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kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 39

Period. Mineral. (2010), Special Issue, 39-58 doi: 10.2451/2010Pm0020 http://go.to/permin

An International Journal of PerIodIco di MIneralogIa MINERALOGY, CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, GEOCHEMISTRY, established in 1930 ORE DEPOSITS, PETROLOGY, VOLCANOLOGY and applied topics on Environment , Archeometry and Cultural Heritage

The source of stone building materials from the archaeological area and its surroundings

Pia KastEnmEiEr 1, G iovanni Di maio 2, G iusEPPina BalassonE 3*, m aria Boni 3, m iChaEl JoaChimsKi 4 and niCola monDillo 3

1Deutsches archäologisches institut, Podbielski allee 69-71, D-14195 Berlin, Germany 2Geomed srl, via l. sicignano 41, i-84018 (na), 3Dipartimento di scienze della terra, università di napoli “Federico ii” via mezzocannone 8, i-80134 napoli, italy 4Geozentrum nordbayern, university of Erlangen-nürnberg, schlossgarten 5, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany

Submitted, September 2010 - Accepted, November 2010

aBstraCt - this work is part of a large-scale dei paleo-ambienti della Piana del risalenti al - survey carried out by the Deutsches archäologisches l’olocene e delle provenienze dei materiali litoidi institut (Dai) of Berlin, which aim to locate the impiegati in vari siti archeologici (, nuceria, sources of raw building materials employed , longola, etc.). si riportano i dati preliminari throughout various archaeological sites on the sarno di una ricerca multidisciplinare sui diversi materiali river plain (Pompeii, nuceria, stabiae, longola, etc.) da costruzione (rocce vulcaniche e sedimentarie car - while also reconstructing the paleo-environments of bonatiche) utilizzati nell’antica Pompei e in siti ar - this area during the olocene. the present paper reports cheologici vicini. le caratteristiche geologiche, mi - the preliminary results of a multidisciplinary project neralogiche, petrografiche e geochimiche di tali on the ancient stones used for construction in the town materiali sono confrontate con simili affioramenti, of Pompeii and other archaeological areas nearby (6 th zone di possibile provenienza. i dati fin qui raccolti century B. C.- a.D.79). the building stones used in indicano che i materiali da costruzione dei siti studiati, these areas (volcanic and sedimentary carbonate databili tra il vi sec. a.C. e il 79 d.C., provengono da rocks) have been analysed for their geological, varie località poste nella stessa Piana del sarno o da mineralogical, petrographic and geochemical features zone immediatamente limitrofe. and have been compared to rocks cropping out on the sarno river plain - the possible provenances for these KEy worDs : Sarno River plain; Ancient Pompeii; building material. our data indicate that most of the paleo-environment; building stones; volcanic rocks; stones employed for the edifices in Pompeii and other travertine; limestone, provenances. related archaeological sites between 6 th century B.C. and a.D. 79 originate from local quarries, mainly introDuCtion situated in several localities on the sarno river plain itself and in surrounding areas. ancient Pompeii and its surroundings, located on the sarno river plain ( region, riassunto - il presente lavoro fa parte di una più southern italy), is one of the most famous and ampia ricerca condotta dall’istituto archeologico Ger - manico di Berlino (Dai), finalizzato alla ricostruzione complex areas of archaeological investigation in * Corresponding author, E-mail: [email protected] kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 40

40 P. K astEnmEiEr , G. D i maio , G. B alassonE , m. B oni , m. J oaChimsKi and n. m onDillo

the world, partly due - at least for Pompeii - to a localities on the sarno river plain, where a pre- uniquely favorable state of preservation. though 79 a.D. exploitation for building material (for many studies have been devoted over time to both volcanic and carbonate rocks) is evident. various archaeological aspects, large-scale and the evidence is both visual (by far of still- detailed studies aimed at characterizing existing historically active quarries), confined to mineralogy, petrography and isotope geo - old documents, and even in association with chemistry of the stones used for construction are traditional tell-tale names (i.e. “ Tartarito ” and or still lacking. likewise, no ancient quarries for “Scafati Bagni ”), where some travertines (the so- these building materials have been identified called “ Sarno limestone “) have been detected until now, mainly due to widespread (De spagnolis Conticello, 1994; Di vito et al. , anthropogenic modifications of the whole area. 1998). the first descriptions of stones building materials - and the related petrographic GEoloGiCal outlinE anD samPlinG ProCEDurE nomenclature widely used over time by archaeologists (i.e. “ pappamonte ”, “ cruma ”, the area investigated is located on the sarno “Sarno limestone” ) - date back to the late river plain (Cinque and russo, 1986), and is nineteenth century (i.e. Fouqué, 1886; nissen, surrounded by the Quaternary somma-vesuvius 1887 ). other studies on Pompeian artefacts or volcano (rolandi et al ., 1993; lirer et al ., 2005; building materials are owed to nicotera (1950), santacroce et al ., 2005), the lattari mountain Kawamoto and tatsumi (1992), lazzarini and ridge of the peninsula (Bonardi et al., Cancelliere (1999), lorenzoni et al. (2001) and 1988) and the sarno mountains (Franza, 2005 Buffone et al. (1999, 2003). and reference therein), which both consist of this work is part of a large-scale survey carbonates mainly of mesozoic age (Fig. 1). carried out by the Deutsches archäologisches these carbonates also form the basement of the institut (Dai) of Berlin, with the purposes of whole region at 2.5-3 km depth b.s.l. reconstructing the paleo-environments of the For somma-vesuvius, the oldest period of sarno river plain during the olocene and, volcanic activity is dated at 39-19 ka, with lava consequently, locating the provenances of raw flow extrusions and low-energy explosive materials employed throughout various eruptions, building up the somma stratovolcano archaeological sites in this area (seiler, 2006, (Pomici di base , 18.3 ka). For the last 19 ka 2008; Kastenmeier and seiler, 2007; vogel and somma-vesuvius erupted 50 km 3 of magma with märker, 2010). the present paper reports the differing compositions, during three magmatic preliminary results of a multidisciplinary project periods: the first with K-basalt (shoshonite) to on the ancient building stones used in the town K-latite lavas and K-latite to K-trachyte of Pompeii and other archaeological areas pyroclastic deposits (19-10 ka); the second with nearby (6 th century B.C.- a.D. 79), with the phonotephrite to phonolite magmas (10 ka - a.D. scope of defining the provenance of the material 79); the third with leucititic phonotephrite to used for ancient constructions in the city of phonolitic magmas (a.D. 79 - 1944) (Di renzo Pompeii and the possible related trade routes et al. , 2007). in this area at least seven different (Balassone et al. , 2009). to reach our results, we tephra deposits are recognized as being due to have characterized the geological and somma-vesuvius eruptive activity, b ut other mineralogical features of various stones found in pyroclastic deposits are also attributed to the the archaeological sites, and have compared volcanic activities of the Phlegraean Fields them to rock specimens sampled in different (Campi Flegrei) district, northeast of . the kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 41

