7 X 11.5 Three Lines.P65

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-85447-4 - The Vector- and Rodent-Borne Diseases of Europe and North America: Their Distribution and Public Health Burden Norman G. Gratz Index More information

Index

Note: page numbers in italics refer to ﬁgures

acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans 111, Afghanistan, malaria 44--5 122--3 African horse sickness 74 Aedes African tick bite fever 134 dengue virus 30--1, 32 agricultural practices, changes 160 diroﬁlariasis 212 aircraft Inkoo virus 27 disinfection 271--2 Jamestown Canyon virus 203--4 introduced vectors 271--2, 273 La Cross encephalitis 204--5 airport malaria 34--5, 49--51, 271--2, 273 Ockelbo virus 25 Albania snowshoe hare virus 205--6 Crimean--Congo Haemorrhagic fever 106 Tahyna virus 28 leishmaniasis 58--9 West Nile Virus 13--14, 19, 202 West Nile Virus 11--12 Aedes aegypti 8 alcoholic people, trench fever 85--6, 229--30 Americas 186, 195, 197 allergens/allergies importation 185, 276 chironomid haemoglobins 74 eradication 195 cockroaches 154--5, 267--8 Aedes albopictus midges 74 climate change impact 271 horses 216 control in Italy 180 mites 151--3, 262--6 introduction to Europe 156--7 tick 158 USA 197 Alphavirus 191--5 introduction 271--3, 276 Amblyomma americanum 245, 246, 248, 251 Aedes atropalpus 157 tick paralysis 257--8 Aedes bahamensis 273 tularaemia 257 Aedes japonicus 157 Amblyomma maculatum 257--8 introduction to US 272, 273 Americas Aedes taeniorhynchus 194 arboviruses 185--7 diroﬁlariasis 212 dengue 186 Aedes togoi 273 epidemic typhus 187

370

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-85447-4 - The Vector- and Rodent-Borne Diseases of Europe and North America: Their Distribution and Public Health Burden Norman G. Gratz Index More information

Index 371

malaria 188--9 Argas cooleyi 236 plague 187 Argas reflexus 158 Rocky Mountain spotted fever 188 arthritis, Lyme 111, 116, 130--1, 240 yellow fever 185--6 Arvicola terrestris 174 see also Canada; United States asthma Ammospermophilus leucurus 223 chironomid haemoglobin allergens 74 Anaplasma 140--1 cockroach allergens 154, 267--8 Anaplasma phagocytophila 249, 251, 307--8 house dust mites 151, 263, 264--6 angiomatosis, bacillary 227 treatment 152--3 Anopheles Austria airport malaria 34--5 Lyme disease 114 diroﬁlariasis 212 malaria 38 introduction to North America 276 post-encephalitic syndrome 178 Jamestown Canyon virus 203--4 tick-borne encephalitis 92, 178 malaria in USA 207--8 Usutu virus 28--9, 307 West Nile Virus 16 West Nile Virus 12 Anopheles atroparvus 37, 44 Anopheles gambiae 271 Babesia 144--6, 253--5 Anopheles labranchiae 36, 37, 160 deer tick density 160 Anopheles maculipennis 45 public health importance 145--6, 255 Anopheles messae 45 reservoir hosts 254 Anopheles quadrimaculatus 212 tick vectors 145, 160, 255 Anopheles sacharovi 44 bacillary angiomatosis 227 Apodemus agrarius 164 bacterial infections Dobrava virus 167--8 rodent-borne 169--72 hantaviruses 284 tick-borne Saaremaa virus 168 Americas 239--52 Apodemus flavicollis 114 Europe 110 Dobrava virus 167--8 see also named diseases hantaviruses 164 baggage malaria 36 Lyme disease 119, 123, 128, Balkans, hantaviruses 167 132 Bartonella 81 Apodemus sylvaticus 102, 109 Bartonella elizabethae 229--30 Dobrava virus 167--8 Bartonella henselae 81--2, 226--7, 229--30 Lyme disease 119 Bartonella quintana 84--5, 229--30 arboviruses burden of disease 308 Americas 185--7 Batai virus 24 Canada 190--206, 276 Bayou virus 283 climate change impact 271 bears, trichinosis 296 costs associated with 177--8, 298--302 Belarus Europe 7--8, 9 tick-borne encephalitis 92 mosquito-borne 190--206 West Nile Virus 12--13 USA 190--206, 276 Belgium arenaviruses 286--9 airport malaria 34 lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus 168 hantavirus 166

372 Index

Belgium (cont.) Italy 126 Lyme disease 114--15 Poland 128 malaria 38--9 Slovenia 130 Bhanja virus 107--8 Spain 131 biological warfare 256 Sweden 132 Biorat 172, 293 UK 133 bioterrorism 275 Borrelia burgdorferi 111--33 plague 224 Babesia co-infection 253, 254 tularaemia 256, 257 control costs 303 birds genospecies 112 domestic 194 Belgium 115 Highlands J virus 194 Croatia 117 Lyme disease 123, 128, 130, 244 Czech Republic 117--18 migrating France 120--1 Lyme disease 244 Germany 124 Ockelbo virus 24--5 Italy 126 Sindbis virus 20--1 Poland 128 tick introductions 158, 275 Slovenia 130 Usutu virus 20--1 Spain 131 West Nile Virus 10, 15--16, 17, 19, 20--1 Sweden 132 European spread 22--3 UK 133 Ockelbo virus 26 incidence 307 St Louis encephalitis 198 North America 240--5 Sindbis virus 20--1 Borrelia burgdorferi s. l. 130, 131, 132, 133 Usutu virus 20--1, 28--30, 307 Borrelia burgdorferi s. str. 126, 128, 130, 132, West Nile Virus 16, 19, 20--2, 199, 200--1 133 Western equine encephalitis 191 Borrelia garinii Black Creek Canal virus 283, 285 Belgium 115 black death 5 Croatia 117 blackﬂies, simuliids 212 Czech Republic 117--18 Blatella germanica 154 France 120--1 Blatta latteralis 274 Germany 124 Blatta orientalis 154 Italy 126 blepharoconjunctivitis 88 Poland 128 Bloma tropicalis 262 Slovenia 130 bluetongue 74, 216 Spain 131 Bornholm island, tick-borne encephalitis 95 Sweden 132 Borrelia, tick-borne relapsing fever 110 UK 133 Borrelia afzelii Borrelia hermsii 239 Belgium 115 Borrelia lonestari 245, 246 Croatia 117 Borrelia lusitaniae 131 Czech Republic 117--18 Borrelia parkeri 239 France 120--1 Borrelia recurrentis 86 Germany 124 Borrelia turicatae 239

