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Encyclopedia of and Information Sciences, Third Edition Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/book/10.1081/E-ELIS3 Holly Gardinier a , Sarah R. Canino b , Carl Rahkonen c a Honnold/Mudd Library, Libraries of The Claremont Colleges, Claremont, California, U.S.A. b Dickinson , Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, New York, U.S.A. c Harold S. Orendorff Music Library, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

Published online: 09 Dec 2009

To cite this entry: Holly Gardinier , Sarah R. Canino , Carl Rahkonen . Music Librarianship. In Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences, Third Edition. Taylor and Francis: New York, Published online: 09 Dec 2009; 3814-3826. To link to this chapter: http://dx.doi.org/10.1081/E-ELIS3-120043861

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Holly Gardinier Honnold/Mudd Library, Libraries of The Claremont Colleges, Claremont, California, U.S.A.

Sarah R. Canino Dickinson Music Library, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, New York, U.S.A.

Carl Rahkonen Harold S. Orendorff Music Library, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

Abstract This entry explores the major aspects of music librarianship beginning with a review of the core literature, types of music libraries, professional organizations, and music librarianship as a career. The general areas of acquisition, cataloging, classification, reference, and preservation are examined as they relate to the unique needs of music. Future challenges to the profession are summarized.

DEFINITION TYPES OF MUSIC LIBRARIES

Music librarianship is a specialization of librarianship that Academic Libraries involves the acquisition, cataloging, and preservation of music materials in audio, visual, print, and digital formats Academic music libraries primarily serve students, faculty, and the provision of instructional and reference services and visiting scholars. Collections are driven by the evolving to the users of these materials. curriculum of the institution and are important resources supporting its educational mission. Such collections tend to be interdisciplinary in scope and are augmented by musical LITERATURE of importance to the institution and the locale. Critical editions, study scores, sound and visual recordings, In 1893, James Duff Brown[1] wrote the first manual and monographs and periodicals on music-related topics describing the organization of a music library. Books and form the basis of these scholarly collections. Depending on Netherlands the curriculum, performing editions with parts are often Music– collections of essays about music librarianship offering an historical perspective include McColvin,[2] Bryant,[3] well-represented in the collection. McColvin and Reeves,[4] Redfern,[5,6] Jones,[7] and Academic music libraries employ music , fre- Turbet[8] written from the British point of view and quently with advanced degrees in music, to administer the Wallace,[9] Hill,[10] Bradley,[11] Mann,[12] Ochs,[13] and collection, develop and catalog it, provide instruction, and Downloaded by [University of Washington Libraries] at 16:28 18 April 2013 Cassaro[14] viewed from the American perspective. Addi- answer reference questions. The work of the music librar- tionally, Bradley[15] compiled a collection of seminal ians is usually supported by library and/or student assistants. articles published about music librarianship up until Academic music collections may be incorporated within 1973. Timely essays summarizing the state of the profes- a general or exist as a separate branch sion appeared in Notes, the official journal of the Music library. Often music collections were initiated in music Library Association, by Watanabe (1981),[16] by Davidson departments and later incorporated into the administrative (1993),[17] and by contributors in the field in a special structure of the institution’s academic library. millennial issue.[18] In American Music Librarianship: a Biographical and Historical Survey,[19] Bradley acknowl- Research Libraries edged the pioneers who built collections, devised classifi- cations, and developed cataloging codes. She later Research libraries are administered by an organization, documented the literature of the field in her exhaustive founder, or foundation. As a result, these collections may bibliography American Music Librarianship: a Research be more narrowly focused in accordance with the mission and Information Guide.[20] of the supporting body than their counterparts in academia.

Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences, Third Edition DOI: 10.1081/E-ELIS3-120043861 3814 Copyright # 2010 by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved. Music Librarianship 3815

Examples of collections may be found worldwide with an interest in the music of the country. worldwide in societies, foundations, museums, and church, Collections include scores, recordings, and biographical monastery, or other spiritual organizations, for example, and research materials. In addition to administration, col- the Moravian Music Foundation (the United States), the lection development, cataloging, and reference, Music International Library of African Music (South Africa), Information Centres are charged with promoting the mu- Internationale Stiftung Mozarteum Biblioteca Mozartiana sic of their country through various activities. Since 1939, (Austria), English Folk Dance and Song Society, Vaughan the American Music Center has served this purpose for the Williams Memorial Library (the United Kingdom), and United States. Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana (Italy). Staffing of these collections ranges widely. Research music libraries may National Libraries employ music librarians with advanced degrees or expertise in specific areas of music. However, small collections may National libraries are generally responsible for “acquiring, be administered by knowledgeable volunteers. cataloguing, and maintaining copies of the national biblio- graphic output and preparing the national bibliography.”[21] Conservatory Libraries These library collections combine characteristics of public and research libraries and Music Information Centres. Like Conservatory libraries, at institutions such as the Curtis public libraries, national libraries are funded by a govern- Institute of Music (the United States), Royal College ment and provide services to its citizens. However, national of Music (the United Kingdom), and Sibelius Academy music libraries are broader in their collection scope than (Finland), serve students, faculty, and visiting artists. Simi- most public libraries and may include scores, sound and lar to the academic library, their collections are driven visual recordings, and monographs and periodicals on by curricula; however, the emphasis is generally on per- music-related topics. Similar to Music Information Centres, formance and pedagogy. Performing editions with parts, they collect and promote the music of their country. Often orchestral excerpts, sound and visual recordings, and they are required by legislation to serve as a repository for monographs on performance issues are augmented with the copyrighting newly published music and many also set cat- basic resources found in academic libraries. Conservatory aloging and other policies for libraries in their country. libraries may also perform an archival role relating to the Music collections in national libraries are staffed by music institution or to artists of local interest. Conservatory music librarians. Some of the many important national libraries libraries hire music librarians to administer the collection, with substantial music collections include: the British develop and catalog it, provide access and bibliographic Library (the United Kingdom), Bibliothe`que Nationale de instruction, and answer reference questions. France (France), Bayerische Staatsbibliothek (Germany), Oestererreichische Nationalbibliothek (Austria), Biblioteka Public Libraries Narodowa (Poland), Rossiyskaya Gosudarstvennaya Biblio- teka (Russia), and the National Diet Library (Japan). Though music collections are shaped by the often considered a , the Library of Congress size and resources of the community they serve as well (the United States) was created to serve the members of as the significance of local historical music events. They Congress. are funded by local government and most contain some

