Vol. 80 Friday, No. 191 October 2, 2015

Part IV

Department of the Interior

Fish and Wildlife Service 50 CFR Part 17 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Two Foreign Macaw Species; Final Rule

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR agreement, the Service agreed to submit 12866. Therefore, we have not analyzed a determination as to whether the its costs or benefits. Fish and Wildlife Service petitioned action is warranted, not Background warranted, or warranted but precluded 50 CFR Part 17 by other listing actions for the military Section 4(b)(3)(B) of the ESA (16 macaw (Ara militaris) and the great U.S.C. 1531 et seq.) requires that, for [Docket No. FWS–R9–ES–2011–0101; 450 any petition to revise the Federal Lists 003 0115] green macaw (Ara ambiguus) to the Federal Register by June 30, 2012. On of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife RIN 1018–AY33 July 6, 2012, the Service published a and Plants that contains substantial proposed rule (77 FR 40172) to add the scientific or commercial information Endangered and Threatened Wildlife military macaw and great green macaw that listing the species may be and Plants; Two Foreign Macaw as endangered species to the Federal warranted, we make a finding within 12 Species List of Endangered and Threatened months of the date of receipt of the petition (‘‘12-month finding’’). In this AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Wildlife. This final rule completes the finding, we determine whether the Interior. listing process for these species. petitioned action is: (a) Not warranted, ACTION: Final rule. II. Summary of the Major Provisions of (b) warranted, or (c) warranted, but the Regulatory Action immediate proposal of a regulation SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and implementing the petitioned action is Wildlife Service (Service), are listing the We are listing the military macaw precluded by other pending proposals to military macaw (Ara militaris) and the (Ara militaris) and the great green determine whether species are great green macaw (Ara ambiguus) as macaw (Ara ambiguus) as endangered endangered or threatened, and endangered under the Endangered species under the Act. We are finalizing expeditious progress is being made to Species Act of 1973, as amended (ESA). this action primarily because of the add or remove qualified species from These species are both endemic to effects of poaching, habitat loss, the Federal Lists of Endangered and Central and South America. Despite fragmentation, and degradation on their Threatened Wildlife and Plants. Section conservation efforts, these species’ populations; their small and declining 4(b)(3)(C) of the ESA requires that we populations are in decline, primarily population sizes; and inadequate treat a petition for which the requested due to habitat loss, fragmentation, and regulatory mechanisms to ameliorate the action is found to be warranted but degradation; small population size; threats to the species throughout their precluded as though resubmitted on the poaching; and regulatory mechanisms ranges. date of such finding, that is, requiring a that are inadequate to ameliorate these In this final rule, we used public subsequent finding to be made within threats throughout their ranges. comments and peer review to inform 12 months. We must publish these 12- DATES: This rule becomes effective our final determination, as required month findings in the Federal Register. November 2, 2015. under the Act. When we published the In this document, we announce that ADDRESSES: This final rule is available proposed rule on July 6, 2012 (77 FR listing these two species as endangered on the Internet at http:// 40172), we opened a 60-day comment species is warranted, and we are adding www.regulations.gov and comments and period on the proposed listing for these these two species to the Federal List of materials received, as well as supporting species. During the comment period, we Endangered and Threatened Wildlife in documentation used in the preparation sought comments from independent title 50 of the Code of Federal of this rule, will be available for public specialists (peer reviewers) on the Regulations. inspection, by appointment, during specific assumptions and conclusions in Petition History normal business hours at: U.S. Fish and our listing proposal to ensure that the Wildlife Service; 5275 Leesburg Pike, designation of these species as On January 31, 2008, the Service Falls Church, VA 22041. endangered is based on scientifically received a petition dated January 29, sound data, assumptions, and analyses. FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: 2008, from Friends of Animals, as In addition, we sought comments from Janine Van Norman, Chief, Branch of represented by the Environmental Law interested parties and the public. We Foreign Species, Endangered Species Clinic, University of Denver, Sturm considered all comments and Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, College of Law, requesting that we list information received during the 5275 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, VA 14 parrot species under the ESA. The comment period. In this final rule, we 22041; telephone 703–358–2171. If you petition clearly identified itself as a present and respond to peer reviewer use a telecommunications device for the petition and included the requisite and public comments. This rule deaf (TDD), call the Federal Information information required in the Code of finalizes the protections proposed for Relay Service (FIRS) at 800–877–8339. Federal Regulations (50 CFR 424.14(a)). these two foreign bird species as On July 14, 2009 (74 FR 33957), we SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: endangered species, following careful published a 90-day finding in which we Executive Summary consideration of all comments we determined that the petition presented received during the public comment substantial scientific and commercial I. Purpose of the Regulatory Action period. information to indicate that listing may On January 31, 2008, the Service III. Costs and Benefits be warranted for 12 of the 14 parrot received a petition dated January 29, species. 2008, from Friends of Animals, Section 4(b)(1)(A) of the ESA directs In our 90-day finding on this petition, represented by the Environmental Law that determinations as to whether any we announced the initiation of a status Clinic, University of Denver, Sturm species is an endangered or threatened review to list as endangered or College of Law, requesting that we list species must be made ‘‘solely on the threatened under the ESA the following 14 parrot species under the Endangered basis of the best scientific and 12 parrot species: Blue-headed macaw Species Act of 1973, as amended (ESA commercial data available.’’ Further, (Primolius couloni), crimson shining or Act; 16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.). As part this action is not a ‘‘significant’’ parrot (Prosopeia splendens), great of a court-approved settlement regulatory action under Executive Order green macaw (Ara ambiguus), grey-

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cheeked parakeet (Brotogeris comment period, which ended on Our Response: We have reviewed the pyrrhoptera), hyancith macaw September 4, 2012. Following additional literature and incorporated (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus), military publication of the proposed rule, we the new information into our finding. macaw (Ara militaris), Philippine implemented the Service’s peer review Although the new information has been cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia), process and during the 60-day comment incorporated into the final rule, the new red-crowned parrot (Amazona period, solicited scientific and survey provided did not change our viridigenalis), scarlet macaw (Ara commercial information on the species finding that the military macaw meets macao), white cockatoo (Cacatua alba), from all interested parties. the definition of an endangered species. yellow-billed parrot (Amazona collaria), The species’ overall population remains Previous Federal Actions and yellow-crested cockatoo (Cacatua small and fragmented despite additional sulphurea). We initiated the status In our proposed rule, published July macaws being observed in this one review to determine if listing each of the 6, 2012 (77 FR 40172), we announced location, and the species is still at risk 12 species is warranted, and initiated a that listing the military macaw and the of extinction due to habitat loss, 60-day public comment period to allow great green macaw as endangered was poaching, and small population size. all interested parties an opportunity to warranted, and we issued a proposed Public Comments provide information on the status of rule to add these two species to the these 12 species of parrots. The public Federal List of Endangered and (2) Comment: Several commenters comment period closed on September Threatened Wildlife. The comment expressed concerns about the potential 14, 2009. period ended on September 4, 2012; we impact the listings might have on their On July 21, 2010, a settlement received 59 comments from the public. business. agreement was approved by the Court In response to requests received Our Response: We acknowledge that (CV–10–357, D. DC), in which the during the public comment period, we there may be impacts to different Service agreed to submit to the Federal reopened another public comment entities involved in captive breeding of Register by July 29, 2011, September 30, period on February 21, 2013, which great green and military macaws. 2011, and November 30, 2011, ended on April 22, 2013 (78 FR 12011). However, Section 4(b)(1)(A) requires determinations whether the petitioned During the second comment period (see listing decisions to be based solely on action is warranted, not warranted, or http://www.regulations.gov, docket the best scientific and commercial data warranted but precluded by other listing number FWS–R9–ES–2011–0101), we available, as it relates to the five listing actions for no less than 4 of the received 25 more comments on these factors in section 4(a)(1) of the Act. petitioned species on each date. two macaw species and on the hyacinth Therefore, the Service did not consider On August 9, 2011, the Service macaw; however, only one submission the impacts on business in its listing published in the Federal Register a 12- provided substantive information. All determination. month status review finding for the comments, including names and (3) Comment: Some commenters crimson shining parrot (a finding that addresses of commenters, have become suggest that the Service is using listing was not warranted) and a part of the administrative record and are outdated information when making the proposed rule for the following three available at http://www.regulations.gov, determination for the rule. parrot species: Philippine cockatoo, docket numbers FWS–R9–ES–2011– Our Response: The Service is required white cockatoo, and yellow-crested 0101 and FWS–R9–ES–2012–0013. by the Act to make determinations cockatoo (76 FR 49202). solely on the basis of the best scientific On October 6, 2011, we published a Summary of Comments and and commercial data available. We 12-month status review finding for the Recommendations based the proposed rule on all the red-crowned parrot (76 FR 62016); on We base this finding on a review of information we received following the October 11, 2011, we published a 12- the best scientific and commercial initiation of the 12-month status review month status review and proposed rule information available, including all for the military and great green macaw, for the yellow-billed parrot (76 FR information received during the public as well as all of the information we 62740); and on October 12, 2011, we comment period. In the September 4, found while conducting our own published a 12-month status review for 2012, proposed rule, we requested that research. The information we use the blue-headed macaw and grey- all interested parties submit information depends on field research and our cheeked parakeet (76 FR 63480). that might contribute to development of ability to acquire that information. At On September 16, 2011, an extension a final rule. On February 21, 2013, we the time of the publishing of the to the settlement agreement was reopened the public comment period proposed rule, the information we approved by the Court (CV–10–357, D. where we again requested that all compiled was considered the best DC), in which the Service agreed to interested parties submit information available information. After publishing submit a determination for the that might contribute to development of the proposed rule, emerging information remaining four petitioned species to the a final rule. We also contacted on the great green and military macaw Federal Register by June 30, 2012. appropriate scientific experts and became available. We reviewed that On July 6, 2012, the Service published organizations and invited them to information, as well as additional in the Federal Register a 12-month comment on the proposed listings. We information submitted by the public, status review finding and proposed rule received comments from four including more recent information and for the four following parrot species: individuals; one of which was from a studies from a species expert and Great green macaw and the military peer reviewer. conservation organizations within the macaw (77 FR 40172), hyacinth macaw great green and military macaw’s range (77 FR 39965), and the scarlet macaw Peer Reviewer Comments countries. Non-English literature was (77 FR 40222). (1) Comment: One peer reviewer professionally translated, analyzed, and Upon publication in the Federal provided information on military is cited in this document. The Register on July 6, 2012, of the 12- macaw population surveys confirming information we received and month status review finding and the presence of 100 macaws in the subsequently reviewed did not change proposed rule for these species (77 FR Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve any of our findings, but rather further 40172), we initiated a 60-day public in Mexico. supported our conclusions. That

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information has been incorporated into Species Information for the Military Habitat and Life History this final rule. Macaw Military macaws nest in tree cavities (4) Comment: Some commenters, Taxonomy and cliffs. Cliff-nesting parrots, such as while not opposed to the listing of the the military macaw, also nest colonially species, asked for a special rule under The military macaw (Ara militaris, (in groups) (Bonilla-Ruz et al. 2007a, pp. section 4(d) of the Act (also called a Linnaeus 1766) is in the Psittacidae 730–731). Cliff cavities located in ‘‘4(d) rule’’) that would allow ownership family and is also known as ‘‘guacamaya ravines used by this species have been and interstate trade of the species to verde,’’ ‘‘parava,’’ and ‘‘ravine parrot.’’ documented 25 and 30 meters (m) (82 occur without obtaining a permit under Three subspecies of military macaw to 98 feet (ft)) above ground (Arcos- the Act. have been proposed and are recognized Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 71). by some: Ara militaris bolivianus Tree cavities used by this species have Our response: Ownership of a listed (Reichenow 1908), Ara militaris been observed to be 18 m (60 ft) above species is not prohibited by the Act and, mexicanus (Ridgway 1915), and Ara ground and are approximately 75 cm therefore, does not require a permit. militaris militaris (Linnaeus 1766). (29.5 inches) deep (Baker 1958, p. 98). Because we determined that listing the Avibase, a database of all birds of the This species has also been observed to great green and military macaws as world maintained by Bird Studies use secondary cavities, such as endangered species under the Act is Canada, and the Integrated Taxonomic abandoned woodpecker holes, appropriate, we are not able to develop Information System (ITIS) both particularly in dead pine trees (Strewe a 4(d) rule for this species. Section 4(d) recognize subspecies (http:// and Navarro 2004, p. 50). Military of the Act allows the Service to develop www.itis.gov and http://avibase.bsc- macaws alternate nesting and foraging a special rule to apply the prohibitions eoc.org/avibase.jsp, accessed August 30, areas based on food availability of section 9 or to provide measures that 2011). The range of A. m. bolivianus is (Bonilla-Ruz 2006, p. 1). Nesting are necessary and advisable to provide thought to be in Bolivia and appears to be synchronous with the for the conservation of threatened northwestern Argentina. The range of A. peak fruiting season, which occurs species only. A special rule cannot be m. mexicanus is thought to be restricted during April and May (Huatatoca pers. promulgated for a species that is listed to Mexico. comm. in Arcos-Torres and Solano- as endangered under the Act. The sale; Because it is a strong flyer (it has been Ugalde 2008, p. 70). The military macaw offer for sale; and delivery, receipt, observed traveling up to 20 kilometers is a social species that congregates in carrying, transport, or shipment in (km) (12 miles [mi]) per day) and it is small flocks and is often observed in mated pairs. Its clutch size is usually interstate or foreign commerce in the a semi-migratory species, the physical two to three eggs. They begin course of a commercial activity is similarities suggest that seemingly reproducing between 3 and 4 years of prohibited. That said, not all interstate isolated populations may be in contact (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 423), and, age (Mexican National Commission for trade is prohibited under the ESA. Protected Areas [CONANP] 2006 in Interstate transfer of animals that are not therefore, their populations may be exchanging genetic material. Bonilla-Ruz 2006, p. 2). Colonial nesting for sale, offered for sale, or in the course is believed to be due to the lack of of a commercial activity is not For the purpose of this rule, we are suitable disbursed nest sites, which may prohibited. addressing the military macaw at the also explain why they are concentrated We thank all the commenters for their species level. Therefore, we are listing in certain sites (Salinas-Melgoza et al. interest in the conservation of this the military macaw species as an 2009, p. 306). endangered species, which includes all species and thank those commenters This species prefers the lower subspecies. who provided information for our montane wet forests of the Andes. It consideration in making this listing Description inhabits remaining fragmented forested determination. Under section 4(b) of the area in the Neotropics. However, in the Act, the Service is required to make The military macaw is an extremely northernmost part of its range, in listing determinations solely on the vocal species; it is described as being Mexico, it is associated with seasonally dry, semi-deciduous tropical forest, basis of the best scientific and very noisy and is known to shriek deciduous tropical forest, and slopes of commercial data available after (Birdlife International (BLI) 2011, p. 1). It is a large macaw (70 centimeters or pine-oak forest (Bonilla-Ruz et al. conducting a review of the status of the 27.5 inches in length) and is vibrant in 2007b, pp. 45–47; Rivera-Ortiz et al. species. When we published our color. It has dark lime-green feathers 2006, p. 26). proposed rule, we opened a public mixed with blue flight feathers that are The military macaw is a seasonal comment period during which we olive-colored underneath. Its forehead is migrant, based on food and nutrient requested any additional information on red, and it has a bare white facial area availability. In some areas, it has been the great green and military macaw. In and a black bill. Its lower back is blue; observed at clay licks to obtain sodium making this listing determination, we its tail is red and blue. The and possibly other minerals, which is a reviewed the best available scientific southernmost population in Bolivia, common activity in some parrot species and commercial information, contacted which extends into Argentina, exhibits (Lee 2010, p. 58). Its diet varies species experts, and searched for the reddish brown on their throats and seasonally. Some of the plant species it most current information on these cheeks (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 423). was observed feeding on include species with due diligence. Therefore, This species is often confused with the (Rivera-Ortiz et al. 2013, p. 1211; Carillo we have obtained and considered the great green macaw (Ara ambiguus). The et al. 2013, p. 46; Huellega 2011, p. 9; ‘‘best scientific and commercial data great green macaw is very similar in Moschione 2007, in Navarro et al., 2008, available’’ in our listing determination. appearance to the military macaw, but p. 2; Contreras-Gonza´lez et al. 2006, p. After careful consideration, we the military macaw has more prominent 387; Renton 2004, p. 12; Juniper and conclude that these species meet the blue tinge on its hind neck, is smaller, Parr 1998, p. 422): definition of an endangered species and has darker plumage. These two Brosimum alicastrum (capomo, Maya under the Act. species are separated geographically. nut, ramo´n),

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Bunchosia montana (no common name Quercus affinis (encinos), 2014a, pp. 1–2; Rivera-Ortiz 2013, p. (ncn)), Quercus castanea (encinos), 1,201; Juarez et al 2012, pp. 6–7). Its Bursera aptera (ncn), Quercus crassifolia (encinos), range extends from northern Mexico Bursera schlechtendalii (ncn), Spondias mombin (ciruelo), southward into Ecuador, Peru, Carya illinoensis (nuez de castilla), Tecoma stans (yellow trumpetbush), Tillandsia grandis (ncn), and Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, and the Cedrela species (cedar fruit), southern tip of Argentina (see Figure 1 Ceiba aescutifolia (Pochote),Ceiba Tillandsia makoyana (ncn). Seeds were found to be 39 percent of for an approximation of its range and pentandra (ceiba), distribution). The species has been Couepia polyandra (zapotillo), this species’ diet. They have also been described as patchily distributed Cyrtocarpa procera (Chupandilla), observed feeding on bromeliad stems Encyclia lancifolia (orchid, ncn), (species unknown) and cacti (species throughout the eastern foothills of the Ficus species (fig), unknown). In the northern part of its Andes Mountains (Snyder et al. 2000, p. Guaiacum coulteri (soap bush), range in Mexico, military macaws have 125). It occurs in altitudes up to 1,600 Hura crepitans (ochoo, arbol del diablo, been observed in desert habitat, m (5,249 ft) (Strewe and Navarro 2004, acacu, monkey’s dinner-bell, habillo, although they tend to have lower p. 50; Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 102, 124– ceiba de leche, sand-box tree, possum reproductive success in this habitat type 125). Although it has a large distribution wood, dynamite tree, ceiba blanca, (Rivera-Ortiz et al. 2008, p. 261). In (276,000 km2 (106,564 mi2)), its assacu, posentri), desert habitat, which is suboptimal, it populations are localized. Hura polyandra (arbol del diablo, has been observed consuming some Its population is estimated to be habillo, haba, jabillo, tetereta), flowers (species unidentified). Despite 6,667–13,333 mature individuals (BLI Ipomoea arborescens (palo santo, palo the low seasonal abundance of food, 2014, pp. 1–2; Rivera-Ortiz et al. 2013, blanco, tree morning glory), deserts offer some refuge from poaching p. 1,201). Most areas where this species due to the inhospitable dry climate, Juglans mollis (nogal), occurs are now estimated to have fewer Lonchocarpus rugosus (palo arco), which can act as a deterrent to poachers than 100 individuals. However, in 2004, Lysiloma divaricata (ncn), (Rivera-Ortiz et al. 2008, p. 261). In other populations in Colombia and Lysiloma microphylla (palo corral), addition, macaws tend to nest at very Mangifera indica (mango), high locations, which can make it Mexico were estimated to be 100–200 ´ Melia azedarach (Chinaberry tree), difficult for poachers to reach them. individuals (Florez and Sierra 2004, p. Neobuxbaumia tetetzo (cardon, higos de 3). This species may have occurred in teteche, tetetzo), Range, Observations, and Population Guatemala in the past, but it is no longer Orbignea guacoyula (palm), Estimates found there (Gardner 1972 in Snyder et Pinus ayacahuite (pinabete), The military macaw is distributed in al. 2000, p. 125). Overall, its Pinus engelmannii (pino real), highly fragmented, small populations in populations are fragmented and Pinus durangensis (pino alaza´n), Mexico and South America, with a becoming more isolated (Rivera-Ortiz Plumeria rubra (Frangipani), distribution gap in Central America (BLI 2008, p. 256).