Index 373

Borrelia valaisiana 124, 126, 131, 132, 133 introduced vectors 271--8 boutonneuse fever 134--5 Jamestown Canyon virus 204 burden of disease 307--8 leptospirosis 290--1 public health importance 135 louse-borne diseases 303 Brazil Lyme disease 240--5, 270, 303--4 Anopheles gambiae introduction 271 malaria 188--9, 207--10, 276 dengue virus 31 imported cases 209, 302 Brill--Zinsser disease 84 mite allergies 262--3 bugs, hemipteran 233--5 mosquito control costs 304--5 Bulgaria mosquito-borne infections airport malaria 34--5 arboviruses 190--206 Crimean--Congo Haemorrhagic fever filarial 211--13 106--7 malaria 188--9, 207--9, 210, 276, 302 Lyme disease 115--16 myiasis 219 trichinosis 175 nematode infections 296 West Nile Virus 13 plague 220--4 Bunyaviridae 202--6 Powassan virus 238 public health importance Cache Valley virus 202--3 arboviruses 206 California encephalitis complex 27, 28 malaria 209--10 Calovo virus see Batai virus Qfever252 Canada 1, 269 rat-bite fever 291--2 arboviruses 190--206 Rift Valley fever introduction 276--8 costs associated with 298--302 Rocky Mountain spotted fever 248, 249 introduction 276 rodent-borne disease 279--97 arenaviruses 286--9 St Louis encephalitis 198 babesiosis 254 salmonellosis 292, 293 biting midge-borne diseases 216 sandfly-borne phleboviruses 214--15 cestodes 294--5 scabies 261, 303 climate change 270--1 snowshoe hare virus 205--6 cockroach allergies 267--8 tick paralysis 257--8 dengue 196, 301--2 tick-borne diseases introduction 276 bacterial 239--52 dirofilariasis 212 burden 307--8 disease burden 306--9 toxoplasmosis 293--4 ecological change 269--70 trench fever 230 economic impact of disease 298--305 tularaemia 256, 257 ehrlichiosis 250--1 West Nile virus 199--202, 275--6 filarial infections 211--13 burden of disease 306--7 flea-borne disease 220--7 economic costs 300--1 hantaviruses 279--86 Canis aureus 295 house dust mite 264 Canis lupus 295 allergies 266 Canis lupus dingo 295 hydatid disease 295--6 Canis lutrans 215, 295

374 Index

Capreolus capreolus Lyme disease 241 Lyme disease 119, 127 plague 222--3 tick-borne encephalitis 94, 95 Powassan virus 238 cats Sin nombre virus 285 B. henselae prevalence 81--2 Chironomidae 74 diroﬁlariasis 211, 212 Chlamydia, pubic louse infestation 88, hydatid disease 295 231 leptospirosis hosts 290 Chrysomya megacephala 274 murine typhus 224--5 Chrysops discalis 255, 257 plague 223 tularaemia 147 toxoplasmosis 172, 293 Clethrionomys cat scratch disease 81--2, 226--7 echinococcosis 174 cattle hantaviruses 164, 165--6 bluetongue 216 Lyme disease 114, 119, 123, 128, Lyme disease 123 132 Qfever141 Puumala virus 164, 168 West Nile Virus 16 tick-borne encephalitis 91, central nervous system (CNS) disease see 102 encephalitis; meningitis; climate change 1, 270--1, 308--9 meningoencephalitis; leishmaniasis 72 tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) range 61 Ceratopogonidae 74, 216 Lyme disease 132 Cervus elaphus 119 tick-borne encephalitis 94, 105 cestodes, rodent-borne infections 173--5, vector-borne diseases in Europe 161--2 294--5 clinical symptoms/conditions 269 Chagas disease 233--5 Cochliomyia hominovorax 217 reservoir hosts 234--5 introduction to USA 271--2, 274 vectors 234 cockroaches 154--5, 267--8 children introduction abuse 88 to Europe 158 cockroach allergies 267 to USA 274 head lice 86--7 public health impact 268 leishmaniasis 60, 63, 64, 66, 67 co-infections 1 Lyme disease 118 see also HIV infection, co-infections malaria 41, 43--4, 46--7 Colorado tick fever (CTF) 236--7 pubic louse infestation 88 Coltivirus 236 Rocky Mountain spotted fever 247 congenital malformations tick paralysis 258 Cache Valley virus 202--3 tick-borne encephalitis 101 toxoplasmosis 293--4 vaccination 99 Cordylobia anthropophaga 274 Toscana virus 56 Corfou virus 55 chipmunk 223 Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) 141, 252 Colorado tick fever 237 coyote 215 La Cross encephalitis 204--5 hydatid disease 295

Index 375

Crimean--Congo Haemorrhagic fever deer, roe (CCHF) 106--7 Lyme disease 119, 127 human disease 106 tick-borne encephalitis 94, 95 outbreaks 106--7 deer, white-tailed vaccination 107 ehrlichiosis 249--50 vectors 107 Jamestown Canyon virus 203 Croatia Lyme disease 241, 243--4 Lyme disease 116--17 STARI 246 tick-borne encephalitis 92--4 deer ﬂy, tularaemia 147 trichinosis 175--6 deer-tick virus 239 Ctenocephalides felis 79, 80--1, 224--6 dengue 8, 30--2 cat scratch disease 226--7 Americas 186, 271 Culex Canada 196, 271, 301--2 climate change impact 270--1 introduction 276 Ockelbo virus 24--5 climate change impact 271 St Louis encephalitis 198 economic costs 301--2 Venezuelan equine encephalitis 193--4 Hawaii 197 West Nile Virus 10, 13--14, 15--16, 199, Puerto Rico 196--7 201--2 USA 195--7, 271, 301--2 introduction to North America 275 introduction 276 Western equine encephalitis 191, 192 dengue haemorrhagic fever 195, 196 Culicoides 74, 216 dengue shock syndrome 195, 196 Culiseta Denmark eastern equine virus 192 leptospirosis 170 Highlands J virus 195 Lyme disease 119 Jamestown Canyon virus 203--4 malaria 39--40 Ockelbo virus 24--5 tick-borne encephalitis 95 snowshoe hare virus 205--6 Dermacentor Cuterebra 218 Colorado tick fever 236, 237 Cynomys 222 introduction to Sweden 158 hymenolepiasis 294 Powassan virus 238 Czech Republic tick paralysis 148 Lyme disease 117--18 Dermacentor andersoni 248, 257 tick-borne encephalitis 94--5, 177--8 tick paralysis 257--8 West Nile Virus 13--14 Dermacentor marginatus babesiosis 145 DDT Lyme disease 116 malaria vector control 36 Qfever143 rickettsial disease control 224 Rickettsia slovaca isolation 138 debridement, maggot therapy 77 Dermacentor nuttalli 147 deer Dermacentor reticulatus babesiosis 145--6 babesiosis 145 tick density 160 Qfever143 deer, red 119 tularaemia 147