The source of stone building materials from the Pompeii archaeological area and its surroundings 41

Fig. 1 - map (DEm) of the sarno river plain and the .

CF caldera results from two main collapses and in the city of napoli area. related to the Campanian ignimbrite (Ci, 39 ka; the ridge of the lattari mountains is Pappalardo et al. , 1999, 2008) and the comprised in the stratigraphic unit Monti neapolitan yellow tuff (nyt, 15 ka; Deino et Picentini - Monti Lattari and is characterized by al. , 2004) - both powerful phlegraean eruptions. limestones and dolostones ranging from upper the Ci deposits covered about 30,000 km 2 and triassic to upper Cretaceous , as well as miocene occur extensively in this area (rolandi et al. , flysch and terrigenous sediments which range in 2003), whereas the nyt covered about 1000 age from miocene to Pliocene (Bonardi et al. , km 2 and mostly outcrops in CF ( bay) 1988). kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 42

42 P. K astEnmEiEr , G. D i maio , G. B alassonE , m. B oni , m. J oaChimsKi and n. m onDillo

the sarno mountains consist of limestones, explosive activity of mount somma-vesuvius, dolomitic limestones, limestones with requieniae were varyingly distributed among the lattari and and hippurites, and conglomeratic marly sarno carbonate reliefs, according to the limestones with orbitolinae, spanning from lower dispersion axes of each eruption, reaching a total to upper Cretaceous and belonging to the thickness ranging from 4 to 7 metres on the Alburno-Cervati stratigraphic unit (D’argenio, lattari mountains and values ranging around 2 1973). metres on the sarno mountains (De vita and the ash-fall deposits, mainly derived from the Celico, 2006). after rolandi et al. (2000), in this

taBlE 1 Distinction of rock type, functional categories, date of construction and number of sampled collected from fifty archaeological monuments.

rock type functional categories date of construction number of samples

town walls - public buildings - public functio - 6th century b.C. - lava nal architecture - temples - houses (Pompeii) 15 1st century a.D. villae rusticae ()

town walls - public buildings - public functio - nal architecture - temples - houses (Pompeii) public buildings (sarno) grey tuff public functional architecture (Palma Campa - 6th - 1 st century b.C. 15 nia) tombs (nocera) villae rusticae (terzigno)

public functional architecture - temples - 1st century b.C. - yellow tuff tombs (Pompeii) 4 1st century a.D. villa rustica () "pappamonte" town walls - houses (Pompeii) 6th century b.C. 2 town walls - houses - workshops (Pompeii) public buildings (sarno) public functional architecture travertine 5th - 1 st century b.C. 24 () tombs (nocera) villae rusticae (terzigno) luxury villas (stabiae)

public buildings - temples (Pompeii) public buildings (sarno) limestone 7th -1 st century b.C. 10 tombs (nocera, sarno) villae rusticae (terzigno) kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 43

The source of stone building materials from the Pompeii archaeological area and its surroundings 43