music-related monographs and small popular music au- Performance Libraries Music–

dio/visual collections. However, large public library col- Netherlands lections such as those found in major cities are similar to The purpose of a performance library is to meet the Downloaded by [University of Washington Libraries] at 16:28 18 April 2013 research collections. While public libraries may maintain specialized needs of performers and performing organiza- archival collections of local music history, the primary tions. These library collections include few of the music aim of the library is to circulate materials and provide reference and sound and visual recordings found in other access to members of the community. Public libraries types of music libraries. In these libraries, the music with large music collections employ several music librar- is responsible for obtaining the music needed ians. In smaller public libraries, the tasks of collection for performance each season through purchase or rental, development, cataloging, and reference may fall to those organizing and maintaining parts acquired by the organi- librarians who have an interest in the subject. zation, and marking parts with directions for performance as required by the conductor of the work. Librarians from Music Information Centres many of these organizations are served by a professional society, the Major Orchestral Librarians Association Music Information Centres are national organizations (MOLA). that collect, document, and promote the music of the Because of its global lending policy and extensive supporting country. Services are provided to anyone holdings, the Edwin A. Fleisher Collection of Orchestral 3816 Music Librarianship

Music, at the Free Library of Philadelphia, is the world’s List: a “reference for performers seeking to expand their largest of orchestral performance material. new music repertoire.”[22] Communication is provided via IAMIC News on the IAMIC website. Like IAML, IAMIC’s Media and Broadcast Libraries annual conferences are held in different countries to allow equitable opportunities for attendance. Significant changes have taken place in the collections of radio and broadcasting station libraries. In the United MLA: Music Library Association (http://www. States, until recently, radio stations maintained large col- musiclibraryassoc.org) lections of physical recordings. With the rise of Internet radio stations, digitized collections are being amassed for Founded in 1931, MLA is a professional organization streaming. Many traditional stations are digitizing record- “devoted to music librarianship and all aspects of music ings to offer content via both Internet and terrestrial radio. materials in libraries.”[23] MLA’s over 2000 members are In Europe, radio broadcast libraries, such as the British primarily music librarians from the United States and Broadcasting Corporation Music Library, traditionally Canada; however, membership is open to all institutions provided scores for broadcast performances. Over time, and individuals, regardless of professional status, who some collections changed their focus as has Radio France, support the work of the association. MLA is composed of Documentation Musicale which originally provided committees, roundtables, and interest groups which work performance scores for its orchestra, Orchestre National. to further the goals of the association. Regional chapters It now acts as a national documentation center promot- support MLA on the local level. Communication is pro- ing contemporary music. In the past, Sveriges Radio moted through the listserv MLA-L, an online newsletter, Fo¨rvaltning, Musikbiblioteket commissioned works for and the organization’s quarterly journal, Notes. MLA radio and television performance, thus it contains auto- publications facilitate the work of music researchers and graph manuscripts of Swedish composers in addition to librarians and articulate the responsibilities and training other performance scores. of the music librarian. MLA holds a major annual confer- ence, hosted in a different area of North America, for information-sharing among members. PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS MOLA: Major Orchestral Librarians’ Association IAML: International Association of Music (http://www.mola-inc.org) Libraries, Archives, and Documentation Centres (http://www.iaml.info) Organized in 1983, MOLA is an international association which supports the work of librarians in professional per- Established in 1951, IAML provides an international fo- formance organizations by sharing resources and informa- rum for music libraries, archives, and documentation cen- tion related to the performance library arena. As of ters with an interest in the collection, preservation, access, January 2009, MOLA comprised 249 member organiza- and dissemination of musical sources. Open to individuals tions, representing over 400 individual librarians, and 18 Netherlands

Music– and institutions interested in the goals of the association, individual honorary members. Members exchange infor- this trilingual organization utilizes professional and na- mation through the association’s online discussion forum tional branches, subject commissions, committees, and and a quarterly newsletter, Marcato. MOLA publications working groups to accomplish its aims. Institutional and facilitate the work of the members and articulate the individual members number approximately 2200. Na- responsibilities and training of the orchestral librarian.

Downloaded by [University of Washington Libraries] at 16:28 18 April 2013 tional branches support IAML at the local (country) level. Annual meetings are hosted by MOLA members. Communication is facilitated by the IAML-L listserv and the journal of the organization, Fontes Artis Musicae, MOUG: Music OCLC Users Group (http://www. published in English, French, and German. IAML holds a musicoclcusers.org) major annual conference, hosted in a different country, to encourage member participation. In 1977, MOUG was formed as a task force of the Online Computer Library Center, Inc. (OCLC) to examine issues IAMIC: International Association of Music regarding OCLC’s implementation of the MARC (Machine- Information Centres (http://www.iamic.net) Readable Cataloging) music format for scores and sound recordings. From its early concentration on cataloging Since 1986, IAMIC has served as an international organi- issues, the group expanded its scope to encompass the use zation for the 41 Music Information Centres that make up of OCLC products in activities such as music acquisition its membership. IAMIC fosters the sharing of resources and reference. Communication is facilitated by the Music and collaborative projects to further the aims of the asso- OCLC Users Group Newsletter. Membership is open to ciation. Recent projects include the 2009 IAMIC Annual individuals and institutions that are interested in the goals Music Librarianship 3817