376 Index

Dermacentor variabilis 248 Eastern Europe, malaria 37 tick paralysis 257--8 echinococcosis, alveolar 173, 174--5, 295 tularaemia 257 Echinococcus 173--5, 295--6 Dermatobia hominis 274 ecological change 1, 308--9 Dermatophagoides farinae 151--3, 262 Europe 159--60 Dermatophagoides pteronissinus 151--3, 262 North America 269--70 Dhori virus 108--9 economic impact of disease 177--82, Didelphys 224--6 298--305 dingo, hydatid disease 295 Edsbyn virus 25 Diptera 75--7, 219 Ehrlichia 140--1, 249--52 introductions 273--4 Ehrlichia canis 251 Dirofilaria immitis 52--3, 211--12, 213 Ehrlichia chaffeensis 140, 249--50 Dirofilaria lutrae 212 burden of disease 307--8 Dirofilaria repens 52--3, 211 Ehrlichia equi 251 Dirofilaria subdermata 212 Ehrlichia ewingii 249--50, 251 Dirofilaria tenuis 211, 212 Ehrlichia sennetsu 140 Dirofilaria ursi 212 ehrlichiosis 140--1, 249--52 diroﬁlariasis 52--3 burden of disease 307--8 Canada 212 canine 251 canine infections 53 other 250 human pulmonary 212 public health importance 141, Italy 53 251--2 public health importance 53--4, 213 vectors 251--2 pulmonary 52--3 El Moro Canyon virus 285 Spain 53 ELB agent 80--1 subcutaneous nodular 52--3 emerging diseases 269, 270 Switzerland 53 encephalitis USA 211--13 Japanese 28--9, 273, 278 disease burden 306--9 lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus 168 Dobrava virus 163--4, 165, 167--8 Powassan 237--9 dog, prairie 222 endemic diseases 1 hymenolepiasis 294 environment, human impact 114 dogs Erethizon dorsatum 237, 238 boutonneuse fever 134, 135 erythema chronicum migrans 111 Chagas disease reservoir hosts 234--5 France 120 diroﬁlariasis 53, 211, 212, 213 Germany 122--3 hydatid disease 295 Italy 125 leishmaniasis 60, 61, 62--7 Netherlands 127 leptospirosis hosts 290 Russia 129 Lyme disease 123 Slovenia 130 West Nile Virus 17 Spain 130--1 Switzerland 132 eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) erythema migrans 245, 246 virus 186--7, 192--3, 298--9 Estonia, tick-borne encephalitis 95

Index 377

Euroglyphus maynei 262 European Network on Imported Disease Europe 1 Surveillance, dengue virus 31--2 bacterial infections Eutamias 222--3 rodent-borne 169--72 Colorado tick fever 237 tick-borne 110 Everglades virus (EVE) 194 Batai virus 24 Eyach virus 109--10 climate change effects on vector-borne eyelash infestation of pubic lice 88 diseases 161--2 dengue 8, 30--2 ferret, black-footed 222--3 disease burden 306--9 filarial infections ecological change 159--60 mosquito-borne 52--3, 211--13 Inkoo virus 27 public health importance 53--4 introduced vectors 156--8 Finland Lyme disease 111--34 Ockelbo virus 26--7 burden 307 tick-borne encephalitis 95 incidence 112--4 tularaemia 146--7 malaria 6 Flaviviridae 195--202 endemism 33 see also dengue; St Louis encephalitis eradication from Europe 33 (SLE); West Nile Virus (WNV) imported 37--8 flea Ockelbo virus 24--7 introduced to North America 274 plague epidemics 5--6 plague vectors 223 recrudescence of vector-borne disease flea, cat 79, 80--1, 224--6 159 cat scratch disease 226--7 rodent-borne bacterial infections 169--72 flea, Oriental rat 79, 224--5 sandfly fever 55--7 flea-borne disease 78--82, 220--7 Tahyna virus 27--8 hymenolepiasis 295 tick paralysis 148 see also plague; Rickettsia; typhus tick-borne disease flubendazole 260 burden 307--8 fly, black soldier 274 rickettsial 134--44 fly, bot 218, 274 viral infections 89--110 fly, deer 147, 255, 257 tick-borne encephalitis 89--107 fly, green bottle 218 burden of disease 307 fly, grey flesh 219 typhus epidemics 7 fly, oriental latrine 274 Usutu virus 28--30 fly, tumbu 274 viral infections 89--110 fox, red West Nile virus Echinococcus 174--5 public health threat 23--4 hydatid disease 295 reservoirs hosts 22--3 Lyme disease 123 vectors 21--2 France yellow fever 7--8 airport malaria 35 see also named countries; named diseases hantaviruses 166--7 European Mosquito Control Association 180 leishmaniasis 60

378 Index

France (cont.) Canada 279--86 Lyme disease 119--21 France 166--7 malaria 40--1 Germany 166, 167 costs 179 public health importance 285--6 tick-borne encephalitis 96 rodent reservoir hosts 284--5 West Nile Virus 14 Saaremaa virus 168 Francisella tularensis (tularaemia) 146--8, 255--6 USA 279--86 biovars 255--6 see also Dobrava virus; Puumala virus Germany hantavirus pulmonary syndrome dengue virus 31 (HPS) 163--4, 282--4 hantavirus 166 burden of disease 308 hantaviruses 167 public health importance 285--6 leishmaniasis 60--1 hares leptospirosis 170 snowshoe 238 Lyme disease 122--5 tularaemia 146 malaria 35, 41--2 Haverhill fever 291--2 plague epidemic 6 Hawaii Puumala virus 165 dengue 197 tick-borne encephalitis 96--7 leptospirosis 290 typhus epidemic 7, 80 murine typhus 225 West Nile Virus 15 plague 221, 222 Glaucomys volans 228--9 heartworm disease, canine 211--13 global warming see climate change Hemiptera 233--5 goats, Q fever 141 Hermetia illucens 274 gonorrhoea, pubic louse infestation 88, 231 Highlands J virus (HJ) 194--5 Greece highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), leishmaniasis 61--2, 68 HIV/leishmania co-infection 68--9, malaria 35--6 308 murine typhus 79 HIV infection tick-borne encephalitis 97 co-infections 1 West Nile Virus 15 leishmaniasis 65, 69, 68--70, 308 Haemaphysalis Norwegian scabies infections 150 Qfever143 scabies 260 tularaemia 147 toxoplasmosis 293, 294 haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome trench fever 230 (HFRS) 163--4 homeless people hamster, Syrian, lymphocytic louse infestations 86 choriomeningitis virus 287--8 trench fever 85--6, 229--30 hantaan virus 163--4, 165--6 Hoplopsyllus anomalus 223 Korean haemorrhagic fever 164 horses hantavirus 163--8 eastern equine virus 193 Belgium 166 Lyme disease 123

