ANTI/THESIS 25

Background information I conducted the initial research project ANTI-THESIS Perspectives exploring instruction in Gender Studies in on Gender in 2019. The research project was structured by four partly explorative expert Studies at the interviews about Gender Studies in Tunisia. The initial framework of the Universities of research project was approached from a white queer*feminist theoretical perspec- and tive, using a qualitative content analysis as , Tunisia method. Notes on positionalities Today, I greatly criticize my initial research project, especially in terms of questions of situatedness and situated knowledges. I question and try to reflect the conceptual- ization of the fieldwork, mywhiteness and the privileges I benefit(ed) from, and explicitly the Area Studies-driven theoret- ical, scientific practice that I followed and aimed for. For all intents and purposes, one should not unreflectively and uncom- Jamie Woitynek mented build an (academic) career on practices that play into the hands of or are In Tunisia, the University of Manouba and to introduce readers to specific perspec- based on (neo)colonial structures, ideas, the University of Sousse each offered a tives on and narratives about two Gender theories, and methodologies. After due master’s program in Gender Studies in Studies programs. consideration, I decided that this is not 2019. This essay examines these pro- what this article is primarily about. I still grams’ structures and foci, providing Keywords: Gender Studies, Tunisia, added important literature (of resistance) some comments on their contexts. Based Knowledge production, University, on topics connected to the aforemen- on fieldwork including four expert inter- Institutions tioned standpoints and considerations in views, this provides one limited attempt my endnotes. I urge you to read this liter-

Middle East – Topics & Arguments # 14 –2020 ANTI/THESIS 26

ature. From my recent perspective, I do Failing and constant (un)learning must be focuses on women in these periods. Ben believe that the interviewee's knowledge, starting points. Hassine founded the program at Sousse their insights and their voices should and University and can be contacted, too.3 can be heard in this format - although the Affiliations Prof. Monia Lachheb is a scholar in sociol- piece will always be tied to (my; a reader's; The research and the process were sup- ogy. Lachheb focuses on the sociology of readers') white perspectives and contrib- ported and attended by the Rosa the body, gender and identity, and utes to (neo)colonial continuities, such as Luxemburg Foundation’s academic coop- non-normative sexualities. Lachheb works the uneven mobility of knowledge. eration program Independent Universities on these topics mainly in the Tunisian Eventually, the piece was written in a par- and the Promotion of Critical Research framework, but also does research on ticipatory attempt and is published in and Teaching in the framework of a Libya and Algeria. Lachheb is normally recent cooperation and consensus with 6-month internship. The article was read affiliated with the University of Manouba, the persons I interviewed at the time. For and edited by the four interviewed schol- but taught a semester in the master’s pro- questions and contacts, their email ars Prof. Amel Grami and Prof. Boutheina gram at Sousse. Lachheb works for the addresses are included in the endnotes. Ben Hassine (two representatives in the French institute IRMC (Institute de master’s programs);1 Prof. Monia Lachheb, Recherche sur le Maghreb Contemporain). Notes on Anti/Thesis a former teacher in the program at Sousse; Naziha Ardhaoui was a master’s student in The Anti/Thesis section usually presents and Naziha Ardhaoui, a (former) student in the program at Manouba University in clearly contesting lines of thought about a the master’s program at Manouba. spring 2019. Ardhaoui studied English and specific subject. This is not so much the Literature. So far, Ardhaoui has worked in case for this article. Yet, the aforemen- About the interviewed scholars training centers, sometimes for founda- tioned structural and contextual problem- Amel Grami is a professor of Gender tions. Ardhaoui’s scientific interest is in atic realities remain and should be further Studies and Islamic Studies at The comparative political sciences and media discussed, especially by the audiences of University of Manouba, Tunisia. Her studies, approached from a feminist and journals like META. So, I urge you to think research focuses on culture, society, reli- Gender Studies perspective. Ardhaoui’s about what I have tried to do with my slot gion and politics in the MENA region and master’s thesis thus examines representa- in this journal. I invite you to like and dis- the Middle East, as well as extremism, tions and the strategic medial use of like it. In my perspective, dealing with Peace Corps volunteering, women, and women in the past electoral campaigns of other forms of methodologies and theo- peace building. Grami founded the pro- Beji Caid Essebsi and Donald Trump. ries can be a starting point, reflecting on gram at the Manouba University and can Ardhaoui has a major interest in qualita- one’s own positionality can be a starting be contacted.2 tive research and fieldwork in Tunisia. point, and stepping back from one’s (con- Prof. Boutheina Ben Hassine is a scholar of ventional) work can be a starting point. . history. Ben Hassine is specialized in the Ummayad and medieval period and