area the older tephra correspond to the so-called characteristics of sixteen volcanic specimens Complesso Piroclastico Antico (CPa), formed sampled from manufacts (13 samples from by Ci and ischia island deposits, whereas archaeological monuments) and outcrops (3 younger tephra correspond to the Complesso samples from different lava outcrops distributed Piroclastico Recente (CPr) which mainly over the Pompeian town hill) selected for the comprises, as aforementioned, seven volcanic present study. taBlE 4 shows locations, deposits from somma-vesuvius eruptions, i.e. sampling sites, ages and petrographic Codola (25 ka), Pomici di base-Sarno (18.3 ka), characteristics of representative twenty-eight Mercato- (8 ka), Avellino (3.8 ka), travertine and limestone samples, coming both Pompeii (a.D. 79), Pollena (a.D. 473) and a.D. from manufacts and drill cores. 1631 (rolandi et al ., 2003). locally, in several zones of the plain outcrops analytiCal mEthoDs of travertines and travertine-like rocks occur; Pleistocene to recent fossil encrustations of the volcanic samples have been first described travertines also outcrop in various localities in macroscopically, and then o ptical microscopy the nearby province (sele river valley), (om) has been used for their petrographic e.g. at Pontecagnano, Paestum, Faiano description in thin sections. the identification of (anzalone et al ., 2007). various phases of the mineral assemblages has For this research, an extensive sampling work been determined by means of combined om and has led to the collection of about ninety samples, X-ray diffraction (XrD, s eifert–GE mZvi which come from different archaeological diffractometer (Federico ii naples university ). monuments from within the Pompeii whole rock major and selected trace elements excavations, and also from the towns of Pompei, of the lava samples have been analyzed on Boscoreale, nuceria, Palma Campania, san powder pellets by a Philips Pw1400 XrF marzano, sarno, stabiae and terzigno. we have spectrometer at CisaG (Centro interdipartimen - also sampled in nine different locations, where tale di servizio per analisi Geomineralogiche of still partly outcropping rock types may have been Federico ii naples university). the data have quarried for building materials during out time- been then reduced following the method frame of the 6 th century b.C. to the 1 st century described by melluso et al. (1997). Precision is a.D. in , the Pompeii better than 3% for major elements, 5% for Zn, excavations, sarno, scafati and the sr, Zr and Ba and better than 10% for the other specimens originate from outcrops, whereas in trace elements. the different lava typologies the Pompei-mariconda and the scafati-Bagni have been classified on a chemical basis localities we drilled in october 2008. the drill following the iuGs criteria, with the use of the cores were necessary, because portions of the total alkali-silica (tas) and K 2o vs. na 2o travertines are unable to be seen on the diagrams ( le maitre et al., 1989; middlemost, geological maps, having been covered by the 1975; le Bas and streckeisen, 1991) . volcanic products of the a.D. 79 and following Quantitative chemical analyses of glass eruptions and paleosoils. fractions on selected pyroclastic samples have in taBlE 1 we report a selection of seventy been performed at CisaG, on a sEm JEol- samples from a total of fifty monuments, with Jsm 5310 instrument, equipped with a link the different lithological cathegories, the main EDs and using n atural and synthetic standards . functions of the original building and the operating conditions were 15kv accelerating supposed age. taBlE 2 reports the main voltage and 10µm spot size. the data have been kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 44

44 P. K astEnmEiEr , G. D i maio , G. B alassonE , m. B oni , m. J oaChimsKi and n. m onDillo

taBlE 2 Sample number, sampling location and specific site, date of construction of the building and petrographic features of the igneous rocks.

date of sample # location sampling site rock type rock composition construction

1 Pompeii house vii 6, 3.4. 2nd century b.C. (?) soft lava shoshonite town walls near to Porta 4 Pompeii 2nd - 1 st century b.C. lava shoshonite (opus incertum )

6 Pompeii town walls tower X 2nd - 1 st century b.C. lava shoshonite lava outcrop 11 Pompeii soft lava shoshonite insula meridionalis 12 Pompeii Doric temple ( cella ) 6th century b.C. soft lava phonotephrite lava outcrop 14 Pompeii lava shoshonite insula i 2, 2-4 15 Pompeii house vii 14, 14 3rd century b.C. (?) soft lava shoshonite temple of venus 17 Pompeii 1st century a.D. lava trachyte (blocks in front of the north wall) 18 Pompeii temple of Jupiter 2nd century b.C. soft lava shoshonite

21 Pompeii road pavement 1st century b.C. lava latite/tephriphonolite

27 Pompeii public fountain 1st century b.C. lava latite/tephriphonolite

31 Pompeii amphitheatre 1st century b.C. lava shoshonite lava outcrop 48 Pompeii soft lava shoshonite villa dei misteri 71 terzigno villa rustica, Cava ranieri 1st century b.C. lava shoshonite

72 terzigno villa rustica, Cava ranieri 1st century b.C. lava shoshonite

73 terzigno villa rustica, Cava ranieri 1st century b.C. lava latite

processed by the software link an10000 and Erlangen-nürnberg university. Carbonate powders inCa version 4.08 (oxford instrument, 2006). were collected with a dental drill and made to react the carbonate (mainly travertine) samples have with 100% phosphoric acid at 75°C using a Kiel been firstly examined manually, and from 20 of iii carbonate preparation line connected online to them thin sections have been made for a thermo Fisher 252 mass spectrometer. all petrographic examination. stable isotopes (o-C) values are reported in permil relative to v-PDB by geochemical analysis has been performed on 38 assigning a δ13 C value of +1.95‰ and a δ18 o value samples at the stable isotope laboratory of of -2.20‰ to nBs19. reproducibility was kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 45