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The species inhabits tropical, semi- Andean foothills in Bolivia in forested most cases, these individuals reside on deciduous forests along the Pacific and areas extending from the northern cliff formations that are favorable for Atlantic slopes through Central and Tambopata National Reserve to the nesting (where they are less accessible South America. The best available southern Pilo´n Lajas Reserve to poachers), and where deforestation is information indicates there are (Hennessey et al. 2003, pp. 319, 329). having less of an impact (Flo´rez and reasonably healthy but small These parks are in the general vicinity Sierra 2004, pp. 2–3; Rodriguez and populations in El Cielo and Sierra Gorda of the border of southern Peru and Herna´ndez-Camacho 2002, p. 203). In Biosphere Reserves (Sierra meaning northern Bolivia (Hosner et al. 2009, p. Colombia, this species inhabits a wide mountain range) in Mexico, Madidi and 222; Navarro et al. 2008, p. 2; Hennessey range of altitudes and areas with various Amboro´ National Parks, Pilo´n Lajas et al. 2003, p. 322). They are part of the degrees of alteration (Flo´rez and Sierra Biosphere Reserve and Apolobamba Greater Madidi-Tambopata Landscape 2004, pp. 1–3; Juniper and Parr 1998). National Integrated Management Area in (GMTL) (also known as ‘‘Parque In Colombia, this species has been Bolivia, and Manu Biosphere Reserve Nacional Madidi’’). Within the GMTL, observed between altitudes of 700 and and Bahuaja Sonene National Park in there are thought to be reasonably 1,600 m (2,297 to 5,249 ft) (Flo´rez and Peru, and a small but stable remnant healthy populations of this species in Sierra 2004, pp. 1–3; Salaman et al. population in Tehuacan-Cuicatlan the Apolobamba National Integrated 2002, pp. 167, 187). Populations have Biosphere Reserve, Oaxaca, Mexico Management Area, Amboro´ and Madidi been observed in Guajira peninsula, Las (Lowry 2014, p. 3; Hosner et al. 2009, National Parks, and Pilo´n Lajas Orquideas, Tayrona National Park, p. 222; Arizmendi 2008, p. 3; Rivera- Biosphere Reserve (Hennessey 2011 Serranı´a de Perija´, Serranı´a de San Ortiz 2008, p. 256). The population from pers. comm.; Hosner et al. 2009, p. 225). Lucas, San Salvador Valley, Sierra Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve, The Greater Madidi-Tambopata Nevada De Santa Marta, La Guajira Oaxaca is about 100 macaws (Bonilla et Landscape is 110,074 km2 (42,500 mi2) Department, and Cueva de los al. 2007a, p. 731). in size, and encompasses one of the Guacharos National Park (Strewe and largest areas of intact montane forest in Navarro 2003, p. 3). In 1998, this species Argentina the tropical Andes (WCS 2009, p. 2). was observed in flocks of up to 12 Argentina is the southernmost part of This area is a high conservation priority individuals at Villa Iguana and Alto this species’ range, and the species was due to its large number of endemic bird Cagadero in Serranı´a de los never thought to have been abundant species. Pilo´n Lajas consists of primary Churumbelos (Salaman et al. 2007, pp. there (Navarro et al. 2008, p. 1). In fact, evergreen tropical lowland forest, 33, 38, 47, 89). It has been observed in this species was initially thought to be foothill forest, and lower montane palm stands in the San Salvador valley extirpated (locally extinct) in Argentina, forest. Pilo´n Lajas was recognized as a during the breeding season (December– but surveys have found small Biosphere Reserve and Indigenous July) (Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. 33). populations in at least two locations in Territory by the Bolivian Government in There are two small, stable the northern province of Salta (Grilli et 1992; however, it did not have any populations of military macaws at Sierra al 2013, p. 235; Juarez et al 2012, pp. 7– actual protections in place until 1994 Nevada de Santa Marta and 8). There are anecdotal reports of this (Hennessey et al. 2003, p. 319). Churumbelos, Cauca, with species crossing the Itau´ River (Navarro In 2008, this species was observed at approximately 50 mature birds at each et al. 2008, p. 3), which borders Bolivia Serranı´a Sadiri in Madidi National Park, site (Fundacio´n ProAves 2011, p. 28). In and Argentina. Between 2005 and 2007, La Paz Department, Bolivia (Hosner et 2004, Flo´rez and Sierra estimated that approximately 100 individuals were al. 2009, p. 225). Serranı´a Sadiri is the population in the cliffs of the Cauca observed in the Salta Province. These found just inside Madidi National Park. River was 156 individuals and areas include: Finca Itaguazuti, and the Here, flocks of between 2 and 36 contained 54 breeding pairs and 26 Acambuco Provincial Flora and Fauna individuals have been observed (Hosner nests (2004, p. 3). However, this Reserve (8,266 hectares [ha] or 20,426 et al. 2009, p. 228). The Pilo´n Lajas population is subjected to impacts from acres [ac]) in the Tartagal Mountains Biosphere Reserve is primarily in La Paz poaching and deforestation (Flo´rez and and which borders Bolivia (BLI 2014; Department, but slightly overlaps into Sierra, 2004, pp. 3–4), so the population Navarro et al. 2008, pp. 1, 4; Coconier the Beni Department. Here, this species now may be smaller. These researchers et al. 2007, p. 59). In 2008, flocks of is described as uncommon (Hennessey also noted that many chicks fall from between 4 and 40 individuals of this 2003, p. 329). It was observed in the cliff nests and die. As of 2011, there species were observed in three ravines Parapetiguasu-Taremakua, and were no recent records in northern in the Salta Province. These locations Parapetiguas-Uruwigua in Santa Cruz, Antioquia (Paramillo), Serranı´a de San were the Agua Fresca (Cool Water) Cordillera Province, and at Altamachi Lucas, or Perija´ ranges (Fundacio´n Ravine north of Campo Cauzuti, El and Madidi in Cochabamba, Ayopaya ProAves 2011, pp. 28–29). Limo´n Ravine (which had the largest Province (MacLeod 2009, pp. 42–43). In In the Frı´o Valley of Colombia, this population), and the Caraparı´ River summary, within Bolivia, there are species is reported to be present only Ravine. These are believed to be many small populations of this species during the breeding season (Strewe and established populations, rather than in areas that provide suitable habitat for Navarro 2004, p. 50). Several nests were flocks crossing over from Bolivia this species (primarily large forest found here in forest fragments. A (Navarro et al. 2008, pp. 1, 4). patches under some form of protection). population at El Congo Reserve was intensively studied in 2001. One nest Bolivia Colombia was located 12 m (39 ft) above ground In Bolivia, the military macaw is In the late 1990s, there were in a Ceiba tree, within open primary regularly observed in five national approximately five disjunct populations forest on a steep slope at 900 m (2,953 parks: Tambopata National Reserve, in the central Andes Mountains (Snyder ft). A breeding population of 12 pairs, Pilo´n Lajas Biosphere Reserve, Madidi et al. 2000, p. 125). In Colombia, groups with groups of up to 28 was observed National Park, Apolobamba National of 50 individuals have been observed, in December 2000. However, here it is Integrated Management Area, and and in one case, a population was still threatened in the valley by habitat Amboro´ National Park (Hennessey 2011, estimated to have 156 individuals loss and domestic trade (two cases pers. comm.). This species exists in the (Flo´rez and Sierra 2004, pp. 2–3). In noted in 2001) (Strewe and Navarro

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2004, p. 50), and the population may was observed in the Reserva Kichwa Rı´o estimated to be 130 individuals (Bonilla now be decimated. (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, 2012, p. 6). This species follows pp. 70–72). Prior to 1980, it was seasonal food sources, so flocks move to Ecuador observed in the upper Upano River other areas seasonally. In Mexico, there In Ecuador, this species is considered Valley (Ridgely 1980 p. 244). In 2006, are reasonably healthy but small to be very rare (Arcos-Torres and 200 ha (494 ac) were turned into the populations in the following areas: Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 71). This species Narupa Reserve, where this species was • Alamos Rio Cuchujaqui (Sonora), has been observed in the areas of observed in approximately 2010 • Sumaco and Zamora–Chinchipe in (Fundacio´n ProAves et al. 2010, p. 42). Puerto Vallarta (Jalisco), Ecuador (Snyder et al. 2000, p. 125) and Additionally, in 2010, a pair of military • Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere at Kichwa River Reserve (Reserva macaws was observed in northern Reserve (at the border of Puebla and Kichwa Rı´o), within the Gran Sumaco Ecuador in the Sumaco region (Olah and Oaxaca States) Mineral de Nuestra Guacamayos Biosphere Reserve (Arcos- Barnes 2010, p. 19). Sen˜ ora Reserve (Sinaloa), Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72). • Mexico El Cielo Biosphere Reserve Most records of military macaw in (Tamaulipas), Ecuador during the 1980s and 1990s There are several small populations of • found groups of up to 20 individuals military macaws in Mexico, each Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve ´ (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001); however, consisting of between approximately 20 (Queretaro), lately most records have not exceeded 8 and 90 individuals (Jimenez-Arcos et al. • Sierra Manantla´n Biosphere Reserve individuals (Arcos-Torres and Solano- 2012, p. 864; Rivera-Ortiz et al. 2008, p. (Jalisco), Ugalde 2008, p. 71) except for a 256), although there has been an • Vicinity of Copalillo (Guerrero) breeding colony of 16 individuals that anecdotal report of a population (Jimenez-Arcos et al. 2012, p. 865).

In Mexico, there may also be isolated de Banderas’’), Nuevo Leo´n, San Luis Nieto et al. 2006, p. 14). In 2005, 25 populations of military macaws in other Potosı´, and Zacatecas. Areas where it nests were observed (Cruz-Nieto et al. States. Figure 2 shows the approximate has been recently documented are 2006, p. 14). This canyon is present day and historical distribution described below. approximately 700 m (0.5 miles) wide of the military macaw in Mexico as of Chihuahua by 14 km (8.6 miles) in length and 2008 (Arizmendi 2008, p. 4). Other consists of mature pines, firs, and oaks. States where it may exist include Researchers believe there is a Some gallery temperate forest remains remaining population in the Sierra Colima, Durango, Michoaca´n, Morelos, in this area. Madre Occidental Mountains (north- Nayarit (in the Valley of Flags or ‘‘Valle central Mexico) in Otachique (Cruz-

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Guerrero macaws were observed (Bonilla-Ruz et preserving and protecting habitat, and A colony of approximately 20 military al. 2007a, p. 729). During 2007–2008, at creating awareness in the area. least 67 birds were observed during the macaws was studied between 2006 and Peru 2010 in the vicinity of Copalillo, month of August (Rivera-Ortiz et al. 2008, p. 256; Rivera-Ortiz et al. 2006, p. There are populations in Manu Guerrero (Jime´nez-Arcos et al. 2012, pp. Biosphere Reserve, Tambopata National 864–865). The vegetation is tropical 26). The known nesting site locations within the reserve increased from five to Reserve, and Bahuaja Sonene National deciduous forest; and a canyon is Park in Peru. The two latter parks present. nine during the study period (Rivera- Ortiz et al. 2006, p. 28). Currently in the border one another in the southern Jalisco Sabino Canyon, the population of Peruvian Amazon region (ParksWatch military macaws is thought to be 2002, p. 1). This species has been This species is found sporadically in observed around the Pongo de Mainique small groups of a few to approximately between 90 and 100 individuals (Arizmendi 2008, p. 15). of the Urubamba River and on the upper 100 macaws in the western foothills of Tambopata River (Snyder et al. 2000, p. Sierra del Cuale and Sierra Cacoma in Sinaloa 125). According to a 2010 paper, it was Jalisco on the western coast of Mexico observed in the Madre de Dios (Renton 2004, pp. 13–14). Other groups This species exists in Mineral de Nuestra Sen˜ ora de la Candelaria department in the southeastern of macaws in the region are in Cabo Peruvian Amazon (Lee 2010, p. 14). Corrientes in the Horcones river basin Ecological Preserve, 12 km (7.4 mi) southeast of the town of Cosala in Flocks of 40 to 50 individuals have been (approximately 100 macaws). There are observed in Atalya at Madre de Dios other small populations in the vicinity Sinaloa, Mexico (Rubio et al. 2007, p. 52; Bonilla-Ruz et al. 2007b, p. 45). The (Snyder et al. 2000, p. 125). The species of Puerto Vallarta (Carrillo et al. 2013, has been observed seasonally in small preserve is 1,256 ha (3,104 ac) and pp. 45, 47). This species was observed numbers in the area of the Hua´llaga consists of dry tropical forest. In 2002, in 2004 near a freshwater lake, Cajo´n de River Canyon (JGP Consultants 2011 pp. this area was designated as a protected Pen˜ a (26 by 9 km (16 by 5.6 mi) in size), 1, 5, 8). which was constructed in 1976. It is area by the State of Sinaloa Decree. Venezuela found in the Chamela-Cuixmala Sonora Biosphere Reserve (132,000 ha or 32,617 Within Venezuela, it has been ac), which is managed by Mexico’s Between 2008 and 2009, it was documented primarily within protected Instituto de Ecologia of the National observed at the Northern Jaguar Reserve areas. In this country, little information Autonomous University of Mexico in east-central Sonora, and was about the species exists (Rodriguez et al. (UNAM) and nongovernmental described as a rare summer resident 2004, pp. 375–376). Here it persists in organizations (NGOs). Patches of semi- there (Flesch 2009, pp. 5, 12). In this the Andes in the Central Coastal deciduous forest in this area form area, this species was recently observed Cordillera and Sierra de Perija´ corridors between existing protected in small flocks in cliff areas (Flesch (Rodriguez et al. 2004, pp. 375, 378, areas, such as the Chamela-Cuixmala 2008, pp. 35–36). In 2005, it was 379). It has been found on the north and the Sierra Manatla´n Biosphere observed in the Rı´o Aros canyon and slopes of El A´ vila, Guatopo, Henri Reserves (Renton 2004, p. 14). These upper Rı´o Yaqui valley in an area Pittier National Park, the State of patches likely have served as critical known as the Yaqui Basin (O’Brien et al. Cojedes, Cerro La Misio´n, and Sierra de ecological links for this species. 2006, pp. 4, 27–28). Flesch suggests that Perija´ National Park (Desenne and the species is likely to occur only in Oaxaca Strahl 1994 and Fernandez-Badillo et al. cliffs near stands of tropical vegetation 1994 in Snyder et al. 2000, p. 125). A This species has recently been the (full citation 2008, p. 27). new population of this species was focus of research in Sabino Canyon, Tamaulipas recorded at two localities at the Oaxaca. Sabino Canyon is in the Catatumbo-Barı´ National Park along the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve Historically, in Mexico’s eastern State Colombian-Venezuelan border (Reserva de la Biosfera Tehuacan of Tamaulipas, flocks of approximately (Avendan˜ o 2011, p. 2). Moist forests Cuicatlan), created in 1998, in central 60 individuals were noted almost daily exist as four distinct enclaves within the Mexico. The reserve spans 490,187 ha in the area of Go´mez Farı´as, Mexico Catatumbo Valley, in both northwestern (1,211,278 ac) and is located within the (Sutton and Pettingill 1942, p. 14). The Venezuela and northeastern Colombia. Mixteca Oaxaquen˜ a Province between Go´mez Farı´as region is on the eastern This extends the species’ previously the cities of Puebla and Orı´zaba. It is slope of the Sierra Madre Oriental known range from the east slope of the approximately 150 km (93 mi) southeast mountain range, known locally as the Serranı´a de Perija´ southwards of Mexico City (http:// ‘‘Sierra de Guatemala.’’ This area is in (Avendan˜ o 2011, p. 2). www.parkswatch.org, accessed July 11, the general vicinity of the state- 2011) and approximately 2 hours from protected El Cielo Biosphere Reserve, Summary of Range Tehuacan, Oaxaca, Mexico. Large where this species is still known to According to several surveys, the mountain ranges delineate the occur (Arvin 2001, p. 8). The University military macaw exists in small boundaries of the reserve, and six rivers of Texas at Brownsville maintains a populations ranging from a few pairs to are within the protected area’s research station, Rancho del Cielo, approximately 100 individuals. It is boundaries. within the 145,687-hectare (360,000- found in protected areas in Mexico, In 2001, this species was observed in acre) reserve. The research station Colombia, Bolivia, and to a lesser two canyons within this reserve. In both supports locally driven scientific extent, in Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, and ravines, 20 pairs were observed nesting research and community development Argentina (see Figure 1), and is unlikely (Salazar-Torres 2001, p. 18). Here, this (University of Texas at Brownsville, to exist in small populations outside of species nests in the canyon cliff walls in unpaginated). Activities conducted by protected areas where large expanses of crevices that can be as high as 250 m the research station have positive suitable habitat still remain (Bonilla (820 ft). Between 2002 and 2004, impacts on this species by attracting 2012, p. 9). The population in the Pilo´n approximately 100 individual military researchers and the birding community, Lajas Biosphere Reserve, Bolivia, may

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serve as a link to other populations of species affected by trade. CITES is an Conservation of Fauna, enacted in 1981. this species to the northwest and to the international agreement through which Decree 691/81 addresses the protection south (Hennessey et al. 2003, pp. 330– member countries, called Parties, work and conservation of wild fauna and is 331). Records indicate that this species together to ensure that international implemented through law 22.421. occurs primarily in protected areas trade in CITES-listed animals and plants Bolivia (Flesch 2009; MacLeod 2009; Flesch is not detrimental to the survival of wild 2008; Flo´rez and Sierra 2004; Rodriguez populations by regulating their import, In Bolivia, this species is listed as 2004; Renton 2004; Hennessey et al. export, and reexport. All of the range vulnerable. The 1975 Law on Wildlife, 2003), such as protected parks where countries for this species are Parties to National Parks, Hunting and Fishing there are large remaining areas of CITES (http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/ (Decree Law No. 12,301 1975, pp. 1–34) suitable habitat for nesting, feeding, and parties/alphabet.php, accessed May 7, has the fundamental objective of breeding (see Figure 1). 2014). Most psittacines (parrots), protecting the country’s natural including the military macaw, were resources. This law governs the Summary of Population Estimate included in CITES Appendix II in 1981. protection, management, utilization, There are various but imprecise An Appendix-II listing includes species transportation, and selling of wildlife population estimates for the military not necessarily threatened with and their products. It also governs the macaw. One report estimates the extinction, but in which trade must be protection of endangered species, population to be fewer than 10,000 controlled in order to avoid utilization habitat conservation of fauna and flora, individuals (Arizmendi 2008, p. 3). BLI incompatible with their survival. The and the declaration of national parks, reports that the population is estimated military macaw was transferred to biological reserves, refuges, and wildlife to be between 10,000 and 19,999 mature Appendix I of CITES in 1987, because sanctuaries. individuals with a decreasing trend (BLI populations were declining rapidly due 2014, p. 2). We believe that the to uncontrolled trapping for the Colombia population is significantly fewer than international pet bird trade. An Colombia categorizes this species as 10,000 based on recent documented Appendix-I listing includes species ‘‘vulnerable’’ (Salaman et al. 2009, p. observations of this species, most of threatened with extinction whose trade 21). A vulnerable species is considered which are described in this status is permitted only under exceptional to be one that is not in imminent danger review. Researchers in Colombia agree circumstances, which generally of extinction in the near future, but it with our conclusion (Botero–Delgadillo precludes commercial trade. could be if natural population trends and Pa´ez 2011, p. 13). Published continue downward and deterioration of WBCA literature (referenced in this document) its range continues (EcoLex 2002, p. 10). has documented small flocks ranging The import of the military macaw into from approximately 16 to 156 the United States is also regulated by Ecuador individuals distributed in disjunct the Wild Bird Conservation Act (WBCA) In Ecuador, this species is considered locations in Mexico, Argentina, (16 U.S.C. 4901 et seq.), which was endangered, ‘‘en peligro de extincio´n’’. Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, enacted on October 23, 1992, in an effort Here, this species is considered to be and Bolivia. In situations where the to ensure that exotic bird species are not very rare (Arcos-Torres and Solano- species is rare or has small populations, adversely affected by U.S. trade. The Ugalde 2008, p. 69). the number of observations made per purpose of the WBCA is to promote the survey may be very small and the conservation of CITES-listed exotic Mexico number of sites limited, and, therefore, birds by ensuring that all imports into In Mexico, the military macaw is estimates may not be accurate (Pollack the United States are (1) sustainable and protected as endangered under Mexico’s 2006, p. 891). (2) not detrimental to the species. Wildlife Protection Act (Benetiz-Diaz The current total population number Permits may be issued to allow imports 2012, p. 2) and has been highlighted as is unclear; however, based on these of listed birds for scientific research, a priority species for conservation in the recent records, we believe that the zoological breeding or display, or as Mexican Parrot Conservation Plan population is between a few thousand personal pets when certain criteria are (Rivera-Ortiz et al. 2008, p. 256; Renton and 10,000 remaining individuals (BLI met. The Service may approve 2004, p. 12). Its official list of 2014, p. 1; Bonilla 2012, p. 9). cooperative breeding programs and endangered and threatened bird species Conservation Status subsequently issue import permits is termed the Norma Oficial Mexicana under such programs. Wild-caught birds 059 (NOM–059, 2010) (Benetiz-Diaz International Union for Conservation of may be imported into the United States 2012, p. 2). Nature (IUCN) if the Service approves a management Peru There are various protections in place plan for their sustainable use. At this for this species at the international, time, the military macaw is not part of In Peru, this species is listed as national, and local levels. At the a Service-approved cooperative vulnerable and its protections fall under international level, this species is listed breeding program and does not have an the jurisdiction of the National Institute as vulnerable by the IUCN (2011). approved management plan for wild- of Natural Resources (Instituto Nacional However, this status under IUCN caught birds. de Recursos Naturales, INRENA). Peru’s conveys no actual protections to the Supreme Decree No. 034–2004–AG Argentina species. (2004, p. 276,855) prohibits hunting, This species is considered to be a take, transport, and trade of protected CITES critically endangered species by the species, except as permitted by The military macaw is protected by Government of Argentina (Navarro et al. regulation. the Convention on International Trade 2008, p. 1). It is protected through in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna national legislation (Law 22.421 and Venezuela and Flora (CITES), which is one of the Decree 691/81), administered by the In Venezuela, this species is listed as most important means of controlling Direccio´n Nacional de Fauna y Flora endangered (Rodriguez et al. 2004, p. international trade in animal and plant Silvestres. Law 22.421 addresses the 376).