Index 379

midge allergy 216 North America 271--8 West Nile Virus 14, 15--16, 199, 200 risk of establishment 275--8 house dust 151--2 spread 272 cockroach allergens 154 Ischnoptera 274 see also mite, house-dust Israel human granulocytic ehrlichiosis (HGE) 140, Rickettsia conorii 139--40 249, 250--1 West Nile virus 10 transmission 251 Israel spotted fever 139--40 human monocytic ehrlichiosis (HME) 140, Italy 249, 250, 251, 307--8 boutonneuse fever 134--5 transmission 251 diroﬁlariasis 53 humidity, mites 265 leishmaniasis 62--3 Hungary leptospirosis 170 tick-borne encephalitis 97 Lyme disease 125--6 West Nile Virus 15 malaria 36, 42--3 Hyalomma asiaticum 139 mosquito control 180 Hyalomma detritum 158 rice cultivation 160 Hyalomma marginatum tick-borne encephalitis 98 Crimean--Congo haemorrhagic fever Toscana virus 56--7 106, 107 West Nile virus 15--16 Dhori virus 108--9 ivermectin introduction to Sweden 157--8 resistance 260 Hyalomma marginatum marginatum 136 scabies treatment 150, 260 Hyalomma marginatum rufipes 136 Ixodes cookei 238 Hyalomma plumbeum 143 Ixodes dammini see Ixodes scapularis Hyalomma punctata 116 Ixodes dentatus (tick) 254 hydatid disease 173--5, 295--6 babesiosis 255 Hymenolepis diminuta 173, 294--5 Ixodes marxi (tick) 238 Hymenolepis nana 173, 294--5 Ixodes pacificus 243, 244 hypodermosis, human 77 ehrlichiosis 251 tick paralysis 257--8 immigrants Ixodes persulcatus 89 introduction of infections 159 introduction to Sweden 157--8 malaria 42--4 Lyme disease 129 immunosuppression tick-borne encephalitis 98--9, 101 Norwegian scabies infections 150 Ixodes ricinus (tick) 89 scabies 260 babesiosis 145 Inkoo virus 27 climate change impact 132, 161--2 insect vectors 1 density increase 160 intravenous drug users Eyach virus 109 rickettsial pox 261--2 louping ill 104 trench fever 229--30 Lyme disease introductions, undesirable Austria 114 Europe 156--8 Bulgaria 115, 116

380 Index

Ixodes ricinus (tick) (cont.) Japanese encephalitis group 28--9 Croatia 117 jaundice, leptospiral 169--70 Czech Republic 117--18 Denmark 119 kala-azar see Leishmania (leishmaniasis) France 120--1 Karelian fever 25 Germany 122--3 Korean haemorrhagic fever 164, 281 Italy 125 Kosovo Netherlands 126--7 Crimean--Congo Haemorrhagic Poland 128 fever 106 Russia 129 tularaemia 146 Slovenia 130 Kunjin virus 11 Spain 131 Sweden 131--2 La Crosse encephalitis (LAC) 186--7, 204--5, Switzerland 132--3 299 UK 133 Latvia, tick-borne encephalitis 98--9 Qfever143 Leishmania (leishmaniasis) 57--8, 214--15 Rickettsia helvetica isolation 136--7 Albania 58--9 Rickettsia monacensis 139 canine 60, 61, 62--7 Tettnang virus 109 climate change 72 tick paralysis 148 co-infections 1 tick-borne encephalitis cutaneous 57--8, 67--8 Czech Republic 94 Albania 58 France 96 France 60 Italy 98 Germany 60--1 Latvia 98--9 Greece 68 Russia 101 Malta 63--4 Sweden 103 Spain 68 Switzerland 103 USA 214--15 Ukraine 105 France 60 Tribec virus 109 Germany 60--1 tularaemia 147 global distribution 58, 59 Ixodes scapularis 111, 238--9, 241, 242--3 Greece 61--2 babesiosis 255 HIV co-infection 65, 69, 68--70 ehrlichiosis 251 Italy 62--3 reservoir hosts 243--4 Malta 63--4 Rocky Mountain spotted fever 248 paediatric 60, 63, 64, 66, 67 tick paralysis 257--8 Portugal 64--5 Ixodes spinipalpus 238 public health 58, 62, 72--3 babesiosis 255 sandﬂy vector 57--8, 70--2 Ixodes ventalloi 109 Spain 65--7, 68 USA 214--15 jackal, hydatid disease 295 visceral 57--8, 308 Jamestown Canyon (JC) virus 203--4 Albania 58--9 Japanese encephalitis 273, 278 distribution 58--67

Index 381

France 60 Lucilia sericata 218 Germany 61 Lutzomyia anthophora 215 Greece 61--2 Lyme disease 270 HIV co-infection 68--70 arthritis 111, 116, 130--1, 240 incidence 58--67 Austria 114 Malta 63--4 Belgium 114--15 Portugal 64--5 Bulgaria 115--16 USA 215 burden 307 Leishmania donovani 308 Canada 240--5, 270 Leptospira interrogans 290 children 118 Leptospira interrogans serovar climate change 132 icterohaemorrhagiae 169--70 co-infections 1 leptospiral jaundice 169--70 costs 181--2, 303--4 leptospirosis, rodent-borne 169--70, 290--1 Croatia 116--17 Lepus americanus 238 Czech Republic 117--18 Lepus californicus 248 deer tick density 160 Lepus europaeus 146 Denmark 119 lice see louse-borne diseases Europe 111--34 Liponyssoides sanguineus 151 France 119--21 rickettsial pox 261 Germany 122--5 Lithuania, tick-borne encephalitis 99--100 human impact on environment 114 lizards 244 incidence louping ill 89, 104 in Europe 112--14 transmission to humans 104--5 in US 241--2 vaccination 105 Italy 125--6 louse mammal reservoir hosts 112 head 83 Netherlands 126--7 control 87 Poland 127--9 cost of control 181, 303 Portugal 130--1 infestations 86--7, 230--1 prevalence 124--5 insecticide resistance 231 public health importance human body 7, 83, 86 Europe 121, 128--31, 133--4 cost of control 303 North America 244--5 infestations 86, 230 reservoir hosts 243--4 trench fever 229, 230 risk of infection 124--5 pubic (crab) 83 Russia 129--30 cost of control 303 Slovenia 130 infestations 87--8, 231--2 Spain 130--1 louse-borne diseases 83--8 Sweden 131--2 economic costs of control 181, 303 Switzerland 132--3 relapsing fever 86 United Kingdom 133 rickettsial 83--4, 228--32 USA 240--5, 270 trench fever 84--6 vaccination 245, 304 typhus 83--4, 187, 228--9 vectors 242--3