of MOUG and, as of January 2009, totaled 207 personal languages, especially German, is invaluable in working and 229 institutional members. Because there is much over- both with the music and the secondary literature. Knowl- lap in membership between MLA and MOUG, annual edge of current digital resources and applications is meetings are held together. expected, and practical experience in the profession is valued. An excellent way to gain experience for entry into ARSC: Association for Recorded Sound the profession is through an internship in a music library Collections (http://www.arsc-audio.org/index. as part of a library degree-related graduate program. html) The Music Library Association supports mentorship activities and its website[24] offers information about ARSC, founded in 1966, is of particular interest to music job requirements, a directory of library school offerings librarians since music libraries tend to have large collec- in music librarianship, and up-to-date details about career prospects. In April 2002, the MLA’s Library School tions of sound recordings. ARSC’s mission is to share [25] knowledge and education about recording preservation, Liaison Committee drafted a report outlining the core competencies of music librarians. Published in 2004, cataloging, history, and copyright law. The Association [26] comprises 1072 individual and institutional members. It Careers in Music Librarianship II offers a realistic publishes the ARSC Journal and a newsletter. Annual picture of the profession through essays by professionals conferences are held throughout the United States. in the field that describe their experiences as music librar- ians and their assessments of career path options. While small collections may employ only one music IASA: International Association of Sound and librarian, larger collections are better served with at least Audio Archives (http://www.iasa-web.org) one music subject specialist and a specialized music cataloger. Thus, career advancement may only be Established in 1969, IASA promotes international cooper- achieved through moving on to a larger institution or ation between libraries, archives, museums, and private taking on more varied responsibilities in the current job. collectors that preserve recorded sound and audiovisual Some music librarians find that managing a music library materials. As of January 2009, interest in the work of the provides excellent experience for advancement to library IASA is reflected in its 215 institutional and 180 individ- supervisory and administrative positions. On the other ual memberships. Members share expertise in digitization hand, large academic and public libraries that employ a and preserving sound in electronic formats. number of music librarians may offer opportunities for The association publishes the IASA Journal semi- advancement within their library organizations. annually, and also issues an electronic bulletin, and vari- ous technical reports. Annual conferences are held in locations around the world. DEVELOPING COLLECTIONS

Typically, music libraries contain books on music, audio CONSIDERING A CAREER IN MUSIC and visual recordings, music scores, and specialized ref- LIBRARIANSHIP erence tools, indexes, and periodicals. The large collec- tions of printed music and sound recordings make music

The ability to read musical notation coupled with a back- libraries unique. Many music library collections origi- Music–

ground in singing or playing a musical instrument and/or nally focused on Western classical music and have ex- Netherlands participating in a musical ensemble is essential for carrying panded their scope to include popular genres and world

Downloaded by [University of Washington Libraries] at 16:28 18 April 2013 out the responsibilities of a music librarian. For example, music. music catalogers must be able to read musical notation to Acquiring music materials is challenging because they determine the form of a piece and other identifying ele- are published in multiple manifestations and recorded in ments, such as key, used in descriptive cataloging; those different versions. In addition, the same work may be who purchase music and provide reference service must published under different titles in different languages, possess knowledge of musical notation to be able to select further complicating the issue. Traditional book vendors items for a collection and to answer questions that require rarely handle music scores so acquiring these materials score identification; and those who are in charge of binding requires working with specialized music vendors and pub- music must understand how scores and parts are used to lishers. Book vendors may handle recordings; however, make appropriate binding choices. obtaining foreign and specialized labels can be challeng- Besides a library master’s degree, music librarians ing and require the services of knowledgeable recording need a broad background in music including substantial vendors. Fling’s Library Acquisition of Music[27] presents undergraduate coursework. Often a second master’s de- a detailed examination of the music acquisition process gree in music is required for those preparing to assist and its inherent complexities. A Basic Music Library,[28] academic scholars. A reading knowledge of foreign now in its third edition, was written to identify what 3818 Music Librarianship

constitutes a music library core collection of scores and Some libraries collect octavo and sheet music. The recordings. term “octavo” originates from the size of the paper folded into eights and is the size commonly used in publishing choral music. Sheet music is printed on large unbound Scores sheets of paper and is the format commonly used for popular music. The late nineteenth and early twentieth Music librarians acquire scores in different manifestations centuries witnessed the heyday of sheet music publishing. for different purposes. As Krummel observed, “Musical Sheet music is of historical interest for its song texts and documents are physically distinctive for reasons which illustrative covers that document events and offer insights are essentially musical” (p. 327).[29] Scores are published into the popular culture of the period. in different formats to meet users’ needs. For example, in Unique sheet music collections in the public domain, the nineteenth century a market developed for scores to be such as the 19th-Century California Sheet Music Project,[30] used by concertgoers, who wanted scores to follow while have been digitized to make the collections available for listening. To be portable full scores were published in a online viewing. Duke University,[31] the University of reduced size that could easily slip into a pocket. Today, California at Los Angeles,[32] Johns Hopkins University,[33] these scores are referred to as miniature, pocket, or study and Indiana University[34] maintain their own sheet music scores and are often used by students in analyzing music. websites and also make their collections accessible through Likewise, the demand of musicians for scores to study the catalog of the Sheet Music Consortium. The Consor- and perform resulted in the publication of piano-vocal tium, hosted by the UCLA Program, works scores, also called vocal scores. Piano-vocal scores fea- to build an open collection of digitized sheet music using ture the orchestral music reduced or arranged for piano the Open Archives Initiative standards.[35] Their website while maintaining the original vocal parts. These types of facilitates searching sheet music collections from many scores can be used by vocalists to rehearse their parts institutions, including the Library of Congress, through a without requiring the full instrumental accompaniment. common interface. Those interested in performance practice seek histori- Like digital sheet music collections, access to electronic cal/critical editions of scores prepared from an in-depth music scores is a recent development. Begun as the Varia- examination of all known primary sources. These scores tions Project, Variations2[36] for scores brought Indiana present the most authoritative versions of a musical work University to the forefront of digitizing music. The Sibley as scholars in the field have determined. A critical report, Music Library at Eastman[37] and the Eda Kuhn Loeb Music detailing the editorial practices, identifying the autograph Library at Harvard[38] are examples of other libraries that and/or copyist’s manuscripts consulted, and outlining have digitized scores in the public domain and offer access research issues, often accompanies each volume. Music through their library websites. Collaborative websites of librarians may spend a good portion of their acquisition content-related library holdings, such as CFEO: Chopin’s budget on standing orders to obtain these scholarly criti- First Editions Online,[39] are also new developments. In cal editions of music. 2007, the Internationale Stiftung Mozarteum, Salzburg, in Scholars want to consult a composer’s manuscripts, cooperation with the Packard Humanities Institute, Los