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NGO Involvement establishing the local group, Grupo of the principal causes of Amazon In the 1980s, conservationists realized Ecolo´gico Sierra Gorda. In collaboration deforestation (Bonilha 2008, p. 17). the value of identifying areas or habitat with the local community, this group Because this species has a small and in terms of numbers of endemic bird has taken action to protect bird fragmented population, poaching, while species. BirdLife International, in communities as well as other groups of apparently uncommon, remains a partnership with countries, other wildlife in this area. Strategies include concern (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), environmental education, establishment 2011, p. 13). and various other partners, developed of private reserves, and payment for We focus primarily on where this the Important Bird Area (IBA) program, environmental services in a 25,000-ha species has been documented, which is a worldwide initiative to (61,776-ac) area of this reserve (Pedraza- particularly in parks and other areas identify and protect critical areas for Ruiz, 2008 p. 1). The Chamela-Cuixmala with protected status and the peripheral bird conservation. IBAs are areas that Biosphere Reserve is managed by zones. In some cases, we will evaluate regularly contain significant numbers of Mexico’s Instituto de Ecologia of the the factor by country. In other cases, we one or more globally threatened species National Autonomous University of may evaluate the factor by a broader or other species of global conservation Mexico (UNAM) and local NGOs. Other region if we do not have adequate concern. One of the criteria in NGOs are working with communities to information specific to a particular identifying important regions for bird obtain macaw feathers from aviaries so country about this species. This is conservation is the distribution of that indigenous people will not hunt the because often the threats are the same or restricted-range and globally threatened macaws for their feathers (Renton 2004, very similar throughout the species’ species such as the military macaw. As p. 14). In the Sinaloa area, the range. ´ of 2007, more than 8,500 IBAs had been Universidad Autonoma de Sinaloa has A. The Present or Threatened identified worldwide (Garcı´a-Moreno et been active in conservation of this Destruction, Modification, or al. 2007, p. 324). The military macaw is species since 1998 (Rubio et al. 2007, p. Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range included in 37 of those IBAs (BLI 2011b, 52). This university conducts research pers. comm.). Note that this does not outreach activities to foster knowledge, Habitat mean this species always occupies those and conservation of this species at the The military macaw has a large but areas; rather, the species has been Mineral de Nuestra Sen˜ ora de la fragmented distribution (276,000 km2 identified in those areas. Candelaria Ecological Preserve. (106,564 mi2)), and not all locations A number of locally based and Evaluation of Threat Factors where the military macaw exists are international conservation organizations known (BLI 2014, p. 1). Habitat have developed programs in connection Introduction destruction and modification is one of with protected areas within this species’ Section 4 of the ESA (16 U.S.C. 1533) the main threats to the military macaw; range, such as ecotourism, to observe and implementing regulations (50 CFR significant amounts of this species’ clay lick areas (Lee 2010, pp. 167–168). 424) set forth procedures for adding habitat have been converted such that The Wildlife Conservation Society species to, removing species from, or its habitat is no longer suitable and no (WCS) is implementing a range of reclassifying species on the Federal longer provides adequate shelter projects aimed at strengthening the Lists of Endangered and Threatened (nesting sites) and food sources, and management of Greater Madidi- Wildlife and Plants. Under section these causes of habitat loss are likely to Tambopata Landscape in Bolivia. Its 4(a)(1) of the ESA, a species may be continue (Marin-Togo et al. 2012, p. program is based on three main determined to be endangered or 462). Between 2000 and 2005, of all the categories: (1) Park management, (2) threatened based on any of the continents, South America had the natural resources management, and (3) following five factors: largest net loss of forested area, scientific research (Parks Watch 2005, A. The present or threatened experiencing a loss of 4.3 million ha pp. 2–3). The Greater Madidi- destruction, modification, or (10.6 million ac) per year (FAO 2006 in Tambopata Landscape, where the WCS curtailment of its habitat or range; Mosandl et al. 2008, p. 38). In some is monitoring populations of the B. Overutilization for commercial, countries, extractive activities for military macaw (WCS 2009, pp. 2, 8), recreational, scientific, or educational nontimber forest products occur, such encompasses one of the largest swaths purposes; as the removal of palm trees (Arecaceae of intact montane forest in the Tropical C. Disease or predation; family) to obtain hearts of palm Andes in northern Bolivia and southern D. The inadequacy of existing regulatory (ParksWatch 2011; http:// Peru. The GMTL is 110,074 km2 (42,500 mechanisms; and www.tropicalforestresearch.org). mi2) and includes five protected areas. E. Other natural or manmade factors Currently, the military macaw exists A Colombian-based NGO, Fundacio´n affecting its continued existence. in many parks and other areas that have ProAves, is also working to protect this Throughout the range of this species, protected status (Marı´n-Togo et al. 2012, species and its habitats. Fundacio´n the factors impacting this species are p. 465; Coconier et al. 2009, p. 63; ProAves developed a conservation plan generally very similar. The primary Arizmendi 2008, p. 4; Rodriguez et al. for 2010 to 2020 for several parrot factors affecting the military macaw are 2004, p. 78; Renton 2004, p. 12). Studies species, including the military macaw habitat loss and degradation, and have found that, compared with the (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. 7). poaching (Carrillo et al. 2013, p. 46; surrounding areas, conditions inside However, it is unclear if or when it will Gastan˜ aga et al. 2011, entire; Strewe and parks were significantly better than their be adopted by the Government of Navarro 2004, p. 50). Habitat loss is surrounding counterparts (Bruner et al. Colombia. primarily due to conversion of the 2001, p. 125). One study found that, in In Mexico, several NGOs are species’ habitat (generally forests) to 40 percent of tropical parks, land that participating in the conservation and agriculture and other forms that are not had formerly been under cultivation and management of this species. In 1989, a optimal for the military macaw (Donald that was incorporated into park strong citizen movement began to et al. 2010, p. 26; Flo´rez and Sierra boundaries had recovered. This conserve the 383,567-ha (947,815-ac) 2004, p. 3). Conversion of habitat to soy subsequently led to an increase in Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve by plantations is now considered to be one vegetative cover. The study found that

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83 percent of parks were successful at (61,776 ac) per year resulting from land million ha; 141.3 million ac) of Bolivia’s mitigating encroachment (Bruner et al. converted to agricultural use (Devenish total area is forested (FAO 2010, p. 228). 2001, p. 125). This was confirmed in a 2009, p. 60). The area converted to soy Of this area, 38.9 million ha (96.1 study published in 2007 that found that production increased from as little as 3 million ac) are within the Bolivian forests in conservation units were four percent in the 1970s to 40 percent of the Amazon and constitute 5 percent of the times better at protecting against total crop area in 2003, covering 14 total Amazon forest (Locklin and Haack deforestation than unprotected areas million ha (34.6 million ac) (Devenish 2003, p. 774). As of 2005, Bolivia had (Oliveira et al. 2007, p. 1,235). However, 2009, p. 60). Conversion of lands to soy 12 national parks, including 6 with this species still faces habitat loss production is favored by the current integrated management natural areas, 1 (Benetiz 2012, p. 4). political and economic climate, both at with indigenous territory (or communal We are limiting our analysis to areas the global and national levels (Devenish lands), and 4 national reserves; 2 where there is information available 2009, p. 60). With regard to other types biosphere reserves; and 3 integrated about this species. For instance, there is of land use, the area used for cattle management natural areas, totaling very little information available about ranching has decreased, but exotic tree 16,834,380 ha (41,598,659 ac) this species in Argentina and Venezuela plantations have doubled (Devenish (ParksWatch 2005, p. 2). A discussion of (Coconier et al. 2009, p. 63; Navarro et 2009, p. 60). typical threats in Bolivia’s parks al. 2008, p. 1; Coconier et al. 2007, p. In addition, pipeline routes and follows. The region suffers from chronic 52; Rodriguez et al. 2004, pp. 378–379). associated roads are being established in and intense poverty levels, which affect However, in both of these countries, the this area in connection with oil, gas, and more than 90 percent of the population species faces similar threats (such as the mineral exploration (Navarro et al. 2008, (Instituto Nacional de Estadı´stica de lack of suitable habitat) as in other pp. 7, 9). Road building operations Bolivia (INE) 2005). The result is intense countries (Rodriguez et al. 2004, p. 373). greatly facilitate access to large, conflict between development and The largest populations of this species, previously inaccessible forested areas conservation. In Madidi National Park, discussed in detail in the Range, (Fimbel et al. 2001, pp. 511–512). The the three greatest threats to the nature Observations, and Population Estimates area occupied by permanent facilities preserve are the construction of a section, appear to be in Mexico and including pipelines and refineries is highway within the park, drilling for oil, Bolivia. Even in these countries, its relatively small, but oil development and a planned hydroelectric dam. Other populations are small and fragmented. areas cover large tracts of land. Oil activities that are impacting or are likely In other countries within its range such development can have significant to impact this park are illegal logging, as Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador, it negative impacts on nearby habitat gold mining, and uncontrolled tourism exists in smaller populations, and through construction of roads and other (ParksWatch 2011b, pp. 1–15; Chavez Argentina (Nores and Yzurieta 1994, pp. buildings, discharge of contaminants, 2010, pp. 1–2). 315–316) and Venezuela have even and oil spills and leaks (Gay et al smaller and possibly negligible undated, pp. 2–6). Deforestation and Logging populations. Additionally, the military Although some of this species’ habitat The forests of Bolivia have mainly macaw may have occurred in Guatemala is protected, its habitat continues to been subjected to selective logging (Salo in the past, but it is no longer found shrink in Argentina. In the area of and Toivonen 2009, p. 610; there (Gardner 1972 in Snyder et al. Acambuco, where the military macaw Fredericksen 2003, p. 10), which has 2000, p. 125). has been observed, the designation of been done at very low levels and with Acambuco Reserve as a provincial low human pressures (Pacheco 2006, p. Argentina reserve provides some protective 206), allowing them so far to remain In Argentina, habitat destruction, measures. The purposes of this reserve, largely intact. In the five national parks particularly deforestation for in part, are to preserve its genetic where the military macaw is regularly agricultural expansion for soy resources, to preserve the environment observed, there are some protections in plantations, and timber extraction had surrounding catch basins of its rivers, place for the species’ habitat (Hennessey significantly increased as of 2009 and to guarantee the maintenance of the 2011, pers. comm.). However, logging (Devenish 2009, p. 60; Chebez et al. in biodiversity living in the reserve. still occurs within the range of this litt. in Navarro et al. 2008, pp. 7, 9; However, in the Salta Province, this species (ParksWatch 2011b, p. 1). Large DiPaola et al. 2008, pp. 1, 8). The species is primarily found in areas that tracts of primary forest remain in species was thought to no longer exist are unprotected, with the exception of Bolivia, but it is likely that some of in Argentina, which is the southernmost the Acambuco Reserve (Navarro et al. these will be subjected to logging part of its range, but recent surveys 2008, pp. 1, 7, 9). In summary, (Fredericksen 2003, p. 13) due to slash- found small populations of this species significant amounts of this species’ and-burn activities by indigenous in at least two locations in the Salta habitat have been converted such that communities, and because forest Province (Navarro et al. 2008, p. 1). The its habitat is no longer suitable, and products are one of Bolivia’s primary primary threat to forested areas in these causes of habitat loss are likely to exports (Byers and Israel 2008, p. vi). Argentina is the expansion of continue. The use of slash-and-burn practices on agriculture, particularly soy, into steep and erodible slopes has remaining habitat such as the Chaco Bolivia considerably affected the area’s plains in the Andes mountain range Madidi National Park experiences hydrological regime, particularly near (Centro de Accio´n Popular Olga threats that are representative of threats the city of Santa Cruz. In many areas of Ma´rque´z de Aredez (CAPOMA) 2009, p. to this species’ habitat in Bolivia. The human settlement, soil erosion is 6). The practice of drying swamps park is one of the key areas where this compounded by logging, nutrient through channeling is common in species likely has a viable population in depletion, and weed invasion. northern Argentina, particularly for Bolivia. Thus, we focused our analysis As of 2006, 89 timber companies held producing soybeans, which is on this park. The National Service of the rights to 5.8 million ha (14.3 million experiencing increasing demand in the Protected Areas (SERNAP) has authority ac) of logging concessions (Pacheco global market. The current rate of over Bolivia’s parks and protected 2006, p. 208). The Bolivian Forestry deforestation stands at 25,000 ha lands. Approximately 53 percent (57.2 Law of 1996 (Forestry Law 1700)

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requires the preparation and approval of area’s mahogany trees, which were the the erosion of Bolivia’s ecosystems management plans and adherence to most valuable tree at the time (World (MacLeod 2009, p. 6; ParksWatch 2005, best management practices (BMPs) Land Trust 2010, p. 1). p. 1). Large tracts of primary forest (Fredericksen 2003, p. 10). For instance, remain in Bolivia, but it is likely that Hydroelectric Power harvesters must pre-map harvestable many of these will be subjected to trees (which have minimum diameter Possibly one of the greatest threats in logging and other pressures, such as limits), protect seed trees, and set aside the Madidi National Park is the extraction of non-timber forest products, areas that are designated as protected or proposed Bala Hydroelectric Dam particularly because forest products not harvestable. Management issues still Project at the Beni River in the Bala contribute to Bolivia’s national exports need to be addressed, including Gorge, where the Beni River goes (Byers and Israel 2008, p. vi). The sufficient regeneration time for through the Bala Mountain Range. The Government of Bolivia is attempting to commercial species (Fredericksen 2003, Bala Hydroelectric Dam, as proposed, balance improving its economy with p. 10). However, Bolivia continues to could flood much of Madidi National conservation initiatives, and some of its attempt to balance the use of its natural Park and the adjacent biosphere reserve development initiatives may negatively resources with competing priorities. For and indigenous territory Pilo´n Lajas, impact this species’ habitat. Despite example, the Pilo´n Lajas Management which is an area of about 2,000 km2 protections in place, this species’ Plan divided the reserve into specific (4,942 mi2) (Chavez 2010, pp. 1–2; habitat in Bolivia continues to zones to combine indigenous Bolivia Supreme Decree 24191). experience these threats, and we expect community rights with conservation Construction of dams can have severe these pressures to continue into the initiatives (Hennessey et al. 2003, p. impacts on ecosystems (McCartney et al. future. 320). Despite national laws and 2001, p. v). For example, a dam blocks Colombia regulations, activities such as illegal the flow of sediment downstream. timber extraction continue to spread During construction of dams, In the past, human colonization, unabated (World Bank 2006, p. 8; U.S. disturbance to soils at the construction development, and exploration within Forest Service 2007, p. 2; Pacheco 2006, site is one of the largest concerns. This the range of the species in Colombia p. 208). leads to downstream erosion and were limited due to the exceptionally increased sediment buildup in a steep and high terrain of the Andes Roads reservoir. Although the current status of (Salaman et al. 2002, p. 160). However, There are increasing demands for road this dam is unclear, it is clear that the researchers reported in 2004 that the infrastructure within Bolivia for many Government of Bolivia is intent on Cauca River Canyon in northeastern reasons. It is one of the poorest becoming more self-reliant, in part Colombia, an area containing military countries in South America (MacLeod through creating its own sources of macaws, was extensively deforested 2009, p. 6; INE 2005), and the energy through hydroelectric dams. (Flore´z and Sierra 2004, p. 3). The main government would like to improve its threats in the lowlands are the Other Pressures economy (ParksWatch 2011b, p. 13). expansion of agriculture, particularly by The construction of the Apolo-Ixiamas In Madidi National Park, there is small farmers in the middle altitude Road is one way of facilitating access to limited legal hunting, but in the areas areas, and extractive activities such as its natural resources. A road has been surveyed, this species was described as hunting (including the removal of birds proposed that would bisect the Madidi common and not exploited (Hosner et to sell as pets) and wood harvesting National Park and Natural Integrated al. 2009, p. 226). Nine villages or (Salaman et al. 2007, p. 89). As Management Area, opening vast, communities are within the national resources become scarcer in the currently inaccessible tropical forest park, and 22 are in the integrated lowlands, these pressures move upland. areas to colonization and resource management natural area. Of the 31 Associated with these farming practices extraction (ParksWatch 2011b, pp. 1–2). communities, 3 are located in the is the use of livestock and the erosion This can promote illegal logging, and Andean plateau zone. In the lowlands, caused by livestock grazing on steep facilitate access to previously two of the communities occupy the zone slopes, as well as erosion due to inaccessible forested areas (Fimbel et al. of valleys around the municipality of cultivation. 2001, pp. 511–512). The construction of Apolo. Timber extraction occurs here A 2010 report indicated that forest roads through this park has been a (WorldLand Trust 2010, p. 1). In 2010, cover was largely continuous in source of controversy for several years an additional 25,090 ha (62,000 ac) of Colombia, but deforestation had http://conservation-strategy.org/sites/ pristine tropical rainforest in Bolivia increased dramatically as of 2010 (FAO default/files/field-file/6_Madidi_Road_ were protected, following a decision by 2010, pp. 22, 106). Deforestation rates in Complete_Document.PDF, accessed May an indigenous community to create a lowland moist forest on the foothills of 6, 2014). The current status of the road tourism refuge in the Sadiri rainforest the eastern Andes of Colombia are and whether it will be constructed (WorldLand Trust 2010, p. 6). Landless rapidly accelerating. Deforestation has around the park or through the park Andean farmers make a living in the increased from 1.4 percent (1961–1979) remains unclear. However, regional lowlands, and they at times expand the to 4.4 percent (1979–1988), and is development plans are often agricultural frontier, increasing the risk correlated with increasing human implemented without consideration of of disease transmission between population density (Salaman et al. 2007, impacts on natural resources (WCS domestic animals and wildlife, bringing p. 89; Vin˜ a and Cavelier 1999, p. 31). 2009, p. 4). Plans to connect Bolivia and crops and domestic animals closer to Primary forest habitats throughout Peru to Brazil’s expanding markets and wildlife predators, and increasing Colombia have undergone extensive expand the energy industry (oil and gas) hunting pressure in surrounding forests deforestation. Vin˜ a et al. (2004, pp. 123– will affect fragile areas of high (WCS 2009, p. 4). 124) used satellite imagery to analyze biodiversity (WCS 2009, p. 4). Roads In summary, threats to the species’ deforestation rates and patterns along constructed in the past have also been habitat in Bolivia include unsustainable the Colombian-Ecuadorian border (in problematic. In the late 1990s, roads land use practices, illegal logging, road the Departments of Putumayo and through Serranı´a Sadiri spurred an building, and exploration activities for Sucumbios, respectively), finding that increase in unsustainable logging of the oil extraction, which are contributing to between 1973 and 1996, a total of 829