382 Index

lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus paediatric 41, 46--7 (LCM) 168--9, 286--8 Portugal 44 public health importance 288 recrudescence of autochthonous 34--7 resurgence costs 178--9 maggot debridement therapy 77 returning travellers 36 malaria 6 Romania 44 airport 34--5, 49--51, 271--2, 273 Russia 44--5 Americas 188--9 ship transport 50--1 Austria 38 Spain 45--6 baggage 36 surveillance 46, 162 Belgium 38--9 Switzerland 179 Canada 188--9, 207--10 The Gambia 47--8 imported cases 209 treatment costs 208, 302 introduction 276 United Kingdom 46--9 chemoprophylaxis 38, 40, 42, 43--4, 46, costs 179--80 48--9 USA 207--10, 276 compliance 48--9 eradication 188 economics 48 Malta, leishmaniasis 63--4 noncompliance 207 Marmota monax 238 USA 208--9 Mediterranean spotted fever see boutonneuse children 41, 43--4 fever deaths in USA 208 meningitis Denmark 39--40 lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus 168 economic costs 178--81, 302 Toscana virus 57 treatment in USA 208 meningoencephalitis endemic in Europe 33 lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus 168 eradication Romanian epidemic 17--18 programmes 6 Toscana virus 57 from USA 188 West Nile virus 10, 17--18 France 40--1 see also tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) costs 179 Mephitis mephitis 238 Germany 41--2 Mesocricetus auratus 287--8 immigrant populations 42--4 Mexico, West Nile virus 199--200 imported 1 Micromys minutus 119 costs 179--80, 302 Microtus Europe 37--8 babesiosus 254 North America 302 echinococcosis 174 introduction hantaviruses 164, 281--2 to Brazil 271 Lyme disease 114, 119, 128 with tourism 159--60 plague 222--3 Italy 42--3 Powassan virus 238 local transmission risk in UK 48 Prospect Hill virus 281 mosquito control costs 180--1 tick-borne encephalitis 91 Netherlands 43--4 midges, biting 74, 216

Index 383

mite, house mouse 151, 261 hantaviruses 281--2 mite, house-dust 151--3, 262 hymenolepiasis 294 asthma 265--6 Lyme disease 119 control 152--3 lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus 169, public health importance 153 287--8 rickettsial pox 261 rickettsial pox 151, 261 mites/mite-borne infections 149--53, 259--66 mouse, yellow-necked 114 allergies 151--3, 262--6 Dobrava virus 167--8 public health importance 153 hantaviruses 164 humidity 265 Lyme disease 119, 123, 128, 132 rickettsial 261--2 mouse, striped field 164 Moldavia, West Nile virus 16 Dobrava virus 167--8 mosquitoes hantaviruses 284 arboviral diseases 190--1 Saaremaa virus 168 Batai virus 24 mouse, western harvest 285 climate change impact 162 mouse, white-footed 241 control costs 180--1, 301, 304--5 babesiosis 254 dengue 30--2 hantavirus 283 epidemics 8 Lyme disease 243--4 filarial infections 52--3 Muleshoe virus 285 introduction Mus musculus on aircraft 271--2 hantaviruses 281--2 to USA 271--3 hymenolepiasis 294 Ockelbo virus 24--5, 27 Lyme disease 119 Rift Valley fever transmission 277--8 lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus 169, Tahyna virus 27, 28 287--8 transport in aircraft 50 rickettsial pox 151, 261 tularaemia 257 Musca autumnalis 271--2 Usutu virus 28--30 Mustela nigripes 222--3 West Nile virus myiasis 75--7 Canada 201--2, 275--6 authochthonous 76, 219 Europe 10, 19, 20--2 creeping eruption 76 introduction to North America 275--6 cutaneous 218 USA 201--2, 275--6 dipteran larvae introductions 158 see also named genera furuncular 75--6 mouse, cotton 193--4 nasal 218 mouse, deer 223, 238, 242--3, 283, 285 nosocomial 76, 217--18 hantavirus pulmonary syndrome 285 obligate 75 mouse, field (wood) 102, 109 returning travellers 274 Dobrava virus 167--8 traumatic 76 Lyme disease 119 wound 76 mouse, harvest 119 mouse, hospital infestation 218 Naples virus 55 mouse, house Nariovirus 106

384 Index

nematode infections, rodent-borne 175--6, hantavirus 283 296 Lyme disease 243--4 Neotoma albigula 215 Peromyscus maniculatus 223, 238, 242--3, 283, Neotoma micropus 215, 285 289 hantavirus pulmonary syndrome 285 nephropathica epidemica 164 Phlebotomus 55, 56 Netherlands Phlebotomus ariasi 71 Lyme disease 126--7 Phlebotomus papatasi 71 malaria 43--4, 50 Phlebotomus perfiliewi 71--2 neuroborreliosis 116, 119 Phlebotomus perniciosus 71, 72 New York virus 283 Phlebotomus sergenti 72 Norway Phleboviruses 55 tick-borne encephalitis 100 Pied Piper of Hamelin 7, 80 tularaemia 147 pigs, trichinosis 175--6, 296 nosocomial infections, myiasis 76 pla, virulence-associated 6 plague 5--6, 187, 220--4 Ockelbo virus 24--7 bioterror potential 224 Odocoileus virginianus bubonic 222 ehrlichiosis 249--50 ﬂea vectors 223 Jamestown Canyon virus 203 human cases 221 Lyme disease 241, 243--4 mortality 222 STARI 246 pneumonic 222 opossum 224--6 rodent reservoir hosts 222--3 Ornithodoros 110, 239--40 surveillance 221--2 Oropsylla bacchi 223 Plasmodium falciparum Oropsylla montana 223 airport malaria 35 Oryzaephilus 294 baggage malaria 36 Oryzomys palustris 285 Belgium 38--9 Canada 209 pappataci fever 55--6 climate change impact 162 Pediculus capitis 83 Denmark 39--40 cost of control 303 Eastern Europe 37 infestations 86--7, 230--1 France 41 Pediculus humanus 7, 83, 86 Germany 41--2 cost of control 303 imported into Europe 38 infestations 86, 230 Italy 43 trench fever 229, 230 Netherlands 43 Periplaneta americana 154 Portugal 44 Periplaneta australasiae 158 Romania 44 Periplaneta brunnea 158 Russia 44--5 permethrin, scabies treatment 150 The Gambia 47--8 Peromyscus gossypinus 193--4 United Kingdom 47 Peromyscus leucopus 241 Plasmodium malariae babesiosis 254 France 41