The source of stone building materials from the Pompeii archaeological area and its surroundings 45 1 3 3 7 4 2 4 0 8 3 9 9 2 9 4 1 1 6 2 6 8 8 4 1 7 4 1 8 3 3 2 4 8 1 1 3 3 2 5 3 9 9 8 4 5 ...... 3 0 2 2 1 0 6 7 7 0 0 0 7 3 3 1 1 2 5 1 4 2 1 9 3 2 4 5 4 3 1 7 4 3 5 9 4 7 8 4 7 6 9 5 7 5 4 1 2 8 3 3 2 8 6 8 3 1 3 6 4 4 1 1 7 2 ...... 1 8 7 3 2 6 0 6 0 0 7 4 8 2 0 1 5 1 1 0 5 4 6 3 3 9 9 0 0 8 6 0 9 4 5 3 4 1 1 6 4 1 9 0 1 9 8 2 3 0 5 7 3 1 7 1 2 0 1 4 9 7 2 0 ...... 2 9 1 1 2 5 0 8 0 8 2 5 0 0 2 6 2 5 1 8 4 9 5 1 3 4 8 8 6 7 0 3 7 8 7 4 4 0 1 9 6 2 4 9 2 1 6 3 7 2 3 9 0 0 9 3 0 3 5 2 6 2 1 3 6 ...... 9 1 1 2 1 0 5 0 1 9 5 0 4 2 0 0 2 5 1 1 2 5 3 7 5 4 1 4 5 6 3 3 9 2 5 1 2 7 3 3 0 5 6 1 5 8 3 6 9 4 2 9 1 9 6 7 4 8 3 4 8 0 0 2 2 1 ...... 2 8 1 1 0 9 2 5 0 0 1 0 7 7 4 . 2 s 5 1 e l p 1 7 5 9 4 2 1 2 3 3 9 6 4 8 3 9 5 9 6 0 1 3 3 m 1 8 2 8 8 6 7 4 4 8 6 6 3 9 1 1 2 1 6 4 4 8 8 a ...... s 7 2 2 2

0 2 0 6 6 3 8 2 6 0 0 2 a 5 1 v a l

f 1 5 7 2 1 8 8 8 9 4 0 5 5 7 3 8 6 5 5 9 9 5 8 o

1 2 6 0 3 9 8 8 4 0 5 7 6 8 5 1 9 2 1 3 2 3 9 ...... n 2 8 1 2 0 7 0 2 0 6 3 8 2 6 0 o 2 i 1 5 t i s o p 9 6 4 2 3 7 2 6 6 0 8 5 7 7 7 2 6 8 8 4 4 8 2 8 9 1 8 6 5 6 5 0 3 1 6 1 2 9 9 4 9 1 3 1 8 0 m ...... 3 9 1 1 1 o 0 7 0 4 9 0 0 1 6 3 4 c 2

5 1 ) m p - 7 6 8 4 1 0 1 1 9 7 0 1 8 2 8 3 7 4 8 5 0 1 p 3 ( 1 1 1 6 8 6 7 0 4 6 6 7 9 7 0 5 3 6 3 3

...... t E 3 1 3 3 1 0 0 6 0 4 0 2 0 1 4 7 n l e 1 6 B a m e t l 4 8 0 4 9 9 0 8 1 8 4 8 7 5 9 9 2 5 7 4 8 3 9 e

7 8 9 1 9 4 5 0 5 8 8 1 5 1 2 5 3 1 3 0 5 0 3 e ...... 2 7 1 1 9 c 0 7 0 5 0 0 0 1 5 2 5 1 a 1 5 1 r t

d e 9 4 0 8 1 2 6 6 3 8 4 1 2 1 7 2 7 3 7 3 3 2 2 t c 4 1 4 8 2 7 8 3 1 4 3 9 3 6 1 6 1 2 9 9 1 3 4 ...... e 1 8 1 1 2 l 6 0 1 0 7 0 4 9 2 5 0 e 2 1 5 s

d n 0 1 3 7 2 8 6 5 7 0 2 4 3 4 4 5 5 2 9 8 0 0 5 a

1 2 9 9 4 9 1 4 1 1 1 4 1 4 7 4 7 2 2 6 7 8 5 ) ...... 1 3 1 3 9 6 0 7 4 8 3 1 0 5 0 0 % 2 t 1 5 w (

r 2 8 7 8 6 1 1 7 0 4 1 9 5 2 0 3 2 9 2 9 4 3 1 o j 1 4 1 0 5 6 7 3 7 0 3 0 4 1 7 5 5 9 8 3 1 6 5 ...... a 2 8 1 0 1 1 5 0 0 5 8 0 0 0 0 5 2 2 M 5 1 1 4 5 1 2 2 9 7 3 7 9 8 3 6 4 8 1 2 4 0 9 0 8 5 4 2 8 4 9 9 3 1 1 8 4 6 6 0 7 6 9 2 3 4 1 8 ...... 8 1 1 2 0 6 7 0 4 8 3 0 1 5 0 2 1 5 5 2 1 6 6 5 7 5 7 9 4 2 6 9 4 9 1 8 6 4 6 7 6 6 2 2 2 5 5 8 2 5 7 8 0 6 1 8 2 9 6 5 4 1 7 ...... t 1 2 9 1 1 i 0 9 1 8 0 3 5 5 3 0 0 2 1 4 1 m i l

n 0 8 9 2 7 9 9 1 9 7 9 1 4 6 0 2 7 1 5 7 7 2 9 o 9 8 2 6 5 4 4 6 8 5 0 1 2 7 6 2 6 3 1 1 2 3 i ...... t 0 2 8 1 1 5 0 0 0 0 5 8 0 0 3 4 c 2 5 1 1 e t e d

t #

w o 3 e 5 2 t 2 o i l o o o 3 l i o r o r o r a e b a b 2 c o o o e 2 p 2 n g o a y i i a 2 o l s Z n s C l B C r n b 2 l