Middle East – Topics & Arguments # 14 –2020 ANTI/THESIS 27

Structures and foci in the master’s pro- freedom of speech in the Ben Ali period Foci in the master’s programs6 grams and surrounding contexts (3, 9), but also the possibility of using and Interdisciplinarity as foundation Motivations, politics, and freedom of doing Gender Studies as a field of studies All four interviewees point out and ascribe speech in favor of democratic transition and prac- importance to the interdisciplinary struc- Gender Studies has been taught in Sousse tice. Before 2011, censorship and restric- ture of the master’s program and of the since 2017 and in , Manouba (Faculty tions of academic freedom and freedom teaching and courses. This specifically of Literature, Arts and Humanities) since of speech were quite normalized (Grami appears in a variety of teachers with differ- 2015 (Ben Hassine 3; Grami 8). Gender 3). Gender Studies and gender-related ent disciplinary backgrounds and foci on Studies are therefore situated in the research are therefore a strategic tool for a certain time span (Ben Hassine 6; Grami broader post-2010/11 structures and reali- supporting a democratic transition in the 18; Lachheb 9; Ardhaoui 11). An interdisci- ties of the country. The studies were estab- country in a sustainable vision (Ben plinary structure also appears in the fol- lished quite belatedly, in the opinion of Hassine 6). As such, Gender Studies can lowing emphases of teachers and the one former professor in the master’s pro- be considered one part of a project of dis- master’s programs. grams (Lachheb 5). These formal estab- mantling censorship of and restrictions on lishments came well after the fact: Tunisian freedom of speech (Grami 4, 15). Emphases of teachers and foci in the mas- scholars look back on a long history of On a broader motivational scale, the inter- ter’s programs varying feminist interventions and projects viewees’ standpoints vary. As Ardhaoui The study program in Sousse emphasizes (Lachheb 5; Antonakis 76, 105, 274). points out, Gender Studies serves her as a gender and history (of e.g. human rights, From the moment when Gender Studies tool for defending LGBT5 and minority individual freedoms) and socio-economic were institutionalized until recently, its rights and for fighting for equality and questions (Ben Hassine 4; Lachheb 3), but master’s programs and individuals work- against the patriarchy (Ardhaoui 3, 6). also gender in administration (e.g. man- ing in the field have faced various kinds of According to Lachheb, the field is an insti- agement, fiscality) and law (e.g. the CSP) political attacks (Ben Hassine 6-8; Grami 3, tutional attempt to establish a strand and (Ben Hassine 5). Besides this, there is a 11, 27). According to Grami, the increasing tradition of the subject that is Tunisia’s own focus on gender and identity as they the- strength of conservative and religious pol- (Lachheb 11). Contrastingly, Ben Hassine matically appear in art, literature, lan- itics and policies has an influence on the argues that the subject should be guage, and methods and methodology, potential master’s programs’ finances and extended to more universities in the long as well as in guiding field research (Ben reputation and on the conditions and term (Ben Hassine 3). Grami emphasizes Hassine 4). “Feminine leadership” and practices of freedom of speech (27). the will and need to participate in global trainings are important in Sousse and are Grami addresses the history and experi- feminist knowledge production. This is also offered by partner organizations (Ben ences of freedom4 of and restrictions on framed as a postcolonial necessity with Hassine 6). Violence plays a role as a sub- speech in Tunisian academia in relation to criticism of neo-colonial collaborations ject in both universities, especially in terms the former conditions of research and with partner organizations (Grami 6). of extremism (Ben Hassine 6; Grami 29).