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km2 (320 mi2) of tropical forests within (approximately 5,000 ha or 12,355 ac), 2008, p. 72), it likely will be affected by the study area were converted to other and even here, illegal encroachment logging and the resulting deforestation uses. This corresponds to a nearly one- occurs (Salaman et al. 2007, p. 89). on nearby land. Researchers suggest that third total loss of primary forest habitat, the apparent lack of this species in Catatumbo-Barı´ National Park or a nearly 2 percent mean annual rate Ecuador is possibly related to lack of of deforestation within the study area. The primary threat in the Catatumbo- suitable sites for the formation of Since the 1970s, the Colombian Barı´ National Park (at the Colombian- breeding colonies, or lack of knowledge Government has encouraged road Venezuelan border) is deforestation and about sites that may be located in construction and colonization projects. impacts associated with coca inaccessible areas (Arcos-Torres and The goal is to create links to the vast plantations surrounding the Park Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72). We know of and undeveloped Amazonian region, (Fundacio´n ProAves 2011, pp. 28–29). no specific threats to the species in the and to open up the Llanos and Coca cultivation has fluctuated for Kichwa River Reserve, other than those Amazonian lowlands for utilization of several years. Over a 4-year study associated with small population sizes, their natural resources (Salaman et al. period, it contained about 100 ha (247 which is discussed under Small 2007, pp. 10, 89; Salaman et al. 2002, p. ac) of coca (United Nations Office on Population Size, below. 160). In recent years, this species’ Drugs and Crime, undated report, p. 33). habitat has come under increased A new population of this species was Mexico pressure with the completion of the recently recorded at two locations in Mexico has suffered extensive Mocoa-Bogota´ highway, the proposed this park (Avendan˜ o 2011 in BLI 2014a, deforestation (conversion of forest to Puerto Ası´s-Florencia road, and the p. 2). In addition, one population in the other land uses) and forest degradation discovery and exploitation of petroleum Cauca valley (fewer than 50 mature (reduction in forest biomass through and precious metals. All of these factors birds) could be affected by the selective cutting, etc.) over the past contribute to an escalation in human construction of a dam (155 m (508.5 ft) several decades (Commission for encroachment and associated impacts in height) that could affect its sole Environmental Cooperation (CEC) 2010, that degrade this species’ habitat breeding cliff. However, the status of the pp. 45, 75). In recent decades, Mexico’s (Salaman et al. 2007, p. 10). The few dam is still unclear (American Bird deforestation has been rapid (Blaser et remaining forest connections between Conservancy 2012, p. 24). al. 2011, pp. 343–344). Between 1990 and 2000, Mexico lost forest (factoring the upper and lower slopes are under Ecuador pressure, even where they are in natural regeneration of degraded minimally protected. Ecuador experiences one of the forest and planting of forest in areas that Five main routes link the lowlands highest deforestation rates in South previously did not have forest) at a net from Colombia’s high Andean interior to America (Mosandl et al. 2008, p. 37). rate of 344,000 ha (850,043 ac) per year other areas. Infrastructure development Forested habitat within many parts of (FAO 2010, p. 21). During 1990–2010, on the eastern slope of the Andes in Ecuador has diminished rapidly due to Mexico lost approximately 6 million ha Colombia, as well as adjacent Ecuador, logging, clearing for agriculture, and (15 million ac) of forest, and had one of has also caused significant human road development (Youth 2009, pp. 1– the largest decreases in primary forests population pressures and has led to 3; Mosandl et al. 2008, p. 37; Sierra worldwide (FAO 2010, pp. 56, 233). much habitat degradation. Increased 1999, p. 136; Dodson and Gentry 1991, Although Mexico’s rate of forest loss has and improved access roads have led to pp. 283–293). Between the years 1990 slowed in the past decade, it still the conversion of mature tropical forests and 2005, Ecuador lost a total of 2.96 continues. The current rate of net forest for pasture lands, petroleum products million ha (7.31 million ac) of primary loss in Mexico is 155,000 ha (383,013 exploitation, and coca plantations forest, which represents a 16.7 percent ac) per year, with an estimated 250,000– (Salaman et al. 2007, p. 89). These road deforestation rate, and a total loss of 300,000 ha (617,763–741,316 ac) per projects to link Colombia with 21.5 percent of forested habitat since year degraded (Government of Mexico Venezuela and Ecuador along the entire 1990 (Butler 2006b, pp. 1–3; FAO (GOM) 2010b, in Blaser et al. 2011, p. eastern base of the Andes have 2003b, p. 1). Much of the primary moist 344; FAO 2010, p. 233). contributed to additional deforestation. forest habitat has been replaced with As of 2010, Mexico had 64.8 million pastures and scattered trees (Collar et al. ha (160.1 million ac) of forest (Food and Serranı´a de los Churumbelos National 1992, p. 533). Very little suitable habitat Agriculture Organization (FAO) 2010, p. Park now remains for the species here, and 228), and 50 percent of these forests are Currently, the Serranı´a de los remaining suitable habitat is highly considered degraded. Projections of lost Churumbelos forest is almost entirely fragmented (Bass et al. 2010, p. 2; forested area by the year 2030 in Mexico intact and is owned by the government Snyder et al. 2000, p. 122). In the area are between 10 percent to nearly 60 (Salaman et al. 2007, pp. 10, 91–92). where this species exists, near the Gran percent of mature forests lost, and This mountain range has largely Sumaco Biosphere Reserve, there are approximately 0 to 54 percent of avoided the degree of human impact several oil reserves (Celi-Sangurima regrowth forests lost (CEC 2010, pp. 45, that other regions have suffered. 2005, p. 22). However, specific impacts 75). Deforestation via forest conversion However, this is changing rapidly due to to this species as a result of oil to agricultural uses remains a major mineral exploration (petroleum and exploration or extraction activities are driver of land transformation in Mexico precious metals) and natural resources unknown. (CEC 2008, p. 24). Agricultural (timber and rich organic soils for The colony in Kichwa River Reserve production is projected to double within agriculture) demands. The Serranı´a de is currently in an area designated as the country by 2030 (CEC 2010, pp. 34, los Churumbelos could become the protected, although it is unclear what 70). Although some of this increase in focus of large-scale deforestation and these protections entail. In this area, the production is expected due to an colonization in the near future (Salaman local community group Macaw Rio is increase in productivity on previously et al. 2007, p. 89). Parque Natural interested in conducting ecotourism. converted land, total agricultural land Nacional Cueva de los Gua´charos Although this colony has persisted for area in Mexico is projected to increase provides some protection to the forests about 150 years (Huatatoca pers comm. by 6,300 to 41,400 ha (15,568 to 102,302 in this region although it is a small park in Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde ac) by 2030 (CEC 2010, p. 75).

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In the range of the military macaw, conducted technical studies to propose claim to the land, these areas tend to such as the tropical forest along the the area as a nature reserve. The provide more habitat protection than Pacific coast of Mexico, high rates of university also conducted conservation other designations. All other protected deforestation have occurred; slash-and- projects here which focused on the areas are established by supreme burn agriculture still occurs along with ‘‘Ecology and Conservation of the resolution, which is viewed as a less grazing. In 2002, it was estimated that Military Macaw’’ and ‘‘Environmental powerful form of protection (Rodrı´guez the species had suffered a 23 percent Education and Ecotourism.’’ In 2002, and Young 2000, p. 330). habitat loss within its range in Mexico the Mineral de Nuestra Sen˜ ora reserve This species has been documented in using a Genetic Algorithm for Rule-set was formally designated. Since then, the Tambopata National Reserve, which Prediction (GARP) analysis tool (Rı´os- parrot populations and their habitat is a 275,000-ha (679,540-ac) Mun˜ oz 2002, pp. 24, 32). GARP analysis here both within and outside the conservation area created by the essentially uses ecological preserve have been affected by mining Peruvian Government in 1990. The characteristics of known species activities taking place in the area (Rubio main purpose was to protect the locations in order to determine its likely et al. 2007, p. 52). In early 2005, mining watersheds of the Tambopata and distribution. efforts began on underground Candamo Rivers. This area protects A 3-year study documented loss of development and drilling (Scorpio some of the last pristine lowland and habitat, particularly trees used by Mining 2011, p. 2). The current effect of premontane tropical humid forests in macaws, in the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan mining on the species is unclear. the Amazon. Within the Tambopata Biosphere Reserve, Sabino Canyon. In National Reserve, there have been their study, researchers found a total of Peru isolated human settlements along 170 individual plants of species There is little to no current published stretches of the Malinowski River, consumed by military macaws in the information with respect to specific which flows into the Tambopata River. pine forests in an area of 1,500 m2 threats to this species in Peru Fewer than 5,000 people inhabit the (16,146 ft2) in 2005 (Arizmendi 2008, p. (Gastan˜ aga et al. 2011, entire; JGP Tambopata National Reserve’s border 43). By January 2008, eleven (6.5 Consultants 2011, entire; Lee 2010, area to the north. They make a living of percent) of these trees had been logged. entire; Cowen 2009, entire; Terborgh slash-and-burn agriculture, small-scale In the transitional forest between dry 2004, entire; Brightsmith 2004, entire). gold mining, timber extraction, and and pine (in an area of 1,000 m2 or It exists in several parks that convey hunting and fishing. One area of 10,764 ft2), 134 plants were documented some measures of protection (Oliveira et Tambopata, including a buffer zone, was in 2005, and by January 2008, fifteen al. 2007, p. 1,235; Terborgh 2004, p. 35). recently described as a ‘‘crisis zone’’ (11.90 percent) of them had been logged. Peru’s protected areas are managed by (Lee 2010, p. 169). It has been described Arizmendi suggested that these the General Department of Natural as being at high risk for illegal activities are carried out by local Protected Areas, INRENA, under the settlement, timber extraction, and communities, and suggested that a local authority of Law No. 26834, Law of mining (Lee 2010, p. 169). environmental education campaign be Natural Protected Areas, promulgated in Populations of this species are implemented. A reduced number of 1997. The Peruvian national protected thought to be in the Manu Biosphere trees limit the availability of adequate area system includes several categories Reserve and the Bahuaja Sonene food resources across the landscape. of habitat protection. Habitat may be National Park in Peru (WCS 2007, p. 1; With fewer trees remaining, the area designated as any of the following: Herzog in litt. 2007; Terborgh 2004, pp. cannot support the same number of (1) Parque Nacional (National Park, an 40–41). The problems here are primarily individuals of the species and, area managed mainly for ecosystem due to human population growth therefore, causes a further reduction in conservation and recreation); (Terborgh 2004, pp. 40–41). Five the population. Macaws were not found (2) Santuario (Sanctuary, for the indigenous groups reside in the Manu in deforested areas, even where one of preservation of sites of notable natural Biosphere Reserve—they are both legal their important food sources, Hura or historical importance); and illegal settlers (Terborgh 2004, pp. polyandra, was left as shade for cattle (3) Reserva Nacional (National 40–41). An ecological research station (Rivera-Ortı´z et al. 2008, p. 256). As Reserve, for sustainable extraction of has been in place since 1973 in Manu´ further support, in Jalisco, most of the certain biological resources); National Park (Terborgh 2004, entire), sites where macaws were present had (4) Bosque de Proteccio´n (Protection which also adds some protection to the little or no habitat loss (note that none Forest, to safeguard soils and forests, species. Research has shown that often of the sites in Jalisco where military especially for watershed conservation); simply having a long-term research macaws were located were in protected (5) Zona Reservada (Reserved Zone, presence there can help to reduce areas). No macaws were located in sites for temporary protection while further poaching (Campbell et al. 2011, p. 2). with more than 30 percent habitat loss, study is under way to determine their Unlike parks in the United States, in even though these sites may have had importance); countries such as Peru, parks and abundant trees. (6) Bosque Nacional (National Forest, protected areas were formed around the to be managed for utilization); indigenous tribes that live there Mining (7) Reserva Comunal (Communal (Terborgh 2004, p. 51), and the At the Mineral de Nuestra Sen˜ ora Reserve, for local area use and management and purpose of the parks reserve in Co´sala, where this species management, with national oversight); often include protection of the rights of occurs, mining activities are occurring and indigenous human communities. This (Rubio et al. 2007, p. 52; Bonilla-Ruz et (8) Cotos de Caza (Hunting Reserve, philosophy of park protection and al. 2007b, p. 45). This reserve is 12 km for local use and management, with mandates of parks differs from in the (7.5 mi) southeast of Co´sala in Sinaloa, national oversight) (BLI 2008, p. 1; United States, where humans are Mexico. This reserve was created after a Rodrı´guez and Young 2000, p. 330). viewed as visitors to the parks, rather joint effort in 1999 between the state, Because the designations of national than permanent residents (Terborgh municipal government, and the parks, sanctuaries, and protection 2004, p. 51). In Manu Biosphere Autonomous University of Sinaloa. The forests are established by supreme Reserve, another potential threat is oil Autonomous University of Sinaloa decree that supersedes all other legal exploration. Both Shell and Mobil Oil

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have conducted oil exploration ha (3 million ac) in the Amazon. This, were recently found offered for sale for activities in this area (Terborgh 2004, p. combined with pressures of capture for $699 (Basile 2010, p. 2). In 2006, four 55; ParksWatch 2002, pp. 5, 7). Within the pet trade, has severely impacted the military macaws were advertised for Bahuaja, as of 2002, there were no wild population of military macaws. sale with an average sale price of $850 human establishments within its Studies have shown that, over time, (Cantu´ –Guzma´n et al. 2008, p. 72). boundaries (ParksWatch 2002a, p. 1). resident bird diversity generally Although the scope of the illegal trade However, activities that could affect the declines as remaining forest becomes in the military macaw is unknown, military macaw in this area include gold smaller and more fragmented (Turner poaching can be a lucrative and mining, illegal logging, extraction of 1996, pp. 202, 206). relatively risk-free source of income forest resources, and farming As with most parrots, the military (Dickson 2005, p. 548). (ParksWatch 2002b, p. 1). macaw requires large areas of suitable A high percentage of birds die during habitat, including large trees or other the process of capturing from the wild, Venezuela nesting cavities for nesting, feeding, and transporting, and selling them. Because There is little published information roosting as well as food sources. most of these activities are illegal, it is about the military macaw in Venezuela Deforestation and logging is a common difficult to accurately determine the (BLI 2014, pp. 1–2; Rodriguez 2004, form of habitat loss that affects this actual mortality rate, but estimates vary entire). Here it exists in the Andes in the species (Benetiz-Diaz 2012, p. 4; Rı´os- between 31 and 90 percent (Weston and Central Coastal Cordillera, and Sierra de Mun˜ oz et al. 2009, pp. 502–505). Memon 2009, p. 79; Cantu´ -Guzma´n et Perija´ (Rodriguez et al. 2004, pp. 375, Deforestation via conversion of land to al. 2007, pp. 7, 20, 22, 55, 60). Military 378, 379). It has been found on the north agricultural use is a threat to military macaws mate for life, are long-lived, and slopes of El A´ vila, Guatopo, Henri macaws because it directly eliminates have low reproductive rates. These traits Pittier National Park, Ceroo La Mision, forest habitat, removing the trees that make them particularly sensitive to the and Sierra de Perija´ National Park support the species’ nesting, roosting, impacts of their removal from the wild (Desenne and Strahl 1994 in Snyder et and dietary requirements. It also results (Lee 2010, p. 3; Thiollay 2005, p. 1,121; al. 2000, p. 125; Fernandez-Badillo et al. in fragmented habitat that isolates Wright et al. 2001, p. 711). Wild harvest 1994 in Snyder et al. 2000 p. 125). Most military macaw populations, potentially can destroy pair bonds, remove of its range in Venezuela is within compromising the genetics of these potentially reproductive adults from the protected areas, but as of 2000, threats populations through inbreeding breeding pool, and have a significant still were reported to exist in the depression and genetic drift (Lande effect on small populations (Kramer and protected areas (Snyder et al. 2000, p. 1995, pp. 787–789; Gilpin and Soule´ Drake 2010, p. 11). These activities 125). In 2000, Snyder et al. noted that 1986, p. 27). We do not know the exact adversely affect a species’ population Sierra de Perija´ was being deforested for extent of deforestation in the range of numbers (Pain et al. 2006, p. 322). narcotics, land speculation, and cattle the military macaw. However, the best Although poaching continues to occur (p. 125). A population of this species available information indicates that for the pet trade, it has been found to was recorded for the first time at two deforestation continues to occur and be significantly lower at protected sites localities at the Catatumbo-Barı´ National affect the species throughout its range, (Pain et al. 2006, pp. 322–328; Wright et Park in the Colombian-Venezuelan despite protections that are in place. al. 2002, p. 719). Other reports have border, extending the previous species’ Currently the population of military found that national or local protection, range from the east slope of the Serranı´a macaws is extremely small (likely a few particularly when local communities are de Perija´ southwards (Avendan˜ o 2011, thousand individuals), those actively involved in conservation p. 2). populations are severely fragmented, efforts, can successfully reduce nest take and its suitable habitat is becoming (Pain et al. 2006, p. 328; Chassot et al. Summary of Factor A increasingly more scarce. Therefore, 2006, pp. 86–87). Gonzalez (2003, pp. Habitat loss, human encroachment, based on the best available scientific 437–446) found evidence of poaching, and conversion to agriculture are the and commercial information, we find particularly during nesting seasons, in main threats acting on the species that the present or threatened the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, a throughout its range. These threats are destruction, modification, or protected area in the Loreto Department, exacerbated by an inability by range curtailment of habitat or range is a Peru, during his 1996–1999 study. country governments to adequately threat to the military macaw now and in However, he also found that poaching manage and monitor the species (see the future. decreased during the 1998 harvest discussion under Factor D, below). season (Gonzalez 2003, p. 444), which B. Overutilization for Commercial, South America had the largest net loss he attributed to increased numbers of Recreational, Scientific, or Educational of forest area of all continents between birds confiscated by regional 2000 and 2005 (Mosandl et al. 2008, p. Purposes authorities, which may have 38), with a net loss of 4.3 million ha per The trade in wild parrots is common subsequently discouraged poaching year. Although specific, detailed in some areas of South America (also see Factor D, below). information about this species’ (Gastan˜ aga et al. 2011, entire; Cantu´ – A related factor is the destruction of remaining occupied habitat status is not Guzma´n et al. 2008, entire). In its Red trees in this species’ habitat due to available for each country, we know that List assessment, the IUCN indicates that poaching. This species primarily much of this species’ habitat has been the two major threats to the military depends on tree-cavity nests as its lost through conversion of land to macaw are habitat loss and capture for habitat. Not only does nest poaching farming, forestry, or other activities the domestic pet trade (IUCN 2011, p. negatively affect this species by (Bonilha and Switkes 2008, p. 17; Etter 1). Many reports indicate that poaching reducing the population size and the et al. 2006, p. 369; Renton 2004, p. 13). for the pet trade is still a problem for number of birds available to reproduce, Conversion of habitat to soy plantations parrot species, particularly in poorer it also in some cases destroys this is now considered to be one of the countries (Herrera and Hennessey 2007, species’ habitat. Several studies have principal causes of Amazon entire; Dickson 2005, p. 548). For found that poachers will cut down trees deforestation. Deforestation may already perspective, in the United States, to remove nests. A study conducted in have destroyed as much as 1.2 million captive-bred specimens of this species the late 1990s found that in some cases

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in Peru, poachers cut down the nesting from Colombia; and 1 from Peru. nesting sites and the aggressiveness of tree in order to access the nestlings Annual quantities exported ranged from the macaws (Navarro et al. 2008, pp. 7, (Gonzalez 2003, p. 443). They also were a low of 14 live birds during 2006, to 9). Additionally, in Mexico and observed ‘‘hacking’’ open the nest 122 live birds (including 80 exported Ecuador, indigenous communities have cavities to remove chicks (Bergman from South Africa) in 2009. Since 2004, used military macaw feathers for 2009, pp. 6–8; Low 2003, pp. 10–11). An none of the exports from range countries ceremonial and medicinal practices. average of 21 nests was destroyed per has been reported as wild origin. However, NGOs are working with these poaching trip (Gonzalez 2003, p. 443). communities to obtain macaw feathers Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Nest destruction was also reported by from aviaries so that the indigenous Mexico Bergman in Ecuador in 2009 (pp. 6–8). people will not hunt the macaws The military macaw was listed in In Argentina, Ecuador, and (Renton 2004, p. 14). CITES Appendix II, effective June 6, Venezuela, there is little to no 1981, and was transferred to CITES information available about Colombia Appendix I, effective October 22, 1987. overutilization. International trade has This species and other Ara macaws Most of the international trade in diminished, but local trade continues to are occasionally hunted by indigenous military macaw specimens consists of occur. In Bolivia, a report published in people in Colombia. In one study, in the live birds. Data obtained from the 2009 indicated that of 17,609 birds Catatumbo-Barı´ National Park, hunting United Nations Environment (including military macaws) was found to be concentrated around Programme—World Conservation documented in the market studied in the 15 indigenous communities within Monitoring Center (UNEP–WCMC) Department of Santa Cruz (not far from the 160,000-ha (395,369-ac) park CITES Trade Database show that, during the range of this species), 64 percent of (Avendan˜ o 2011, p. 2). In 2004, in a the nearly 6 1⁄2 years that the military the birds were found to be adults cliff-nesting location along the Cauca macaw was listed in Appendix II, a total captured in the wild. Ninety percent River, Colombia, threats to this species of 1,034 military macaw specimens (24,707) of the birds were found to be included poaching and loss of foraging were reported to UNEP–WCMC as from the Department of Santa Cruz. A trees (Flo´rez and Sierra 2004, pp. 2–3). (gross) exports. Of those 1,034 total of 2,604 individuals were from the They found that, at the Cauca River site, specimens, 1,019 were live birds and 15 Department of Tarija, 176 from the it was common for some people to were feathers. In analyzing these data, it Department of Beni, 20 from Peru, and remove hatchlings from the nests and appears that several records may be 12 from Brazil (Herrera and Hennessey sell between 20 to 30 chicks per year on over-counts due to slight differences in 2009, p. 233). The report indicated that the black market (p. 3). To counteract the manner in which the importing and most parrots (some of which were these activities, a local awareness exporting countries reported their trade. military macaws) were locally sold, and campaign was initiated (Flo´rez and It is likely that the actual number of found that 23,306 were in the city of Sierra 2004, pp. 2–3). As a result of this military macaw specimens in Santa Cruz, and 4,156 were sent to project, 3,000 Hura crepitans trees (a international trade during this period Cochabamba. species used by the military macaw) was 973, including 958 live birds and 15 In Mexico, the military macaw is were planted by the local communities, feathers. Fourteen of the live birds were reportedly one of the most sought-after and the awareness campaign appeared captive-bred, and the others were species in the illegal pet bird trade to be effective. Researchers do not reported with the source unknown. (Cantu´ -Guzma´n et al. 2007, p. 38), and believe that hunting pressure is a Exports from range countries included: poaching remains a concern. In 1995– serious short-term threat. However, 364 live birds from Bolivia; 320 from 2005, it was the fifth most seized local education and awareness programs Mexico; 11 from Ecuador; 4 from Mexican psittacine species by Mexico’s generally need to be ongoing and long- Venezuela; and 1 from Argentina. Environmental Enforcement Agency, term for them to be effective, and the During the more than 25 years becoming the fourth most seized local communities need to be aware of following the transfer to Appendix I psittacine species in 2007–2010 (p. 52). the benefits of conserving species in the (October 22, 1987 through December 31, As an example, at a sinkhole in El Cielo wild as well as having an alternative 2012, the last year for which complete Biosphere Reserve, a population of source of income (i.e., income other data were available at the time the approximately 50 birds was decimated than that derived from poaching). following numbers were compiled, the by poaching in the 1980s (Arago´n-Tapia Peru UNEP–WCMC database shows a total of in litt. 1989 in Snyder et al. 2000, p. 1,894 military macaw specimens as 125). In many areas, it nests in relatively A recent study in Peru examined nest (gross) exports, including 1,455 live inaccessible cavities on cliff walls, poaching and illegal trade of parrots, birds, 224 scientific specimens, 213 which provide some protection against including the reasons for poaching, and feathers, 1 body, and 1 trophy (UNEP– the pressures of nest poaching. the methods, seasons, and locations WCMC trade database, accessed May 20, However, nest poaching is a severe where the sale and actual poaching of 2014). As noted above, it appears that threat in Jalisco and Nayarit, where the parrots occurred. This study found that some records may be over-counts due to species nests in tree cavities (Contreras- this species is still being poached in the differences in the manner in which the Gonza´lez et al. 2007, p. 43; Renton in wild (Gastan˜ aga et al. 2011, pp. 79–80), importing and exporting countries litt. 2007 and Bonilla in litt. 2007 in BLI even in protected areas and despite reported their trade. It is likely that the 2011a, pp. 1–2). Between 2005 and 2006 national protections in place. During the actual number of live military macaws in Mexico, five military macaws were 2007–2008 study, eight military macaws in international trade during the 25-year found for sale, and the average price were found for sale in two out of eight period was 1,301. Of those 1,301 birds, was $373 (Cantu´ -Guzma´n et al. 2007, p. markets surveyed in Peru (p. 79). Seven 1,022 were captive-bred or captive-born, 76). of these birds were found in the and 119 were reported as wild. The Local residents in Argentina indicated Amazonian lowland city, Pucallpa (p. source of the remaining live birds is that young chicks are removed ‘‘for 80). The study also found that, where unknown. Exports from range countries foreigners’’ but also noted that it is protections and enforcement have been included: 54 live birds from Mexico; 10 extremely difficult due to the difficulty implemented such as in Cusco, there from Argentina; 4 from Venezuela; 2 in accessing the species’ preferred were no parrots for sale in markets. This