K C s t P m m m n e : a

a F - s kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 46

46 P. K astEnmEiEr , G. D i maio , G. B alassonE , m. B oni , m. J oaChimsKi and n. m onDillo

taBlE 4 Sample number, location, monument type and age, and petrographic features of the travertine specimens.

sample # location sampling site date of construction main petrographic features

24 Pompeii Casa del Fauno (vi 12, 1-8) 2nd century B.C. n.a. pisoidal fabric, fragments of gastropodes and concretions 26 Pompeii Casa di orfeo (vi 14, 18-19) 5th century B.C. around plant remnants, traces of some fine volcanic detritus alteration by volcanic(?) fluids, porosity with new 28 Pompeii town walls, Porta vesuvio 4th - 3 rd century B.C. minerals and Fe(hydr)oxides have been deposited well crystallized travertine, with evidences of fresh-water 34 sarno theatre 2nd century B.C. radial cements and cyanobacteria nocera crystals of carbonate minerals (probable aragonite), plant 40 tomb, Pizzone necropolis 1st century B.C. superiore filaments and cavities. crystals of carbonate minerals, porosity filled by fine 44 sarno modern surface near tartarito - detrital sediment (probably volcanic) Palma fibro-radial fabric, cyanobacterial(?) remnants and plants, 50 aqueduct near torricelle 1st century B.C. Campania ome detritus of volcanic and glassy material 54 Boscoreale villa regina 1st century B.C. travertine with a pelletoidal structure 57 san marzano tomb, protohistoric necropolis 7th century B.C. n.a. well-diagenized travertine with concretions and 59 Pompeii Casa del Chirurgo (vi 1, 9.10.23) 3rd - 2 nd century B.C. neoformed crystals in the porosity 60 Pompeii house vi 11, 11. 12 3rd century B.C. n.a. 61 Pompeii house vi 11, 6. 13 3rd century B.C. n.a. travertine with micropeloids some thin-shelled 62 Pompeii town walls near to Porta vesuvio 5th -4 th century B.C. gastropods and non-carbonate sediments (ashes?) as cavity filling Casa del Granduca michele 63 Pompeii 3rd century B.C. n.a. (vi 5, 5.6.21) travertine with a cavernous fabric and cavities left from 64 Pompeii house i 5, 1. 2 3rd century B.C. dissolution of plant material. locally volcanic fragments 65 Pompeii house i 3, 25 4th century B.C. n.a. 66 Pompeii house i 8, 8. 9 4th century B.C. n.a. travertine with fine sediment material and cavities Casa di amarantus (i 9, 11. 12), derived from the dissolution of plants material and/or 67 Pompeii 4th century B.C. atrium ostracods; filaments encrusted with Ca-carbonate and cyanobacterial concentrations Casa di amarantus (i 9, 11. 12), 68 Pompeii 4th century B.C. n.a. facade 70 Pompeii caupona ii 3, 7-9 3rd - 2 nd century B.C. n.a. 74 terzigno villa rustica, Cava ranieri 1st century B.C. n.a. travertine with peloidal fabric and cavities derived from 76 terzigno villa rustica, Cava ranieri 1st century B.C. plants and/or ostracods 77 terzigno villa rustica, Cava ranieri 1st century B.C. n.a. mariconda, drill core Dai 24 travertine (calcareous tufa) with micropellets and 83 Pompei - (-7.90 m) cyanobacteria(?) and with thin-shelled gastropods industrial area, drill core Dai 21 poorly cemented travertine (calcareous tufa) with 84 scafati - (-7.80 m) micropellets (ostracods? insect remains?) industrial area, drill core Dai 21 85 scafati - n.a. (-8.90 m) fine calcareous sediment, well cemented with fragments 86 scafati Bagni, drill core Dai 22 (-4.50 m) - of carbonate crusts, cyanobacterial remnants, radial cements and peloids 87 scafati Bagni, drill core Dai 22 (-5.50 m) - similar to #84, traces of possible diatomaee

n.a. = not analyzed in thin section by om kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 47

The source of stone building materials from the Pompeii archaeological area and its surroundings 47

Fig. 2 - outcrop (a), building stone (b) and related micrographs of representative soft lava samples from Pompeii. sample 11 outcrop can be considered the provenance site for sample 1 and other similar building stones (see text).

checked by replicate analyses of laboratory lavas (the “soft lava” of taBlE 2). Examples of standards and was better than ± 0.05 ‰ (1 σ) for compact and soft lava are shown in Fig. 2 and 3, both carbon and oxygen isotopes. respectively. the chemical analyses of the studied lava volCaniC BuilDinG stonEs specimens are presented in taBlE 3. they are characterized by potassic to high potassic affinity Combined hand-specimen examination and (Fig.4a). Plotted in the tas diagram, the optical microscopy study of lava samples have majority of the lavas correspond compositionally led to the distinction between two main to basaltic trachyandesites with leucite lithologies, i.e. compact lavas (simply indicated (shoshonites), whereas some samples plot as “lava” in taBlE 2) and scoriaceous, glass-rich between the phonotephrite and phonolite fields kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 48

48 P. K astEnmEiEr , G. D i maio , G. B alassonE , m. B oni , m. J oaChimsKi and n. m onDillo

Fig. 3 - outcrop (a), artefact (b) and related micrographs of representative compact lava samples from Pompeii site. sample 14 outcrop can be considered the stone material provenance for sample 6 and other similar building stones (see text).

