
What this is about…
Juvenile offending is an indicator of the present health of the community, reflecting safety of people in their homes and on the streets. It also tells us about the direction the community is heading - young people involved in crime in their youth are more likely to continue to commit offences into adulthood. In addition, they may move from committing dishonesty offences in their youth to more serious offences as they get older146. The indicator shows the total number of reported juvenile offences committed by age groups within Police Districts between 1996 and 1998. The data measures the number of offences, not the number of individuals committing offences. Therefore, it does not reflect the possibility that few individuals may commit many offences. Indeed, UK research suggests about 5% of known young offenders commit 50% of all solved crimes.147
What did we find ? The data indicates that most juvenile offences are committed by 14 to 16 year old males. Across New Zealand, the type of offence most commonly committed by juvenile age groups is dishonesty, followed by property damage for the under 10, and the 10 to 13 year age groups, and drugs and anti social behaviour for 14 to 16 year olds. Auckland and Manukau/Counties police districts tend to have a higher youth population compared to other areas. Therefore, the number of juvenile offences in Auckland and Manukau appear low given those cities’ high youth populations.
TOTAL NUMBER OF REPORTED JUVENILE OFFENCES WITHIN POLICE DISTRICTS, BY AGE (1996 TO 1998)
6,167 AUCKLAND 1,408 121 8,839 COUNTIES/MANUKAU 3,430 14 TO 16 YEARS 438 10 TO 13 YEARS 7,106 NORTH SHORE/ 2,044 WAITAKERE 230 UNDER 10 YEARS 9,101 WELLINGTON 3,477 516 11,255 CANTERBURY 4,345 714 49,824 REST OF NZ 18,802 2,866
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 NUMBER
Data Source: New Zealand Police
A number of issues may be associated with increased risk for juvenile offending including exposure to truancy and school drop out, leaving school with no qualifications, alcohol and drug misuse and peer pressure.148 A study undertaken in New Zealand found a link between unemployment and juvenile offending - young people who had been unemployed for six months or longer had higher levels of offending, arrest and conviction than those of young people who had not been unemployed. However, unemployment was also associated with a range of adverse social, family, school and individual factors.149
146 Personal communication with NZ Police and co-ordinator, Safer Auckland City. 147 West and Farrington. 1977. Cited in Crime Prevention Unit. 2000. Using Population Census Data for Planning Local Community Crime Prevention Action. Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. 148 Ministry of Justice. 1997. Directory of Criminal Justice Research: Part 2 Cohort Studies. 149 Fergusson, D.M., M.T. Lynskey and L.J. Horwood. “The effects of unemployment on juvenile offending”. Submitted to: Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health. Available from authors at Christchurch School of Medicine. Burglary/Juvenile Offending 83 Notifications to Child,Youth and Family Services
What this is about…
The protection and nurture of children is a task shared by families and communities. Society’s responsibilities are expressed through macro policies which support families, and through its agents on whom it relies to identify those children who are harmed in their families. Agencies who have a role in identifying children at risk include the health sector, schools, Police, Department of Child, Youth and Family Services, the criminal justice system, and community agencies.150 Determining the amount of abuse and neglect that occurs within New Zealand is difficult because it is often a ‘hidden’ crime. Thus, surrogate measures, such as rate of notification to Child Youth and Family Services can be used as a general - although potentially inaccurate - barometer of the level and extent of abuse and neglect. Notifications are made to Child Youth and Family Services for a range of problems including abuse, neglect, breakdown in relationships in families and suicide. This indicator shows the rate of care and protection notifications to Child Youth and Family Services per 1,000 of population aged 17 years and under.151
What did we find ? The data shows that the rate of care and protection notifications to Child, Youth and Family Services has been mostly increasing since 1997. This may not reflect increasing levels of child abuse, because increased reporting can be influenced by a range of factors including: Awareness of services and support through, for example, the increased role of Community Liaison Social Workers who focus on prevention and early intervention, education and working collaboratively with other agencies (e.g. Barnardos, Iwi social services, etc) Response of health professionals (such as GPs and public health nurses) and schools. Preventative programmes or interventions that have been implemented in particular areas, such as the pilot Domestic Violence Initiative that was conducted in Waitakere in conjunction with the Police and other agencies. Centralisation of services and the establishment of the National Call Centre (which manages notifications from Northland to Hamilton as well as Christchurch City sites) has improved accessibility to services and provides consistent practice to all callers.
NOTIFICATIONS PER 1,000 PEOPLE AGED 17 YEARS AND UNDER, BY CYF DISTRICT (1997 TO 2000)
45 40 AUCKLAND 35 MANUKAU 30 NORTH SHORE 25 20 WAITAKERE 15 WELLINGTON
RATE PER 1000 RATE 10 CHRISTCHURCH 5 0 1997 1998 1999 2000
Data Source: Child Youth and Family Services
150 Office of the Commissioner for Children. 2000. Final Report on the Investigation into the Death of James Whakaruru. 151 The catchment areas for Child Youth and Family Offices are not consistent with city boundaries and reflect rate of notification by office rather than city. Data from the following offices are captured in the graph: Auckland = Grey Lynn and Royal Oak offices; Manukau = Mangere, Otara, Papakura (includes Franklin) offices; North Shore = Takapuna, Rodney offices; Waitakere = Henderson (also includes parts of Rodney); Wellington = Wellington; Christchurch = Christchurch, Papanui, Sydenham offices.
84 Quality of Life Perceptions of Feeling Safe
What this is about…
Perceptions of safety impact on the health and wellbeing of the individual, family and wider community. If people feel unsafe they are less likely to talk to their neighbours, use public transport, go out in the evening, use public amenities and generally participate in their neighbourhood. Respondents to citizens’ surveys undertaken in the six largest cities were asked to rate their feelings of safety in their home, in their neighbourhood and in the town centre, at both day and night.152 Respondents were asked to rate their perception of safety on a scale of very safe, safe, unsafe and very unsafe.153
What did we find ? Residents tended to indicate that they felt safe in their home, both during the day and after dark. However, females felt slightly less safe at home after dark than males. Proportions of respondents who felt very safe or safe in their neighbourhood after dark were considerably smaller than proportions of those who felt safe in their neighbourhood during the day, especially among females and residents of Manukau City. Citizens in Manukau City rated the lowest levels of feeling safe in their neighbourhood and those in Wellington City rated highest levels of feeling safe after dark. Similarly, whereas respondents tended to feel very safe or safe in their local town centres during the day, proportions dropped after dark, especially among Christchurch citizens. A relatively small proportion of respondents to the Christchurch survey indicated they felt safe in town after dark - a smaller proportion than in any other survey. Manukau respondents tended to indicate lower levels overall of feeling very safe or safe than any other city. PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS WHO FELT ‘VERY SAFE’ OR ‘SAFE’, OVERALL (2000) At home In neighbourhood In town Day (%) Dark (%) Day (%) Dark (%) Day (%) Dark (%) Auckland 93 85 95 69 85 69 Manukau 86 71 85 53 89 47 North Shore 95 88 97 74 96 59 Waitakere 86 78 91 65 n/a n/a Wellington 95 95 95 84 n/a n/a Christchurch 96 90 96 72 87 29
Data Source: Citizens’ surveys Perception of safety is linked to environmental factors such as the look and feel of the city, level of graffiti and perceived safety of public transport. The media and reporting on crime rates and events also has a significant influence on perception of safety. There are some possible links between perception of safety and actual crime levels as reported in other indicators. For example, the high level of juvenile offending in Canterbury may have resulted in the finding that only 29% of Christchurch respondents feel safe in town at night. Manukau respondents had the lowest perception of safety compared to other cities. Manukau/Counties has the second highest rate of burglary compared to other Police Districts and a high number of juvenile offences which may influence perception of safety. In addition, as shown in other indicators in this report, Manukau has a higher level of social deprivation compared to other cities, which may influence perception of personal and family safety, directly or indirectly through crime levels.
152 No data was available for any indicator that involved perceptions or attitudes of citizens in the six largest cities. As a result, each participating local authority conducted a survey that explored perceptions and attitudes towards issues such as feelings of safety from crime, perceptions of public transport, sense of community spirit etc. 153 There were several differences in wording of questions between surveys: For example, Manukau City’s survey provided the option of “neither safe nor unsafe”, which was not offered by any other survey and Waitakere City’s survey did not ask respondents about their feelings of safety in the town centre during any particular time period (ie: by day or at night). Manukau City survey asked respondents to identify their local town centre and then asked them to rate how safe they felt at that place, while other surveys did not ask respondents to consider a particular local town centre. In addition, both Wellington and Christchurch residents were asked to rate how safe they felt in the 85 main City Centre, with no specific time limits. CYF/Feeling Safe Road Traffic Fatalities
What this is about…
The increasing numbers of cars on city roads brings greater risk of injury and fatality from motor vehicle incidents. The six largest cities in New Zealand are designed around motor vehicles, increasing the risks for pedestrians and cyclists. Measuring road traffic fatalities per 100,000 population helps assess this risk for occupants of vehicles, cyclists and pedestrians.
What did we find ? Nationally, traffic fatalities are falling - 508 people died on New Zealand roads in 1999 compared to 729 in 1990. The graph indicates that the rate of road fatalities within the six cities is variable between 1994 and 1998. The highest number of road fatalities within nearly all the cities occurred in 1995.
RATE OF TRAFFIC FATALITIES PER 100,000 POPULATION, BY CITY (1994 TO 1998)154
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
25 23.3 22.1 20.2 19.0
20 18.2
15 10.6 10.5 10.2 10.2 9.6 9.3 8.8 8.7 8.7
10 8.8 8.2 7.8 7.6 7.1 7.1 6.9 6.9 6.4 6.7 6.4 6.3 5.8 5.5 5.4 4.9 4.7 3.9
5 3.5 2.5 RATE PER 100,000 POPULATION RATE 1.9
0 AUCKLAND MANUKAU NORTH SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH REST OF NZ
Data Source: Land Transport and Safety Authority
Rates may be higher in the rest of New Zealand due to the higher incidence of fatalities on open roads and motorways compared to urban roads. Overall, more males than females are involved in traffic fatalities. A total of 342 males were involved in traffic fatalities between 1994 and 1998 in the six largest cities compared to 138 females. Of the total number of males fatalities, 142 (42%) were aged between 15 to 24 compared to 40 (29%) females fatalities. Nationally, young drivers are over-represented in minor, serious and fatal crashes. Figures from driver licence statistics and crash reports indicate that 15 to 19 year old drivers make up 6% of the licensed population, yet between 1996 and 1998 this group accounted for 15% of drivers involved in minor and serious crashes, and 12% of those involved in fatal crashes. The majority of these drivers are male. In 1998, it was estimated that the social cost of crashes where 15 to 24 year old drivers were at fault was about $650 million (about a quarter of the social cost associated with all injury crashes).155 In 1998 it was reported that speeding was the major contributing factor to road crashes, and it contributed to 140 fatalities, 394 serious injury crashes and 1034 minor injury crashes.156 Other key contributors to fatalities are drinking and driving, and not wearing seat belts. Additional factors include poor observation, failing to give way, poor handling, vehicle factors, weather conditions and fatigue.