Middle East – Topics & Arguments # 14 –2020 ANTI/THESIS 28

The Manouba study program also includes lated tendencies shown above. They example of Tunisian institutions’ financial courses on methods and methodology sometimes treat niche topics such as gen- dependence on global governance bod- (Grami 23). Besides, the Manouba pro- der-transgressive perspectives on arts, ies such as the IMF (International Monetary gram sets goals such as consciousness work on transsexual7 persons in Tunisia, Funds), with its typically restrictive require- and awareness raising and addresses sub- research on female jihadism, and the ments (Maghreb Post, Ben Abid, jects such as gender in feminism, history, migration processes of Yemenite women Chandoul). culture, literature, politics, religion, media, in Syria (Ben Hassine 9). Certain tendencies of the Ministry of law, social movements, sexualities, identi- Higher Education should be mentioned ties, and labor (Grami 15; Ardhaoui 8). Precariousness and hurdles here as the broader structural context of Both master’s programs work on the On a structural level, the two master’s pro- these programs. As discussed in an article deconstruction of representations, stereo- grams face different dimensions of precar- by Mohamed Samih Beji Okkez, who types, and relations tied to social con- iousness. In the process of establishing spoke with the Tunisian University structs such as femininity and masculinity the master’s program, a crucial indicator Professors and Researchers Union (IJABA), (Ben Hassine 6; Grami 8, 19; Lachheb 2, 6; was to have an approving dean (Ben public universities in Tunisia face financial Ardhaoui 3). Partly mentioned are non-nor- Hassine 2). Intradepartmental conflicts shortages and marginalization in favor of mative sexualities and identity formations were intense. These internal bureaucrat- the expansion of the privatization of the (Ben Hassine 6; Grami 27; Lachheb 3; ic-administrative disputes had to be nego- educational system, which was followed Ardhaoui 5). tiated continuously (Ben Hassine 2; Grami by sit-ins and protests by university profes- The two master’s programs further ascribe 12). sors and staff in 2018/2019. Besides, meanings to geographic and demo- Finances, resources, and budgets are too recruitment of teachers has been frozen graphic cleavages (e.g. dichotomies like small in both programs (Ben Hassine 4; since 2015, and the financial shortages in rural/urban, coastal/interior, etc.) and con- Grami 12). The budget for conferences the field of scientific research overall led duct research on extremism (Ben Hassine and projects in particular remains fraught to approximately five thousand unem- 10; Grami 29; Lachheb 16). and precarious (Ben Hassine 11; Grami 14). ployed postgraduates in the country Further, there is a great emphasis on inter- Various interviewees pointed out that (Okkez). The precariousness of students in sectionality, which includes class, gender, there is a dependence on international Tunisia is enormous, and job prospects age, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and reli- and political partners and collaborations, were further limited by the Ministry of gion in order to explain and research cer- such as foundations or foreign universi- Higher Education. This led to students’ tain processes of intersectional societal ties. This also locates the study programs protests in May 2019, as Grami explained ascriptions and invocations (Grami 5, 18; in the broader frame of a general depen- to me (Grami 1). Lachheb 10). dence on projects and NGOs based in Teachers in the master’s programs often Students’ dissertations in the master’s pro- Tunisia that have international funding work additional jobs, for instance, one job gram differ slightly from the content-re- (Grami 14, 22). More generally, this is one as a teacher in the master’s program,

Middle East – Topics & Arguments # 14 –2020 ANTI/THESIS 29

another in an NGO or in lobbying (Grami 11). Grami points out that this leads to hur- Gender Studies, Gender Studies University of dles in staffs’ capacities in evaluations, University of Manouba, Tunis interventions, and improvements (11). Sousse 25 Students have difficulties finding some- 30 20 one to supervise their final projects in the 20 15 master’s program or in their initial disci- 10 10 pline (Ardhaoui 9). In spring 2019, when 0 5 the fieldwork was conducted, there was Year Year Year 0 no officially appointed professor of One Two Three Year One Year Two Year Three Year Four Gender Studies in Tunisia. Until then, there Number of students Number of students was no dedicated PhD program in Gender Studies, either. Gender-minded students Fig. 1: Gender Studies, University of Sousse and Gender Studies, University of Manouba, Tunis. Source: Author. and graduates would have to study another subject in a well-established dis- points out that the continuity of the mas- programs’ structure on a collegiate and an cipline and write their dissertations in that ter’s programs is contested and lies in the NGO level. major (Grami 21). hands and the will of the program’s teach- ers (Grami 29). About students in the master’s programs Difficulties and prospects around visibili- Nonetheless, there are at least two import- The following chart shows the numbers of ties ant tools of visibility tied to the programs. students in each program over the years Certain themes, including LGBT-related One is the Club of Gender Studies at the until 2019 (Ben Hassine 7; Grami 20). The content, have been the focus of political Manouba University in Tunis, which oper- data shows a decrease in the number of controversy. Teaching these topics ates mostly via Facebook, but also orga- enrolled students over time. This is framed involves putting finances at risk, with frank nizes film screenings, discussions, confer- as either being caused by a new regula- and open visibility appearing as a poten- ences, and workshops (Grami 12). The tion that requires English proficiency for tial liability. Grami frames this as a concern other is the relatively new NGO Tunisian admission in Sousse (Ben Hassine 7) or as and a matter of uncertainty (Grami 27). Association of Gender Studies (ATEG), a result of the issue around the aforemen- Especially in terms of the difficult, polar- founded by the Gender Studies master’s tioned PhD prospects (Grami 21). ized political embedding of the study pro- program at the University of Sousse (Ben Surprisingly, Grami adds that there were grams, visibility is an uncertain subject Hassine 3, 5). These processes show a way around 100 students interested in enroll- (Grami 27). This has become especially of institutionalizing Gender Studies and ing in the Manouba master’s program in fraught in the wake of attacks on the sub- gender-related knowledge beyond the 2020, of whom the program selected 35. jects of the master’s programs. Grami