Netherlands sketches, and the earliest printed editions of music to

Music– Altos, California, completed a groundbreaking project to determine a composer’s intentions. When original materi- digitize the Neue Mozart Ausgabe (W. A. Mozart’s com- als are unavailable facsimiles are sought. Researchers also plete works).[40] seek access to modern scholarly editions that reflect cur- In the commercial arena, Alexander Street Press has rent scholarship. been a pioneer in licensing access to copyrighted music Performers who use a music library may range in skill Downloaded by [University of Washington Libraries] at 16:28 18 April 2013 (Boosey & Hawkes Study Scores) through their elec- from beginners to professionals. For the less-skilled ama- tronic database Classical Scores Library. CD Sheet Mu- teurs simplified editions, in which the composition has sic, also available through ebrary, sells access to digitized been reduced to the basic thematic line and an easy ac- older editions of scores in the public domain. Individual companiment, are requested. Skilled musicians look for scores can be purchased and downloaded through a vari- scores reproduced with sensitivity to the intentions of ety of vendors such as Digital E-Print Delivery from the composer that do not dictate performance practice J. W. Pepper. through editorial accretions. Modern publishers use the term Urtext, “original text,” for performing editions that attempt to distinguish editorial markings from those of the Audio and Visual Recordings composer. Editorial practices used in producing Urtext editions vary by publisher. Performing editions may in- When Thomas Edison patented his phonograph in 1877, the clude indications of fingering, bowing, phrasing, tempo, way we listen to music changed forever. Before that time and articulation markings not found in the composer’s we could only hear music in live performance, but after the manuscript. invention of sound recording, music could be captured and Music Librarianship 3819

listened to at any time and in almost any place. This inven- magnetic surface. After World War II, magnetic tape tion made recordings of music a commodity that could be continued to be developed in the United States, especially collected. Sound recordings eventually became just as im- by the 3M Corporation, the makers of Scotch Tape. Their portant as scores to music libraries. In practice, music magnetic tape was made of newly invented plastics and librarians strive to coordinate the audio and score titles offered a more permanent medium. Magnetic tape won over collected to facilitate study and performance. Variant per- wire in the competing magnetic recording formats. In the formances of the same work, sometimes in different instru- early 1960s, the Phillips Corporation of the Netherlands mentation, are collected to allow users the opportunity to developed the cassette tape which eventually became the hear different interpretations. most widely used recording medium in the world.[41,42] Edison’s phonograph recorded on fragile wax cylin- Magnetic tape also made possible the recording of ders. The machine was purely mechanical, not needing video. Video recorders and players featured a rotating electricity, and it was quite portable. This made it ideal steel head that produced a recording of much higher qual- for use in ethnographic fieldwork. The earliest cylinders ity, equivalent to a much faster tape speed. The home of music recorded in this fashion were made by Jesse recording video market also had two competing formats, Walter Fewkes and date from the 1880s. Cylinders had Betamax from Sony and VHS from JVC. VHS eventually several disadvantages. First, the maximum recording time became the standard format for home video recording, on each cylinder was around three minutes; therefore, to even though it was bulkier and not as technically advanced record even a movement of a work could take multiple as Betamax, partially because VHS tapes could record cylinders. They were better suited to recording popular up to six hours of video, compared to only one hour for songs and ethnographic examples rather than classical Betamax. This longer time made possible the recording of music. Second, cylinders were a fragile medium. They feature-length films on a single VHS cassette. were made of wax or similar materials and were prone to Music libraries did not fully embrace collecting mag- breaking, sensitive to high temperatures, and wore down netic recordings, except for VHS tapes, and continued to as they were being played. For these reasons, early music collect LPs, since they offered higher quality audio and a libraries generally did not establish large cylinder col- permanent medium that could not be recorded over. Reel- lections. Today most of these collections are found in to-reel tapes, which were more cumbersome to use than ethnographic sound archives, like the American Folklife LPs, were found in professional applications such as stu- Center at the Library of Congress, the Archives of Tradi- dio recording, concert, or ethnographic field recording, tional Music at Indiana University, Bloomington, and the and by audiophiles. Cassette tapes, and to a lesser extent Phonogramm-Archiv in Berlin. 8-track tapes, were collected primarily by public libraries In 1887, Emil Berliner invented and patented the gram- for their circulating audio collections. ophone that recorded on discs. These were less bulky and In the late 1970s, a century after Edison’s first patent, easier to store than cylinders, making sound recording digital recording was commercially developed. The com- collection more practical for libraries. Although early pact disc (CD) was invented jointly by Phillips and Sony. commercial 78 rpm discs played for about three minutes, They avoided the major mistake made with the cassette the same as a cylinder recording, record players were tape in that CDs would be a permanent recorded medium, developed where one could stack discs and play them one like LPs. During the final two decades of the twentieth after another in sequence. This facilitated listening to century, the CD replaced the LP as the default pre-

lengthy classical works. For these reasons discs triumphed recorded music medium. The video equivalent of the CD Music–

over cylinders in the war of competing formats. is the digital video disc (DVD). Like the CD, the DVD Netherlands Many technological advances were applied to disc was initially a playback only medium, but personal com-