154 Rate calculated using 1991 Census data for 1994 to 1995, and 1996 data for 1996 to 1998. 155 Land Transport Safety Authority. Young driver statistics. www.ltsa.govt.nz 156 Land Transport Safety Authority. National Speed statistics. www.ltsa.govt.nz
86 Quality of Life 5 oet,I,Nro,R,Jcsn . un .adHsal .19.Efc fEvrnetlFcoso iko nuyo Child of Injury onRiskof Environmental Factors of Roberts, I.,Norton,R.,Jackson,Dunn,R.andHassall,I.1995.Effect calculated using1996Censusdata. Rate 159 158 5 Dt esrsnme famsin ohsia n o ubr fchildren. reflects Itonly injuriesthat result inadmissio of admissionstohospitalandnotnumbers Data measures number of 157 There is a strong association between the increasing risk of injury of child pedestrians and increasing traffic volumes. childpedestriansandincreasing traffic of injury There isastrong association betweentheincreasing riskof hl nuisicesswt rae ubr fparents taking children toschool. child injuriesincreases withgreater of numbers pedestrian injury. Asaresult, riskof curbparking hasalsobeenassociated withgreater riskof addition, highdensityof between 1994and1998. unintentionalchildinjuriesper100,000children andunder aged14years This indicator measures the rate of admission. anon-injury admissionis10%greater thanthat of aninjury of are amajorcontributiontohealthcosts,andtheaverage cost countries.Hospitaladmissionsfor injury developed ordeath are rateshigherthaninmost Zealand’s forSafekids childandadolescentinjury notesthat New injuries. Mostunintentionalinjuriesare predictable andtherefore preventable. from more unintentional stageandsignificantly malesthanfemalessuffer children’s ageanddevelopment followed bymotorvehicleandroad injuries,andpoisoningfrom drugs andmedicines.Injuriesare related to nnetoa nuisaeas eerdt s‘ciet’ al r h edn as funintentionalinjuries, Unintentional injuriesare alsoreferred are theleadingcauseof toas‘accidents’. Falls A CaseControl Study. BritishMedicalJournal. rsnaint cietadEegnyciis P,o rvt optl.Teeoe h aaol elcste’i ftheice hospitals.Therefore, clinics,GPs,orprivate presentation toAccidentandEmergency reflects thedata only the’tipof injury among ‘Other’ ethnic groups isthehighestinallcitiesexceptAuckland. among‘Other’ethnicgroups injury unintentional within thesixcitieshighestrates the rate tendtobeamong ‘Other’andEuropean. of Infact, amongMaorichildren However, ishigherthanotherethnicgroups. unintentionalinjury therateNationally of amongchildren andunder(12,017),followed aged14years byWaitakereinjury (9,320)cities. (10,663)andManukau unintentionalchild typesbetween1994and1998,Auckland hadthehighestoverallrate of allspecifiedinjury For
RATE PER 100,000 CHILDREN 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 5,000 0 Data Source: Safekids AUCKLAND 13,236.1 AGED 14YEARSANDUNDER,BYETHNICITY(1994TO 1998COMBINED) 10,343.5 TOTAL RATE OFUNINTENTIONAL INJURYPER100,000CHILDREN
12,228.5 157 10,004.5 NZ EUROPEAN
MANUKAU 9,344.2 9,403.7 8,557.5 11,178.9
8,373.3 NORTH SHORE
5,007.5 MAORI
8,083.0 Unintentional ChildInjuries Traffic Fatalities/Child Injuries 10,363.6 ATKR ELNTNCHRISTCHURCH WELLINGTON WAITAKERE 11,250.2 8,355.9 PACIFIC ISLAND 9,398.1 14,961.9
6,918.5 6,176.0 7,061.0 10,035.0 OTHER
8,131.9
4,388.5 thisisabout… What What didwe find? What
Pedestrians byMotorVehicles: 6,004.7 berg’ withregardtochildhoodinjury.
n tohospitalsanddoesnotinclude 12,820.5 158 REST OFNZ 28,522.3 33,837.8 12,390.0 21,113.6 159 In 87 The rate of unintentional injuries reflects a complex link between socio-economic status, education, effectiveness of injury prevention campaigns and other factors. For example, research shows that children pedestrians are more at risk if they belong to a lower socio-economic group, a single parent family, or a family with limited access to vehicles.160 Thus cities with indicators of lower socio-economic status are perhaps more vulnerable to unintentional child injuries.
160 Injury Prevention Research Centre (1995). Dangers to Child Pedestrians. Fact Sheet number 2. Department of Community Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, The University of Auckland.
88 Quality of Life flf.Ti hpe rsnsdt eae osvrlapcso urbanenvironment inthesixlargestcities. life.Thischapter presents data aspectsof related toseveral of theurbanenvironment isdirectly related toquality water quality, andtransport.Thequalityof accesstofacilities, toenvironmental refers aspectsthat are incities,suchasnoise, significanttoliving The term‘urbanenvironment’ Auckland Region. publictransportwere more favourable inWellington andChristchurch Citiesthaninthe perceptions of preferred. usepublictransport.Inthesecases,carbasedtravel wasgenerally never Overall, indicated they NorthShore inManukau, andWaitakere therespondents tocitizen surveys Cities of transport. More thanhalf public Among thesixlargestcities,Wellington andAuckland of Cityresidents are users thehighestdaily and Christchurch Citythelowestat 4.5ha. openspacepercapita at 17.3haper1,000people 1,000 people.Wellington Cityhasthegreatest proportion of openspacegreater than4haper publicopenspacetopopulation showthat allcitieshave aratio of of Ratios complaints about noiseinurbanareas are about suchasrock stereos, bandsandconcerts. partiesandevents inChristchurch inNorthShore are andairqualitylevels Beach waterkey issues.Themajorityof qualitylevels were highestinWellington levels (2000).Satisfaction andChristchurch.according toacitizensperception survey theircity sixlargestcitieswere Zealand’s satisfied withthelookandfeelof thecitizensinNew Over half life. andsocialcohesion,onoverallqualityof liveability construction andurbandesign,theway transportsystemswork allimpacton Housing density, qualityof and water andincreases noise levels. at therateespecially anticipated putspressure intheAuckland Region, onenvironmental elementssuchasair The physicalenvironment isanimportantcontributortotheway peoplefeelaboutGrowth, where live. they community andwellbeing. safetyand includingcitizen’s health,theirsenseof The urbanenvironment impactsonmanyfactors, i ult Accesstoleisure andrecreation opportunities Publictransport traveltowork Modeof Complaints aboutgraffiti Complaints aboutnoise beachwater Openspace Quality of Air quality withtheway thecitylooksandfeels Satisfaction Impacts andrelationships withotherareas inthisreport Introduction to Urban Environment Introduction toUrbanEnvironment… Why thisisimportant… Why What’s inthischapter? Key points 89 Urban Environment Satisfaction with the Way the City Looks and Feels
What this is about…
Ideally, citizens of a city feel a sense of pride and enjoyment about the area in which they live. It is very difficult, however, to measure citizen satisfaction with their city, as there will be many aspects of how people experience and feel. This indicator provides a broad overview of general satisfaction levels among residents of the six largest cities, as a starting point for further consideration. Respondents to citizens’ surveys undertaken in the six largest cities were asked to rate how satisfied they were overall with the ‘look and feel’ of their city.
What did we find ?
Overall, over one half of respondents to the citizens’ surveys indicated that they were ‘satisfied’ with the way their city looks and feels. Wellington and Christchurch Cities had relatively high proportions of citizens who were ‘very satisfied’ with the way their city looks and feels (36% and 27% respectively) when compared with the four Auckland cities. This may well be related to the relative size of the urban areas in which the six cities sit - that is, the four Auckland cities are part of a much larger urban area with inherent transport, congestion and pollution problems. Considerable proportions of respondents were neutral on the subject, especially in Manukau City where one in four were neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. Reasons given for dissatisfaction with cities varied slightly, however the most common reasons given by those who were dissatisfied included: city dirty and polluted too much rubbish on the streets too much graffiti did not like pace or look of ‘urban sprawl’ and new housing developments traffic congestion.
CITIZENS’ SATISFACTION WITH THE LOOK AND FEEL OF THEIR CITY AS A WHOLE (2000)
100 3 2 5 2 2 4 9 VERY DISSATISFIED 12 11 10 15 8 8 24 17 DISSATISFIED 19 15 49 56 NEUTRAL
53 57 PERCENT 54 55 SATISFIED
36 27 VERY SATISFIED 10 8 9 13 0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH SHORE (n=501) (n=511) (n=303) (n=300) (n=755) (n=504)
Data Source: Citizens’ surveys
These findings will be linked to many other indicators in this report, such as access to leisure and recreation, noise levels, air quality, quality of bathing water at beaches, graffiti levels, employment, community safety, community cohesion, health, housing, and educational opportunities.
90 Quality of Life Air Quality
What this is about…
High levels of suspended particulate (fine dust) can directly impact on the health and wellbeing of citizens. The main causes of high levels of suspended particulate are fires and industrial emissions from smoke stacks. Levels are generally higher in winter than in summer as wood fires are used to heat homes. It is very important that air quality is monitored and managed. Recently, the NZ Automobile Association reported that “(a)ir quality monitored from different sites by the Auckland Regional Council shows toxic pollutants going into the air weigh more than half the solid waste going into landfills in the area. The amount of fine particulate pollution, caused mainly by diesel vehicles, amounts to 500 bags of cement being shaken out into the air every day”.161 Each of the six cities records the number of times the level of suspended particulate exceeds Ministry for the Environment (MfE) standards (exceeds 50 mgm3) in a year at selected sites. It is difficult to compare results for each city as there are a number of factors that can affect readings.162 However, the data presented here provides an indication of air quality problems where remedial action is required.
What did we find ?
The main finding was that there are very high levels of suspended particulate in Christchurch City compared to the five other largest cities. This is affected by the city’s location with the Port Hills to the south and the sea to the east, which creates the effect of an inversion layer. By contrast, the prevailing winds in Auckland and Wellington Cities disperse air pollution relatively quickly.
NUMBER OF EXCEEDANCES OF AIR QUALITY STANDARD AT THE WORST SITES IN EACH CITY (1997 TO 1999) 1997 1998 1999 Auckland - Penrose 302 Manukau - East Tamaki 412 North Shore - Takapuna 100 Waitakere - Henderson n/a 0 1 Wellington n/a 0 0 Christchurch - St. Albans 33 27 35
Data Source: Data supplied by each Council
There are other ways to measure air quality such as carbon monoxide levels. Carbon monoxide is mainly caused by vehicle emissions. The Auckland Regional Council recently ran a campaign encouraging vehicle emission testing in an effort to reduce carbon monoxide levels in the Auckland Region. (It is estimated that a well-tuned vehicle can reduce emissions by up to 25%.) It focused on motor vehicles as the main cause of air pollution stating “Over 80% of the air pollution in the Auckland Region is the result of vehicle emissions” and “Carbon monoxide levels in Auckland are higher than London”.
161 NZ Automobile Association. Directions. August 2000. 162 Because there are a different number of sites for each city, one site per city has been selected for this report, where there was more than one site, the results from the worst site are highlighted. City Look and Feel/Air Quality 91 Quality of Beach Water
What this is about…
Beach water quality is measured to ensure that the water is safe for human recreational use. Each city records the number of times the level of enterococci exceeds Ministry for the Environment and Ministry of Health guidelines in a summer bathing season at selected beaches and also monitors the seasonal median. Enterococci are bacteria that occur in the gut of humans and animals and indicate the presence of pathogens (illness-causing bugs). Usually, testing is done at selected sites over the summer months only.163 If the guideline level of enterococci is exceeded two days in a row, warning signs should be posted. The quality of beach water around the major cities is mainly affected by discharges from land, rather than discharges at sea. Probably the most important factors are the quality of a city’s stormwater and sewage systems. Variables that can affect a single result include bacterial resuspension, dogs, birds, or even seaweed. Other variables that can affect test results are current flows, rainfall, tides and temperature. The indicator highlights the frequency of serious water quality problems where remedial action is required. New Ministry for the Environment guidelines were introduced in 1999, including the requirement to erect warning signs when two consecutive samples show levels of enterococci greater than 277 per 100 ml. The sign remains until the level returns to below 277 (by comparison, raw sewage could be expected to have millions of enterococci per 100 ml). At a level of 277 per 100 ml, the guidelines indicate that 19 people out of 1,000 may experience some illness. Pathogens in water used for recreation can cause stomach and intestinal illness (gastrointestinal illness), colds and flu (respiratory illness) and skin, eye and ear infections. The most common risks are of getting a mild diarrhoeal illness or a slight respiratory infection. This is an important driver of local authorities’ stormwater and sewage infrastructure improvement programmes, although it effectively cannot measure the success of them with such a small and occasional grab sample.