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indicates that, although it still species has been observed to alternate of peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), continues, poaching is becoming less nest sites based on food availability which also nest in ravines (Navarro et frequent due to involvement by NGOs, (Chosset et al. 2004, pp. 35–39). al. 2008, p. 6). However, although minimal international demand for the Another disease, proventricular parrots and falcons can be combative, species, and enforcement by authorities. dilatation disease (PDD), may be one of the peregrine falcon, which normally the worst diseases known to affect consumes small mammals and birds, is Summary of Factor B parrots (Kistler et al. 2008, p. 2). PDD not thought to be a natural predator of Among birds, parrots are the group has been documented in several the military macaw (Bradley et al. 1991, most subject to commercial trade continents in more than 50 different p. 193). Due to its large size and careful (Hutton et al. 2000, p. 14). Parrots have parrot species and in free-ranging nest site selection, the military macaw suffered a disproportionate number of species in at least five other orders of is less susceptible to predation by both extinctions, in part due to their birds (Kistler et al. 2008, p. 2). It is not land and aerial predators (Flore´z and desirability as pets. Conservation efforts clear if some diseases observed in birds Sierra 2004, pp. 2–3). However, even by the various entities working to in captivity also occur in the wild with limited predation is still a concern in ensure long-term conservation of the the same frequency. However, because part because removal of potentially military macaw may result in its the populations of military macaws are reproductive adults from the breeding population slowly increasing; however, small and widely distributed, disease is pool can have a significant effect on it is likely that the population is still less of a concern because diseases tend small populations by destroying macaw declining. Even though the military to be more easily transmitted between mating pair bonds (Kramer and Drake macaw is listed as an Appendix-I individuals within close range, and wild 2010, p. 11). Additionally, studies on species under CITES and laws have birds disperse and are not constantly in similar species in similar Andean been established within the range close proximity. Also, captive habitats indicate that vulnerability to countries to protect this species, we are conditions in aviaries make birds more predation by generalist predators still concerned about the illegal capture susceptible to disease where the stress increases with increased habitat of this species in the wild. Despite of confinement combined with fragmentation and smaller patch sizes regulatory mechanisms in place and inadequate diet can reduce the ability of (Arango-Ve´lez and Kattan 1997, p. 140). restricted international trade, poaching birds to fight disease. Because each population of military is lucrative and continues to occur. We have no evidence of significant macaws is small, with usually fewer Additionally, because each population adverse impacts to wild populations of than 100 individuals, and because this of military macaws is small, with military macaws due to disease. Disease species mates for life, even low levels of usually fewer than 100 individuals, is a normal occurrence within wild predation are likely to have a significant poaching is likely to have a significant populations. There is no indication that effect on the species. disease occurs to an extent that it is a effect on the species. Based on the best Summary of Factor C available scientific and commercial threat. Based on the best available information, we find that overutilization scientific and commercial information, Diseases associated with military for commercial, recreational, scientific, we find that disease is not a threat to the macaws in the wild are not well or educational purposes is a threat to military macaw in any portion of its documented. Although there is evidence the military macaw throughout its range now or in the future. that diseases occur in parrots in the range. wild, we found no information that Predation diseases affect this species to the degree C. Disease or Predation Eggs and chicks are more susceptible that they are negatively impacting this to predation than adult macaws Disease species in the wild. Because the (Arizmendi 2008, p. 44). Chicks and populations are distributed across such Studies of macaws indicate that this eggs are particularly susceptible to a large area, these populations have species is susceptible to many bacterial, predation by snakes (Arizmendi 2008, p. resiliency against impacts from disease parasitic, and viral diseases, particularly 44), but military macaws select their if one population is affected by a disease in captive environments (Kistler et al. nests where they are likely to have a outbreak. Conversely, although disease 2009, p. 2,176; Portaels et al. 1996, p. high level of reproductive success. in the wild is not a concern, predation 319; Bennett et al. 1991). Viral diseases Because military macaws generally does remain a concern; there is evidence seem to be more prevalent and construct their nests in high locations that predation on this species occurs subsequently more studied in parrots such as canyon cliffs, snake predation is often enough that it can have a than bacteria and parasites. Psittacines less of a concern because snakes need significant impact. Because of the are prone to many viral infections such tree canopy or vines to climb in order species’ small and declining population as retrovirus, pox virus, and paramyxo to gain access to eggs and chicks. size, tendency to mate for life, low virus, and captive-held birds seem Other predators known to consume reproductive capacity, and existence in particularly susceptible (Gaskin 1989, this species’ eggs include iguanas, red- isolated habitat fragments, even pp. 249, 251, 252). A highly fatal tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), turkey minimal predation renders the species disease, Pacheco’s parrot disease, is also vultures (Carthates aura), and some more vulnerable to local extirpations. caused by a virus (Simpson et al. 1976, mammals (Arizmendi 2008, p. 44). In Therefore, we find that predation, p. 218). After infection from this virus, the Sabino canyon, iguanas were compounded by ongoing habitat loss death occurs suddenly without apparent observed near the nesting sites. and poaching, is a threat to the military sign of sickness other than some mild Researchers suggested that a predator macaw. nasal discharge and lethargy (Simpson control program here would benefit the et al. 1976, p. 211). However, as macaws (Arizmendi 2008, p. 45). D. The Inadequacy of Existing transmission of this disease is mainly Macaws frequently exhibit alarmed Regulatory Mechanisms through nasal discharge and feces, it is behavior when red-tailed hawks and Regulatory mechanisms to protect a less likely to happen in open habitat in turkey vultures approach their nests species could potentially fall under the wild than in a confined aviary, (Arizmendi 2008, p. 44). In Argentina, a categories such as regulation of trade, particularly because in the wild this flock of parrots was attacked by a pair wildlife management, parks

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management, or forestry management. CITES Secretariat evaluates factors such Research has found that tropical parks Regulatory mechanisms could be at the as: have been surprisingly effective at local, national, or international levels. • Whether a Party’s domestic laws protecting ecosystems and species within boundaries designated as parks International Wildlife Trade (CITES) prohibit trade contrary to the requirements of the Convention, or other protected status despite A specimen of a CITES-listed species • Whether a Party has penalty underfunding and pressures for may be imported into or exported (or provisions in place for illegal trade, and resources (Oliveira et al. 2007, p. 1,235; reexported) from a country only if the if they have designated the responsible Bruner et al. 2001, p. 126; Terborgh appropriate permit or certificate has Scientific and Management Authorities, 1999, entire). Bruner’s study found that been obtained prior to the international and protected areas are especially effective trade and it is presented for clearance at • Whether a Party’s legislation in preventing land clearing. It found the port of entry or exit. The Conference provides for seizure of specimens that that, in 40 percent of parks, land that of the Parties (CoP), which is the are illegally traded or possessed. had formerly been under cultivation and decisionmaking body of the Convention The CITES Secretariat has determined that was incorporated into park and comprises all its member countries, that the legislation of Argentina, boundaries had actually recovered. This has agreed on a set of biological and Colombia, Mexico, and Peru is in subsequently led to an increase in trade criteria to help determine whether Category 1, meaning they meet all the vegetative cover. The study also found a species should be included in requirements to implement CITES. that 83 percent of parks were successful Appendix I or II. The military macaw is Bolivia, Ecuador, and Venezuela were at mitigating encroachment (Bruner et listed in Appendix I. For Appendix-I determined to be in Category 2, with a al. 2001, p. 125). It concluded that the species, both an export permit (or draft plan, but not enacted (http:// conditions inside the parks were significantly better than in their reexport certificate) must be issued by www.cites.org, SC62 Document 23, pp. surrounding areas (Bruner et al. 2001, p. the country of export and an import 7–8). This means the Secretariat 125). Oliveira et al. found that forests in permit from the country of import must determined that the legislation of conservation units were four times be obtained prior to international trade. Bolivia, Ecuador, and Venezuela meet better at protecting against deforestation An export permit for species listed in some, but not all, of the requirements than unprotected areas (2007, p. 1,235). either Appendix I or II may only be for implementing CITES. Based on the However, despite these protections, this issued if the country of export decrease in reported international trade, species has experienced threats such determines that: CITES and the range countries for this • that their populations are now so small The export will not be detrimental species have effectively controlled legal (generally fewer than 100 in each to the survival of the species in the wild international trade of this species. (CITES Article III(2) and Article IV(2)); population) that any pressure now has Therefore, we find CITES is an effective a more significant effect. Parks, without • The specimen was legally obtained mechanism for preventing according to the animal and plant management, are often insufficient to overexploitation for international trade adequately protect the species. Our protection laws in the country of export; in this species. • For live animals or plants, they are analysis of regulatory mechanisms is prepared and shipped for export to Parks and Habitat Management discussed essentially on a country-by- country basis, beginning with minimize any risk of injury, damage to We are focusing our evaluation of the Argentina, and is summarized at the health, or cruel treatment; and potential threats to this species end. Conditions in specific parks are • For Appendix I species, an import primarily to parks for the following discussed below. permit has been granted by the reasons. Most suitable habitat, primary importing country. forest, only remains in these protected Argentina Except in certain cases, such as areas. The best available information In 2007, Argentina enacted a law specific scenarios for approved captive- suggests that this species is now mostly mandating minimum standards for the breeding programs, the import of an found in protected areas such as parks, environmental protection of native Appendix-I species requires the in part because this is where suitable forests (Ley de Bosques). However, the issuance of both an import and export habitat remains for the species. federal government has not fully permit. Import permits are issued only Additionally, the majority of the enforced the law, and provincial after the importing country determines information available regarding the governments are not in full compliance that it will not be used for primarily potential threats to the species pertains with it (DiPaola et al. 2008, p. 2). commercial purposes (CITES Article to the parks, where the species is Argentina lacks adequate protections of III(3)) and that the proposed recipient of usually found. Our rationale is its natural environments; there is a lack live animals or plants is suitably supported by Cowen, who noted that of environmental awareness and equipped to house and care for them. encounter rates for large macaw species commitment from the government to Thus, with few exceptions, Appendix-I were generally higher in primary forests adequately protect its resources (FAO species cannot be traded for commercial (2008, p. 15), which tend to be located 2007, pp. 43–44, 59–60). Provinces purposes. in areas with protected status. usually allow landowners to decide The CITES Treaty requires Parties Throughout this species’ range, we whether to maintain forest cover or (member countries) to have adequate found that many of the threats that deforest the land. The absence of a legislation in place for its occur to this species are the same or serious land use planning strategy, implementation. Under CITES similar. Threats generally consist of particularly during the past 20 years, Resolution Conference 8.4 (Rev. CoP15) various forms of habitat loss or has led to significant habitat and related decisions of the CoP, the degradation. Each range country for this degradation (FAO 2007, p. 60). The National Legislation Project evaluates species has protections in place, but for threat to native forests has remained whether Parties have adequate domestic reasons such as limited budgets and particularly high in the Salta Province. legislation to successfully implement limited enforcement capabilities, the As a result, a coalition of indigenous the Treaty (CITES 2011a). In reviewing laws and protections are generally not communities and nongovernmental a country’s national legislation, the able to adequately protect the species. organizations filed for injunctive relief

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in Argentina’s highest court to attempt (4) Wildlife Reserve, for protection, future in this area are the construction to combat deforestation (DiPaola et al. management, sustainable use, and of a highway within Madidi, mining for 2008, p. 2). In this case, the court monitoring of wildlife; natural resources such as gold, drilling mandated deforestation activities to be (5) Natural Area of Integrated for oil, and a planned hydroelectric dam halted pending the completion of a Management, where conservation of (ParksWatch 2011b, p. 8; http:// cumulative environmental impact biological diversity is balanced with www.amazonfund.eu/art-oil- study. The decision forced the Salta sustainable development of the local madidi.html, accessed September 13, Province to comply with the population; and 2011; Chavez 2010, pp. 1–2). There is deforestation moratorium imposed by (6) ‘‘Immobilized’’ Natural Reserve, a limited legal hunting of this species the Forestry Law, and pressured the temporary (5-year) designation for an occurring here, but in the areas Province to comply with the other key area that requires further research before surveyed, this species was described as provision of the law by completing an any official designations can be made common and not exploited (Hosner et environmental land use plan (DiPaola et and during which time no natural al. 2009, p. 226). Timber extraction still al. 2008, p. 2). Although the Forestry resource concessions can be made occurs in some areas (WorldLand Trust Law is in place and the court case has within the area (Supreme Decree No. 2010, p. 1). In the rainforest and foothill set a precedent for compliance with this 24,781 1997, p. 3). forest of Serranı´a Sadiri within Madidi, law, the area where this species occurs The foundation of Bolivia’s laws is roads in the late 1990s spurred a rise in in Argentina to the best of our largely based on Bolivia’s 1975 Law on the unsustainable logging of the area’s knowledge remains largely unprotected Wildlife, National Parks, Hunting, and mahogany trees, which were the most (Navarro et al. 2008, pp. 7, 9). Fishing (Decree Law No. 12,301 1975, valuable tree at the time (World Land pp. 1–34), which has the fundamental Trust 2010, pp. 1–2). Within the Bolivia objective of protecting the country’s Apolobamba protected area, natural resources. This law governs the uncontrolled clearing, extensive This species primarily inhabits the protection, management, utilization, agriculture, grazing, and ‘‘irresponsible’’ parks and protected areas in Bolivia’s transportation, and selling of wildlife tourism are ongoing (Auza and Andean region (Herzog 2011, pers. and their products; the protection of Hennessey 2005, p. 81). Habitat comm.). National parks are intended to endangered species; habitat degradation and destruction from be strictly protected; however, some conservation of fauna and flora; and the grazing, forest fires, and timber areas where the species occurs are also declaration of national parks, biological extraction are ongoing in other designated as areas of integrated reserves, refuges, and wildlife protected areas, such as Tunari National management, which are managed for sanctuaries, regarding the preservation, Park (Department of Cochabamba), both biological conservation and the promotion, and rational use of these where suitable habitat exists for this sustainable development of the local resources (Decree Law No. 12,301 1975, species (De la Vie 2004, p. 7). communities. Bolivia attempts to pp. 1–34; eLAW 2003, p. 2). Later, Bolivia’s national policy is to balance natural resource uses; however, Bolivia passed an overarching decentralize decisionmaking, and it is one of the poorest countries in environmental law in 1992 (Law No. responsibility for land planning and South America (MacLeod 2009, p. 6; 1,333 1992), with the intent of natural resource management is CIA World Factbook, accessed protecting and conserving the increasingly shifting to local and December 6, 2011), and subsequently environment and natural resources. regional governments (Wildlife has competing priorities. As of 2005, Studies have shown that protected areas Conservation Society (WCS) 2009, pp. Bolivia had 5 national parks, 6 national have been successful in providing 2–5). However, the decentralization park and integrated management natural protection from poaching, logging, and process is occurring without sufficient areas, 1 national park and indigenous other forest damage, especially when personnel, staff training, and territory (or communal lands), 4 compared to unprotected areas (Lee operational funds. There is little national reserves, 2 biosphere reserves, 2010, p. 3; Killeen et al. 2007, p. 603; information as to the actual protections and 3 integrated management natural Oliveira et al. 2007, p. 1,234; Asner that Bolivia’s laws and protected areas areas (ParksWatch 2005, p. 1). These 2005, p. 480; Ribeiro et al. 2005, p. 2; confer to military macaws, despite the make up Bolivia’s National System of Gilardi and Munn 1998, p. 641). laws in place at the national level for its Protected Areas ((SNAP) Servicio However, pressures on the parks’ wildlife. Threats to the species and its Nacional de Areas Protegidas). Below resources are increasing; these are habitat include unsustainable land use are the designations and their relevant described below. practices, illegal logging, mining, road categorizations of protections (eLAW Within the Greater Madidi-Tambopata building, oil extraction, illegal animal 2003, p. 3). Landscape, activities that could trade, and hunting, which are all still (1) Park, for strict and permanent negatively affect this species occur, and occurring within this species’ habitat protection of representative ecosystems there are competing priorities within (MacLeod 2009, p. 6; WCS 2009, pp. 2– and provincial habitats, as well as plant these protected areas. The GMTL is 5). The mechanisms in place are and animal resources, along with the divided into three contiguous areas, inadequate at reducing the threat of geographical, scenic and natural with two different management habitat destruction and human landscapes that contain them; categories: A strictly protected National disturbance within these protected Park in two sections that total 1,271,000 areas. (2) Sanctuary, for the strict and ha (3,140,709 ac), and a natural permanent protection of sites that house integrated management area with Colombia endemic plants and animals that are 624,250 ha (1,542,555 ac), where The Colombian Government has threatened or in danger of extinction; conservation and sustainable enacted and ratified numerous domestic (3) Natural Monument, to preserve development of the local communities and international laws, decrees, and areas such as those with distinctive is the main purpose (Conservation resolutions for managing and conserving natural landscapes or geologic Strategy Fund (CSF) 2006, p. 29). The wildlife and flora. Colombia currently formations, and to conserve the most significant activities that are has 54 areas that have protected status biological diversity contained therein; having a negative impact or could in the (El Sistema Nacional de Areas