Middle East – Topics & Arguments # 14 –2020 ANTI/THESIS 30

So, the number of students in the Manouba These students clearly take a stance on ant partnerships is with the Erasmus Plus mastrs program rose in the fifth year. different issues, including criticism of the Partners from Europe, Ukraine, and The master’s programs are generally car- study program itself (Grami 12, 15; Morocco9 (Ben Hassine 2). The Manouba ried out in Standard Arabic and French. At Ardhaoui 6). program used to be a partner in this proj- the University of Sousse, English recently Students come from an enormous variety ect as well, but then withdrew from it. This became a third language and a part of the of initial majors. At Sousse, the students was due to struggles with the (gender-) application. It is also planned to establish come from disciplines such as English, political agendas of the project’s European at least one English course (Ben Hassine Arabic, History, Journalism, Political partners, which were perceived as neoco- 4). In contrast, the spokesperson of the Sciences, and Law (Ben Hassine 7.). At the lonial (Grami 6). Grami clearly opposes the master’s program at Manouba says English University of Manouba, students studied European attempt at (neo)colonial superi- remains a reading language and is not Arabic, French, Philosophy, Sociology, ority in knowledge production on gender otherwise part of the courses (Grami 14). Nursing, Labor and Social Movement and in Queer Studies. She therefore with- Students in the master’s programs at Studies, Archival Sciences, Economy, drew from collaboration, taking a clear Sousse are described as critical, open, Architecture, and Media Studies (Grami stance on what happened and what is diverse in age, competitive, and ambitious 23). required: (Ben Hassine 3). Many students are affili- Job prospects are described primarily as Because they had this idea from the ated with NGOs such as Amnesty positions in ministries, schools, and NGOs first meeting on: we are from the North International, the ATFD (Association (Grami 24; Ardhaoui 10). In regard to qual- belonging to the West and we will Tunisienne de Femmes Démocrates), ‘Aish ifications, Grami says that students gain an teach you how you should teach gen- Tunisi (a data collection and evaluation analytical gender lens. They could work in der. […] I am not in this trend, you can project), or the Rotary Club (Ben Hassine the aforementioned fields or in journalism, listen to us, you can understand what 3). Students are interested in democratic and they could improve the jobs and the is our work and you can also exchange transition and women’s rights, for example quality of work in those professions (Grami ideas and experiences, etc. with us and in the debate about the Law of Inheritance 24). Ben Hassine notes that students gain I have a lot to share with you. And I am and civil status8 (Ben Hassine 3). Many stu- theoretical and interdisciplinary views on not in the position of the subaltern who dents study part-time while working as gender and might learn how to do moni- should learn and consume. It is impor- judges, lawyers, or in public administra- toring and workshops (Ben Hassine 8). tant to have an idea about what’s hap- tion in Sousse (Ben Hassine 3). Grami pening in other countries, but I am fa- points out that students at Manouba are Partnerships and (neo)coloniality miliar with this way of collaboration […] critical and aware, both of the societal rel- The master’s programs have various part- (Grami 6) evance of gender and the connection to ner organizations and universities. The everyday life and of the structure and master’s program in Sousse maintains sev- issues appearing in the master’s program. eral partnerships. One of the most import-