What did we find ? There have been a number of instances when the guideline level has been exceeded at several beaches throughout the six cities over the last two years. Although there are many causes of exceedance, beach water quality is largely affected by sewage overflows, infiltration of water into the sewage system and exfiltration from leaky pipes. RATE OF EXCEEDANCE AT MONITORED SITES (NO. OF EXCEEDANCES ÷ TOTAL NO. OF SAMPLES) 1998 / 99 1999 / 00 Auckland n/m 2.5 Manukau 12.8 7.9 North Shore 2.7 3.2 Waitakere n/m 4.0 Wellington n/m n/m Christchurch 0.7 1.1 Data Source: Data supplied by each Council N/m: not measured Public health can be affected if people swim at beaches where the warning signs are posted. Affected beaches, due to poor water quality, can affect people’s satisfaction with and perception of the way the city looks and feels, house prices and leisure activity options.
163 Samples of beach water were taken at those sites on a weekly basis (and if required on a daily basis). Sometimes water quality is tested year round, such as in North Shore City. Data prior to 1999 was analysed in accordance with previous guidelines. The water samples are sometimes analysed for other data besides enterococci, including salinity, turbidity (NTU), BODs, dissolved oxygen (% saturation), phosphate, inorganic nitrogen, free ammonia, and faecal coliforms. The regulatory or health section of each Council holds this information. Data prior to 1999 was analysed in accordance with previous regulations and standards. Councils often also undertake water samples at estuaries, rivers, and lakes. There are separate guidelines for fresh water. 92 Quality of Life Complaints about Noise
What this is about…
Loud noise can affect the way people feel about the area in which they live and can have a negative impact on their overall wellbeing. Higher population and higher density living tend to highlight the issue of noise. The six city councils record the number of complaints received about noise and all provide a noise control service to residents. It must be noted however, that local authorities do not have a uniform approach to recording numbers of complaints. Complaints are recorded about excessive noise and the local authorities’ response to complaints. There can be more than one complaint per site. The number of noise complaints can be affected by factors such as: citizen behaviour and sensitivity to noise proximity to other people or causes of noise and protection from noise how easy the procedure is for residents to lodge a complaint how much residents believe that the problem can be remedied by contacting Council.
What did we find ?
For some cities the number of complaints has increased as the service to customers has improved, for example with the introduction of a call centre. With more in-fill housing, it would be expected that the number of noise complaints would increase. The majority of complaints about noise are about stereos, parties or events such as rock bands.164 It is possible that complaints are not made because of a perception that the local authority can do nothing about it.
COMPLAINTS ABOUT NOISE, PER LOCAL AUTHORITY (1998 TO 1999) Time period Noise complaints received Auckland 1999 calendar year 13,608 noise complaints received outside of Council working hours. Manukau 1998/99 financial year 7,900 total noise complaints North Shore 1999 calendar year 4,623 attendances to noise complaints Waitakere 1998/99 financial year 6,434 total noise complaints Wellington No data was supplied - Christchurch 1999 calendar year 9,133 total noise complaints
Data Source: Data supplied by each Council
Noise complaints can affect people’s satisfaction with the way the city looks and feels, and their housing situation. Correspondingly, other indicators such as high density living in urban areas, increasing population, and high use of cars can affect noise complaints.
164 For example, in Manukau City 89% of the complaints received in 1997/98 related to stereos/parties/live bands, 4% related to alarm systems, 1% related to vehicles, and 6% related to other causes.
Beach Water/Noise 93 Complaints about Graffiti
What this is about…
Graffiti is a growing problem in New Zealand urban areas. It has a strong impact on people’s experience of the urban environment - it is perceived as an act of vandalism and contributes to people feeling unsafe in their community. It is very difficult to measure incidences of graffiti in the six largest cities as there is no standard method of recording graffiti and responses to it vary among individuals, neighbourhoods and local authorities. However, the six cities do record the number of complaints received about graffiti, although they do not have a uniform approach to this. For example, some record every complaint per site whereas others record graffiti incidences only on city facilities.
What did we find ?
The number of complaints about graffiti varies in each city and may be more dependent on the system used to record complaints than the extent of the problem in that city. The number of complaints in 1999 ranged from 303 in Auckland City (council owned property only and excluding parks) to 4,941 in Waitakere City. Each local authority has a different system for registering complaints and whether or not contractors register a complaint when they remove graffiti that they detect. The number of complaints is related to the quality of the service provided in terms of a call centre, responsiveness and resources provided. For example, Manukau City received 565 complaints in the 1999 financial year. The number increased to 1,352 in the 2000 financial year when their call centre was established and services were more accessible. The number of complaints are also affected by the extent of a routine graffiti removal programme that operates without requiring a complaint, how easy the procedure is for residents to lodge a complaint, and how much residents believe that the problem can be remedied by contacting their local authority. The large number of complaints about graffiti in Waitakere City is, in part, due to the provision of resources for removal of graffiti on private property. The level of graffiti in a city can affect residents’ satisfaction with the way the city looks and feels. It can be related to school dropout rates, crime levels, and juvenile offending. Graffiti is a social problem, which affects the entire community. Perpetrators of graffiti are often juveniles.
94 Quality of Life Open Space
What this is about…
Access to play areas and open space for sport and recreation is an important ingredient in how people feel about where they live, play and enjoy their leisure time. Open space is a contributor to the general health and well-being of a community. Measuring public open space highlights the availability of parks and reserves for the city’s population and can indicate how urban sprawl is encroaching on parks and reserves by showing whether the ratio is being maintained as the population increases. The indicator shows the ratio of public open space per 1,000 residents. Public open space includes neighbourhood and metropolitan parks and reserves, but excludes regional parks and Department of Conservation (DoC) land. The space may be passive or recreational. Although a standard of four hectares per 1,000 population is often used to provide neighbourhood parks and sports fields in new suburbs, there are no recognised standards for larger district parks, sub-regional or regional park systems, or for other areas like esplanade reserves and ecological corridors which fulfil both conservation and recreational roles.
What did we find ?
All of the six cities have a ratio of open space greater than four hectare (ha) per 1,000 people.
OPEN SPACE PER 1,000 POPULATION, BY CITY (1999) Public open Public open space Regional parks DoC land Population space (ha) per 1,000 population (ha) (ha) (ha) Auckland 2,179 354,532 6.2 295 21,864 Manukau 1,557 254,603 6.1 3,780 573 North Shore 1,341 171,494 7.8 113 52 Waitakere 1,089 154,386 7.1 16,259 101 Wellington 2,881 166,800 17.3 289 6 Christchurch 1,459 324,300 4.5 n/a n/a
Data Sources: Auckland Regional Council State of the Auckland Region Report 1999, Wellington Regional Council State of the Region Report 1999, Christchurch State of the Environment Report 1999. Population figures are estimates from Statistics New Zealand. n/a - data not available
Large areas of regional parks and Department of Conservation land are available in the Auckland Region. The indicator doesn’t track additions of open space, but instead tracks the net effect of additions and conversions to other uses. The data doesn’t recognise the availability of open space in adjacent territorial authorities, although residents enjoy open space in neighbouring areas. Other factors to consider are the quality of the open space and ease of access, for example whether a quality neighbourhood park is within walking distance. Results may be skewed at the ward level. The average for a city may be reasonable, but some wards may not have so much open space, for example in Manukau City there is a large area of open space in the rural ward of Clevedon which affects the average for the city. The availability of open space may affect people’s satisfaction with the way the city looks and feels, air quality, access to leisure and recreation. Even if there is no change in the amount of open space, the enjoyment of that open space can be affected by increased numbers using it through changes in population, increased housing density, and the availability of other leisure and recreational opportunities. The use of public open space for leisure or recreation purposes can have positive benefits on the health of a city’s residents. Graffiti/Open Space 95 Access to Leisure and Recreation Opportunities
What this is about…
Access to leisure and recreation opportunities such as parks, beaches, clubs, sports, cafes, galleries and any other leisure activities enhances the health and wellbeing of people. These activities also provide opportunities for socialisation and contribute to social cohesion. Respondents to a citizens’ survey conducted in each of the six cities were asked how satisfied they were with access to leisure and recreation opportunities in their city.165 The data doesn’t recognise the availability of leisure and recreation opportunities in adjacent local authority areas, which is significant because residents do enjoy leisure and recreation outside of their city.
What did we find ?
High proportions of respondents to all surveys were satisfied with their access to leisure and recreation opportunities. Relative to the other cities, a larger proportion of respondents to the Manukau City survey indicated that they were dissatisfied.166 Reasons given for dissatisfaction in all cities included: issues of availability of recreation opportunities affordability proximity and transport issues safety in addition, several respondents to the North Shore City survey commented that they were dissatisfied as the beaches were polluted or unsafe to swim in.
CITIZENS’ SATISFACTION WITH ACCESS TO LEISURE AND RECREATION OPPORTUNITIES (2000)
100 1 2 3 5 5 4 VERY DISSATISFIED 2 11 6 6 4 3 7 7 16 DISSATISFIED 44 46 43 57 64 NEUTRAL 50
PERCENT SATISFIED
47 43 39 31 28 VERY SATISFIED 20 0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH SHORE (n=501) (n=511) (n=303) (n=300) (n=755) (n=504) Data Source: Citizens’ surveys.
These findings link in with citizens’ satisfaction with the overall look and feel of the city, the availability of open space, and personal income. For example, Wellington City has: the highest level of satisfaction with access to leisure and recreation opportunities; correspondingly high satisfaction with the overall look and feel of the city; the largest available open space; and only 27% of its population with personal income less than $10,000. Manukau City has the lowest level of satisfaction with access to leisure and recreation opportunities; correspondingly low satisfaction with the overall look and feel of the city; the second lowest available open space; and 34% of its population with personal income less than $10,000.
165 “Leisure and recreation opportunities “ were very broadly defined as access to “parks, beaches, clubs, sports, cafes, galleries and any other leisure activities”. 166 This may be a result of difference in wording of the question. The Manukau survey asked respondents “How satisfied are you with your ability to both get to and afford to go to, the leisure and recreational opportunities that you want?” and was the only survey to ask respondents about affordability of recreation and leisure opportunities. It is unclear with which part of this question respondents were dissatisfied - affordability or accessibility. 96 Quality of Life Mode of Travel to Work
What this is about…
High use of private motor vehicles has a negative impact on the environment and a high human cost in regard to accidents and fatalities. It is therefore important to monitor modes of travel to work to look for trends. This indicator presents Census data on how residents engaged in full time employment (aged 15 years or over) travelled to work on Census day in 1996. The indicator highlights dependence on the motor vehicle for travel to work and how much other modes of transport are used. It also shows the split between working at home and another location.
What did we find ?