(Fig. 4b). in particular, samples 1, 4, 6, 12, 15, (taBlE 2) - shows a trachytic compostion, and 18, 21, 27 and 31 fall very close to samples 11 plots fairly far away from the majority of the (soft lava) and 14 (compact lava), these last two Pompeiian lava samples. corresponding to in situ rock specimens. most of with regards to the pyroclastic samples ( taBlE the lavas plot in the field of 19-10 ka of somma- 1), a complete petrographic-geochemical vesuvius activity after santacroce et al. (2005), characterization is still in progress. hand and also fit very well with the somma lavas field specimen and microscopic observations and reported by solone (2006). samples 48 (i.e. a preliminary EDs analyses of the three shoshsonite from a lava outcrop close to villa dei lithologies, i.e. grey and yellow tuffs and the so- misteri) and 73 (i.e. a latite from a villa rustica called pappamonte , indicate that the first two of terzigno) sligtly differ from the others. tephra types can be similar to Ci and CF sample 17 - the Pompeiian temple of venus deposits, respectively. Pappamonte corresponds kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 49

The source of stone building materials from the Pompeii archaeological area and its surroundings 49

Fig. 4 - (a) Classification diagram (tas) of lava samples: specimens no. 1 to 31 are from building stones of the Pompeii monuments, no. 71, 72 and 73 are from terzigno edifices, whereas samples 11, 12 and 48 are lava outcrops at Pompeii (see also taBlE 2). Dashed black line fields are related to somma-vesuvius rocks of different ages after santacroce et al. (2005);

dotted grey line field is related to somma lavas reported by solone (2006 and reference therein). (b) K 2o vs na 2o diagram (middelmost, 1975), with the grey dotted line field of somma lavas after solone (2006) (symbols as in a). kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 50

50 P. K astEnmEiEr , G. D i maio , G. B alassonE , m. B oni , m. J oaChimsKi and n. m onDillo

to a welded, lithic tuff rich in scoriae, lava and and with strong evidence of diagenetic intrusive rocks fragments. Geological evidence crystallization. Both were called Sarno limestone in situ seems to indicate that this lithology can in the old (Fouqué, 1886) and new (santoro, belong to grey-greenish pyroclastic deposits 2007) literature. today, the names “travertine” younger than Ci, currently outcropping at a very and “calcareous tufa” are applied to a wide range low depth, in the south-western part of the of freshwater fluvial and lacustrine carbonates. Pompeii archaeological site. Fig. 5 shows the most people use the term calcareous tufa for the representative building stones of the pyroclastic softer varieties, which would be unsuitable for type at Pompeii. building. the need to distinguish between travertines, tufas and deposits such as calcretes travErtinE anD limEstonE BuilDinG stonEs and stromatolites has been recognized for many years and a number of schemes have been the main petrographic characteristics of proposed, but there is still much confusion on the selected travertine samples in thin section are nomenclature ( Pentecost and viles, 1994) . the given in taBlE 4. the majority of the building distinction between travertine and calcareous material samples taken into account for this tufa is based mainly on the degree of study consist both of “calcareous tufa”, soft and cementation, which is neither easy to define in brittle, and of real hard “travertines” - less porous terms of its limits nor its measure (Flügel, 1982;

Fig. 5 - some building stone of pyroclastic type at Pompeii: (a) grey tuff, (b) yellow tuff and (c) “ pappamonte ”. kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 51

The source of stone building materials from the Pompeii archaeological area and its surroundings 51

Folk et al. , 1985). a distinction has also been tufa and travertine samples from Pompeii and the made on a genetic basis: only those derived from other archaeological areas nearby. oxygen hot waters in former volcanic areas should be isotope ratios are between -6.01 and -7.29‰. called travertines (Bagni di tivoli type), while Carbon isotopic ratios vary between -2.69 and - all the others are calcareous tufas. this kind of 0.22‰, with two samples bearing more negative classification, though, requires an isotopic values. oxygen isotope ratios of the travertines geochemical characterization (i.e. stable from sarno, san marzano and nuceria are isotopes. Deines, 1980; anzalone et al. , 2007). slightly heavier (around -5.50‰), and the carbon the petrographical observation of the isotopes are generally strongly positive (>1‰). travertine samples from the sarno river plain the travertine samples from the drill cores has enabled the recognition of several (Pompei-mariconda, scafati-Bagni and scafati- sedimentary structures, as well as fossil remains industrial area) show isotope values with δ13 C (plants and ostracods), micritic peloids and and δ18 o varying between -0.74 and -1.69‰ and several types of cyanobacterial (microbic) -6.03 and - 6.32‰, respectively. the carbon and structures. it has been possible to distinguish at oxygen isotope ratios of the Pompeii travertines least two travertine facies, related to different and those of surrounding areas are comparable diagenetic stages, which seem to have been used with those of the drill core samples, thus in distinct parts of the buildings at the suggesting that the travertines occurring in the archaeological sites. the two facies are a porous subsurface of the scafati and mariconda areas travertine or calcareous tufa, and a lithoid may have been used as building material for travertine, which is possibly the only one that many of the archaeological buildings in the can keep the traditional name (travertine). ancient town of Pompeii and nearby suburban stable isotopic analysis was enlarged to thirty- villas. it must be observed, though, that the eight specimens of carbonate building materials lithotypes sampled in the drill cores are more (travertine and some limestone), sampled in comparable to the soft and brittle calcareous tufa, several areas of the archaeological area of than to real travertines. Pompeii (Fig. 6a), as well as in some villae rusticae of terzigno and Boscoreale and tombs DisCussion anD ConClusions of nuceria and san marzano. to compare the possible provenances of the materials used in the mineralogical and petrographic data indicate archaeological sites, we have analyzed five that most of the shoshonite samples used as specimens coming from shallow cores (depth - building stones could derive from the same lavas 4.50 to -8.90, samples 83, 84, 85, 86 and 87 of that constitute the bedrock of ancient Pompeii taBlE 4), drilled during 2009 in the southern (Figg. 2 and 3). indeed, for at least some of the suburbs of Pompeii, at the localities of Pompei- millstones from Pompeii Buffone et al. (2003) mariconda, scafati-industrial site, and scafati have already hypothesized a provenance from -Bagni. an example of specimen from a drill the basaltic trachyandesites cropping out in the core is given in Fig. 6b. taBlE 5 lists the stable Pompeian area itself, or at isotope data resulting from the analyses of the (naples). Even if the composition of these lavas archaeological and drill core samples, and in Fig. fits well with the literature’s data on the somma 7 the same data together with the results of the lavas, it has to be considered that according to analysis of some carbonate rocks are organized Cinque and irollo (2004), on the basis of in a δ18 o - δ13 C diagram. a relatively small range geomorphological and volcano-stratigraphic in δ13 C and δ18 o characterizes all the calcareous evidence, Pompeii does not lie on lavas directly kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 52