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Protegidas (SINAP); National Natural established as part of a network of inadequate. In this area, El Congo Parks of Colombia 2011). Of those, 33 private nature reserves in the valley Reserve currently may be the only have been declared Important Bird (Strewe and Navarro 2003, pp. 35–36). secure nesting site for the military Areas (IBAs). The protected area Resource management in Colombia is macaw, but it is too small (40 ha; 99 ac) designations are as follows: national highly decentralized. Colombian to conserve viable populations. parks (parques nacionales), flora and environmental management has been Efforts are occurring in Colombia to fauna sanctuaries (santuarios de fauna y divided between the national and protect and monitor its species, flora), flora sanctuaries (santuarios de regional levels since the 1950s. although they do not appear to be flora), nature reserves (reserva natural), Governmental institutions responsible adequate to combat the threats to this and unique natural areas (a´rea natural for oversight appear to be under species. One management tool that u´ nica) (Law 165 of 1994). Small resourced (ITTO 2006, p. 222) and Colombia has recently developed is a populations of this species occur in unable to adequately manage species bird-watching strategy in these several reserves and protected areas in such as the military macaw. Resources protected areas to monitor and report on Colombia (Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. are managed within local municipalities bird species such as the military macaw, 32). These protected areas in Colombia by one of 33 ‘‘Autonomous Regional in conjunction with ecotourism offer various degrees of protection to the Corporations’’ known as CARs (National Natural Parks of Colombia species. (Corporaciones Auto´nomas Regionales) 2011). Despite the efforts in place, there In 2003, conservation priorities were (Blackman et al. 2006, p. 32). CARs are is a lack of information available about identified for its bird species, a described as corporate bodies of a the status of this species and its habitat conservation corridor was designed, and public nature, endowed with in Colombia. There is no clear a habitat conservation strategy within administrative and financial autonomy information about the status of the the San Salvador valley was developed to manage the environment and species in Colombia, particularly its (Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. 29). The renewable natural resources, population trend. We are unable to private Buena Vista Nature Reserve was implemented through Law 99 of 1993 determine that this conservation established and protects approximately (p. 32). Each department (analogous to strategy will sufficiently mitigate threats 400 ha (988 ac) of tropical wet lowland U.S. state designations) within to the military macaw, nor are we able forest and wet premontane forest on the Colombia is managed by a separate local to find that the regulatory mechanisms northern slope of the Sierra Nevada. It entity. These corporations grant in place in Colombia are adequate. The encompasses extensive primary forests concessions, permits, and species population is small in Colombia, along an altitudinal gradient of 600 to authorizations for forest harvesting and threats to its habitat still exist. 2,300 m (1,968 to 7,545 ft) and forest (ITTO 2006, p. 219). Ecuador patches and secondary forest at As of 2005, 40 percent of Colombia’s elevations between 450 to 600 m (1,476 public resources were managed by local In Ecuador, the military macaw is to 1,968 ft). The reserve is adjacent to municipalities, making Colombia one of considered to be very rare (Arcos-Torres the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta the most decentralized countries in and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72). It has National Park and the Kogi-Malayo terms of forestry management in Latin been observed in the areas of Sumaco Indian reserve (Strewe and Navarro America (Blackman et al. 2006, p. 36). and Zamora-Chinchipe (Youth 2009, p. 2003, p. 29). Monitoring of resource use and forest 1; Snyder et al. 2000, p. 125) and A conservation project focusing on development authorized by these recently at Kichwa River Reserve the coffee zone of the middle Rı´o Frı´o corporations is conducted mostly by (Reserva Kichwa Rı´o), within the Gran is ongoing, and its goal is to create a local nongovernmental organizations. Sumaco Biosphere Reserve Guacamayos conservation corridor connecting The International Tropical Timber (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, natural habitats and shade-grown coffee Organization (ITTO) considers the p. 72). This species is categorized as plantations (Strewe and Navarro 2004, Colombian forestry sector to be lacking endangered ‘‘en peligro de extincio´n’’ p. 51). The establishment of the private in law enforcement and on-the-ground (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, nature reserve, Buena Vista, was the control of forest resources, with no p. 69) in Ecuador. It is protected by first step to conserve the foothill forest specific standards for large-scale Decree No. 3,516 of 2003 (Unified Text ecosystems. This was done in close forestry production, no forestry of the Secondary Legislation of the cooperation with a local organization, concession policies, and a lack of Ministry of Environment) (EcoLex Grupo Ecologico Defensores de la transparency in the application of the 2003b, pp. 1–2 and 36). This decree Naturaleza–Campesinos de Palomino various laws regulating wildlife and summarizes the laws governing (Strewe and Navarro 2003, pp. 34–35). their habitats (ITTO 2006, p. 222). environmental policy in Ecuador and The Pro-Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Consequently, there is currently no provides that the country’s biodiversity Foundation (FPSNSM) maintains a effective vehicle for overall coordination be protected and used primarily in a permanent monitoring station at Buena of species management for sustainable manner. Vista nature reserve. FPSNSM is multijurisdictional species such as the Habitat destruction is ongoing and working toward sustainable military macaw. Fundacio´n ProAves extensive in Ecuador (Mosandl et al. development projects in cooperation developed a conservation plan for 2010 2008, p. 37; Butler 2006b, pp. 1–3; FAO with local communities, national park to 2020 for several parrot species, 2003b, p. 1). Unsustainable forest units, and coffee-grower committees in including the military macaw (Botero- harvest practices likely continue to the region. This includes educational Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. 7). impact the military macaw’s habitat. In campaigns to limit hunting. Habitat However, it is unclear if or when it will 2004, Ecuador Law No. 17 (Faolex 2004, management takes place on private be adopted by the Government of pp. 1–29) amended the Forest Act of lands in the lowlands and foothills of Colombia. 1981 (Law No. 74) to include five the San Salvador valley to reduce the Additionally, despite protections, criteria for sustainable forest pressure on the remaining natural forest forest loss continues almost unabated in management: (i) Sustainable timber habitats, including a reforestation the mountains of the Sierra Nevada, production; (ii) the maintenance of program using native tree species. demonstrating that formal protections forest cover; (iii) the conservation of Additionally, forest reserves have been and regulatory mechanisms are biodiversity; (iv) co-responsibility in

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management; and (v) the reduction of and implementing and regulating any species of the Psittacidae (parrot) negative social and environmental activities are ineffective in conserving family whose natural distribution is impacts (ITTO 2006, p. 225; Aguilar and the military macaw and its habitat in within Mexico (Cantu´ and Sa´nchez Vlosky 2005, pp. 9–10). In 2001, the Ecuador. Researchers suggest that the 2011, p. 1). It allows authorizations for Ecuadorian Government worked with apparent lack of this species in Ecuador the removal of individuals from the the private sector to develop a system of is related to lack of existing suitable wild to be issued only for conservation monitoring and control of forest harvest sites (large areas containing appropriate purposes, or to accredited academic practices. However, in 2003, the feeding, nesting, and breeding habitat) institutions for scientific research. Supreme Court of Ecuador declared the for the formation of breeding colonies. However, it does not appear to be control system unconstitutional, and The governmental institutions adequate based on investigations of new control systems were being responsible for natural resource trade of Mexico’s native parrot species. developed (ITTO 2006, p. 225). oversight in Ecuador appear to be The military macaw falls under the Approximately 70 percent of the forest under-resourced, and to our knowledge, jurisdiction of several other laws in products harvested are harvested there is a lack of law enforcement on the Mexico. The General Law on illegally, or are used as fuel wood, or are ground. Despite the creation of a Sustainable Forest Management (Ley discarded as waste (ITTO 2006, p. 226; national forest plan, the best available General de Desarrollo Forestal Aguilar and Vlosky 2005, p. 4). Because information indicates there is a lack of Sustenable (LGDFS 2003)) governs the extractive harvesting industry is not capacity to implement this plan due to forest ecosystems in Mexico, including monitored, the extent of the impact is inconsistencies in application of military macaw habitat. This law unknown; however, the best available regulations, and discrepancies between formalizes the incorporation of the information indicates that habitat actual harvesting practices and forestry forest sector in a broader environmental degradation negatively affects this regulations. These inadequacies have framework. Under this law, harvesting species in Ecuador. facilitated logging, clearing for of forests requires authorization from The Ecuadorian Government agriculture, subsistence farming, and SEMARNAT. It also requires that recognizes 31 different legal categories road development. Habitat conversion harvesting forests is based on a of protected lands (e.g., national parks, and alteration are ongoing within technical study and a forest biological reserves, geo-botanical Ecuador, including within protected management plan (GOM 2010, p. 24). A reserves, bird reserves, wildlife reserves, areas. number of additional laws complement etc.). The colony in Kichwa River the 2003 law in regulating forest use. Reserve Macaw receives some legal Mexico The LGEEPA regulates activities for protections by being in a Reserve. This species is listed as endangered protecting biodiversity and reducing the However, a study published in 2002 and is regulated under the general terms impact on forests and tropical areas of concluded that, although 14 percent of of the General Law of Ecological certain forest activities; the LGVS Ecuador is categorized as national Balance and Environmental Protection governs the use of plants and wildlife reserve network (Sierra et al. 2002, p. (Ley General del Equilibrio Ecolo´gico y found in the forests; the General Law on 107), the system does not provide Proteccio´n al Ambiente (LGEEPA)), the Sustainable Rural Development (Ley adequate protection for its ecosystems. General Wildlife Law (Ley General de General de Desarrollo Rural Sustentable) As of 2006, the amount of protected Vida Silvestre (LGVS)), and also under provides guidance for activities aimed at land (both forested and nonforested) in CITES (CEC 2003, unpaginated). NOM– protecting and restoring forests within Ecuador totals approximately 4.67 059–ECOL–2010 establishes a list of the framework of rural development million ha (11.5 million ac) (ITTO 2006, wildlife species classified as either in programs; and the Agrarian Law (Ley p. 228). However, only 38 percent of danger of extinction (endangered), Agraria) governs farmers’ ability to use these lands have appropriate threatened, under special protection, or forest resources on their land (Anta conservation measures in place to be probably extinct in the wild 2004, in USAID 2011, unpaginated). considered protected areas according to (Government of Mexico 2002, p. 6). All Another law regulating portions of the international standards (i.e., areas that use of endangered and threatened military macaw’s habitat is the National are managed for scientific study or species requires a special permit from System of Protected Natural Areas wilderness protection, for ecosystem the Secretariat of the Environment and (Sistema Nacional de A´ reas Naturales protection and recreation, for Natural Resources (Secretarı´a del Medio Protegidas (SINANP)). These protected conservation of specific natural features, Ambiente y Recursos Naturales natural areas are created by presidential or for conservation through management (SEMARNAT). SEMARNAT’s main goal decree, and the activities in them are intervention) (IUCN 1994, pp. 17–20). is to protect, restore, and conserve its regulated under the LGEEPA, which The ITTO, as of 2006, considered ecosystems and natural resources. requires that the protected natural areas ecosystem management and Under Mexico’s General Wildlife Law, receive special protection for conservation in Ecuador, including the use of these protected species, conservation, restoration, and effective implementation of mechanisms including the military macaw, may be development activities (Comisio´n that would protect the military macaw authorized only when priority is given Nacional de A´ reas Naturales Protegidas and its habitat, to be lacking (ITTO to the collection and capture for (CONANP) 2011, unpaginated). These 2006, p. 229). restoration, repopulation, and natural areas are categorized as: Although this colony has persisted for reintroduction activities (Comisio´n Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, about 150 years (Huatatoca, pers. comm. Nacional Para El Conocimiento y Uso de Natural Monuments, Areas of Natural in Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde la Biodiversidad 2009, unpaginated; Resource Protection, Areas of Protection 2008, p. 72), it may be affected by CEC 2003, unpaginated). of Flora and Fauna, and Sanctuaries logging and the resulting deforestation International trade of Mexico’s (CONANP 2011, unpaginated). on nearby land (Arcos-Torres and wildlife is also managed by Conservation strategies in Mexico rely Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72). The best SEMARNAT. In 2008, Mexico passed heavily on natural protected areas, and available information indicates that on- Article 60_2 to amend its General biosphere reserves comprise most of the the-ground enforcement of Ecuador’s Wildlife Law. The article bans the designated protected area in the country laws, oversight of the local jurisdictions, capture, export, import, and reexport of (Figueroa and Sanchez 2008, pp. 3324,

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3234). The military macaw occurs in or protects the species or mitigates threats Factor B discussion, above). However, near at least four biosphere reserves. to the species, and to what extent these those pressures prior to the military Although some areas where this species protections are effective. macaw’s listing under CITES and the occurs have protected status, Figueroa WBCA contributed significantly to the Venezuela and Sanchez (2008, entire) found that, decline in population numbers for this for example, the Sierra Gorda Biosphere In Venezuela, the military macaw is species. Since then, the species’ habitat Reserve was ineffective (as opposed to thought to exist in two parks: El A´ vila has become fragmented, its range has effective or weakly effective). This study National Park and Henri Pittier National reduced, and its populations have more specifically evaluated the effectiveness Park. Limited information about the difficulty finding suitable habitat. of Mexico’s protected areas for status of this species is available in Each of these countries has enacted preventing land use and land cover Venezuela. Henri Pittier National Park laws to protect its wildlife and habitat. change. It assessed the effectiveness of (107,800 ha; 266,380 ac) was declared The populations of this species in these national protected areas (NPAs) by the first national park in Venezuela in four countries are likely to number from quantifying (1) the rate of change and (2) 1937. This park is the largest national fewer than 100 to a few hundred the total extent of change, between 1993 park of the Cordillera de la Costa individuals. There are numerous threats and 2002, as well as (3) the percentage, (Coastal Mountain Range) region. The acting on this species; its populations in 2002, of areas transformed by human principal threats to this park include: have severely declined. In some cases, use; transformed areas included fire, human encroachment, solid waste the actual causes of decline may not be agriculture, cultivated and induced buildup, pollution, hunting, and limited readily apparent and a species may be pastures, human settlements, and resources for effective park management affected by more than one threat in forestry plantations. The rate of change (ParksWatch 2011g, unpaginated). In combination. Habitat conservation of transformed areas inside each NPA many cases, the intensity of threats has measures within these range countries was also compared with that estimated increased. Prior to 1994, a team of do not appear to sufficiently mitigate for an equivalent area surrounding the government representatives, NGOs, future habitat losses. Habitat loss and NPA. They selected 69 federal decreed universities, and aviculturists in degradation continue to occur within NPAs (out of 160 NPAs decreed in Venezuela had developed both an action these countries; the best available Mexico) that were 1,000 ha (2,471 ac) or plan for the conservation of parrots and information does not indicate that the larger, which is the minimum area for a book containing information on parrot existing regulatory mechanisms have conserving ecosystems in Mexico biology (Morales et al. 1994, in Snyder mitigated these threats in the range of (Figueroa and Sanchez 2008, p. 3,225; 2000, p. 125). However, currently, it is this species. Because these populations Ordo´n˜ ez and Flo´rez-Villela 1995, p. 11). unclear what conservation initiatives of this species are very small in these The study found that, overall, only are occurring. countries, any impact is likely to have ´ approximately 54 percent of protected El Avila National Park (81,800 ha; a significant impact on the species; areas, including 65 percent of biosphere 202,132 ac in size), is located along the therefore, we are unable to conclude reserves, were effective. central stretch of the Cordillera de la that regulatory mechanisms in place for Costa Mountains in northern Venezuela. this species and its habitat are adequate. Peru The most immediate threats to the park Bolivia, Colombia, and Mexico have In Peru, this species is listed as are forest fires and illegal settlements, enacted various laws and regulatory vulnerable under Supreme Decree No. which occur primarily near Caracas mechanisms for the protection and 034–2004–AG (2004, p. 276,855), and its (ParksWatch 2011f, unpaginated). management of this species and its protections fall under the jurisdiction of ParksWatch notes that the areas closest habitat. Although information available the National Institute of Natural to the city have experienced more is limited, the best evidence suggests Resources (Instituto Nacional de problems in the more isolated northern that the military macaw exists in small Recursos Naturales, INRENA). This slope and eastern sector of El A´ vila. populations in several large protected Decree prohibits hunting, take, Other threats in this park include the areas within these countries. As transport, and trade of protected presence of nonnative plants and discussed under Factor A, the military species, except as permitted by poaching. macaw prefers primary forests and regulation. The military macaw is woodlands and complex habitat that Summary of Factor D thought to occur in at least three areas offers a variety of food sources. Its with protected status in Peru. The In Argentina, Ecuador, Peru, and suitable habitat has been severely Peruvian national protected area system Venezuela, we recognize that constricted due to deforestation. In includes several categories of habitat conservation activities are occurring, these three countries, there is evidence protection (refer to Factor A). National and that these activities may have a of threats to this species due to activities reserves, national forests, communal positive effect on the species at the local such as habitat destruction and reserves, and hunting reserves are population level. Parrots, in general, are degradation, poaching, construction of managed for the sustainable use of long-lived with low reproductive rates, roads, and mining, as well as decreased resources (IUCN 1994, p. 2). The traits that make them particularly viability due to small population sizes, designations of national parks, sensitive to poaching and other threats despite the regulatory mechanisms in sanctuaries, and protection forests are such as habitat loss (Lee 2010, p. 3; place. We acknowledge that research established by supreme decree that Thiollay 2005, p. 1,121; Wright et al. and conservation programs are supersedes all other legal claim to the 2001, p. 711). The primary threats to occurring in these countries. However, land and, thus, these areas tend to this species historically have been the based on the best available information, provide some form of habitat protection loss of habitat and capture for the pet we find that the existing regulatory (Rodrı´guez and Young 2000, p. 330). trade (Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. 33). mechanisms for these countries are However, limited information is Since regulatory mechanisms such as either inadequate or inadequately available with respect to the status of CITES and the WBCA have been put enforced in order to protect the species this species in Peru. We do not know if into place, particularly since 1992, or to mitigate ongoing habitat loss and the occurrence of the military macaw much of the legal international trade in degradation, poaching, and the severe within protected areas in Peru actually the military macaw has declined (see population decline of this species.

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Habitat conservation measures within range due to habitat loss and reproductive potential of the species, these range countries do not appear to degradation. Furthermore, as a species’ which will exacerbate other threats. sufficiently mitigate future habitat status continues to decline, often as a Within the preceding review of the five losses. result of deterministic forces such as factors, we have identified multiple Based on the best available habitat loss or overutilization, it will threats that may have interrelated information, we are unable to conclude become increasingly vulnerable to other impacts on this species. The most that the existing regulatory mechanisms impacts. If this trend continues, its significant threats are habitat loss and currently in place sufficiently mitigate ultimate extinction due to one or more poaching, particularly because the threats to the military macaw stochastic (random or unpredictable) species has such a small and fragmented throughout its range. Therefore, we find events becomes more likely. The population, and it requires a large range that the existing regulatory mechanisms military macaw’s current occupied and and variety of food sources. Lack of a are inadequate to mitigate the current suitable range is highly reduced and sufficient number of individuals in a threats to the continued existence of the severely fragmented. The species’ small local area or a decline in their military macaw throughout its range population size, its reproductive and individual or collective fitness may now and into the future. life-history traits, and its highly cause a decline in the population size, restricted and severely fragmented range despite the presence of suitable habitat E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors increase this species’ vulnerability to patches. For example, the species’ Affecting Its Continued Existence other threats. behavior of not nesting in areas where depredation or disturbance is likely may Small Population Size Climate Change mean that a nest site is ‘‘abandoned’’ Small, declining populations can be Consideration of ongoing and before nesting is even attempted. Thus, especially vulnerable to environmental projected climate change is a the species’ productivity may be disturbances such as habitat loss component of our analysis under the reduced because of any of these threats, (O’Grady 2004, pp. 513–514). Removal ESA. The term ‘‘climate change’’ refers either singularly or in combination. of a few birds from a population of 100 to a change in the mean, variability, or These threats occur at a sufficient scale can have a greater effect than removal of seasonality of climate variables over so that they are affecting the status of a few birds from larger populations. In time periods of decades or hundreds of the species now and will in the future. order for a population to sustain itself, years (Intergovernmental Panel on In addition, the species’ current range there must be enough reproducing Climate Change (IPCC) 2007, p. 78). is highly restricted and severely individuals and habitat to ensure its Forecasts of the rate and consequences fragmented. The species’ small survival. Conservation biology defines of future climate change are based on population size, its reproductive and this as the ‘‘minimum viable the results of extensive modeling efforts life-history traits, and its highly population’’ requirement (Grumbine conducted by scientists around the restricted and severely fragmented range 1990, pp. 127–128). This requirement world (Solman 2011, p. 20; Laurance increase the species’ vulnerability to may be between 500 and 5,000 and Useche 2009, p. 1,432; Nun˜ ez et al. adverse natural events and manmade individuals depending on variability, 2008, p. 1; Margeno 2008, p. 1; Meehl activities that destroy individuals and demographic constraints, and et al. 2007, p. 753). Climate change their habitat. The susceptibility to evolutionary history. The military models, like all other scientific models, extirpation of limited-range species can macaw occurs in relatively small produce projections that have some occur for a variety of reasons, such as populations (ranging from a few pairs to uncertainty because of the assumptions when a species’ remaining population is approximately 100 individuals, with the used, the data available, and the specific already too small or its distribution too total population size that is likely no model features. The science supporting fragmented such that it may no longer greater than a few thousand). The climate model projections as well as be demographically or genetically viable military macaw relies on specific habitat models assessing their impacts on (Harris and Pimm 2004, pp. 1,612– to provide for its breeding, feeding, and species and habitats will continue to be 1,613). Therefore, we find that the nesting. Historically, the military refined as more information becomes species’ small population size, in macaw existed in much higher numbers available. While projections from combination with other threats in more continuous, connected habitat. regional climate model simulations are identified above, is a threat to the Its suitable habitat is becoming informative, various methods to continued existence of the military increasingly limited, and is not likely to downscale projections to more localized macaw throughout its range now and in expand in the future. areas in which the species lives are still the future. The combined effects of habitat imperfect and under development Finding and Status Determination for fragmentation and other factors on a (Solman 2011, p. 20; Nun˜ ez et al. 2008, the Military Macaw species’ population can have profound p. 1; Marengo 2008, p. 1). The best effects and can potentially reduce a available information does not indicate We find that this species is species’ respective effective population that climate change is impacting this endangered based on the above by orders of magnitude (Gilpin and species such that it is a threat. evaluation, and we are listing this Soule´ 1986, p. 31). For example, an species as endangered due to the threats increase in habitat fragmentation can Summary of Factor E described above that continue to act on separate populations to the point where A species may be affected by more this species. Within the preceding individuals can no longer disperse and than one threat acting in combination. review of the five factors, we identified breed among habitat patches, causing a Impacts typically operate multiple threats that may have shift in the demographic characteristics synergistically, particularly when interrelated impacts on the species. For of a population and a reduction in populations of a species are decreasing. example, the productivity of military genetic fitness (Gilpin and Soule´ 1986, Initial effects of one threat factor can macaws may be reduced because of the p. 31). This is especially applicable for later exacerbate the effects of other effects of poaching and habitat loss, a species such as the military macaw threat factors (Gilpin and Soule´ 1986, which are expected to continue to act on that was once wide-ranging. It has lost pp. 25–26). Further fragmentation of the species in the future. In cases where a significant amount of its historical populations can decrease the fitness and populations are very small, species mate