Downloaded by [University of Washington Libraries] at 16:28 18 April 2013 recordings. These included making discs from new mate- puters eventually made both the CD and DVD into re- rials that were less heavy, bulky and fragile, using electri- cordable mediums. The February 19, 2008 announcement cal microphones for recording and amplifiers for playback by Toshiba that it would no longer develop, market, or (adapted from radio), and an electric lathing process. manufacture high definition DVD players and recorders, Eventually discs featured microgrooves. Slowing the marked the triumph of Blu-ray over High Definition DVD speed to 33 1/3 rpm increased the recording time to more in the fierce competition of formats for the next genera- than twenty minutes per side. They were called LPs (Long tion of video recordings. Playing recordings) and they soon featured significantly Like audio recordings, commercial vendors are begin- improved sound quality with high fidelity and stereo. The ning to license access to streaming video content. LP disc became the most widely collected sound record- Alexander Street Press markets the Opera in Video and ing medium by libraries. Dance in Video databases that feature performances and In the 1930s, magnetic sound recording was developed video clips of interviews with artists. in Germany. Two competing formats emerged: wire and No one could have anticipated the coming of the Inter- magnetic tape. Early magnetic tape was backed with paper net revolution. This began with the development of the and was a fragile medium which could tear or lose its Personal Computer (PC) in the 1970s, and as millions of 3820 Music Librarianship

these computers became networked, with ever increasing through song title, composer, subject, and the words of transmission and computing speeds, the Internet came into the song text. its own in the 1990s. The Internet made possible the easy Important to music research are indexes to the critical recording and sharing of digital audio files. The Napster editions of composers’ complete works and to the histori- website gained notoriety for sharing audio files. Individuals cal monuments of music. For many years Charles[47] could find literally millions of sound recordings, both legal Heyer[48] served as the definitive sources for this infor- and illegal under copyright laws, and download them onto mation. Subsequently, Hill and Stephens[49] compiled an their own personal computers. The Recording Industry As- updated bibliography of the historical sets and series, sociation of America (RIAA) sued Napster and won. Now collected editions, and monuments of music whose spe- Napster works with the recording industry and charges a cific content is being entered into an electronic database modest fee for each digital file. version and hosted by a number of aggregators. Recorded sound is progressing to the digital file. One Music scholars use the Re´pertoire International des can listen to music on computers and on portable devices, Sources Musicale, The International Inventory of Musical such as the iPod. Libraries have adapted to this revolution Sources (RISM), to locate music manuscripts and early by subscribing to digital listening services, such as Napster, printed music, works on music theory, and libretti held in Rhapsody, Classical Music Library and Smithsonian libraries, archives, monasteries, schools, and private col- Global Sound from Alexander Street Press, DRAM from lections. Only portions of RISM are available via elec- the Anthology of Recorded Music, Inc., and Naxos Music tronic access, these being Series A/II: Music Manuscripts Library from the Naxos Digital Services Ltd. These listen- After 1600 and the U. S. Libretto Database.[50] ing services feature hundreds of thousands of digital tracks The Internet has become a major resource for music of music, far beyond the ability of most music libraries reference information.[51] Large collections of music- to provide by purchasing physical recordings. Libraries related materials have been digitized and organized by indi- subscribe annually for a fee which allows their patrons viduals, organizations, and institutions, such as the music access, but not the downloading of files. Most libraries are collections of the Library of Congress’ Performing Arts engaged in determining the appropriate balance between Reading Room.[52] Websites enable musicians, scholars, ownership and access for their users and continue to pur- organizations, and libraries to promote their works and chase CDs based on the needs of their institution. offer contact information and/or access to their collections.

Reference Tools Indexes and Abstracts

The basic print bibliographies of music reference sources The basic indexes/abstracts to music periodical literature are Duckles,[43] Marco,[44] Brockman,[45] and Foreman.[46] are: The Music Index Online, The International Index to Beginning in 2001, with Grove Music Online (now part of Music Periodicals (IIMP), and Re´pertoire International de Oxford Music Online), publishers started to offer electronic Litte´rature Musicale (RILM).RILM, “the first automated access to some core music reference titles such as the abstract journal in the humanities,”[53] features abstracts in Harvard Dictionary of Music and Baker’s Biographical English and, most recently, in the language of publication Netherlands

Music– Dictionary of Musicians. for articles, festschriften (collections of celebratory essays), Thematic catalogs offer unique access to library col- dissertations, and reviews in 140 languages. Although vary- lections. They authenticate a musical work by identifying ing in coverage, journal databases such as Journal Storage: it through its opening and/or major musical themes given the Scholarly Journal (JSTOR) and Project Muse in musical notation, referred to as incipits. Thematic cat- provide a form of indexing through searchable full-text

Downloaded by [University of Washington Libraries] at 16:28 18 April 2013 alogs also distinguish works by key, opus, and thematic access to runs of music journals. catalog number and provide information about the com- The Retrospective Index to Music Periodicals, 1800– position’s publication history, variant editions, and rele- 1950 (RIPM), indexes runs of music periodicals published vant bibliographic literature. before 1950 from around the world. Index coverage is Other unique music reference tools include repertoire intended to dovetail with RILM.[54] This index is available guides and graded lists, discographies, and song indexes. in print, CD-ROM, and electronic formats. The RIPM Musicians consult repertoire guides and graded lists in Online Archive of Music Periodicals provides full-text search of new works to perform. These sources include access to the journals indexed in RIPM. information about the musical characteristics of a compo- sition and its performance difficulties, instrumentation, publisher, and performance timing. Discographies are CATALOGING bibliographies of sound recordings that offer information about a particular musician’s recordings or document the Music catalogers follow the same rules Anglo-American recorded evolution of musical forms and genres. Song Cataloging Rules (AACR 2 rev.) and use the same tools, for indexes provide access to large songbook collections example Machine Readable Cataloging (MARC) Records Music Librarianship 3821

and Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) as other publication, music has been commonly published in col- catalogers; however, music has specialized provisions for lections and anthologies. These anthologies need generic bibliographic description and access. These specialized pro- uniform titles to identify and group together collections, visions and music cataloging guidelines are detailed in usually under a composer’s name. Thus, music cataloging books written by Smiraglia[55] and Weitz.[56–58] In 2006, recognizes three types of uniform titles: Distinctive titles, Smiraglia published a bibliography of literature relating to Form titles, and Collective titles. Distinctive titles are music cataloging.[59] unique titles, given by the composer, in the original lan- Music cataloging practices are geared towards collec- guage, for example Debussy’s Prelude to the Afternoon of tions of Western classical music. This music exists in writ- a Faun ¼ [Pre´lude a` l’apre`s-midi d’un faune]. Form titles ten form, either printed or in manuscript. It could be a score, are used for “generic” works such as sonatas, symphonies, showing all the parts of an ensemble displayed vertically, or and songs. They follow a specific structure: [Form, instru- a part showing the music performed by one member of an mentation, number, key], for example Beethoven’s Pasto- ensemble. Music libraries traditionally collect scores and ral Symphony ¼ [Symphonies, no. 6, op. 68, F major]. parts up to nine parts. If a work has ten or more parts, such Collective titles are used for collections and anthologies as a band, orchestral, or wind ensemble piece, it is usu- of music, for example Bach, Johann Sebastian. Neue Aus- ally housed in a separate performance ensemble library. gabe sa¨mtlicher Werke ¼ [Works]. Girsberger’s Manual for the Performance Library[60] pro- Library catalogs that display uniform titles alphabeti- vides guidance in how to organize ensemble libraries. cally under the composer’s name allow users to see all The composer has served as the primary point of ac- manifestations of a work listed together. Electronic cata- cess in music cataloging. This assumption dates from the logs that allow linking to an item with the same uniform mid-nineteenth century when cataloging rules were first title are valuable tools to collocate, identify, and locate being developed.[61] Establishing the title of a piece of a specific piece of music. Music library users benefit by music has always been problematic because of the various being aware of the way uniform titles are used to organize languages used by publishers and composers, and because music. For detailed information about music uniform there are many generic forms in Western classical music, titles consult Koth.[64] such as sonatas, concertos, and symphonies, with many pieces identified only by these generic titles. Thus, Music Subject Headings uniform titles become essential in music cataloging as a way to standardize variant titles and titles of generic Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) for music forms. Also subject headings and in part, music classifica- are unique because they fulfill two functions: to retrieve tion systems largely rest on these standard musical forms. books about music and to retrieve the actual music itself. With the advent of musical sound recordings, the same The headings used to find books about music are true sub- cataloging conventions were applied. ject headings. Those used to retrieve music could more Sheet music is “musical notation printed on sheets of properly be called form headings. Terms describing musical paper that remain unattached and unbound at the time of forms, such as sonatas, concertos, and symphonies, may be sale” (p. 1).[62] For years, music catalogers did not catalog used in both types of music headings, those for finding sheet music because of its popular and ephemeral nature, information about a form, as well finding compositions in and because there were no cataloging guidelines for sheet that form. Generally, if the term is in the plural, it retrieves

music. But as large sheet music collections began to be the music itself. If it is in the singular, it retrieves books Music–

preserved and made available, cataloging became neces- about that subject as a musical form. For example, the Netherlands sary. A working group of the Music Library Association subject heading “Concertos” will retrieve scores and record-

Downloaded by [University of Washington Libraries] at 16:28 18 April 2013 developed cataloging guidelines for sheet music.[62] ings of concertos, while “Concerto” will retrieve books about the concerto. This works for most musical forms; Music Uniform Titles however, one exception is “Songs.” There is no singular subject heading “Song” for books about this musical form. Uniform titles are more widely used in music cataloging The heading “Songs–History and criticism” is used. than in any other cataloging context. Uniform titles make All the music subject headings from the LCSH (to it possible to find a composition listed in one place, no 1997) have been gathered in a single volume. For further matter its language, form, or physical arrangement. Music study, this work includes an excellent seventy-five page is published in various languages, so there frequently introduction by Young about the workings of music sub- needs to be a single uniform title that draws together ject headings.[65] (collocates) the same musical work from various publish- ers. Also, music is frequently composed in a generic form. The Future of Music Cataloging Uniform titles are needed to distinguish a particular ge- neric piece from others of the same form by the same Cataloging is at the very beginning of a new age. As composer. Finally, since the very earliest time of music international committees attempted to update the AACR2, 3822 Music Librarianship

they found that the traditional way of cataloging was less of Musical Compositions: A Decimal-Symbol System,[74] functional in the Internet environment. They began creat- published in 1938, Dickinson recognized that not one ing a new standard for cataloging called the RDA (Re- system could serve each library type equally. The result source Description and Access), marking a fundamental is a system that can be modified to conform to different change in cataloging practices. types of music libraries and the needs of their users. The The MARC record has been at the center of cataloging Dickinson classification system was used by a number of for more than 30 years and may be approaching the end of music libraries in the northeastern United States. How- its life. As cataloging migrates to web-based standards ever, because the Dickinson classification utilizes special such as Dublin Core and MODS (Metadata Object De- music symbols, many libraries have adopted classification scription Schema), cataloging elements will retain their that are more compatible with integrated library systems. semantic value, the meaning of their controlled vocabu- For audio collections, libraries may choose not to clas- lary, but they may lose their syntactic value, which comes sify recordings but to organize them in accession order. from the precise order in which these terms are arranged. This arrangement offers the most economical use of space The many thousands of MARC records created in the because room is not left to interfile new items. Some twentieth century will still form the core of data for catalo- music libraries elect to use the record label and label ging records into the future, regardless their format. number as a way to organize recordings. Both arrange- Knowledge of music cataloging practices will continue to ments have the benefit of avoiding the decision of where help library users find the music they seek. to classify a disc when it includes works of different genres by different composers. If recordings are classified libraries often adapt LCC or CLASSIFICATIONS DDC. Some music libraries use the Alpha-Numeric System for Classification of Sound Recordings (ANSCR)[75,76] Today most academic libraries in the United States use intended to facilitate browsing in public libraries. ANSCR the Library of Congress Classification (LCC). The “M arranges recordings in a hierarchy of subject, composer or Schedule” for music,[66] was devised by Oscar Sonneck subcategory, title, and performer’s name. in 1902 to meet the needs of an existing collection, the Library of Congress. Since its inception, LCC has been amended to accommodate popular music, world music, PRESERVATION and other new areas of music research. Smiraglia’s Shelflisting Music[67] provides guidance in how to con- Music libraries will continue to have LP and CD collec- struct LCC call numbers. tions, as well as collections of recorded magnetic tape in Conceived as a way to organize all knowledge, the various formats. The challenge in keeping these collec- Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) was drafted by tions valid and useful is twofold: preservation and access. Melvil Dewey in 1876. Adopted by public, research, and An LP is a great medium for preservation; even discs some academic libraries the DDC is the most used classi- 60 years old or older will play well if not worn, warped, fication globally.[68] Inherent problems in DDC were its or scratched. However, challenges remain of maintaining Netherlands

Music– inability to adapt to new musical forms and genres and its working playback equipment and obtaining replacement lack of a provision to separate music scores from music parts. Magnetic tape formats are becoming obsolete and literature. Some libraries addressed this problem by add- finding working playback machines is becoming difficult. ing a prefix “M” for music scores before the Dewey class For these reasons, many libraries are digitizing their ana- number while others elected to reclassify their collections log collections for purposes of preservation and access.