Index 385

Italy 43 protozoal diseases United Kingdom 47 rodent-borne 172--3 Plasmodium ovale 37 see also Babesia (babesiosis); Plasmodium France 41 species Italy 43 Psorophora, Venezuelan equine United Kingdom 47 encephalitis 193--4 Plasmodium vivax pthiriasis palpebrum 88 airport malaria 34--5 Pthirus pubis 83 Eastern Europe 37 cost of control 303 France 41 eyelash infestation 88 Germany 35, 42 infestations 87--8, 231--2 Greece 35--6 public health importance of diseases 1 Italy 43 arboviruses in USA/Canada 206 Netherlands 50 babesiosis 145--6, 255 Romania 44 boutonneuse fever 135 Russia 45 cat scratch disease 227 United Kingdom 47 Chagas disease 235 Pogosta disease see Ockelbo virus cockroach allergies 268 Poland Colorado tick fever 237 Lyme disease 127--9 diroﬁlariasis 53--4, 213 scabies costs 181 ehrlichiosis 141, 251--2 tick-borne encephalitis 100 hantaviruses 285--6 West Nile virus 16 head lice 87, 231 population migrations house dust mite allergies 266 introduction of infections 159 hydatid disease 295--6 see also immigrants La Crosse encephalitis 205 porcupine 237, 238 leishmaniasis 58, 62, 72--3 Portugal leptospirosis 291 leishmaniasis 64--5 Lyme disease Lyme disease 130--1 Europe 121, 128--31, 133--4 malaria 44 North America 244--5 murine typhus 80 lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus 288 West Nile virus 16 malaria in USA/Canada 209--10 post-encephalitic syndrome, tick-borne mite allergies 153 encephalitis 89--90, 178 new infectious agents 8 poverty, trench fever 230 plague in USA/Canada 223--4 Powassan virus (POW) 237--9 Qfever144 pregnancy rickettsial pox 262 lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus 288 salmonellosis 293 toxoplasmosis 172 sandﬂy fever 55, 56, 57 Procyon lotor scabies 150, 261 La Crosse encephalitis 204--5 tick-borne encephalitis 105--6 Powassan virus 238 Lithuania 99 Prospect Hill virus 281 Russia 101--2

386 Index

public health importance of southern plains 289 diseases (cont.) white-throated 215 tick-borne relapsing fever 110--11 rat-bite fever 170--1, 291--2 toxoplasmosis 294 Rattus norvegicus 78--9 tularaemia 147--8, 257 hantaviruses 164, 165--6, 281--2, West Nile virus 202 284 threat 18, 19, 23--4, 199--200 hymenolepiasis 294 Puerto Rico leptospirosis 169--70, 290 dengue 196--7, 301--2 Lyme disease 123 West Nile virus 200 lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus 288 Pulex irritans 225--6 murine typhus 224--5 Puumala virus 164--7 plague 222 spread 165--6 Qfever141 Pycnoscelus surinamensis 158, 274 rat-bite fever 292 trichinosis 296 Qfever 141--4, 252 Rattus rattus 78--9, 221--2 public health importance 144 murine typhus 224--5 tick vectors 143 plague 222 Reithrodontomys megalotis 285 rabbit relapsing fever cottontail 254 louse-borne 86 jack 248 tick-borne 110--11, 239--40 raccoon rhinitis, chironomid haemoglobin La Crosse, encephalitis 204--5 allergens 74 Powassan virus 238 Rhipicephalus bursa rats 78--9 Lyme disease 116 leptospirosis hosts 290 Qfever143 rat, black 78, 221--2 Rhipicephalus sanguineus plague 222 boutonneuse fever 134, 135 rat, brown canine ehrlichiosis 251 hantaviruses 164, 165--6, 281--2, 284 introduction hymenolepiasis 294 Europe 158 leptospirosis 169--70, 290 Sweden 157--8 Lyme disease 123 Israel spotted fever 139--40 lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus 288 Lyme disease 116 plague 222 Qfever143 Qfever141 Rickettsia massiliae isolation 137--8 rat-bite fever 292 undesirable introduction to Europe 157 trichinosis 296 Rhipicephalus turanicus rat, cotton 283, 285 Qfever143 Tamiami virus 289 Rickettsia massiliae isolation 137--8 Venezuelan equine encephalitis 193--4 undesirable introduction to Europe 157 rat, marsh rice 285 Rickettsia aeschlimanni 136 rat, wood 215 Rickettsia akari 151, 261

Index 387

Rickettsia conorii 134--5 Lyme disease 132--3 burden of disease 307--8 nematode infections 175--6 Israel spotted fever 139--40 protozoal diseases 172--3 Rickettsia felis 80--1, 224--6 United States 279--97 Rickettsia helvetica 136--7 see also lymphocytic choriomeningitis Rickettsia massiliae 137--8 virus (LCM); named species Rickettsia monacensis 139 Roll Back Malaria (RBM) programme 6, 180 Rickettsia mongolotimonae 139--40 Romania Rickettsia parkeri 247 malaria 44 Rickettsia prowazekii 7, 83, 84, 228--9 trichinosis 175 Rickettsia rickettsii 188, 246, 248 West Nile Virus 16--18, 178 Rickettsia slovaca 138--9 Ross River virus 278 Rickettsia typhi 7, 78--80, 224--6 Russia rickettsial diseases Crimean--Congo Haemorrhagic boutonneuse fever 134--5 fever 106 ehrlichiosis 140--1 Lyme disease 129--30 flea-borne 78--1, 224--7 malaria 36--7, 44--5 louse-borne 83--4, 228--32 Mediterranean spotted fever 135 mite-borne 151, 261--2 Puumala virus 165 public health importance 140 tick-borne encephalitis 100--2 Qfever141--4 typhus epidemic 7 Rocky Mountain spotted fever 188 West Nile virus 18--19 tick-borne see also Soviet Union, former Europe 134--44 Russian spring--summer encephalitis North America 246--52 89, 91 rickettsial pox 151, 261--2 Rift Valley fever 214 Saaremaa virus 168 introduction to North America 276--8 St Louis encephalitis (SLE) 186--7, 197--8 transmission by mosquitoes 277--8 climate change impact 270--1 Rocky Mountain spotted fever 188, economic costs 299--300 246--9 Salmonella (salmonellosis) 274 mortality 247 rodent-borne 171--2, 292--3 reservoir hosts 248 rodenticides 171--2, 293 vectors 248 Salmonella enterica 171--2, 293 rodenticides, Salmonella 171--2, 293 Salmonella typhimurium 171, 292 rodents/rodent-borne diseases sand flea 158 bacterial infections 169--72 sandfly fever 55--7 burden of disease 308 sandfly/sandfly-borne diseases Canada 279--97 phleboviruses 214--15 cestode infections 173--5 viral 55 disease associations 163 see also Leishmania (leishmaniasis) disease reservoir hosts 1 Sarcophagidae 219 economic impact 177--82 Sarcoptes scabiei 149--50, 303 hantaviruses 163--8, 279--86 Saudi Arabia, Rift Valley fever epidemic 277