The motor vehicle is the dominant form of transport to work in all cities, ranging from 60.8% in Wellington City to 82.8% in Manukau City. Wellington City has the lowest use of motor vehicles for travel to work and also the lowest number of road traffic fatalities per 100,000 population, compared to the other cities. The greatest percentage use of other forms of transport mainly occurred in Wellington City, where 13.7% used the bus system to get to work, 3.1% travelled by train and 12.9% walked to work. The highest proportion of bicycle use was in Christchurch City, at 7.8%. The highest proportion of those working at home on Census day was in North Shore City, at 7.4%.
MODE OF TRANSPORT TO WORK ON CENSUS DAY, BY CITY (1996) Motor Public Walked Worked Train Bicycle Other Vehicle Bus or Jogged at Home (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Auckland 74.5 8.0 0.4 1.8 5.7 6.8 2.5 Manukau 82.8 4.6 0.8 1.3 3.2 5.6 1.6 North Shore 77.6 6.0 0.0 1.3 3.7 7.4 2.8 Waitakere 82.6 4.5 0.9 1.3 2.8 6.3 1.7 Wellington 60.8 13.7 3.1 2.2 12.9 4.9 2.5 Christchurch 75.2 3.9 0.0 7.8 4.8 5.8 2.5
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
There were several changes in mode of travel to work between 1991 and 1996 Censuses. With the exception of Wellington City, there was a decrease in the use of buses and bicycles in all cities. There was also a decrease in the proportion of people who walked to work (with the exception of Christchurch). However, there was an increase in the use of trains (again, with the exception of Wellington City). All cities showed an increase in the use of other forms of transport.
Recreation/Travel to Work 97 Public Transport
What this is about…
The continued reliance on the motor vehicle in New Zealand’s six largest cities has created congestion pressures and affects the ease of travel in a region. Consequences include wasted time in travelling or moving goods, individual stress and frustration and even living and working in a local area because of the problems in getting about the region. Greater use of public transport can have important effects on citizens’ wellbeing, such as: a means of travel for those who can’t afford a motor vehicle or those families that choose not to have an additional motor vehicle
minimising the stress of congestion along highways and city roads
reduced motor vehicle emissions of carbon monoxide
a safer and cheaper public transport service resulting from economies of scale.
Current strategies, such as the Auckland Regional Growth Strategy, place a high importance on improving passenger transport and improving access by encouraging medium density housing around transport nodes. This indicator highlights the use of different modes of public transport in each region. Data presented below measures the number of trips made not the number of patrons using public transport. It provides information about passenger preferences and trends. Public transport includes buses, trains and ferries provided by or licensed by regional authorities. This indicator also discusses citizens’ perceptions of public transport.
What did we find ?
REGIONAL PUBLIC TRANSPORT USE A study of transport in New Zealand found that from 1991 to 1996 across Auckland, Wellington and Canterbury Regions: the use of buses decreased in each of the regions the use of trains reduced in the Wellington Region during that period the use of trains increased in the Auckland Region during that period.167
NUMBER OF TRIPS MADE BY DIFFERENT FORMS OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT, BY REGION (1991 AND 1996)168 Auckland Wellington Canterbury 1991 1996 1991 1996 1991 1996
Buses 33,747,349 31,150,000 16,232,384 12,358,492 9,024,637 8,386,632
Trains 1,052,183 2,065,865 10,840,000 8,561,000 0 0
Ferries 1,238,773 1,580,357 120,000 120,000 28,999 27,226
Total 36,038,305 34,796,222 27,192,384 21,039,492 9,053,636 8,413,858
Data Source: Bachels, Newnam & Kenworthy 1999
167 Bachels, Newnam and Kenworthy. 1999. Indicators of Urban Transport Efficiency in New Zealand’s Main Cities. 168 Data for Auckland Region is for 1991/92 and 1995/96; whereas data for Wellington and Canterbury regions are 1990/91 and 1995/96.
98 Quality of Life The table below indicates the total kilometres travelled in each region, by mode. Between 1991 and 1996: length of journeys by motor vehicle increased in each of the regions length of journeys by bus decreased in each of the regions length of journeys by train increased in Auckland, but decreased in Wellington.
KILOMETRES TRAVELLED (MILLION KILOMETRES), BY REGION (1991 AND 1996) Auckland Wellington Canterbury 1991 (km) 1996 (km) 1991 (km) 1996 (km) 1991 (km) 1996 (km) Motor vehicle 7,450 9,335 2,813 3,106 2,627 3,065 Buses 239 216 91 69 56 52 Trains 17 28 207 196 0 0 Ferries 45 11 00 Total 7,710 9,584 3,112 3,372 2,683 3,117
Data Source: Figures are derived from Bachels, Newnam & Kenworthy, 1999
FREQUENCY OF USE Respondents to citizens’ surveys undertaken in the six largest cities were asked to indicate how often they had used public transport in the previous twelve months. Compared with other cities, a high proportion of citizens in Auckland City and Wellington City indicated that they use public transport every day. Relatively low proportions of respondents to the Manukau, North Shore and Waitakere City surveys stated that they use public transport. The relatively higher figures for Auckland and Wellington Cities may be linked to the higher proportion of citizens who use public transport to travel to work in the central business district. When asked why they do not use public transport, the most common response citizens gave was that they prefer to use their own car. Other reasons given included inconvenient destinations, inconvenient time tables, feeling that the car is more convenient, and no transport service available.
FREQUENCY OF USE OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT,169 BY CITY (2000)
100 NEVER 19 36 43 LESS THAN ONCE 53 51 A MONTH 62 21 ONCE A MONTH OR 26 15 MORE OFTEN 29
PERCENT ONCE A WEEK OR 17 23 11 24 MORE OFTEN 11 20 10 9 14 EVERY DAY OR 10 8 7 ALMOST EVERYDAY 17 4 21 9 9 9 7 0 5 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH SHORE (n=501) (n=511) (n=303) (n=300) (n=755) (n=504)
Data Source: Citizens’ Surveys
169 Respondents to the Christchurch survey were asked how often they had used public transport in the previous 12 months. Respondents to all other surveys were not provided with a time limit.
Public Transport 99 PERCEPTIONS OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT Respondents to the citizens’ surveys were asked to indicate whether they agreed or disagreed that public transport is safe, convenient and affordable. All respondents were asked these questions, regardless of whether or not they used public transport.170
Overall, relatively high proportions of respondents felt that public transport was safe, especially those in the cities of Auckland and Christchurch. However, respondents to the Manukau survey were less likely to agree with this statement.171 Respondents from Wellington and Christchurch were more likely than respondents in Auckland cities to agree that public transport was convenient and affordable. In particular, three quarters of respondents from Wellington agreed public transport was convenient. Within the Auckland Region, respondents from Auckland City were more likely to agree that public transport is affordable. This result may well be influenced by that city’s proximity to the central business district, in which many respondents may work. In line with this, relatively smaller proportions of residents from North Shore and Waitakere Cities agreed that public transport is affordable. Key reasons for dissatisfaction with public transport were timing, frequency and destination.
PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS WHO ‘STRONGLY AGREE’ OR ‘AGREE’ THAT PUBLIC TRANSPORT IS SAFE, CONVENIENT AND AFFORDABLE, BY CITY (2000)
SAFE CONVENIENT AFFORDABLE 100
80 84 73 75 60 75 65 64 63 62 61 51 51
PERCENT 40 42 38 36 36 32 31 20 31
0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH SHORE (n=501) (n=511) (n=303) (n=300) (n=755) (n=504)
Data Source: Citizens’ Surveys
170 Quite significant proportions of respondents to all surveys indicated a “don’t know” response to these three questions. 171 One quarter (27%) of respondents to the Manukau survey indicated a “don’t know” response to this question.
100 Quality of Life motn atr nteqaiyo lifewithincities. inthequalityof important factors belongingandtheability toparticipate inthewidercommunityare Asenseof neighbourhood andcitylevel. thesixlargestcitiesfeelinvolved andincluded,at local This chapter explores theextent towhichresidents of tolocality, primarily refers ‘community’ orneighbourhoods. thisproject, however, thepurposesdefine ormeasure, of meanings for people.For asitcanholddifferent different gender, religion, politicalbeliefsorlocality. concepttodirectly isadifficult Itis acknowledgedthat ‘community’ orwhanau,culture, age, peopleboundtogetherbysomethingheldincommon-family Communities are of groups within, theirlocalcommunity. belongingto, andparticipation senseof uponpeople’s level, largest citiesand,at aneighbourhoodandindividual our languages andreligions withinthesixcities.Thesechangeswillhave profound onthecharacteristicsof effects cultures, ethniccompositionhave Zealand’s of resulted inanincrease andshiftswithinNew inthediversity growth population sixlargestcitieshave decades.Massive Zealand’s undergone considerable changeoverthepastfew New centres in New Zealand it is important to be aware of the effects onsocialcohesion. theeffects Zealanditisimportanttobeawarecentres inNew of Withthechangesinurban andevents. services programmes, facilities, throughwellbeing initiatives provision of co-ordinatorand meettheirownneeds.Councilscanactascatalyst, andpartnertoencouragesupport communitiestodetermine meet theirneeds,choicesandpreferences”. TheActalsorecognises therightof tocommunities,that appropriate have theirownidentitiesandvalues”“deliver they andservices facilities theLocalGovernmentActto“recognise that communitiesexistand different responsibility underSection37kof enable residents toparticipate inlike interactwithandsupportoneanother. activities, Localauthoritieshave a over had engaged in unpaid or voluntary work for others. inunpaidorvoluntary over hadengaged and thoseaged15years Furthermore,countries madetheircityabetterplaceinwhichtolive. overonethird of lifestylesandfrom a varietyof peoplewithdiverse other, andmanyfeltthat theincrease inthenumber of that agreed theircommunityworks togetherandthat peoplesupporteach Overhalf with theirneighbours. contact positive undertaken inthesixcitieshadsomeform of Mostrespondents live. toasurvey which they about feelokay thecommunityin thesixlargestcitiesgenerally suggestthatOverall, theindicators residents of immediate urbanenvironment, aswellability toaccessinformation andfacilities. about communityevents the their safety intheneighbourhood,perceptions of toconsiderinclude residents’ perceptions of factors withchildrenexample, families may bemore Other andgroups. inclined tobeinvolvedinlocalinitiatives For onparticipation arrangementswillalsohave at aneffect living communitylevel. composition andpeople’s relationships Household andsupportinglocalgroups. makeinvestment they withneighbours indeveloping timethat peoplestay withinaparticularcommunityorarea andthe may have impactsonthelengthof levels example,thedeclineinhomeownership housingandchangestostock.For of levels in ownership community. may bechanges Oneimportantfactor that impactonresidents’There senseof willbemanyfactors community cohesion. Perceptions were surveyed in 2000 in each of the six cities (see page 118). Indicators are: thesixcities(seepage118).Indicators community cohesion.Perceptions in2000eachof were surveyed networks have beenincludedasmeasures of relatedIndicators tocitizens’perceptions andtheexistenceof People are the fundamental component of any city. Communities exist because of people’s socialnature people’s and anycity. Communitiesexistbecauseof People are thefundamental componentof Resident perception of contact with neighbours Resident perception of diversity incities diversity Resident perception of unpaidworkdone of Level localcommunitystrength andsupport Resident perception of contactwithneighbours Resident perception of matadrltosisi te ra fthisreport Impact andrelationships inotherareas of Introduction to CommunityCohesion Introduction toCommunity Cohesion… Why thisisimportant… Why What’s inthischapter? Key points 101 Community Cohesion Contact with Neighbours
What this is about…
One vital component of community cohesion is the relationship between neighbours. Positive relationships between neighbours, even at a minimal level, encourage community strength and support. Respondents to a survey conducted in the six largest cities were asked to rate the type of ‘positive contact’ they had with their neighbours on a five point scale of ‘lots of positive contact’ to ‘no positive contact’.172
What did we find ?