Middle East – Topics & Arguments # 14 –2020 ANTI/THESIS 31

Jamie Woitynek Conclusions nial) politics,10 and conflicts about what Gender Studies at Sousse and at Manouba constitutes proper and critical knowledge is a graduate student (Bachelor of Arts) are located in a contested and challeng- production variously shape Central from the Center for Near and Middle ing political and economic environment European Gender Studies programs,11 too. Eastern Studies at the Philipps University and face severe struggles over finances University (life) consistently requires criti- Marburg. Jamie Woitynek has a major in (especially for projects), staff, and visibili- cal interventions, attention, discussion, Political Sciences and a minor in Gender ties. In this context, European partner activist contributions, new forms and prac- Studies in this context, and also studied organizations also act in a (neo)colonial tices of solidarity, and critique in consider- Standard Arabic for Social Sciences at manner. Further, this article has shown that ation of and resistance to the aforemen- the EgE Rabat. Jamie worked for the the contents and structures of the master’s tioned dynamics. Rosa Luxemburg Foundation Academic programs are depicted diversely, some- Cooperation in Tunis in 2019. Further, times appearing as contesting or related, Jamie is a member of the research yet they heavily resonate with the overall network Maghreb in Transition – Media, societal situation. Students often enrich Knowledge and Power. Currently, Jamie is the picture by bringing in important con- enrolled in a master’s program in Gender siderations, ideas, and research. Studies at the University of Vienna and From my current perspective, namely one attends courses at the Academy for Fine year after conducting the fieldwork, now Arts Vienna. Jamie Woitynek holds a full as a master’s student in a Gender Studies grant from the DAAD. Research interests program in 2020s Central Europe, and as revolve around queer*feminism, political a representative in the curricular process theory, knowledge production, activism, of that master’s program, I would like to and arts. Jamie Woitynek is a researcher, conclude this piece by stressing the fol- artist, and activist. [none; she*/ her*] lowing important connection with email: [email protected] recourse to the background information, the notes on positionality, and the remark on Anti/Thesis from the beginning of the article: The two master’s programs in Tunisia defi- nitely hinge in a particular way on their socioeconomic environments. Yet, certain structures of precariousness, relations of power, (institutional, neoliberal, (neo)colo-

Middle East – Topics & Arguments # 14 –2020 ANTI/THESIS 32

Notes 4 For an overview of 6 Gender content and 9 For the project GeSt and 10 For insights into universities and academic gender-related research partners’ attempts and goals, (institutional, neoliberal, 1 My thanks to all the research freedom in Tunisia: and theory are dealt with see: www.gestproject.eu/ (neo)colonial) politics and participants for giving Mohsen el Khouni, not only in these two explicit about-project/relevance- knowledge productions, see insights, information, and Mouldi Guessoumi, and programs. Especially in of-the-project/. Additional also (!): Ferguson, Roderick comments on the master’s Mohamed-Salah Omri, sociology, philosophy, and partner organizations with A. The reorder of things, programs and Gender editors. University and literary studies, there are outreach and that offer university and its pedagogies Studies. Special and great Society within the Context of many teachers dealing with workshops in the master’s of minority difference. thanks to Amel Grami, Arab Revolutions and New Gender Studies, Feminist program at Sousse are The University of Minnesota Press, Boutheina Ben Hassine, Humanism. Rosa-Luxemburg- Sciences, or other gender- United Nations Women in 2012.; Monia Lachheb, and Naziha Stiftung Academic related research in Tunisia. Tunisia, the Canadian Forum Mbembe, Achille Joseph. Ardhaoui. I want to thank Cooperation, 2017.; Habib of Federations, the Center “Decolonizing the University: Habib Kazdaghli and Hazem Mellakh, editor. Liberté 7 For further information on of Arab Women for Training New Directions.” Arts Chikhaoui for background Académique et Charte LGBT*IQ and rights in Tunisia and Research (CAWTAR), the and Humanities in Higher information. Universitaire en Tunisie et see: Jelassi, Mohammed A. Bentley University in Boston, Education, vol. 15, no. 1, 2016, Ailleurs. Rosa-Luxemburg- Minoritized and discriminated and the CREDIF (Centre pp. 29-45; 2 Contact Prof. Dr. Amel Stiftung and the Association against. Law as factor of de Recherches, d’Études Gutiérrez-Rodríguez, Grami: grami2020amel@ Tunisienne de Défense des inequality. Heinrich Böll de Documentation et Encarnación, Kien Nghi Ha, gmail.com. For further Valeurs Universitaires, 2016. Stiftung Afrique du Nord, d’Information sur la Femme Jan Hutta, Emily Ngubia information on Grami see: 2018. in Tunis), according to Ben Kessé, Mike Laufenberg, and www.recht-als-kultur.de/de/ 5 The abbreviation LGBT Hassine (8). Lars Schmitt. “Rassismus, fellows/ehemalige-fellows/ (Lesbian Gay Bisexual Trans) 8 See also: Commission Klassenverhältnisse und grami/ is used here because the des libertés individuelles et Geschlecht an deutschen interviewees used it. To de l’égalité, abbreviation: Hochschulen, Ein runder 3 Contact Prof. Dr. read about recent forms COLIBE. For further Tisch, der aneckt.”Sub\ Boutheina Ben Hassine: of and work on LGBT*IQ information on the Tunisian urban. Zeitschrift für Kritische benhassineboutheina@ activism in Tunisia, I constitutional process and Stadtforschung, vol. 4, no. yahoo.fr recommend: Shukrallah, feminism from 2011 to 2014, 2/3, 2016, pp. 161-190.; Tarek. Democratization and see Alma Laiadhi, Alicia Smith, Linda Tuhiwai. those who were ‘left-behind’. Pastor y Camarasa, and Decolonizing Methodologies, An intersectional-materialist Marc Verdussen. Tunisia – Research and Indigenous approach towards analyzing Perspectives on the Tunisian Peoples. Zed Books, 2012.; LGBT*IQ struggles within Constitutional Process 2011- Restrepo, Paula. “Legitimation transformation processes in 2014. UCLouvain, 2018. of Knowledge, Epistemic post-revolutionary Tunisia. Justice and the Intercultural Rosa Luxemburg Foundation University: Towards an – North Africa Office, 2019. Epistemology of ‘Living Well’.” Postcolonial Studies, vol. 17, no. 2, 2014, pp. 140-154.