52 P. K astEnmEiEr , G. D i maio , G. B alassonE , m. B oni , m. J oaChimsKi and n. m onDillo

originated from the somma volcano, but is than 19 ka to olocene: this age should also be located on a hill representing the relic of an assigned to the majority of the lava samples of independent volcanic edifice. Consequently, the this study. only for the trachyte sample 17, a shoshonitic lavas used for construction at quite different provenance could be hypothesized Pompeii could derive from an in situ volcano, (ischia island?). compositionally similar to somma deposits. Before we discuss the possible origin of the after Cinque and irollo (2004), this edifice travertines, which are the most abundant would have an age ranging from slightly older lithology among those sampled for this study, we

Fig. 6 - travertine samples and micrographs at polarizing microscope of samples 26 from building stones at Pompeii site (a) and 87 from a drill core at scafati-Bagni (b). kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 53

The source of stone building materials from the Pompeii archaeological area and its surroundings 53

taBlE 5 Stable isotope data of travertine and compact limestone samples.

sample # rock type δ13 cV-PdB std.dev. δ18 oV-PdB std.dev. 24 travertine -1.67 0.02 -6.22 0.01 25 compact limestone 0.61 0.01 1.85 0.01 26 travertine -0.87 0.01 -6.13 0.03 28 travertine -1.10 0.01 -6.01 0.03 32 compact limestone 0.09 0.01 -0.89 0.01 34 travertine 2.80 0.01 -5.89 0.01 36 compact limestone 0.30 0.01 -2.41 0.03 38 compact limestone 0.09 0.01 -0.80 0.01 40 travertine 4.08 0.01 -5.82 0.02 42 compact limestone 2.05 0.01 -4.17 0.01 44 travertine 4.89 0.01 -6.01 0.01 49 compact limestone -2.66 0.02 -3.57 0.02 50 travertine-encrustations -7.88 0.01 -5.59 0.02 53 compact limestone -2.69 0.01 -1.21 0.01 54 travertine -0.52 0.41 -6.52 0.03 57 travertine -3.50 0.01 -4.17 0.03 58 compact limestone 3.77 0.02 -2.86 0.02 59 travertine -2.69 0.01 -7.29 0.02 60 travertine -0.68 0.01 -6.59 0.02 61 travertine -1.02 0.02 -6.23 0.01 62 travertine -1.72 0.01 -6.25 0.03 63 travertine -0.22 0.01 -6.59 0.03 64 travertine -1.74 0.01 -6.29 0.03 65 travertine -0.92 0.01 -6.93 0.01 66 travertine -1.06 0.02 -6.12 0.03 67 travertine -2.45 0.01 -6.63 0.02 68 travertine -0.60 0.01 -6.92 0.01 70 travertine -0.97 0.02 -6.67 0.01 74 travertine -1.14 0.01 -6.90 0.01 75 compact limestone 0.01 0.01 -3.00 0.01 76 travertine -1.50 0.01 -6.47 0.01 77 travertine 4.70 0.01 -6.03 0.01 78 compact limestone -14.25 0.02 -4.98 0.02 83 travertine -0.74 0.01 -6.28 0.01 84 travertine -1.36 0.01 -6.09 0.02 85 travertine -1.40 0.01 -6.32 0.02 86 travertine -1.69 0.01 -6.03 0.02 87 travertine -1.69 0.01 -6.27 0.01 kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 54

54 P. K astEnmEiEr , G. D i maio , G. B alassonE , m. B oni , m. J oaChimsKi and n. m onDillo

Fig. 7 - δ13 C vs δ18 o isotopic diagram of the archaeological and drill core travertine samples.