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for life, and birds produce small clutch Great Green Macaw species. The great green macaw is very sizes, these effects are exacerbated. The similar in appearance to the military Taxonomy susceptibility to extirpation of species macaw, but the military macaw has with small and declining populations The great green macaw (Ara ambiguus more prominent blue coloring on its can occur for a variety of reasons, such or ambigua, Linnaeus, 1766; Bechstein, hind neck, has darker plumage, and is as when a species’ remaining 1811) is in the parrot (Psittacidae) smaller. These two species are also population is already too small or its family. It is known by various common separated geographically. names such as lapa verde, Buffon’s distribution too fragmented such that it macaw, Guacamayo verde mayor, Guara Range, Observations, and Population may no longer be demographically or verde, and Papagayo de Guayaquil. It Estimates genetically viable (Harris and Pimm occurs as two subspecies. The nominate 2004, pp. 1,612–1,613). This species subspecies, Ara a. ambiguus, occurs The great green macaw is patchily 2 exists generally in very small and from Honduras to north-west Colombia. distributed in a 100,000-km (38,610- 2 fragmented populations, usually in The subspecies A. a. guayaquilensis mi ) area (BLI 2014b, p. 2). In addition areas with some form of protected status occurs in western Ecuador (Rodriguez- to occupying humid tropical forests in Mexico, Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia, Mahecha et al. 2002, p. 116; Fje¨ldsa et primarily in Central America (Costa and to a limited extent Ecuador, al. 1987, pp. 28–31). There are believed Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Venezuela, and Argentina. Its life- to be only around 100 individuals of A. Panama), there are small remnant history traits (such as mating for life and a. guayaquilensis in two areas in populations in western Ecuador, as well small clutch size) make it particularly Ecuador. This subspecies has a smaller as northern Colombia (Berg et al. 2007, susceptible to extinction because its bill with greener underside of the flight p. 1; Chassot et al. 2006, p. 7). Although populations are so small. Based on our and tail feathers than the nominate there may be some interaction between populations, the great green macaw is review of the best available scientific subspecies (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. fragmented into seven isolated and commercial information pertaining 423). Avibase and ITIS both recognize populations throughout its distribution to the five factors, we found that many these subspecies (http://www.itis.gov and http://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/ due to habitat loss (Monge et al. 2009, of these threats are similar throughout pp. 159, 174). the species’ range. avibase.jsp, accessed May 5, 2014). There is no universally accepted Deforestation has reduced this In four of the countries (Argentina, definition of what constitutes a species’ habitat and concentrated its Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela), the subspecies, and the use of the term population into primarily five areas: the populations are extremely small, and subspecies varies among taxonomic border of Honduras and Nicaragua, the very little information about the status groups (Haig and D’Elia 2010, p. 29). To border of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, the of the species is available in many parts be operationally useful, subspecies must Darie´n region of Panama and Colombia, of its range. It is not necessarily easy to be discernible from one another (i.e., and two very small populations in determine (nor is it necessarily diagnosable) and not merely exhibit Ecuador (Hardman 2011, p. 8; Monge et determinable) which potential threat is mean differences (Patten and Unitt al. 2009, p. 159). the operational threat. However, we 2002, pp. 28, 34). This element of discernibility is a common thread that Population estimates were made in believe that these threats, either the 1990s and early 2000s. In 1993, the individually or in combination, are runs through all subspecies concepts. Regarding the great green macaw, all population estimate was 5,000 likely to occur at a sufficient individuals; in 2000, the population was geographical scale to significantly affect populations or subspecies of Ara ambigua essentially face similar threats, estimated to be between 2,500 and the status of the species. Additionally, all are generally in the same region 10,000 birds (BirdLife International although we do not have precise genetic (Central and northern South America), 2014b, p. 4; Rodrı´guez-Mahecha 2002a). information about populations and all have small populations. In other The global population is now likely less throughout this species’ range, it is words, they are not discernible between than 2,500 mature individuals (or less likely that there is some genetic transfer populations. For the purpose of this than 3,700 with juveniles included) between populations. We believe this proposed rule and based on the best (Monge et al. 2009, pp. 213, 256); based on its demonstrated ability to fly available information, we recognize all however, the actual population is far long distances in search of food sources populations of great green macaws as a from clear. Although historical (Chosset and Arias 2010, p. 5). The most single species. observations are useful for assessing the significant threat, habitat loss and range of the species, they may also be Description degradation, is prevalent throughout biased because surveys may not have this species’ range. Its suitable habitat This species ranges between 77 and sampled randomly. Thus, historical has severely contracted, and habitat loss 90 cm (30 and 35 inches) in length and population estimates of this species may is likely to continue into the future. We has a red frontal band above a large not be accurate. Although the do not find that the factors affecting the black bill, bare facial features with black population in Costa Rica is increasing, the population continues to be very species are likely to be sufficiently lines, blue flight feathers on the superior feathers and olive inferior feathers, blue small (Monge et al. 2010, p. 16), and ameliorated in the foreseeable future. lower back, and orange tail (Juniper and researchers believe that the global Therefore, we find that listing the Parr 1998, pp. 423–424). It is the second population of this species is decreasing military macaw is warranted throughout largest New World macaw. This species (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. its range, and we propose to list the is not sexually dimorphic, meaning 91). Specific information about the military macaw as endangered under there are no differences in appearance range and population estimate for each the ESA. between males and females of the same country is discussed below.

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Colombia overestimate (Botero-Delgadillo and assumption that great green macaw Pa´ez 2011, p. 91). breeding pairs require 550 ha (1,359 ac) Historically in Colombia, it was found of non-overlapping habitat, Chun Costa Rica in the north of the Serranı´a de postulated that northern Costa Rica Baudo´,the West Andes, and east of the The great green macaw historically could support about 120 breeding pairs upper Sinu´ valley (Snyder et al. 2000, inhabited forests along the Caribbean (2008, p. 110). Chun notes that even the pp. 121–123). In the late 1990s, this lowlands of Costa Rica (Chosset et al. forested areas identified as individual species was observed in Los Katı´os 2004, p. 32). The population has ‘‘patches’’ through a geographic National Park, around Utrı´a National increased in that area since 1994, when information system (GIS) program do Park in Serranı´a de Baudo´ (Salaman in there was an estimate of 210 birds. The not necessarily represent areas of forest litt. 1997), and the Choco´ area of population appears to have fluctuated; with continuous canopy cover western Colombia (Angehr in litt. 1996 in 2004, it was estimated that a (indicating complex, fairly undisturbed in Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 121–123; maximum of 35 pairs were breeding in habitat that is likely to contain Ridgley 1982). This species’ potential northern Costa Rica (Chosset et al. 2004, nutritional needs for this species). geographical range is 51,777 km2 p. 32). A survey conducted in 2009 Although these patches of forest are (19,991 mi2), which includes two core reported a population estimate of 302 in technically connected at some level, Costa Rica (Monge et al. 2009, p. 12); areas in Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta they are for the most part highly porous another estimate was that there was a and in the center of Antioquia and discontinuous, and no analysis was total of 275 birds in Costa Rica in 2010 Department of Columbia (Salaman et al. performed to filter out stands that might (Chassot 2010 pers. comm. in Hardman 2009, p. 21; Monge et al. 2009, be porous or discontinuous. There are 2011, p. 11). some areas in its potential range that are unpaginated; Quevado-Gill et al. 2006, Approximately 67,000 ha (165,561 ac) above the elevation threshold for p. 15). The total Columbian population of great green macaw breeding territory almendro trees, and do not meet the is currently unclear but it is now now remains in Costa Rica (Chun 2008, criteria for suitable habitat. believed to primarily exist in Los Katı´os p. v), which is less than 10 percent of National Park, which borders the Darie´n its original suitable habitat (Monge et al. Ecuador region in Panama. It was also recently 2010, p. 15; Chosset et al. 2004, p. 38). In Ecuador, there may only be one observed in the area of Sabanalarga, Potential great green macaw breeding viable population. This population Antioquia (Quevado-Gill et al. 2006, p. habitat, excluding Ecuador, is defined exists in the Cerro Blanco Protected 15). Even though the largest population by the density of almendro trees, which Forest, which is 6,070 ha (15,000 ac) is thought to be in the northern Darie´n this species uses for its primary feeding outside of Guayaquil in Guayas border region with about 1,700 adults, and nesting substrate. Almendro trees Province (Villate et al. 2008, p. 19). This researchers believe this is an estimate are found only on the Atlantic coast population is believed to be without a strong basis (Botero- from southern Nicaragua down through approximately 10 individuals. An Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. 91). The Costa Rica and Panama and into overall estimate of 60 to 90 individuals populations in Colombia are highly Colombia, primarily at altitudes below in Ecuador in 2011 may be optimistic localized, and this number could be an 900 m (2,953 ft). Based on the (Horstman pers. comm. in Hardman

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2011, p. 12). Ecuador’s population in Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 121–123). In Veraguas, Colon, San Blas, Darie´n, and 2002 was estimated to be between 60 August 1992, macaws were recorded on Veraguas South (Monge et al. 2009, and 90 individuals (Monge et al. 2009, the Patuca River at Pimienta upstream unpaginated). The species has been p. 256), but the population was reported from Wampusirpe (Wiendenfeld in described as locally fairly common near to be rapidly decreasing. In addition, Monge et al. 2009, p. 242). Currently, Cana, Alturas de Nique, in 2005 (Angehr this is a decline from 1995, when the this species exists in the Rio Pla´tano in litt. 2005). As of 2009, the historical population was estimated to be Biosphere Reserve (800,000 ha or distribution in Panama was described as approximately 100 birds in Esmeraldas 1,976,843 ac), which has been described not well known due to lack of Province alone (Waugh 1995, p. 10). as one of the most important reserves in information (Monge et al. 2009, p. 68). Between 1995 and 1998, some Central America (Anderson et al. 2004, The most viable population is believed individuals were observed in the Playa p. 447). to be in Darie´n National Park, Panama, de Oro area along the Santiago River which borders Colombia (Monge et al. Nicaragua (Jahn 2001, pp. 41–43). In 2005, the 2009, p. 68; Angehr in litt. 1996 in species was described as being found in In Nicaragua, the great green macaw Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 121–123; Ridgley scattered forest remnants in coastal is found primarily in lowland, tropical, 1982). Researchers believe the Darie´n Ecuador from Guayas to Esmeraldas and rain forest, as well as pine barrens, area may contain the largest overall Province (Horstman 2005, p. 3). primarily in the Bosawas Reserve in the population of the great green macaw. In addition to the small population in north and around the Indio-Maı´z and However, there is little recent the Cerro Blanco Protected Forest, San Juan rivers in the south (Stocks et information to confirm this (Monge et recently reported to be about 10 al. 2007, p. 1503; Martine´z-Sa´nchez al. 2009, p. 68). Darie´n National Park is individuals, there may be another small 2007; Chassot 2004, p. 36). The name the largest national park in Panama, and group in the Rio Canande Reserve, Bosawas is derived from three one of the largest tropical forest which is a humid tropical forest and is significant geographic landmarks that protected areas in Central America (The located in the Esmeraldas province in delineate the reserve’s core zone limits: Nature Conservancy (TNC) 2011, p. 1). coastal northern Ecuador (Horstman The Bocay River, Mount Saslaya, and The Darie´n region encompasses nearly pers. comm. in Hardman 2011, p. 12). the Waspuk River. The Bosawas 809,371 ha (2 million acres) of protected Rio Canande Reserve (1,813 ha or 4,478 protected area contains habitat that is areas, including Darie´n National Park ac) is one of eight reserves managed by vital to the species. In the buffer zone and Biosphere Reserve, Punta Patin˜ o another NGO, the Jocotoco Foundation. of the Indio-Maı´z Biological Reserve, Natural Reserve, Brage Biological The most recent population census in great green macaw nesting locations Corridor, and two indigenous reserves Ecuador was conducted in the provinces have been identified. The Indio-Maı´z (TNC 2011, p. 1). La Amistad, an area of Esmeraldas, Santa Elena, and Guayas. Biological Reserve is located in that may have a fairly viable population, Five individuals were recently observed Nicaragua just across the San Juan River connects suitable habitat in Panama in the Bosque Protector Chongo´n at the northern border of Costa Rica, and such as Cerro Punta, Rio Pla´tano, and Colonche; one macaw was observed at is nearly 264,000 ha (652,358 ac) in size. the Darie´n region, and connects the the Hacienda El Molino, near the Cerro The Nicaragua and Costa Rica macaw remote hills of Bocas del Toro Province Blanco Protected Forest; and two populations intermix; macaws have with habitat in Costa Rica. La Amistad macaws were seen at Rio Canande been observed crossing the San Juan is approximately 200,000 ha (500,000 (Horstman 2011, p. 16). The Cordillera River, which separates Nicaragua and acres) in area. (mountain range) de Chongo´n-Colonche Costa Rica. As of 2006, in the Quezada, is on the central pacific coast of Bijagua, Samaria, and La Juana Summary of Population Estimate Ecuador, located in the provinces of communities, five macaw nests had The global population of great green Guayas and Manabi. Some individual been located during surveying. As of macaws is estimated to be between great green macaws have also been 2010, 35 active nests had been 2,500 and 3,700 mature individuals (BLI observed at Hacienda Gonzalez 40 km documented in the Indio-Maı´z 2014b, p. 4; Chassot and Arias 2012, p. (25 mi) northwest of Guayaquil; Biological Reserve (Monge et al. 2010, p. 61; Monge et al. 2009, p. 213; Jahn in however, these individuals may be part 16). litt. 2005, 2007, unpaginated). Based on of the same population found in Cerro In 1999, Powell et al. estimated that the best available information from Blanco. In summary, the majority of the Nicaraguan great green macaw experts, the total population is likely individuals are believed to be in population could be 10 times the size of between 1,000 and 3,000 individuals Esmeraldas Province, and very small the population in Costa Rica. In 2008, a (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. 91; numbers remain in the Chongo´n- population viability analysis was Monge et al. 2009, p. 213; Monge et al. Colonche mountain range, Guayas. conducted that indicated the size of the 2009b, p. 68). In Ecuador, the great green macaw population in population is estimated to be between Honduras Nicaragua was 661 individuals (Monge 30–40 individuals (Horstman in litt in In 1983, the great green macaw was et al. 2010, p. 21). In 2009, a population BLI 2014, p. 3). In 2009, a census was common in lowland rain forests in the census was conducted, during which conducted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua Moskitia (Mosquitia) area and eastern 432 macaws were observed. The (Monge et al. 2010, p. 13). A total of 173 Olancho (Marcus 1983, p. 623). The researchers suggest that the ‘‘average individuals were observed in the Costa region known as the Moskitia includes population’’ in Nicaragua is 532 (Monge Rican study area, and 432 individuals both eastern Honduras and northern et al. 2010, p. 13). This 2009 study were observed in the Nicaraguan study Nicaragua. Historically, the species was yielded an estimated population of 834 area during the breeding season (Monge reported to occur in the areas of individuals in Costa Rica and Nicaragua et al. 2010, p. 22), with the areas of Juticalpa and Catacamas in Olancho combined (Monge et al. 2010, p. 21). Mo´nico, Romerito, and Bartola having (Marcus 1983, p. 623). The species was the highest estimated abundance at the observed daily in the Pla´tano River area Panama time of each census. The population of in flocks of more than 10 individuals In Panama, the great green macaw is the great green macaw for Costa Rica is and almost daily in the Patuca River believed to inhabit the following areas: currently estimated to be approximately area, usually in pairs (Barborak 1997 in Bocas del Toro, La Amistad, northern 302 individuals, and the population for

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Nicaragua is roughly estimated to be 834 a study in the late 1990s, macaws fitted Papilionoideae) and bears compact, individuals (Monge et al. 2010, p. 22). with radio transmitters demonstrated single-seeded drupes. The seeds are Species with strict habitat requirements that macaws migrate seasonally based encased in a thick woody endocarp that such as the great green macaw are on food availability, and were found to has been observed to persist on the particularly subject to population size travel between 40 and 58 km (25 to 36 forest floor for up to 2 years (Hanson overestimation, because they are mi) while in search of food (Chosset et 2006, p. 68). This tree species is only unlikely to be present in suboptimal al. 2004, p. 35). located in southern Nicaragua, Costa habitat despite those habitats being Rica, Panama, and Colombia, where it Diet included as part of the species range grows primarily in the lowlands of the (Jetz et al. 2008, p. 116–117). Thus, The great green macaw has been Atlantic plains. They require an annual additional surveys are needed, and observed feeding on fruits of 37 tree rainfall of 3 to 5 m (approximately 10 ground-truthing (gathering data species (Berg et al. 2007, p. 2; Chassot to 16 ft) (Schmidt 2009, p. 14) for regarding where the species is located) et al. 2006, p. 35). While it is closely optimal growth. A 2008 study reported is essential to obtain accurate associated with the almendro tree, its that nearly 90 percent of all great green population estimates for this species. diet varies based on location. In macaw nests identified in northern Ecuador, it was observed feeding on the Costa Rica are located within hollowed Habitat and Life History following tree species: Cordia cavities of large almendro trees (Chun The great green macaw inhabits eriostigma (totumbo), Cynometra sp. 2008, p. 109). Additionally, almendro humid lowland foothills and deciduous (cocobolo), Ficus trigunata (matapalo), trees were found to provide 80 to 90 forests generally below 600 m (1,968 ft), Ficus sp. (higuero´n), Psidium percent of both the macaw’s food and but also may occur between 1,000 and acutangulum (Guayaba de monte), nesting needs. Great green macaw pairs 1,500 m (3,281 and 4,921 ft) depending Chrysophyllum caimito (caimito), and tend to select nesting trees that are on suitable habitat, which is primarily Vitex gigantea (tillo blanco or pechiche) surrounded by relatively dense stands of based on the presence of almendro (Berg et al. 2007, p. 2; Waugh 1995, p. reproducing almendro trees (Chun (Dipteryx panamensis) trees. The type of 7). In other parts of its range, it has also 2008). Almendro tree fruit sustains the habitat preferred by the great green been observed feeding on Cavanillesia adults, chicks, nestlings, and fledglings macaw is an ecosystem where the platanifolia (NCN), Cecropia litoralis over the course of the breeding and almendro tree and Pentacletra (pumpwood or trumpet tree), development season, which coincides macroloba (oil bean tree) dominate Centrolobium ochroxylum (amarillo de with the peak production of almendro (Chassot et al. 2006, p. 35). This species’ guayaquil), Cochlospermum vitifolium fruit (November through March). nests have been found in Carapa (buttercup tree), Lecythis ampla Likely pollinators of the almendro nicaraguensis (caobilla), Enterolobium (sapucaia), Leucaena trichodes (NCN), tree are bees within the genera Bombus, schomburgkii (guanacaste blanco), Odroma pyramidalis (NCN), Centris, Melipona, Trigona, and Goethalsia meiantha, Prioria copaifera Pseudobombax guayasen (NCN), Epicharis (Thiele 2002 in Hanson 2006, (cativo), and Vochysia ferruginea Pseudobombax millei (beldaco), Rafia p. 3; Flores 1992, pp. 1–22; Perry et al. (botarrama) trees (Chosset and Arias species (believed to be palms), Sloanea 1980, p. 310). These trees are referred to 2010, p. 14; Powell et al. 1999). Nests spp., Symphonia globulifera (NCN), and as ‘‘emergent’’ because they are the have been observed in large trees, with Terminalia valverdeae (guarapo) (Berg tallest trees in the forest. Almendro trees cavities that are nearly 20 m (66 ft) et al. 2007, p. 6). One preferred plant can grow to over 46 m (150 ft) and reach above ground (Rodriguez-Mahecha species, Cynometra bauhiniifolia (NCN), a diameter of 1.5 m (4.92 ft). Three 2002, p. 119). Great green macaws have produced more food than nine other hundred-year-old trees have been been observed to use the same nesting species (Berg et al. 2007, p. 1). In documented, but research suggests that cavity for many years if they are another study, two of the most the almendro tree has a maximum undisturbed, although they may important sources of food for the great potential age of 654 years (Fichtler et al. alternate nest sites each year (Chun green macaw, in addition to the 2003 in Schmidt 2009, p. 15). 2008, p. 102). Reproductive capability is almendro tree, were found to be Wood from the almendro tree is generally reached between ages 5 and 6 Sacoglottis trichogyna (titor, rosita, or heavy, commercially valuable, and years (Chassot et al. 2004, p. 34). The manteco) and Vochysia ferruginea yields the highest prices on local great green macaw mates for life, and (NCN) (Herrero-Fernandez 2006, p. 9; markets (Rodriguez and Chaves 2008, p. nests in deep cavities (usually of Chassot et al. 2006, p. 35). S. trichogyna 5). It is used for furniture, floorings, almendro trees) from December to June fruits were observed to be its preferred bridges, railroad ties, boats, marine (Chassot et al. in Villate et al. 2008, p. food when D. panamensis was scarce or construction, handicrafts, veneers, 19; Monge et al. 2002, p. 39). The unavailable in Costa Rica (Chassot et al. industrial machinery, sporting incubation time is 26 days and the 2004, p. 34). equipment, springboards, and nesting period is 12 to 13 weeks agricultural tool handles (Schmidt 2009, (Rodriguez-Mahecha et al. 2002, p. 119). Almendro Trees p. 16). Almendro outsells every other After the breeding season, individuals The great green macaw is closely tree species on the Costa Rican timber disperse from the lowlands to higher associated with almendro trees market (Grethel and Norman 2009 in forests in the mountains in search of (Dipteryx panamensis) for feeding and Schmidt 2009, p. 77; Rodriguez and food (Powell et al. 1999 in Chosset et al. nesting in the majority of its range Chaves 2008, p. 5). It was listed in 2004, p. 38). (Chun 2008, p. iv; Chosset et al. 2004, Appendix III of CITES by Costa Rica in The great green macaw has been p. 34). Because the great green macaw 2003 and by Nicaragua in 2007 (http:// observed in flocks of up to 18 is highly dependent on the almendro www.cites.org). A species is unilaterally individuals, and has been observed tree, we are describing almendro tree listed in Appendix III by a country in traveling long distances on the habitat, its life history, and factors that the native range of that species, at the Caribbean slope. Macaws are strong affect its habitat. The almendro tree request of that country. Article II, fliers and are known to travel hundreds (also known as the tropical almond or paragraph 3, of CITES states that of kilometers (Chosset and Arias 2010, mountain almond tree) is a member of ‘‘Appendix III shall include all species p. 5; Chosett et al. 2004, p. 36). During the pea family (Fabaceae; which any Party identifies as being