Downloaded by [University of Washington Libraries] at 16:28 18 April 2013 to LCC. The revision of “780 Music” of Dewey (DDC20) Preservation needs to be considered even for digital attempted to resolve these problems by creating a faceted formats. The oldest CDs are now nearly 30 years old. They system allowing scores to be segregated from music liter- can be subject to oxidation and damage from wear and ature. It also added classification numbers for folk and tear. Digital media require migration to newer digital for- popular music and modeled the classification of musical mats to keep them useful. Sound recording archivists instruments on the wider encompassing Sachs–Hornbostel held a conference at the Library of Congress in 2001, system which distinguishes instruments by how sound is which took into consideration problems of access, preser- produced.[69] vation, and intellectual property for folk heritage sound Over the years, a number of music classification recording collections.[77] Most recently, Indiana University systems were formulated as examined by Krummel,[70] and Harvard University published audio preservation stan- Elliker,[71] McKnight,[72] and Bradley.[73] For example, a dards[78] based on their tests of new technology. classification specifically for music scores was devised For print collections, attention must be taken to pro- by George Sherman Dickinson, Professor of Music, and cess materials for long-term use. Since music is used in the first music librarian at Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, performance, it must be bound to lay flat on a music NY (USA). In his classification system, The Classification stand. Special binding provisions are needed for parts, Music Librarianship 3823

comb bindings, and nonstandard sized items. Carli’s of as a collection of well laid-out and illustrated scholarly Binding & Care of Printed Music[79] presents a detailed articles written by experts. To find specific information, examination of the issues of paper conservation and bind- readers need to use the detailed indexes. Other specialized ing and offers how-to information for in-house conserva- reference works are cited in annotated bibliographies by tion steps. Schuursma[83] and Post.[84] Subject access to world music presents special problems. LCSH are designed for use primarily with Western classical ETHNIC AND WORLD MUSIC music. A basic tenet of these headings is that they tend to use genre or form of a composition as the initial entry point. Music libraries have traditionally collected materials in This becomes a problem with world music, because it tends Western classical music, but ethnic and world music have to scatter headings of music from a specific geographic become common in collections over the past three dec- region throughout the catalog. Examples of LCSH for- ades. In 1994, MLA published a technical report examin- Japanese music include: “Ballads, Japanese,” “Buddhist ing world music in libraries.[80] The term “world music” hymns, Japanese,” “Folk Songs, Japanese,” “Hymns, is a popular current alternative for such terms as primi- Japanese,” and “Songs, Japanese.” tive, non-Western, ethnic, and folk music. Its broadest Another tenet of LCSH is that they use only the most definition is simply all types of music from around the specific heading that fits and typically do not add more world. In this context the definition expands beyond the general headings. For example, Japanese koto music purely popular idiom to include all styles of music with would receive the subject heading “Koto music” and not ethnic or foreign elements.[81] “Music–Japan.” If this music is in a specific form, such as With the growth of worldwide systems of commu- a sonata, it would be cataloged under “Sonatas (Koto).” nication and commerce, librarians will feel increasing Patrons need to know details about the music in order to demands for materials characterized as world music. find the specific subject heading. Reference questions pertaining to world music have be- Libraries with large collections of world music have come more numerous in recent years, as college and pub- tended to use the Murdock’s Outline of World Cultures[85] lic school curricula have emphasized cultural diversity to augment subject access to their collections. Additional and interest in globalization. Music education majors information about subject access to world music materials now look for examples of ethnic music to teach in the may be found in Kaufman[86] and in Pierce.[87] classroom. Public librarians face ever greater numbers of patrons seeking music of their ethnic heritage. The techniques used to handle Western classical music FUTURE CHALLENGES do not always easily apply to world music. Certain basic assumptions are made about Western classical music: that Music, as a humanities discipline, has been slow to enter it exists in a written form and can be identified in an the digital environment. While journals were the earliest historical context from written sources; that the composer format to be digitized in other fields, music journals are serves as the primary point of access; that uniform titles relatively recent inclusions in JSTOR and Project Muse; can be created according to what is found in written however, other music formats are much further behind. sources; and that subject access and classification rest on Projects for digitizing musical scores are uneven in cov-

standard forms. World music is less likely to exist in a erage and not fully developed. The physical practicalities Music–

written form, since it may be passed on by aural tradition. of using digital scores for performance have yet to be suc- Netherlands The composer may be unknown, thus the performer, in- cessfully addressed. Currently, some databases of copy-