Overall, about two thirds of respondents to the survey indicated that they had ‘some’ or ‘lots’ of ‘positive contact’ with their neighbours - in particular, residents of North Shore, Wellington and Waitakere Cities. It is interesting to note that in Auckland, while one quarter of residents (27%) felt they had lots of positive contact with their neighbours a further 11% felt that they had no positive contact at all. Very few respondents to surveys indicated they had ‘no’ positive contact at all with their neighbours.
TYPE OF CONTACT WITH NEIGHBOURS, BY CITY (2000) Auckland Manukau North Shore Waitakere Wellington Christchurch (n=501) % (n=511) % (n=504) % (n=303) % (n=300 ) % (n=755) %
Lots of positive contact 27 22 28 20 24 20
(socialise with neighbours, part of social network)
Some positive contact 35 42 42 49 44 45
(stop and chat, tell them when you are going away, asking small favours)
Limited positive contact 25 29 26 26 24 27
(give a nod, sometimes say hello)
No positive contact 11 7 5 4 7 8
Data Source: Citizens’ Surveys
Relationships with neighbours can be affected by factors such as length of time spent in a dwelling, accessibility to neighbours, language barriers or perceptions of each other.
172 Respondents were not asked to indicate levels of ‘negative’ contact with their neighbours.
102 Quality of Life Resident Perception of Local Community Strength and Support
What this is about…
This indicator reflects on whether people feel there is a sense of community where they live. Healthy local communities that support each other and in which residents feel safe and included are more likely to be cohesive. Respondents to a citizens’ survey conducted in the six cities were asked to what extent they agreed or disagreed that the community works together and people support each other, on a five point scale of ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’.173
What did we find ?
Just under one half of respondents to all citizens’ surveys indicated that they strongly agreed or agreed that the community works together and people support each other. In Wellington City 56% agreed or strongly agreed with the statement. Results for Manukau showed that over half (51%) of Manukau City respondents agreed or strongly agreed with this statement. In particular, a relatively high proportion strongly agreed (14%). About one quarter of respondents to all surveys were neutral on the question and a further quarter strongly disagreed or disagreed with the statement. Overall, higher proportions of females tended to strongly agree or agree with the statement than males.
PERCEPTIONS THAT THE COMMUNITY WORKS TOGETHER AND PEOPLE SUPPORT EACH OTHER, BY CITY (2000) Auckland Manukau North Shore Waitakere Wellington Christchurch (n=501) % (n=511) % (n=504) % (n=303) % (n=300 ) % (n=755) %
Strongly agree 8 14 11 9 13 7
Agree 37 37 36 38 43 36
Neither agree nor disagree 26 23 24 22 28 26
Disagree 22 15 23 22 11 23
Strongly disagree 54442 5
Data Source: Citizens’ Surveys
Respondents to the surveys were also asked whether they considered that the social network or group that ‘matters most’ to them was mainly based around where they live (their local neighbourhood) or was based on other factors such as ethnic grouping, interests or beliefs. Approximately one-quarter of respondents in each survey indicated that the group or network that mattered most to them was based around where they live.174 There was an exception to this pattern, with only 14% of Wellington residents choosing this option. Approximately one in five respondents felt that they were not part of a community.
173 It is possible that the term ‘the community’ can mean different things to different respondents. Unfortunately these surveys were not able to explore the meaning of community for respondents. 174 It must be noted however that the terms used in the question were somewhat ambiguous and may have held different meanings for respondents. For example, it is impossible to know where people considered the boundaries of the term “where you live” lay. In addition, Waitakere City’s survey specifically asked respondents to exclude work and family when answering the question, which was not specified in any other survey.
Neighbours/Community Strength 103 PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS WHO FELT THE SOCIAL NETWORK OR GROUP THAT MATTERS MOST TO THEM WAS MAINLY BASED AROUND WHERE THEY LIVE (2000)
% Auckland (n=501) 24 Manukau (n=511) 28 North Shore (n=504) 25 Waitakere (n=303) 22 Wellington (n=300 ) 14 Christchurch (n=755) 28
Data Source: Citizens’ Surveys
Residents’ surveys also asked respondents to what extent they had felt lonely or isolated in the previous twelve months.175 About three quarters of respondents to the surveys indicated that they had ‘hardly ever’ felt lonely or isolated in the previous twelve months and very few indicated they ‘always’ felt lonely and isolated.176
FREQUENCY OF FEELING LONELY OR ISOLATED IN PREVIOUS 12 MONTHS, BY CITY (2000) Auckland Manukau North Shore Waitakere Wellington Christchurch (n=501) % (n=511) % (n=504) % (n=303) % (n=300 ) % (n=755) %
Hardly ever 78 76 81 Not asked 72 78
Sometimes 18 15 16 23 18
Usually 12 2 32
Always 12 0 21
Data Source: Citizens’ Surveys
It appears that residents of the six largest cities generally feel satisfied about the community in which they live. Perceptions that there is community strength and support, together with low levels of feeling socially isolated, link with previous findings that many residents felt they had ‘some’ or ‘lots’ of ‘positive contact’ with their neighbours.
175 Waitakere City did not include this question in their survey. 176 Respondent bias may have occurred here, as those without a telephone (and who could not participate in the telephone surveys) may feel isolated.
104 Quality of Life Perceptions of Diversity
What this is about…
New Zealand is an increasingly multicultural society. At the 1996 Census there were more than 200 separate ethnic identities represented. Attitudes towards changes in the demographic composition of New Zealand cities are an indicator of overall social cohesion or fragmentation in the city. This indicator provides a measure of how residents feel about this growth in diversity. Respondents to citizens’ surveys undertaken in the six largest cities were asked how they felt the increase in the number of people with diverse lifestyles and from a variety of countries and cultures impacted on their city.
What did we find ?
Overall, most respondents to the surveys felt that the increase in the number of people with diverse lifestyles and from a variety of countries and cultures made their city a better place to live, or were neutral on the matter. In particular, a high proportion of Wellington City citizens felt that diversity made their city a better place to live in. A relatively high proportion of respondents to the Wellington City and Auckland City surveys felt that this made their city a ‘much better’ place to live in (38% and 33% compared with 16% Waitakere City and 17% for North Shore City). Very few respondents felt that the increase in diversity made their city a ‘worse place’ to live in.
PERCEPTIONS OF DIVERSITY IN EACH CITY (2000) Auckland Manukau North Shore Waitakere Wellington Christchurch (n=501) % (n=511) % (n=504) % (n=303) % (n=300) % (n=755) %
A much better place to live 33 17 17 16 38 18
A better place to live 36 36 34 33 42 39
Makes no difference 19 37 39 39 17 32
A worse place to live 9787 210
A much worse place to live 2100 1 0
Data Source: Citizens’ Surveys
Of course, many factors will inter-relate with and affect citizens’ perceptions of changes within the city in which they live. Many citizens will have lived in the city for a considerable portion of their life and many will be newcomers to the city. Citizen’s perceptions may also be affected by their ethnic identity, age, and socio-economic circumstance.
Diversity 105 Unpaid Work
What this is about…
People’s willingness to be involved in unpaid work in the community indicates a desire to ‘give something back’. It is a reflection of people’s belief that they have something worthwhile to contribute. This involvement contributes to community cohesion and to people’s sense of wellbeing. This indicator outlines the percentage of residents aged over fifteen who engaged in one or more of a range of unpaid activities (in a different household than their own) in the week preceeding the 1996 Census.177 It indicates levels of community involvement within each city. The categories of unpaid activity were: caring for children not living in the same household as the caregiver household work such as cooking, repairs, gardening, or caring for the elderly training and coaching attending meetings, such as for a group, church or marae fundraising.
What did we find ?
Over a third of the population aged 15 years and over within the six largest cities had engaged in unpaid work, ranging from 35.6% in Auckland City to 41.8% in Wellington City. However, levels of volunteerism across the six cities tend to be below the level for the rest of New Zealand (43.2%). The proportion of residents who had engaged in voluntary work was slightly lower within the four Auckland cities compared to Wellington City, Christchurch City and the rest of New Zealand.
PERCENT OF POPULATION AGED 15 YEARS AND OVER INVOLVED IN UNPAID ACTIVITY, BY CITY (1996)
50
40 43.2 41.8 40.4 39.0 38.0 30 35.6 36.0
PERCENT 20
10
0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU SHORE WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH REST OF NZ
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand
Very similar patterns emerged across the six cities with regard to the type of unpaid work people had engaged in. With the exception of those living in Waitakere City, over one third of those who had engaged in unpaid work had attended a meeting (from 36.8% in North Shore City to 42.6% in Wellington). The proportion of residents in the six cities who had done this was lower, however, than the proportion for the rest of New Zealand, at 44.5% Over a third of residents who had engaged in unpaid work had cared for children not living in the same household (this was the most common type of unpaid work among Waitakere City residents (39.1%)).
177 People could indicate more than one activity in which they had engaged. 106 Quality of Life TYPE OF UNPAID WORK DONE, BY CITY (1996) Cared for Household Training, Attended Fundraising, Other children not work or cared coaching, committee selling for unpaid living in same for elderly, ill or teaching meeting for group, church work household disabled % group, church or marae % % person % or marae % %
Auckland 34.8 34.8 30.0 37.6 14.3 13.1
Manukau 37.5 35.3 26.7 37.8 17.2 12.7
North Shore 35.6 31.9 30.8 36.8 15.6 12.2
Waitakere 39.1 34.7 29.0 35.3 15.0 12.7
Wellington 32.6 32.6 32.7 42.6 16.2 13.5
Christchurch 36.1 33.6 29.3 38.9 14.6 12.8
Rest of NZ 36.5 33.1 29.2 44.5 19.4 13.8
Data Source: Statistics New Zealand Percentages do not add up to 100% as residents could have engaged in more than one activity.
In all six cities, the highest proportion of those involved in unpaid work were women - from 55.0% in Wellington to 56.1% for North Shore and Manukau. Approximately 44% of those who had engaged in unpaid work were men, in all cities and for the rest of New Zealand. This may be reflective of women’s employment levels and of social expectations of women. In addition, a clear pattern emerged of a difference in the types of activities in which men and women had engaged. For example, across all cities, higher proportions of women were involved in childcare and fundraising activities, while higher proportions of men were involved in household work, cooking and repairs category.
People’s willingness to give time for voluntary activity ties in with other indicators of community cohesion such as social networks and neighbourhood interaction. It is one factor that is likely to increase a sense of belonging within a community. Higher levels of involvement with other people also have links to increased health and wellbeing.
Unpaid Work 107 Introduction to Democracy… Democracy is defined as government by all the people - direct or representative. New Zealand’s political processes are underlined by principles of democracy and representation at all levels of governance. This chapter explores levels of participation and representation in democratic processes, at community, local government and national level, by citizens of the six largest cities.
Why this is important…
The participation of citizens in the governance and decision making processes, at community, local government and national level, is a key factor in democracy in New Zealand. It is important that citizens exercise their right to elect representatives and that their concerns and opinions are heard and considered by those elected representatives. The Treaty of Waitangi underpins relationships between tangata whenua and central and local govenment. This relationship is of great importance to effective governance and the enactment of democracy. Furthermore, Section 37k of the Local Government Act states that council’s responsibilities toward communities include “effective consultation to enable people within communities to participate in local government”. It is important that participation at community and individual level is encouraged.