388 Index

scabies 149--50, 259--61 snowshoe hare virus (SHH) 205--6 economic costs of control 181, 303 soldiers, trench fever 84--5 epidemics 259--60 southern tick-associated rash illness Norwegian 150, 259 (STARI) 245--6, 307 nosocomial 303 Soviet Union, former public health impact 150, 261 malaria resurgence costs 178--9 treatment 260 Puumala virus 165 Sciurus carolinensis 238 trichinosis 175 La Crosse encephalitis 204--5 Spain Sciurus griseus 237 dirofilariasis 53 Sciurus niger 221--2 leishmaniasis 65--7, 68 plague 222--3 Lyme disease 130--1 screwworm, New World 217 malaria 37, 45--6 introduction to US 271--2, 274 murine typhus 79--80 Sennetsu fever 140 Toscana virus 57 Seoul virus 163--4, 165--6, 282 West Nile virus 20 septicaemia, ancient 5--6 Spermophilus beecheyi 222--3 Serbia, West Nile virus 21 Spermophilus beldingi 222--3 sexually transmitted diseases Spermotophilus variegatus 222, 223 pubic louse infestation 87--8, 231--2 splenectomy, babesiosis 144--5 scabies 260--1 spotted fevers sheep Americas 188 bluetongue 216 Europe 134--44 Qfever141 public health importance 140 West Nile virus 16 Rickettsia parkeri 247 Shigella 274 rickettsial pox 151 ships see also Rocky Mountain spotted fever introduced vectors 271--2, 273 squirrel, flying 228--9 malaria introduction 50--1 squirrel, fox 221--2 tyre imports 156--7, 273 plague 222--3 Sicilian virus 55 squirrel, grey Sigmodon hispidus 283, 285 eastern 238 Tamiami virus 289 La Crosse encephalitis 204--5 Venezuelan equine encephalitis 193--4 western 237 simuliid blackflies 212 squirrel, ground 222--3 sin nombre virus 282, 283, 285 golden-mantled 237 Sindbis virus 20--1 squirrel, red 238 skunk, striped 238 squirrel, rock 222, 223 Slovakia Stermophilus lateralis 237 tick-borne encephalitis 102 Streptobacillus moniliformis 170, 291--2 West Nile virus 19 Supella longipalpa 158 Slovenia surveillance Lyme disease 130 malaria 46, 162 tick-borne encephalitis 102--3 plague 221--2

Index 389

Sweden ehrlichiosis 251 climate change impact 161--2 reservoir hosts 243--4 Hyalomma marginatum Rocky Mountain spotted fever 248 introduction 157--8 tick paralysis 257--8 Ixodes persulcatus introduction 157--8 tick, lone star 245--6, 248, 251 Lyme disease 131--2 tick paralysis 257--8 Ockelbo virus 25--7 tularaemia 257 post-encephalitic syndrome 178 tick, western black-legged 243, 244 Rickettsia helvetica 137 ehrlichiosis 251 tick introductions 157--8 tick paralysis 257--8 tick-borne encephalitis 103, 178 tick paralysis 148, 257--8 tularaemia 146--7 tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) 89--107 Switzerland Austria 92, 178 diroﬁlariasis 53 Belarus 92 Lyme disease 132--3 burden of disease 307 malaria 179 climate change 94, 105, 161--2 tick-borne encephalitis 103--4 clinical course 89--90 Sylvilagus transitionalis 254 CNS disease 89--90, 99--100 co-infections 1 Tahyna virus 27--8 costs 177--8 Tamiami virus (TAM) 289 Croatia 92--4 Tamias striatus Czech Republic 94--5, 177--8 La Crosse encephalitis 204--5 Denmark 95 Lyme disease 241 distribution Powassan virus 238 epidemiology 90--1 sin nombre virus 285 Estonia 95 Tamiasciurus hudsonicus 238 Finland 95 tapeworm France 96 dwarf 173, 294--5 Germany 96--7 rat 173, 294--5 Greece 97 temperature, environmental 161--2 Hungary 97 see also climate change incidence 91, 93, 160 teratogens Italy 98 lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus 288 Latvia 98--9 see also congenital malformations Lithuania 99--100 Tettnang virus 109 mortality 90 thiabendazole 260 Norway 100 Thogoto virus 108 notiﬁable status 90 tick, American dog 248 Poland 100 tick paralysis 257--8 post-encephalitic syndrome 89--90, 178 tularaemia 257 public health concerns 99, 101--2, 105--6 tick, deer 111, 238--9, 241, Russia 100--2 242--3 Slovakia 102 babesiosis 255 Slovenia 102--3