Downloaded by [University of Washington Libraries] at 16:28 18 April 2013 formant, or even the collector may have to serve as pri- righted music permit access to scores by allowing users mary points of access. Music in aural traditions may vary to pay per item download. Others allow users to view with each performer and even with each performance. scores for study purposes but not to perform from the The title of a work may exist in variant forms and may digitized versions. Digital audio content from commercial not be found in any written source. Finally, world music databases is broadening, but is still representative of only frequently exists in forms and genres that cannot be iden- particular recording labels or specialized subject areas. tified in written sources, thus subject access and classifi- Alarmingly, lacking are provisions for perpetual access cation may require special provisions. to the content of these digital audio and music resources. Many music reference tools also address world music; In addition to physical hurdles to overcome, in general, however, there are also specialized sources. One of the non-book materials are plagued with much more complex best is the 10-volume Garland Encyclopedia of World limitations imposed by copyright law than are books. Music[82] which is also available in electronic format. Because music materials are not in step with other Each volume covers an area of the world. This work is disciplines, music libraries have been slower to feel the not an encyclopedia in the traditional sense, where one problems and challenges which face general libraries could look up a specific term. Rather, it should be thought in the first decade of the new millennium, and music 3824 Music Librarianship

librarians are only beginning to realize these changes to allow users to view editorial practices, typography, and in their daily work. In the area of page layout.[89] questions of access vs. ownership are further complicated While the idea of librarians as teachers is gaining because not as many music-related items are yet available acceptance in all disciplines, students especially benefit electronically. Music publishers tend to be small busi- from help in evaluating music resources and effectively nesses and are often reluctant to fund the development of finding music materials in the largely book-oriented new electronic resources. library online catalogs. The expanding interdisciplinary Aside from digitization, music-related materials them- scope of music research brings new patrons who need selves are changing. For example, the field of music study to familiarize themselves with the different procedures, has expanded in new directions. It is increasingly interdis- equipment, and classifications found in music libraries. ciplinary, focusing on cultural, ethnic, racial, and gender Blotner observed greater need for instruction to address issues, and requiring new reference tools and resources. the growing number of databases.[90] Users seek help in The future of sound recording looks very much like the selecting the appropriate database to consult, in formulat- past. The issue of retention of older formats and their ing search strategies, and in evaluating search results. playback equipment while acquiring new formats con- Recognizing this need, in 2004 MLA published Music tinues to be a challenge. The history of sound recording .[91] Physical barriers that are inevita- has been characterized by competing formats, and we still ble with separate music library facilities or collections are have competing formats today. Digital files can be in a reduced through electronic access to portions of the col- variety of formats such as WMV, RealAudio, MP3 and lection or to a music librarian by email, chat, blogs, and AAC. There is absolutely no guarantee that today’s audio social networking tools. file will play on a computer even 5 years from now, Space issues are increasingly a problem for many older let alone into the foreseeable future. All digital file sound libraries and music libraries are no exception. As patrons recordings, just like other computer media, will have to be look to accessing audio music and course reserves from migrated to newer formats as they are developed and their computers, academic libraries are using space for- become the standard for that time. merly devoted to on-site listening areas to meet other In the digital age, academic music institutions are needs. Computer work areas, group study spaces, and expected to provide course reserve listening assignments classrooms are taking their place. in digitized form. This new service requires acquisition Digitization of reference tools and primary resources and training in the use of software and hardware, beyond offer an opportunity to improve reference service and the simple scanners needed by their counterparts in other foster communication with a broader range of users. The disciplines. future of music librarianship requires that music librarians, The Indiana University Digital Library Program pro- who best know the field of music and its users, advocate poses to create Variations3, a digital music library system, for and participate in the design of music reference tools, modeled after Indiana’s highly successfully electronic library systems, and digital resources that advance music Variations music library, which can be deployed at other scholarship and satisfy the needs of those who study, per- academic libraries. In support of instruction and learning, form, and enjoy music. Netherlands

Music– the system will enable institutions to digitize and provide online access to recordings and scanned scores for use [88] with annotation and analysis tools. REFERENCES Historically, music libraries have been somewhat au- tonomous from general collections because of their many 1. Brown, J.D. A Guide to the Formation of a Music Library; Downloaded by [University of Washington Libraries] at 16:28 18 April 2013 nontraditional needs. Integrated library systems provide Library Association Series, No. 4; Simpkin, Marshall, a benefit for increased collaboration with colleagues Hamilton, Kent & Co.: London, U.K., 1893. in other disciplines but also a downside. With integrated 2. McColvin, L.R. Music Libraries: Their Organisation library systems the special needs of music materials and Contents, with a Bibliography of Music and Musical often take a backseat to the general needs of book mate- Literature; Grafton: London, U.K., 1937–38; 2 Vols. rials. Music libraries are finding themselves pressured 3. Bryant, E.T. Music Librarianship: A Practical Guide, 2nd to standardize procedures and to abandon specialized Ed.; with the assistance of Guy Marco; Scarecrow: classifications. Metuchen, NJ, 1985. However, new technology can offer new opportunities. 4. McColvin, L.R.; Reeves, H. Music Libraries, Including a Comprehensive Bibliography of Music Literature and a It is hoped that new digital resources will offer a wider Select Bibliography of Music Scores Published Since 1957; range of access points tailored to musicians’ needs such Completely rewritten, revised, and extended by Jack Dove; as song text, date of composition, exact instrumentation, A. Deutsch: London, U.K., 1965; 2 Vols. edition, and type of score. Especially useful would be 5. Redfern, B.L. Organizing Music in Libraries: Selected sources that display for recordings liner notes and for Papers of the Music Library Association, Presented at Its scores the first page of music, if not the entire composition, 1942 Meeting; Philosophical Library: New York, 1966. Music Librarianship 3825

6. Redfern, B.L. Organising Music in Libraries, 2nd Ed.; C. 31. http://library.duke.edu/music/sheetmusic/collections.html Bingley: London, U.K., 1978–1979; 2 Vols. (accessed June 14, 2009). 7. Jones, M. Music Librarianship; Clive Bingley: London, 32. http://digital.library.ucla.edu/apam (accessed June 16, U.K., 1979. 2008). 8. Turbet, R., Ed. Music Librarianship in the United Kingdom: 33. http://levysheetmusic.mse.jhu.edu (accessed January 14, Fifty Years of the United Kingdom Branch of the Interna- 2008). tional Association of Music Libraries, Archives, and Docu- 34. http://webappl.dlib.indiana.edu/inharmony/welcome.do mentation Centres; Ashgate: Aldershot, U.K., 2003. (accessed June 14, 2009). 9. Wallace, R., Ed. The Care and Treatment of Music in 35. http://digital.library.ucla.edu/sheetmusic (accessed June a Library; American Library Association Committee on 16, 2009). 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