should review some recent ideas on the genesis here, the high concentrations of carbon dioxide of this rock type (Pentecost and viles, 1994). are capable of dissolving large volumes of From the geochemical point of view, two carbonate. rate of degassing and deposition classes of travertines have been described: from these hot waters tends to be rapid, a) meteogene travertines, providing distinctive fabrics and a stable carbon b) thermogene travertines. isotope composition usually spanning the 13 in the former, the carrier Co 2 originates in the interval -4 to +8‰. this C enrichment often soil and in the epigean atmosphere forming reflects the heavier carbon released from deposits primarily in limestone terrains. these decomposing marine limestones, but significant

travertines are the most widely distributed and contributions from mantle Co 2 can result in the often display characteristic fabrics. their stable deposition of travertines depleted in 13 C. these carbon isotope compositions range mainly from travertines have a more restricted distribution, about 0 to -11‰, reflecting the depleted 13 C of being located primarily in regions of recent

soil Co 2. volcanic activity. the most typical examples are the second group consists of thermal the classical travertines of the tivoli region, near travertines. waters responsible for these deposits rome. it is important to distinguish between the

are normally hot and the carrier Co 2 results above-mentioned travertines, and those formed primarily from the interaction between hot rocks from hot meteogene waters resulting from deep

and Co 2- rich fluids. the carbon dioxide is also circulation. the latter possess low Co 2 levels due to the processes of hydrolysis and the derived from soils, and are invariably depleted 13 oxidation of reduced carbon, decarbonation of in C, with no thermal source of Co 2. limestone or directly from the upper mantle - this the combined ( δ18 o - δ13 C) isotopic analyses occurring mainly in areas of volcanic activity. on our samples have shown a range of values kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 55

The source of stone building materials from the Pompeii archaeological area and its surroundings 55

typical for a Co 2 of both magmatic-hydrothermal karstic travertines from the archaeological sites. (samples 34, 40, 44, 77) and karstic-supergene therefore, it can be safely considered that at least origin (all the other samples). moreover, the some of the stones used for building in Pompeii relatively constant δ18 o data point to depositional were extracted from quarries set in the above- conditions in atmospheric temperatures similar mentioned areas or in any other outcrop located to those recent for most travertines. in the southern suburbs of Pompeii (Fig. 8). the karstic-supergene travertines are in our the high δ13 C values (between +2.80 and case more similar to the calcareous tufa lithology +4.89), detected in a few samples, can be derived

- very porous and brittle - and in some specimens from the cinetic fractionation of Co 2 in a solution contain detrital fragments of magmatic minerals rich in 13 C, due to the dissolution of marine and volcanic glass. a similar lithology, carbonates. these carbonates can be located in complemented by rare volcanic fragments, has the calcareous-dolomitic mountain ranges of also been found in the samples taken from the sarno and/or nuceria, behind the possible (?) drill cores at Pompeii mariconda and around the travertine quarries (see samples 34, 40, 44 and town of scafati. moreover, the isotopic data 77). another alternative is that these travertines measured from scafati and mariconda calcareous have a completely different geographical origin, tufa are in the same interval of values as the far from the town of Pompeii and the villages

Fig. 8 - Evidence of travertine (circles and circled dots) and travertine concretions (triangles) in drilling cores located south and east of Pompeii projected on the aD 79 DEm, as generated by vogel and märker, 2010. Circled dots indicate current Dai drillings. kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 56

56 P. K astEnmEiEr , G. D i maio , G. B alassonE , m. B oni , m. J oaChimsKi and n. m onDillo

around it. such high δ13 C values have been found limestone/marble), or from variable sites in the travertines of tivoli in latium throughout the mediterranean realm (i.e. (thermogene, associated with fluid circulation in granite/porphyry/serpentinite), in order to obtain a volcanic area) and also in the Pontecagnano pricey polishable slabs, to be used for (salerno) travertines (meteogene, derived from embellishment of many private and public the dissolution of limestone chains nearby). edifices . the δ18 o - δ13 C isotopic values detected in sample 57 (san marzano iron age necropolis) aCKnowlEDGEmEnts are fairly different from each of the above- mentioned clusters, and may point to a this work was financially supported by research completely different source of building material funds of Deutsches archäologisches institut of Berlin, for this much older archaeological find. and G. Balassone. we would like to thank the collaborators of the soprintendenza speciale per i in conclusion, most of the stones used for the Beni archaeologici di napoli e Pompei and the construction of edifices in Pompeii and other soprintendenza per i Beni archaeologici di salerno, surrounding archaeological sites between vi Benevento, avellino e Caserta for their support. a century b.C. and 79 a.D. originate from local special thank is due to F. seiler, Dai Berlin, for his quarries, mainly situated in various localities on continuous scientific support and s. vogel fruitful the sarno river plain itself or in surrounding discussions. l. melluso and l. Franciosi, università areas (Fig. 9). Dimension stones of higher Federico ii napoli, and m. Piochi, inGv quality, however, were imported either from osservatorio vesuviano napoli, are warmly thanked other areas along the italian peninsula (i.e. for useful suggestions. the authors are also indebted

Fig. 9 - Examples of old quarries in volcanic rocks from the sarno river plain and the sorrento Peninsula. Pompeii, Insula meridionalis , scoriaceous lava to scoriae deposits (a) with evidences of quarrying activity (b). Piano di sorrento, remnants of an old Ci grey tuff quarry (c). stabiae, old underground excavations in Ci grey tuff (d). kastenmeier:periodico 30/11/2010 15:26 Pagina 57

The source of stone building materials from the Pompeii archaeological area and its surroundings 57

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