390 Index

tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) (cont.) tourism Sweden 103, 178 introduction of infections 159--60 Switzerland 103--4 see also travellers, returning Ukraine 105 Toxoplasma gondii (toxoplasmosis) 172--3, United Kingdom 104--5 293--4 vaccination travel to tropical disease areas 1 Austria 92 travellers, returning costs 177--8 see also malaria Czech Republic 94--5 dengue virus 31--2 Denmark 95 dipteran larvae introductions 158 Finland 95 myiasis 274 Germany 97 sand ﬂea 158 Hungary 97 trench fever 84--6, 229--30 Latvia 99 alcoholic people 85--6, 229--30 Lithuania 100 burden of disease 308 needs 105--6 Canada 230 Poland 100 homeless people 85--6, 229--30 rate 105 burden of disease 308 Slovakia 102 intravenous drug users 229--30 Slovenia 102--3 urban 230 Sweden 103 Triatoma 234 tick-borne relapsing fever (TBRF) 110--11, triatomine-borne diseases 233--5 239--40 Tribec virus 109 ticks/tick-borne diseases Tribolium 294 allergens 158 Trichinella spiralis (trichinosis) 175--6, 296 bacterial Trypanosoma cruzi (trypanosomiasis) 233--5 Americas 239--52 Tula virus 164 Europe 110 tularaemia 146--8, 255--7 burden 307--8 pneumonic 256, 257 distribution with climate change 161 public health importance 147--8, 257 introduced to North America 274--5 vectors 147, 256--7 rickettsial tumbu ﬂy, introduction to USA 76, 274 Europe 134--44 Tunga penetrans 158, 274 North America 246--52 typhus 7 undesirable introductions to Europe epidemic (louse-borne) 83--4, 187, 157--8 228--9 vectors 1 Germany 7, 80 West Nile virus 18, 19, 21--2 murine 7, 78--80 viral 89--110, 236--9 ELB agent 225--6 see also named diseases Greece 79 Togoviridae 191--5 Portugal 80 Toscana virus 55, 56--7 Spain 79--80 Italy 56--7 USA 224--6 paediatric infection 56 tyres, international shipping 156--7, 273

Index 391

Ukraine Jamestown Canyon virus 203--4 tick-borne encephalitis 105 La Crosse encephalitis 204--5, 299 West Nile virus 21 leishmaniasis 214--15 United Kingdom leptospirosis 290--1 Lyme disease 133 louse infestation 303 costs 181--2 louse-borne disease 303 malaria 46--9 rickettsial 228--32 costs 179--80 Lyme disease 240--5, 270 plague epidemics 5 burden 307 tick-borne encephalitis 89, 104--5 costs 303--4 West Nile virus 20--1 lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus United States 1, 269 286--8 arboviruses 190--206 malaria 207--10, 302 costs associated with 298--302 introduction 276 introduction 276 mite allergies 262--6 arenaviruses 286--9 mosquito-borne infections babesiosis 253--5 arboviruses 190--206 biting midge-borne diseases 216 filarial 211--13 Cache Valley virus 202--3 malaria 207--10 cat-scratch disease 226--7 mosquitoes cestodes 294--5 control costs 304--5 climate change 270--1 introductions 271--3 cockroach allergies 267--8 murine typhus 224--6 dengue 195--7, 301--2 myiasis 219 introduction 276 nematode infections 296 Diptera introductions 273--4 plague 221, 220--4 dirofilariasis 211--13 pubic louse infestations 231--2 disease burden 306--9 public health importance eastern equine encephalitis 192--3, arboviruses 206 298--9 malaria 209--10 ecological change 269--70 Qfever252 economic impact of disease 298--305 rat-bite fever 291--2 ehrlichiosis 249--52 rickettsial pox 261--2 Everglades virus 194 Rift Valley fever introduction 276--8 filarial infections 211--13 Rocky Mountain spotted fever 246--9 flea-borne disease 220--7 rodent-borne disease 279--97 rickettsial 224--7 St Louis encephalitis 197--8, 299--300 hantaviruses 279--86 salmonellosis 292--3 burden of disease 308 sandfly-borne phleboviruses 214--15 head louse infestations 230--1 scabies 259--61, 303 Highlands J virus 194--5 snowshoe hare virus 205--6 human body louse infestations 230 tick paralysis 257--8 hydatid disease 295--6 tick-borne diseases introduced vectors 271--8 bacterial 239--52

392 Index

United States (cont.) vole, water, echinococcosis 174 burden 307--8 voles 102 viral 236--9 babesiosis 254, 255 toxoplasmosis 293--4 echinococcosis 174 trench fever 229--30 hantaviruses 164, 165--6, 281--2 trichinosis 296 Lyme disease 119, 123, 128, 132 trypanosomiasis 233--5 plague 222--3 tularaemia 255--7 population density 167 Venezuelan equine encephalitis 193--4, Powassan virus 238 278 Prospect Hill virus 281 West Nile virus 199--202, 275--6, 278 Puumala virus 164, 168 burden of disease 306--7 tick-borne encephalitis 91 economic costs 300--1 Vulpes vulpes western equine encephalitis 191--2 Echinococcus 174--5 Usutu virus 20--1, 28--30, 307 hydatid disease 295 surveillance 30 Lyme disease 123

vaccination Weil’s disease 169, 290 Crimean--Congo haemorrhagic fever 107 West Nile virus (WNV) 10 eastern equine virus 193 Albania 11--12 louping ill 105 Americas 187 Lyme disease 245, 304 Austria 12 tick-borne encephalitis Belarus 12--13 Austria 92 Bulgaria 13 costs 177--8 burden of disease 306--7 Czech Republic 94--5 Canada 199--202, 275--6 Denmark 95 Czech Republic 13--14 Finland 95 distribution 10 Germany 97 economic costs 300--1 Hungary 97 France 14 Latvia 99 Germany 15 Lithuania 100 global distribution 11 needs 105--6 Greece 15 Poland 100 Hungary 15 rate 105 Italy 15--16 Slovakia 102 Moldavia 16 Slovenia 102--3 mosquito control 180--1 Sweden 103 mosquito vectors Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) 193--4 Canada 201--2, 275--6 USA 278 Europe 10, 16, 19, 20--2 viral infections introduction to North America 275--6 tick-borne 89--110, 236--9 USA 201--2, 275--6 see also named infections Poland 16 virus rodenticides 171--2 Portugal 16

Index 393

public health importance 18, 19, 23--4, Wohlfahrtia vigil 219 199--200, 202 wolf 295 reservoir in Europe 22--3 woodchuck 238 Romania 16--18, 178 World Health Organization (WHO) Russia 18--19 malaria eradication programmes 6 Serbia 21 Roll Back Malaria (RBM) programme 180 Slovakia 19 Wuchereria bancrofti (ﬁlariasis) 211 Spain 20 surveillance 17--18, Xenopsylla cheopis hosts 79, 224--5, 274 20 Xenopsylla vexabilis 274 transmission 18, 272 Ukraine 21 yellow fever 7--8 United Kingdom 20--1 Americas 185--6 United States 199--202 Yemen, Rift Valley fever epidemic 277 USA 272, 275--6, 278 Yersinia pestis (plague) 5--6, 78, 220 vectors in Europe 21--2 bioterror potential 224 western equine encephalitis (WEE) 186--7, rodent reservoir hosts 222--3 191--2 Yugoslavia, former climate change impact 270--1 hantaviruses 167 Whitewater Arroyo virus (WWA) 288--9 trichinosis 175