What’s in this chapter? Councils and the Treaty of Waitangi Community involvement in decision making Voter turnout at general elections Composition of school boards of trustees Voter turnout at local body elections Composition of local councils and community boards
Impact and relationships in other areas of this report There may be links between socio-economic status and education levels and participation in local body elections and processes. For example, Wellington City has a high proportion of professionals, with a generally higher level of academic qualifications and has relatively high proportions of voter turnout. There may also be a relationship between the fact that central government is housed in Wellington - which increases the likelihood that Wellington Central residents are employed within central government departments (or know someone who is) - and higher voting patterns among Wellington Central residents. Other factors which may impact on participation in democratic processes are socio-economic and language barriers.
Key points
The Councils of the six cities are all developing their relationships with tangata whenua and/or mana whenua and Democracy have special procedures, bodies or staff in place to guide the relationships. While the proportion of voters who turn out at national elections is relatively high, the proportion of voters at the local authority level is smaller, with only about half of eligible voters turning out for regional and local council elections. Local government may wish to consider further exploring the motivations (or lack of) that lie behind voter behaviour in order to better understand the relatively low levels of voter turnout. A survey undertaken among citizens of the six largest cities found that there was a variance in levels of satisfaction with the way local authorities involve people in decision making. In all six cities, over a third of those surveyed were not satisfied. This ties in with other findings from that survey that about two thirds of respondents felt they had only a ‘slight’ or ‘no’ understanding of how their council makes decisions. The findings suggest that perhaps many citizens are unaware of the role and processes of local government. Representation at local government level is disproportionately European. Similarly, it was found that there is an imbalance in representation on school boards of trustees. This raises issues of true representation of and by different cultures and ethnicities at that level. Motivation and willingness to stand for election among non-European citizens are issues that warrant further exploration.
Introduction to Democracy 109 Councils and the Treaty of Waitangi
What this is about…
Te Tiriti o Waitangi/the Treaty of Waitangi underpins relationships between central and local government and tangata whenua.178 The Councils of the six largest cities in New Zealand are all committed to developing their relationships with tangata whenua under the Treaty of Waitangi. While all have expressed commitment to this, they are at different stages in the development and implementation of these relationships.
What did we find ?
Auckland City Council consults with eight tangata whenua groups on all resource management issues through their Tangata Whenua Consultative Committee, to ensure that Council decisions reflect the views of iwi and comply with the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi, its statutory obligations and the kaitiaki role of tangata whenua.179 As part of measuring Council’s performance and progress on strategic outcomes, iwi satisfaction with Council consultation and communication will be mea- sured. As part of its commitment to working in partnership, Auckland City Council has established a bicultural unit - Pae Herenga Tangata. Christchurch City Council has a strategic objective in its Annual Plan that Council will recognise the Treaty of Waitangi through maintaining mutually acceptable consultation procedures with the tangata whenua. Christchurch has established a Maori Liaison Officer position to implement this. Manukau City Council has been working with tangata whenua since the time of the Manukau claim in 1986. More recently Council has been holding discussions with six mana whenua groups with the aim of developing formal relationships with these groups.180 One of Council’s key goals in its Annual and Strategic Plan is to improve its response to tangata whenua and to the Treaty of Waitangi and the quality of this response is one of Council’s key performance indicators. There is also a focus within Manukau City Council on developing organisational understanding of the Treaty and of Maori needs and culture in order to provide better services and build on existing relationships with Maori groups. This is being done through means such as Council’s Treaty of Waitangi Team (an internal staff team focusing on Treaty issues), staff training and the work of the Maori Liaison Officer. North Shore City Council recognises five iwi as being tangata whenua of North Shore City. It established a tangata whenua Working Group in 1999, which aims to establish a memorandum of understanding with iwi. The Council’s Annual Plan contains a key objective of ensuring that Council policy and services incorporate the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi. North Shore City Council also works with Awataha Marae on community projects. Waitakere City Council has formal agreements in place with two iwi, Te Kawerau a Maki and Ngati Whatua. Council also works with Te Whanau o Waipareira Trust and other Maori organisations in Waitakere, including funding and service contracts to facilitate Maori input into Resource Management Act processes. In addition, Waitakere City Council has established a Maori standing committee, Te Taumata Runanga, to help ensure that the needs of Maori citizens are addressed. Te Taumata Runanga includes representatives from iwi, marae, urban Maori authorities, and key Maori organisations. In its Annual Plan, Waitakere City has specific measures for assessing iwi and pan-tribal Maori organisations’ satisfaction with Council’s performance. Wellington City Council has passed a resolution recognising that it has moral and ethical obligations under the Treaty. The Council has memoranda of understanding with the Wellington Tenths Trust and Te Runanga o Toa Rangitira, through which mana whenua groups are resourced to provide advice on issues. The Council has a Maori standing committee, Te Taumata o Poneke, which assists it in dealing with issues relevant to Maori. Wellington’s Strategic Plan also contains specific outcomes around Council and mana whenua partnerships. Wellington City Council has recently appointed a Maori Issues Director, reporting to the Chief Executive.
178 Tangata whenua refers to people of the land. 179 Kaitiaki refers to guardian. 180 Mana whenua refers to Maori who are tied culturally to the area by whakapapa and ancestors who lived and died there.
110 Quality of Life Voter Turnout at General Elections
What this is about…
New Zealand is a democratic country in which the members of Parliament are chosen in free and fair elections. All citizens and permanent residents who are 18 years and over are eligible to vote in the elections. Every New Zealand citizen who is enrolled as an elector is eligible to be a candidate for election as a Member of Parliament. This indicator is about the proportion of eligible voters that turn out at national elections.181 It is compulsory to register on the electoral roll in New Zealand, but not compulsory to vote, either at national or local level. Voter turnout at elections is one indicator of citizen participation in democratic processes and can give a feel for citizen’s awareness, willingness and ability to contribute to representative governance. Factors leading to participation levels are most often linked to the health and wellbeing of communities and the level of self-determination of citizens. For example, a poor turnout can indicate that some people feel non-empowered, that is, they perceive that they are unable to influence change.
What did we find ?
Overall, the level of voter participation in general elections in 1999 was relatively high. This would, in part, reflect the compulsory nature of enrolment on the electoral roll. Proportions of voter turnout are highest among Wellington electorates over other regional areas. The Wellington Central electorate had the highest proportion of voters turn out overall (89.9%) and Mangere in Manukau City had the lowest proportion at 76.6%.
VOTER TURNOUT AT LAST GENERAL ELECTION (1999) Median voter Regional electorate with highest Regional electorate with lowest turnout % proportion voter turnout % proportion voter turnout %
Auckland 81.5 North Shore 86.4 Mangere 76.6
Wellington 88.7 Wellington Central 89.9 Rimutaka 87.6
Christchurch 86.4 Ilam 87.4 Christchurch Central 85.3
Data Source: Electoral Commission
181 Electoral boundaries do not match City Council boundaries.
Treaty of Waitangi/Election Turnout 111 FIVE ELECTORAL AREAS WITH LOWEST VOTER TURNOUT AND FIVE ELECTORAL AREAS WITH HIGHEST VOTER TURNOUT IN LAST GENERAL ELECTION (1999)
WELLINGTON CENTRAL (W) 89.9
MANA (W) 89.1
OHARIU-BELMONT (W) 88.7
RONGOTAI (INCLUDES CHATHAM IS) (W) 88.2
HUTT SOUTH (W) 88.1
0 PERCENT 100
MANGERE (A) 76.6
MANUKAU EAST (A) 77.6
MANUREWA (A) 81.0
MAUNGAKIEKIE (A) 82.2
MT. ALBERT (A) 82.9
0 PERCENT 100
Data Source: Electoral Commission Where A = Auckland Region, W = Wellington area
The last two national elections were held in 1999 and 1996. Electoral area boundaries have changed at each election and it is very difficult to compare voter turnout with previous elections. However, in the previous two elections the highest proportions of voters have been from the Wellington electorates. The higher voter turnout levels in Wellington reflect the socio-economic, health and educational status of the citizens in that area. For example, Wellington has a high proportion of professionals, with generally higher level of academic qualifications. In addition, there may also be a relationship between the fact that central government is housed in Wellington - which increases the likelihood that Wellington Central residents are employed within central government departments (or know someone who is) - and higher voting patterns among Wellington Central residents. In comparison, electorates within Manukau have a relatively youthful age structure, low levels of educational qualifications and higher levels of social deprivation - all factors that would negatively influence citizen’s propensity to exercise their democratic right to vote.
Voter Turnout at Local Authority Elections
What this is about…
This indicator tells us about voter turnout at the previous three local authority elections (1998, 1995, 1992). A local authority election is the process used to elect city, district and regional councils and community boards, and is based on the geographical boundaries of the region, district or city. These boundaries differ from national electorate boundaries. Voter turnout at local authority elections indicates levels of participation in democratic processes at local community level. As with turnout at national elections, this is an indicator of an individual’s perceptions that they can bring about change in the governance of their local community. Similarly, turnout is linked to the health and wellbeing of the voters in each local area.
112 Quality of Life Overall, smaller proportions of voters turn out for regional and local authority elections than for central government elections. Furthermore, there is a slight variance between proportions of voters by regions and cities, with slightly higher proportions turning out to vote at a regional level than local level.
REGIONAL COUNCIL ELECTIONS Approximately half of all eligible voters have turned out for the previous three regional elections. Voter turnout dropped in the Auckland and Canterbury Regions in the 1995 elections, but rose again in 1998. Wellington and Canterbury Regions show higher levels of participation by voters than the Auckland Region. For example in the 1998 regional council elections, 42% of Auckland voters turned out compared with 56% of Canterbury voters.
PROPORTION OF VOTERS PARTICIPATING IN REGIONAL COUNCIL ELECTIONS (1992, 1995, 1998) 1992 (%) 1995 (%) 1998 (%) Auckland Regional Council 43.8 34.1 45.8 Wellington Regional Council 49.5 46.4 51.9 Canterbury Regional Council 47.3 38.0 53.7 Rest of NZ 51.1 51.9 48.1
Data Source: Department of Internal Affairs. In this section ‘voter turnout’ and ‘voter participation’ are used interchangeably.
LOCAL AUTHORITY ELECTIONS In the 1998 local authority elections, Auckland and Christchurch Cities had the highest voter turnout at 50.8% and 52.2% respectively, while Manukau City had the lowest proportion of voter turnout at 40.7%. In the last three local authority elections, the proportion of eligible voters who actually voted was lower in all six cities, than the proportion for the rest of New Zealand. Manukau City had the lowest proportion of voter turnout in the last three elections. The proportion of resident electors voting in Auckland City has risen consistently over the previous three elections, from 43.1% in 1992 to 45.2% in 1998. Although Manukau City had the lowest proportion of voter turnout in the last three elections, it also witnessed a small but steady increase in the proportion of residents who vote. This pattern is also reflected in numbers for the rest of New Zealand.
PROPORTION OF VOTERS PARTICIPATING IN LOCAL AUTHORITY ELECTIONS 1992 (%) 1995 (%) 1998 (%) Auckland 43.1 49.0 50.8 Manukau 38.6 39.0 40.7 North Shore 46.0 46.0 45.2 Waitakere 44.7 41.4 45.4 Wellington 53.1 52.7 49.2 Christchurch 51.5 49.9 52.2 Rest of NZ 51.8 54.1 57.5
Data Source: Department of Internal Affairs
Election Turnout 113 Community Involvement in Decision Making
What this is about…
Section 37k of the Local Government Act states that council’s responsibilities toward communities include: recognising that different communities exist and they have their own identities and values, delivering facilities and services to communities that meet their needs, choices and preferences; and effective consultation to enable people within communities to participate in local government. It is important that citizens feel that they can have their concerns and opinions heard and considered by their local government representatives. This indicator measures citizen satisfaction with involvement in decision making by local councils and indicates whether a healthy democratic process is at work. To assess this, respondents to a citizens’ survey conducted in the six cities were asked a series of questions regarding involvement in the democratic process.