––›

Middle East – Topics & Arguments # 14 –2020 ANTI/THESIS 33

––› 11 For insights on the Works Cited Grami, Amel, and Woitynek, situation of Gender Studies Jamie. Personal Interview. and Feminist Science and Antonakis, Anna. 2019. associated conflicts in Vienna, In Transformation? see the following interview: Renegotiating Gender and Lachheb, Monia, and Kroisleitner, Oona, and State Feminism in Tunisia Woitynek, Jamie. Personal Traxler, Tanja. Interview with between 2011 and 2014, Interview. 2019. Birgit Sauer and Sushila Power, Positionalities and Mesquita. “Forscherinnen: the Public Sphere. Freie Maghreb-Post. “Tunesien Ich habe das Gefühl ich Universität Berlin, 2017. IWF Will Weitere Kredite bin in einem Dauerkampf.“ Freigeben.” Maghreb-Post, Der Standard. 8 Mar. Ardhaoui, Naziha, and 23 Apr. 2019, www.maghreb- 2015, www.derstandard. Woitynek, Jamie. Personal post.de/finanzen/tunesien- at/story/2000012455589/ Interview. 2019. iwf-will-weitere-kredite- forscherinnen-ich-habe-das- freigeben. Accessed 13 Apr. gefuehl-ich-bin-in-einem- Ben Abid, Mariem. “Tunisia 2020. dauerkampf. Accessed 09 and the IMF: A Beggar Apr. 2020. For insights on State and an Impoverished Okkez, Mohamed Samih B. the German case, see also: People.” Nawaat, 18 March “Professors Raise Red Flag Hark, Sabine, and Paula- 2013, www.nawaat.org/ against Marginalization Irene Villa, editors. Anti- portail/2013/03/18/tunisia- of Tunisia’s Public Genderismus, Sexualität und and-the-imf-a-beggar- Universities.” Nawaat, 19 Geschlecht als Schauplätze state-and-an-impoverished- Apr. 2019, www.nawaat. aktueller politischer people/. Accessed 13 Apr. org/portail/2019/04/19/ Auseinandersetzungen. 2020. professors-raise-red-flag- Transcript Verlag, 2015. against-marginalization-of- Ben Hassine, Boutheina, and -public-universities/. Woitynek, Jamie. Personal Accessed 09 Apr. 2020. Interview. 2019.

Chandoul, Jihen. “The IMF has Choked Tunisia. No Wonder the People are Protesting.” The Guardian, 17 Jan. 2018, www.theguardian. com/commentisfree/2018/ jan/17/imf-tunisia-people- (CC BY 4.0) rioting-2011-economic- reforms. Accessed 13 Apr. ISSN: 2196-629X 2020. https://doi.org/10.17192/ meta.2020.14.8273

Middle East – Topics & Arguments # 14 –2020