What did we find ?
CITIZENS’ UNDERSTANDING OF HOW COUNCIL MAKES DECISIONS Respondents to the citizens’ surveys were asked to rate the extent to which they understood how (their) council makes decisions. Responses from the Christchurch City survey could not be compared directly with responses from other surveys but a consistent pattern was found in the other five cities.182 About one third of respondents to the surveys felt that they had a reasonably clear understanding, another third felt that they had a slight understanding while approximately a quarter felt they had no understanding. Only a small proportion felt that it was ‘very clear’.
A relatively high proportion of respondents from Wellington felt they had a ‘slight’ or ‘reasonably’ clear understanding.
CITIZENS’ UNDERSTANDING OF HOW COUNCIL MAKES DECISIONS, BY CITY (2000)
100 5 5 7 6 5
28 32 28 VERY CLEAR 32 36
REASONABLY CLEAR
39 32 32
PERCENT 36 SLIGHT UNDERSTANDING 39
NO UNDERSTANDING 32 27 29 24 18 0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU WAITAKERE WELLINGTON SHORE (n=501) (n=511) (n=303) (n=300) (n=504)
Data Source: Citizens’ Surveys
182 The Christchurch survey used a different measurement scale for this question. While most surveys asked their respondents to indicate “To what extent do you understand how Council makes decisions?”, on a scale of very clear, reasonably clear, slight to none at all, Christchurch City asked its respondents to agree or disagree on a scale from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree” whether they understood how their Council makes decisions. It was found, however, that the majority of respondents to the Christchurch survey (42%) strongly agreed or agreed that they understood how Council makes decisions while a quarter (25%) were neutral. A further quarter of respondents (26%) did not agree with the statement.
114 Quality of Life CITIZEN INVOLVEMENT IN DECISION MAKING Respondents to the surveys were asked to rate how satisfied they were with the way their local council involves people in decision making, from ‘very satisfied’ to ‘very dissatisfied’.183 Overall, there were similar patterns of response in all six cities, with approximately a third of respondents indicating they were satisfied, a third dissatisfied and a quarter were neutral on the issue. Smaller proportions of Auckland and North Shore City respondents were satisfied than respondents from other cities (25% and 24% respectively).184 Only 29% of respondents to the Manukau and Wellington City surveys were dissatisfied with the way their council involves people in decision making.185
CITIZEN SATISFACTION WITH THE WAY COUNCIL INVOLVES PEOPLE IN DECISION MAKING, BY CITY (2000)
100 25 34 24 29 37 37 SATISFIED
NEITHER SATISFIED OR 29 32 28 DISSATISFIED 24 39 24 PERCENT DISSATISFIED
38 38 29 31 29 31
0 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH SHORE (n=501) (n=511) (n=303) (n=300) (n=755) (n=504) Data Source: Citizens’ Surveys
COMMUNITY INFLUENCE IN DECISION MAKING Respondents to the surveys were asked to rate the public’s ability to influence their local council decision making on a scale of “large influence” to “no influence”.186
Overall, a similar pattern was found in all six cities, with most respondents indicating that they felt the public had ‘some’ or a ‘small’ influence over council decision making. A substantial proportion of respondents to the Waitakere survey felt that the public had ‘large influence’ over council decision making. Half (50%) of all respondents to the Wellington survey and 55% of those from Waitakere felt the public had a large or some influence. Larger proportions of respondents from Auckland, Manukau and North Shore chose ‘none’ or ‘small’ influence than ‘some ‘ or ‘large’.
183 There were very slight differences in wording across surveys with regard to this question. Namely, Manukau City asked respondents to rate their satisfaction with “the way the Council involves the public in the decisions it makes” whereas other Councils asked respondents to rate satisfaction with “the way Council involves people in decision making”. 184 Where “satisfied” equals combination of very satisfied and satisfied responses. 185 Where “dissatisfied” equals combination of very dissatisfied and dissatisfied responses. 186 There was a difference in wording between Manukau City’s survey and other surveys with regard to this question. Manukau City asked respondents “how much influence do you feel the public has on the decisions that Council makes?” while other surveys asked, “how would you rate the public’s ability to influence Council’s decision making?”
Community Involvement in Decisions 115 CITIZENS’ PERCEPTION OF THE PUBLIC’S ABILITY TO INFLUENCE COUNCIL DECISION MAKING, BY CITY (2000)
100 5 8 3 8 8 LARGE INFLUENCE 23 27 31 What this is about…31 SOME INFLUENCE 42 38 32 SMALL INFLUENCE 45 42
PERCENT 37 36 NO INFLUENCE 31 38 DON'T KNOW/ 16 16 18 12 NO OPINION 11 9 0 7 8 6.7 3 3 6 NORTH AUCKLAND MANUKAU WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH SHORE (n=501) (n=511) (n=303) (n=300) (n=755) (n=504)
Data Source: Citizens’ Surveys
Our surveys found that overall there appears to be a perception among many citizens within the six largest cities that the public does not have a large influence over council’s decision making. This ties in with earlier findings that citizens were divided on the question of whether or not they were satisfied with Council’s involvement of people in decision making, and that many did not understand how council makes decisions. Reasons for this will be complex and will include the age and education levels of citizens, council methods of communicating and the extent to which citizens are aware of and understand their council’s role in their city and its decision making processes.
Composition of School Boards of Trustees
What this is about…
School boards of trustees play a significant role in the governance of schools and the relationship between the school and its students’ families. The composition of school boards of trustees (primary and secondary state schools) is therefore an indicator of public involvement in decisions that affect them. It is suggested that if the makeup of a board reflects the makeup of the population it serves, then participatory democracy is in a healthier position. For the purpose of this report, gender and ethnicity are the critical factors measured in board composition. Some cities had higher numbers of persons on school boards of trustees than others - for example, in 1999 Auckland and Christchurch Cities had the highest numbers of persons on school boards of trustees, while Waitakere and North Shore Cities had the lowest numbers.
What did we find ?
Within all six cities, the highest proportion of school boards of trustees were of European ethnicity. In 1999, relatively high proportions of Pacific Islands people and Maori were on boards of trustees in Auckland and Manukau Cities. There do not appear to be any significant changes to representation over the previous four years.
116 Quality of Life PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOL BOARDS OF TRUSTEES, BY ETHNICITY (1999)
3.3 1.3 2.1 4.2 3.1 2.3 100 0.9 3.3 2.9 2.1 3.0 1.6 5.3 0.9 6.9 5.7 5.0 1.0 13.1 17.6 3.9 8.9 OTHER 12.2 19.0 ASIAN
89.6 85.7 90.8 PACIFIC ISLAND 77.0 PERCENT 68.1 59.2 MAORI
EUROPEAN
0 AUCKLAND MANUKAU NORTH WAITAKERE WELLINGTON CHRISTCHURCH SHORE
Data Source: Ministry of Education
There has been around the same number of men and women serving on boards of trustees since 1996 except in North Shore and Wellington which reported slightly more men than women.
COMPOSITION OF SCHOOL BOARDS OF TRUSTEES, BY SEX (1996 TO 1999) 1996 (no.) 1997 (no.) 1998 (no.) 1999 (no.) Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Auckland 324 324 329 316 366 336 335 338 Manukau 230 242 231 237 285 257 272 245 North Shore 169 148 153 143 182 151 184 154 Waitakere 161 156 152 148 164 157 160 144 Wellington 182 176 187 169 199 199 192 192 Christchurch 351 316 339 326 352 349 347 339
Data Source: Ministry of Education
Composition of Councils and Community Boards
Local Government New Zealand states that “local government is local democracy in action” and “local democracy is about having the right mix of people ... to best represent a particular community”. But what does “the right mix of people” mean? And how representative is local government, both within the six largest cities and throughout the rest of this country? Indeed, what constitutes representation? These are complex questions, with no hard and fast answers. However, it was felt that as part of this chapter on democracy it was important to broach the issue of representation within councils and community boards with regard to demographic factors such as ethnicity, age and sex.
Data on the ethnic identity of elected representatives at local government level is not collected. However, a quick overview of members of council and community boards across the six largest cities would suggest that Europeans are over-represented in community boards and at council level, in relation to the ethnic population in the area. This is the case with all of the six local authorities. Similarly, data concerned with age is not collected. Available data on sex indicates that representation is equal by men and women.
This report has also noted relatively low rates of voter turnout at local government level, and there may be a link between appropriate representation and voter motivation.
Representation 117 Data Collection Data Issues
In monitoring conditions for this report, it became clear that there were many issues around data availability and collection that could not be resolved, at the time of writing. This resulted in the omission of some indicators, and highlighted the need for caution with analysing other indicators. An account of these issues was reported in a separate document in September 2000*. A summary follows.
Data challenges Availability of data was one of the key issues for the project as a whole. Overall, there appears to be a lack of data in New Zealand, particularly on the monitoring of social issues. For many of the issues, relevant information was simply unavailable at a ward, city or even regional level, or had not been systematically collected over time. There were also difficulties with geographical boundaries. This included a mismatch of central government and local government boundaries. For some indicators regional data have been used as a proxy. The lack of data in some areas meant gaps in analysis. These are generally recorded in the ‘Introduction to and Analysis of’: chapters. Examples include data on mental health and traffic congestion. Certain issues provided challenges that the project team has overcome by using information from the non-profit sector or from outside New Zealand. This includes what constitutes a 'poverty line' in New Zealand and an appropriate level of residual income once housing costs are paid. The reliance upon Census data from 1996 was also a problem. As a result, the data presented may not reflect the real picture as the six cities have changed considerably in recent years. The cost of data was also a barrier in some cases, particularly when purchasing Statistics NZ data. In several instances, a lack of consistent definitions between councils made it difficult to compare data. The definition determines what will be collected, and if different it cannot be compared. Examples are graffiti and environmental information. This highlights the need for better standardisation of data for core issues between NZ local authorities. All organisations that held data required for the indicators were contacted by the end of March 2000. However, in some cases, the data was not received until quite late in the project. A partnership approach to this would be beneficial in the future. All of these factors influenced the selection of the final set of indicators and therefore the issues reported in this document.
Citizen Surveys During the initial stages of this project several indicators were set which measured citizens' perceptions of various aspects of living and working in cities. It was decided that the best method for gathering this data would be through surveys of residents. Each City was responsible for collecting their own data, either by incorporating the questions into their Annual Residents’ Surveys (Christchurch and Manukau Cities did this) or by undertaking specific surveys to gather the data (Auckland, North Shore, Waitakere and Wellington Cities). Survey details are on the next page. Overall, responses to the survey questions were compatible across the cities and general patterns were found in the data. However, several factors have compromised analysis by demographic sub groups, for example, in several instances cell sizes were too small for statistically valid comparison and would have unacceptable margins of error. In addition, some questions were worded differently between surveys, which may have influenced responses. In those cases where there were differences in wording this is outlined in relevant sections throughout this report. Therefore, presentation of the data in this report tends to describe the overall patterns and trends across the Cities. This was a somewhat experimental process and was the first time that many of the survey questions were asked of residents. It is anticipated that the surveys will be repeated within the next few years, possibly through undertaking one comprehensive survey across all cities.
* ‘Monitoring Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Six Largest Cities - A summary of indicators and data issues surrounding monitoring’ September 2000. Copies from: Leigh Gatt, Project Manager, Quality of Life Monitoring Project - C/o Manukau City Council, Private Bag, Manukau City. (09) 263 7100 e-mail to:[email protected]. 118 Quality of Life Citizens’Surveys
CITY TYPE SAMPLE AGE GENDER ETHNICITY WARDS SIZE
Auckland Telephone 501 18-19 yrs - 3% Female - 56% European - 75% Avondale / Roskill - 23% 20-29 yrs - 15% Male - 44% Maori - 4% Western Bays - 11% 30-39 yr - 21% Pacific Islands - 3% Balmoral - 11% 40-49 yrs - 27% Asian - 8% Hobson - 21% 50-59 yrs - 15% Other* - 14% Eastern Bays - 12% 60 yrs and over - 18% Penrose - 19% Hauraki Islands -3%
Manukau Telephone 511 18-19 yrs - 10% Female - 55% European* - 51% Clevedon - 10% 20-29 yrs - 22% Male - 45% Maori - 18% Howick - 15% 30-39 yrs - 22% Pacific Islands - 22% Mangere - 15% 40-49 yrs - 20% Asian - 7% Manurewa - 15% 50-59 yrs - 13% Other - 3% Otara - 15% 60 yrs and over - 14% Pakuranga - 16% Papatoetoe - 15%
North Shore Telephone 504 18-19 yrs - 2% Female - 55% European - 75% East Coast Bays - 22% 20-29 yrs - 13% Male - 45% Maori - 3% Takapuna - 16% 30-39 yrs - 25% Pacific Islands - 1% Glenfield - 16% 40-49 yrs - 24% Asian - 4% Devonport - 11% 50-59 yrs - 16% Other* - 22% Birkenhead/Northcote - 24% 60 yrs and over - 20% Albany - 11%
Waitakere Telephone 303 18-39 yrs - 41% Female - 52% European - 86% Massey - 29% 40-59 yrs - 37% Male - 48% Maori - 5% Henderson - 21% 60 yrs and over - 22% Pacific Islands - 2% Waitakere - 11% Asian - 3% New Lynn - 39% Other - 3%
Wellington Telephone 300 18-19 yrs - 4% Female - 50% European - 78% Eastern - 22% 20-39 yrs - 51% Male - 50% Maori - 5% Lambton - 17% 40-59 yrs - 30% Pacific Islands - 2% Northern - 22% 60 yrs and over - 15% Asian - 4% Onslow - 9% Other* - 16% Southern - 18% Western - 12%
Christchurch Door to door 755 18-34 yrs - 25% Female - 55% Did not collect this data Burwood-Pegasus - 16% 35-54 yrs - 41% Male - 45% Fendalton-Waimairi - 16% 55 yrs and over - 34% Hagley-Ferrymead - 17% Riccarton-Wigram - 16% Shirley-Papanui - 19% Spreydon-Heathcote - 16%
* includes “New Zealander” Data Collection 119 Conclusions
Commentary The quality of life in New Zealand’s six largest cities is affected by many inter-linked factors. To achieve quality of life and ensure sustainable development in urban environments, all of the issues reported in this document must be considered alongside each other, rather than as separate matters to be dealt with in an isolated fashion. This will require key sectors working together in new forms of partnerships.
For example, the anticipated population growth in New Zealand’s six largest cities, particularly in the Auckland region, has significant implications for the planning, provision and speed of preparedness of local and central government. This rapid growth will impact on services, infrastructure, economic development and the environment. A co-ordinated and integrated approach is called for to manage the effects of this.
Socio-demographic factors across the six cities such as population diversity, the young age structure of those diverse populations, poverty pockets and low education and work skills imply the need for a unique approach to governance and perhaps a closer collaboration between central and local government (of the six cities). This collaboration should, in the first instance, consider reviewing policy relating to immigration, education and employment given the scale of impact on the population of the six cities.
Housing policy should continue to be reviewed. The high proportions of people living in crowded households in Auckland, Manukau and Waitakere have implications for the health of those families. This, coupled with poverty, and the negative impact on educational achievement, employment and social cohesion, shows a cycle that is difficult to break. Central government along with councils of the six cities must consider policies that facilitate affordable accommodation choices and styles to meet the differing demands of the diverse populations living in those cities.
As with some housing issues, the populations that enhance ethnic and cultural diversity in the six cities appear to be those worst affected by poor health. Addressing the underlying determinants of health is a priority given their impact on health status and quality of life.
Educational achievement and skill levels are pre-requisites to participation in the workforce and are necessary for a strong economy. Given that the six cities account for 60% of the national economy then the statistics regarding educational achievement and skill levels are cause for concern. There are likely connections between low socio-economic status (which is reflected in school decile rankings), lower participation in early childhood education, and high levels of school leavers with no qualifications. Programmes to track this connection could provide a key to sustainable quality of life for today’s children into the future.
All cities record air, water, noise and graffiti pollution. Air pollution as a result of private motor vehicle use is a huge concern in the Auckland Region where carbon monoxide levels are higher than in London. Collaboration between central government and the councils of the six cities on public transport issues, and policy and legislation to reduce the use and minimise the impact of private motor vehicles would be beneficial.
Graffiti can be related to school dropout rates, crime levels and juvenile offending and affects residents’ satisfaction with the way their city looks. Drop-out rates may also be linked to young city dwellers’ lower involvement in physical activity and merits investigation.
Whilst graffiti has contributed to negative perceptions of safety in the six cities, safety indicators, generally, are showing improvement. A partnership between central and local government through Police and Safer Community Councils has had a positive impact on burglary and traffic fatalities. A recurrent safety theme however is risk to children and youth. A similar partnership might be beneficial to reduce this risk.
A survey conducted within the six cities suggests that residents generally feel okay about the community in which they live. Results of the survey indicated some community cohesiveness with around 50% of survey respondents expressing positive comments in regard to feelings of safety, communities working together and supporting each other. There is room for improvement in this area. Given that volunteering in the six cities is lower than for the rest of New Zealand, this may be an area to focus on in the first instance.
120 Quality of Life Lower levels of volunteering may also be linked to the low levels of participation in governance and democratic matters in the six cities. Representation on governance structure is disproportionately European, raising the issue of interpretation of culturally diverse points of view in local decision making. Motivation to vote and willingness to stand for election by non-European citizens are issues that warrant further exploration.
While compiling this report several problems were encountered in relation to data collection. Many of these were connected to central government (e.g. health statistics), with some specific to local authorities (e.g. graffiti counts). A collaborative approach to indicator selection, data collection, perception surveys and outcome monitoring would be beneficial.
This project provides one example of working together and has involved collaboration between the six participating city councils. Factors that have contributed to this process include: the support of the Chief Executives of participating councils motivated council officers willing to work together collaboratively sharing costs for travel, data purchase and publication a co-ordinating role undertaken by Manukau City Council a consultation process, which resulted in valuable feedback on the draft indicator set from a wide range of agencies co-operation by government departments, regional councils, Statistics New Zealand, and other agencies all data collection and liaison with agencies undertaken by one person, with the result that all data is held on one central database The project has provided valuable experience in the use of indicators, building relationships with others working on similar projects, analysis of statistics and working together as councils.
Using this report Participating councils will consider the findings of this report as part of their strategic and annual planning processes. Issues raised in the report will also be used for advocacy purposes and key city issues will be highlighted to relevant central government politicians. It is intended to host a workshop for interested organisations on data and technical issues as a follow up to the publication of this report. This will enable an exchange of learning related to indicators and use of data.
Next steps The next steps include working with central government on some of the issues of concern to the six cities raised in this report and highlighted in these conclusions. Planning is underway to update the report in around two years (perhaps in collaboration with central government). Measuring quality of life should become a regular exercise contributing to the development of more effective partnerships. It is a key tool for looking at the impacts of the work of the public sector in the effort to enhance the quality of life in New Zealand.
Conclusions 121 Definitions
Average - generally refers to the mean (i.e. the sum of the values divided by the number of observations).
Citizen - is used in a broad sense as a resident in the cities who met the age criteria for each city’s survey or a business person in the city.
Criteria for indicator selection - relevant to project, scope, measurable now, cost effective to obtain, valid, understandable and available at a six-city level.
Ethnicity - Ethnicity refers to the ethnic group or groups that people identify with or feel they belong to. An ethnic group is defined as a social group whose members have the following four characteristics: share a sense of common origins claim a common and distinctive history and destiny possess one or more dimensions of collective cultural individuality feel a sense of unique collective solidarity.
Statistics New Zealand data on ethnicity has been used throughout most of this report. It has undergone prioritisation, whereby people are assigned to single ethnic groups. Responses are prioritised in this order - Maori, Pacific Islands, Asian, Other and European. Thus, Maori includes people who indicate New Zealand Maori as one of their ethnic groups Pacific Islands includes people who indicate a Pacific Island ethnic group as one of their ethnic groups, but excludes those who also indicated New Zealand Maori as one of their ethnic groups Asian includes people who indicate an Asian ethnic group as one of their ethnic groups, but excludes respondents who report New Zealand Maori or Pacific Islands as one of their ethnic groups Other includes people who indicate remaining ethnic groups not included above, but excluding the European ethnic groups European includes people with single and combinations of European ethnic groups e.g. New Zealand European only, New Zealand European/British, New Zealand European/British/Dutch.
Family - a family consists of two or more people who are members of the same household and who comprise either a couple or at least one parent role / child relationship or both. A familial relationship is defined as one in which a person is related to another household member by blood, marriage (registered or de facto) or adoption. This is a standard Statistics New Zealand definition.
Household - a household is either one person who usually resides alone or two or more people who usually reside together and share facilities (such as eating facilities, cooking facilities, bathroom and toilet facilities, a living area). This is a standard Statistics New Zealand definition.
Median - a median represents the value of the middle case in a rank ordered set of observations.
Rate - refers to the number of times an event occurs across a defined number of people in the population (e.g. 8 instances per 10,000 of population).
Rest of New Zealand - all parts of New Zealand excluding the six largest cities of Auckland, Manukau, North Shore, Waitakere, Wellington and Christchurch.
Territorial Local Authority (TLA) - there are 74 territorial local authorities in New Zealand (including 15 cities and 59 districts). Territorial local authorities are commonly referred to as ‘local authorities’ and ‘councils’.
Total New Zealand - all parts of New Zealand including the six largest cities of Auckland, Manukau, North Shore, Waitakere, Wellington and Christchurch.
122 Quality of Life Consultation
The following organisations and individuals were consulted during the preparation of this report: Auckland Healthcare Auckland Regional Council (particularly Lesley Baddon who was initially a member of the project team) Building Research Association of New Zealand (BRANZ) Business & Economic Research Ltd (BERL) S. Campbell, Department of Sociology, Canterbury University Canterbury Regional Council Canterbury Dialogues Indicators Project Community Housing Ltd Crown Public Health Department of Child, Youth & Family Services Department of Work and Income Family Centre, Wellington Health Funding Authority Health Services Research Centre Housing New Zealand Injury Prevention Research Centre, University of Auckland Local Government New Zealand Mental Health Commission Ministry of Education Ministry for the Environment Ministry of Health Ministry of Social Policy Ministry of Transport Ministry of Pacific Island Affairs Assoc. Prof. P. Morrison, Geography Department, Victoria University of Wellington Napier District Council New Plymouth District Council New Zealand Christian Council of Social Services New Zealand Police M. O'Brien, School of Social Policy and Social Work, Massey University Poverty Measurement Project (Victoria University of Wellington) D. Robinson, Robinson Driver Partnership Rotorua District Council Safekids Salvation Army Skill New Zealand Statistics New Zealand Te Puni Kokiri Tenants' Protection Association Professor D. Thorns, Sociology Department, Canterbury University Wellington Regional Council Professor A. Woodward, School of Public Health (Wellington School of Medicine)
Consultation