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subject to regulation within its (74,493 acres) of primary, secondary, protected status in Los Katı´os National jurisdiction for the purpose of and mangrove forest that remains in this Park, Utrı´a National Park, Paramillo preventing or restricting exploitation, species’ nesting habitat. Another National Park, and Farallones de Cali and as needing the cooperation of other conservation strategy has been to National Natural Park (Rodriguez et al. parties in the control of trade.’’ For the establish almendro tree plantations. Due 2002, pp. 120–121). The largest export of specimens of an Appendix-III to its open crown structure, almendro population of the great green macaw is species from a country that has listed has a relatively translucent canopy that believed to exist in the Darie´n Endemic the species, the Management Authority produces only moderate shade, which Bird Area (EBA) 023, which in that country of export needs to allows for the production of shade encompasses southern Panama´ and determine that the specimens were not canopy crops such as pineapple and northwestern Colombia. However, there obtained in contravention of that cacao (Schmidt 2009, p. 19). These are no reliable population estimates for country’s laws. In addition to CITES almendro plantations are being this area (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez protections, a recent decision by the researched for several reasons, 2011, p. 91; Jahn in litt. 2004). Colombia fourth Chamber of Costa Rica’s Supreme particularly due to the almendro tree’s developed a National Action Plan for Court in 2008 required the Ministry of ability to resist decay, its ability to the Conservation of Threatened Parrots Environment and Energy (MINAE, or capture carbon dioxide, and its role in (Plan Nacional de Accio´n para la Ministerio de Ambiente y Energia) to the ecosystem (Schmidt 2009, p. 11). Conservacio´n de los Loros abstain from the use, exploitation, or Additionally, almendro trees have been Amenazados), which was in effect until extraction of almendro trees (Chun identified as the most promising species 2007. The ProAves Foundation, an NGO 2008, p. 113). for long-term carbon sink reforestation in Colombia, has been active in parrot Recent research found that this tree projects in Costa Rica (Redondo-Brenes conservation since 2005. Other than species is much more restricted to 2007, p. 253; Redondo-Brenes and NGO involvement, it is unclear what lowland habitat than previously Montagnini 2006, p. 168). proactive, effective protections are in described; it is predicted to occur In Ecuador, the great green macaw is place for this species. between 45 and 125 m (147 to 410 ft) not dependant on almendro trees, in elevation, in part based on its soil although it still inhabits humid lowland Costa Rica requirements (Schmidt 2009, p. iv; areas (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 424). In The great green macaw is considered Chun 2008, p. 109). The almendro tree this habitat, the great green macaw to be endangered in Costa Rica (Monge is best adapted to areas with high levels prefers Lecythis ampla (salero) in the et al. 2010, p. 22; Herrero 2006, p. 6; of rainfall and acidic clay soils with Esmeraldas rainforest, Cynometra Executive Order No. 26435–MINAE). good drainage below elevations of 500 bauhiniaefolia (cocobolo) as a primary Several intense conservation initiatives m (1,640 ft) such as the Atlantic food source, and pigio (Cavanillesia are underway for this species in Costa lowlands of Costa Rica (Schmidt 2009, platanifolia) as a nest tree (Chassot et al Rica. In 2001, a committee was formed p. iv). Almendro trees require at least 2007, p. 1; Berg et al 2007, pp. 1–3). to investigate a corridor for the 2,000 millimeters (mm) (79 inches) of conservation of this species’ habitat. As Conservation Status rainfall per year for optimal growth a result, the San Juan-La Selva (Schmidt 2009, p. 69). There are various protections in place Biological Corridor was formed to Great green macaw breeding pairs are for the great green macaw at the connect the Indio Maı´z Biological believed to require a home range of 550 international, national, and local levels. Reserve in southeastern Nicaragua with ha (1,359 ac) (Chun 2008, p. 105). At the international level, this species is the Central Volcanic Cordillera Range in Because the great green macaw requires listed as endangered on the IUCN Red Costa Rica. This links Costa Rica’s La such a large range, and is strongly List due to continuous loss of habitat, Selva Biological Station in the north to associated with almendro trees, range hunting, and poaching of this species the Barra del Colorado Wildlife Reserve countries such as Nicaragua and Costa for the pet trade (BLI 2013). IUCN’s Red and National Park and Protective Zone Rica have developed conservation plans List classifies species as endangered of Tortuguero on Costa Rica’s Caribbean for the almendro tree. Almendro trees (extinction probability of 20 percent coast. In addition, the conservation team commonly occur at a density of less within 20 years) or critically endangered lobbied for the establishment of the than one adult tree per hectare (Hanson (extinction probability of 50 percent Maquenque National Wildlife Refuge to et al. 2008 in Schmidt 2009, p. 14; within 10 years) based on several protect the macaw’s breeding habitat Hanson et al. 2006, p. 49). The highest criteria, including limited or declining (Hardman 2011, p. 10; Chun 2008, p. density recorded was 4 trees per hectare ranges or populations. However, the 98). This corridor makes up a part of the (Chaverri and Lo´pez 1998). In one area status under IUCN conveys no actual larger MesoAmerican Biological of Costa Rica that was surveyed for protections. This species is listed in Corridor, which has been proposed to almendro trees, of 140,178 ha (56,728 Appendix I of CITES. Appendix I connect protected habitat from the ac) surveyed, 20 percent exhibited includes species threatened with Yucatan Region in southern Mexico and densities of 0.50 almendro trees per extinction that are or may be affected by Belize to the Darie´n National Park in hectare or more, and 50 percent had international trade, and are generally Panama (http:// densities of 0.20 trees per ha or more prohibited from commercial trade. Refer www.greatgreenmacaw.org/ (Chun 2008, p. 103). to the discussion above for the military BiologicalCorridor.htm, accessed Due to their important role in the macaw for additional information about October 25, 2011). ecosystem, particularly with respect to CITES. The great green macaw’s The San Juan-La Selva binational the great green macaw, conservation conservation status in each country is corridor links existing protected wild efforts have focused on the almendro discussed below and in more detail areas. There is also an extended part to tree. These trees not only provide under Factor D. the northwest that includes the El habitat to many wildlife species such as Castillo area. The goal of this initiative the great green macaw, but they also Colombia is to provide linkages to 29 protected play a significant role in the ecosystem. The great green macaw is listed as areas involving 1,311,182 ha (3,240,001 One conservation strategy for the great Vulnerable on Colombia’s Red List ac) (Chassot et al. 2006, p. 85). Because green macaw is to protect 30,159 ha (Renjifo et al. 2002, p. 524). It has macaws are known to move hundreds of

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kilometers (Chosset and Arias 2010, p. 2009, there were 23 areas in Honduras another area, as a result of conservation 5), these linkages should allow this identified as Important Bird Areas efforts, the local government of El species better access to different habitats (IBAs) (Devenish et al. 2009, p. 1) that Castillo declared this species the official so that it is able to meet its nutritional may provide additional protections to municipal bird, and the city established and nesting requirements. In addition to this species in part by serving as sanctions to those intending to harm containing key conservation sites for the ecotourism sites that can increase this species (Chassot et al. 2008, p. 23). great green macaw, the corridor conservation efforts in the areas. For Since 2001, Fundacio´n del Rı´o and connects the vast expanse that includes additional information on IBAs, see the the Tropical Science Center in Costa Punta Gorda Natural Reserve, Cerro discussion above for the military Rica have coordinated a binational Silva Natural Reserve, and Fortaleza macaw. campaign focused on promoting the Inmaculada Concepcio´n de Marı´a awareness of the ecology of the great Nicaragua Historic Monument (Chassot et al. 2006, green macaw in the lowlands of the San p. 85). The corridor also provides Nicaragua follows the IUCN Juan River area (Chassot et al. 2009, p. connections among unprotected forest categorization of endangered for this 9). Between 2002 and 2005, at least 11 patches in Costa Rica in addition to species (Castellon 2008, pp. 13, 19; workshops on great green macaw providing connections to protected Lezama-Lo´pez 2006, p. 90). The great biology and preservation were held areas. Many of these areas may not be green macaw exists in the Indio-Maı´z within communities of the buffer zone pristine habitat; some areas are either Biological Reserve, which has had of Indio-Maiz Biological Reserve in inhabited by humans or used by local protected status since 1990, although Costa Rica (Chassot et al. 2006, p. 86). communities to extract resources. threats to the species still exist in this Some examples of projects initiated by However, there are conservation Reserve (Herrera 2004, pp. 5–6). NGOs include installation of nest boxes awareness programs in place throughout Nicaragua is also participating in the bi- to increase nest availability and the corridor, and the great green macaw national conservation strategy for this community heritage festivals that are is being intensely managed and species (Monge et al. 2009, pp. 11, 16). focused on the great green macaw. Some monitored in the San Juan–La Selva Panama NGOs are providing training to local Biological Corridor. communities to monitor populations, There is little information available and some researchers are studying this Ecuador regarding the status of this species in species via satellite transmitters to This species is categorized as Panama (Monge et al. 2009, p. 67); determine the species’ home range and critically endangered in Ecuador however, Panama follows the IUCN specific habitat used (Chosset et al. (Monge et al. 2009, p. 256), primarily categorization for this species (Devenish 2004, p. 35). In Costa Rica and due to deforestation and hunting et al. 2009, p. 294). The great green Nicaragua, 20 communities are pressures. In Ecuador, the only macaw is believed to be in Darie´n participating in monitoring and potentially population is believed to National Park (Monge et al. 2009, p. 68). protection activities of the great green exist in the Cerro Blanco Protected Panama’s wildlife law of 1995, Law No. macaw (Chosset and Arias 2010, p. 3). Forest, which is 6,070 ha (15,000 ac) in 24, establishes the standards for wildlife The primary objectives of the campaign size. The Guayaquil subspecies of the conservation. have been to improve awareness by great green macaw (Ara a. NGO Involvement conducting workshops on the guyaquilensis) is thought to be in importance, threats, and conservation of imminent danger of extinction (Berg There are many nongovernmental the great green macaw and its habitat; to 2007, p. 1). In 2008, the National organization (NGO), private, and strengthen natural resources Preservation Strategy for the Great government efforts to protect this management by environmental Green Macaw in Ecuador was described species, although not all of the projects authorities of both Nicaragua and Costa at the Great Green Macaw Population and NGOs are identified in this Rica, focusing on the local and Viability Assessment and Habitat document. NGOs have conducted international biological corridors; and to Conservation Workshop held in Costa collaborative efforts, such as training organize joint activities (Chassot et al. Rica; however, funding is still lacking workshops, that are community-focused 2006, p. 83). for many of the initiatives in Ecuador and aimed at the conservation of the In Colombia, the NGO ProAves has that have been prescribed as necessary habitat. In Nicaragua, Fundacio´n made great progress in forming for the conservation of this species. Cocibolca is active in this species’ partnerships at the local, regional, and conservation. This NGO first signed an international levels to carry out bird Honduras agreement with Nicaragua’s Natural conservation initiatives (Chassot et al. The great green macaw is categorized Resources Ministry (MARENA) in 1996, 2008, p. 23; Quevado-Gill et al. 2006, p. as endangered in Honduras (List of at which time the conservation group 18). Additionally, reforestation efforts Wildlife Species of Special Concern, was the first NGO to have been granted have occurred (Monge et al. 2009, p. Resolution No. Gg–003–98 APVS). In responsibility to manage a national 263). These efforts have focused 1990, the Government of Honduras protected area in Nicaragua (http:// primarily within the reserves of the prohibited the capture and sale of www.marena.gob.ni; accessed Colombian Civil Society Association wildlife, including the great green November 9, 2011; http:// Network (Quevado-Gill et al. 2006, p. macaw in Honduras. Currently, this www.planeta.com, accessed November 17). Conservation efforts and these species exists in the Rio Pla´tano 9, 2011). The Nicaraguan conservation workshops have been important because Biosphere Reserve (which consists of organization, Fundacio´n del Rio, works they have trained the community in 800,000 ha or 1,976,843 ac). The official in the buffer zone of the Indio-Maı´z sustainable development by linking designation of the Biosphere as a reserve Biological Reserve, which borders the local agricultural activities to the is to protect and conserve biodiversity; San Juan River (Villate 2008, p. 39). In protection of natural resources however, this designation has not halted 1999, Fundacio´n del Rio began an (Quevado-Gill et al. 2006, p. 17). deforestation within the protected area environmental education program in Three NGOs are active in the (UNESCO 2011, p. 1; ParksWatch 2011; this buffer zone to promote awareness of conservation of this species in Ecuador: Wade 2007, p. 65). Additionally, as of the great green macaw and its habitat. In Pro-Forest Foundation in Guayas

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Province, Fundacio´n Natura, and the considering what factors might for resources and human encroachment Jocotoco Foundation at the Rio Canande constitute threats to a species, we must (Guedes 2004, p. 279; Rodrı´guez- Reserve in Esmeraldas Province. The look beyond the exposure of the species Mahecha and Herna´ndez-Camacho Pro-Forest Foundation (Fundacio´n to a particular factor to evaluate whether 2002; Chassot and Monge 2002 in ProBosque) was created in 1992, the species may respond to that factor Rothman 2008, p. 509). Its habitat has through a decree of the Ecuadorian in a way that causes actual impacts to continuously been clear-cut and Ministry of Agriculture. Its mission is to the species. If there is exposure to a converted to agriculture or human protect areas with an emphasis in factor and the species responds establishments, which is discussed in reforestation, agroforestry, investigation, negatively, the factor may be a threat, more detail below. and, during the status review, we environmental education, and Logging ecotourism programs, all in order to attempt to determine how significant a support the conservation of biodiversity. threat it is. The identification of factors Tree species used by macaws tend to In Panama, the Asociacio´n Nacional that could impact a species negatively be large, mature trees with large nesting para la Conservacio´n de la Naturaleza may not be sufficient to compel a cavities. The practice of selective (ANCON) began conservation work in finding that the species warrants listing. logging often targets old, large trees that 1991. The project has jointly worked on The information must include evidence macaws depend upon for nesting. In conservation efforts with Panama’s sufficient to suggest that these factors, selective logging, the most valuable Instituto Nacional de Recursos singly or in combination, are operative trees from a forest are commercially Naturales Renovables (INRENARE). threats that act on the species to the extracted (Asner et al. 2005, p. 480; ANCON has worked on training park point that the species may meet the Johns 1988, p. 31), and the forest is left rangers, marking and patrolling paths definition of endangered or threatened to regenerate naturally or with some and park boundaries, acquiring property under the ESA. management until being subsequently around parks and tree nurseries, and This rule focuses primarily on where logged again. Johns (1988, p. 31), improving agricultural techniques (TNC this species has been documented, looking at a West Malaysian dipterocarp 2011, p. 2). which is generally in parks and other forest, found that mechanized selective Additionally, members from several areas with protected status and the logging in tropical rainforests, which NGOs participated in the great green peripheral zones. In some cases, we will usually removes a small percentage of macaw conservation workshop held in evaluate the factor by country. In other timber trees, causes severe incidental 2008. The purpose of the workshop was cases, we may evaluate the factor by a damage. He found that the extraction of to bring together experts, to determine broader region or context, for example, 3.3 percent of trees destroyed 50.9 the priorities for the conservation of the if we do not have adequate information percent of the forest. Selective logging species, and to develop a plan for its specific to a particular country about can cause widespread collateral damage conservation (Monge et al. 2009, entire). this species. This is because often to remaining trees, subcanopy We acknowledge the substantial effort threats are the same or very similar vegetation, and soil, and the practice impacts hydrological processes, erosion, under way by various NGOs in the range throughout the species’ range. fire, carbon storage, and plant and countries of this species to protect it and A. The Present or Threatened animal species (Chomitz et al. 2007, pp. its habitat. Despite many efforts in Destruction, Modification, or 117, 119; Asner et al. 2005, p. 480). place, the populations of the great green Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range Forests that were selectively logged 15 macaw continue to face many threats to Throughout the range of this species, years prior became an open forest with its habitat. the factors impacting the great green skeletons of incidentally killed trees, Evaluation of Threat Factors macaw are generally very similar. The serious gulley erosion, and vegetation main factors affecting this species are on waterlogged sites that had been Introduction habitat loss and degradation, and compacted by heavy vehicles (Edwards Section 4 of the ESA (16 U.S.C. 1533) poaching (McGinley et al. 2009, p. 11; 1993, p. 9). Additionally, the and implementing regulations (50 CFR Berg et al. 2007; Chassot et al. 2006; availability of food sources for 424) set forth procedures for adding Quevado-Gill et al. 2006, p. 16; Guedes frugivores (fruit-eaters, such as the great species to, removing species from, or 2004, p. 280). Both Central and South green macaw) is reduced because the reclassifying species on the Federal List America continue to experience high trees that contain nutritional sources are of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife levels of deforestation (FAO 2010, p. no longer there. and Plants. Under section 4(a)(1) of the xvi). Habitat loss is primarily due to Selective logging is particularly ESA, a species may be determined to be conversion of the species’ habitat devastating to the almendro tree, which endangered or threatened based on any (generally forests) to agriculture and is slow growing and may take centuries of the following five factors: other forms that are not optimal for this to reach sufficient size to harbor cavities A. The present or threatened species (Chosset and Arias 2010, p. 3; (Schmidt 2009, p. 15), and which great destruction, modification, or Monge et al. 2009, entire). green macaws need for both food and curtailment of its habitat or range; Almendro habitat, this species’ shelter. The almendro tree’s wood is of B. Overutilization for commercial, primary food and nesting source, has great commercial value due to its recreational, scientific, or educational declined significantly (Schmidt 2009, p. strength and durability for flooring, purposes; 16), particularly since the 1980s. roofing, and irrigation systems (Madriz- C. Disease or predation; Almendro and other tree species used Vargas 2004, p. 8). Concern for this tree D. The inadequacy of existing by the great green macaw have been species was significant enough that the regulatory mechanisms; and selectively cut down and removed from species was listed as CITES Appendix E. Other natural or manmade factors this species’ habitat. Selective logging is III by both Costa Rica and Nicaragua. affecting its continued existence. the practice of removing one or two Listing species in Appendix III In making this finding, information generally large, mature trees and leaving enhances conservation measures pertaining to the great green macaw in the rest. Throughout the range of the enacted for the species by regulating relation to the five factors in section great green macaw, its habitat has international trade in the species. In 4(a)(1) of the ESA is discussed below. In declined primarily due to competition general, shipments containing CITES-

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listed species receive greater scrutiny and harvesting of this species (Botero- building (Brooks and Strahl 2000, p. 10). from border officials in both the Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, pp. 91–92). Roads increase human access into exporting and importing countries. The Threats specific to Los Katı´os National habitat, facilitating further exploitation, elimination of almendro trees is Park are illegal deforestation and erosion, and habitat destruction possibly the most severe threat for the hunting (UNEP–WCMC 2009, p. 1). In (Chomitz et al. 2007, p. 88; Hunter 1996, species in its range countries with the 2009, the threats in this park were so pp. 158–159). Research has documented exception of Ecuador, where the severe that the park was added to that road building and other decrease in availability of other tree UNESCO’s List of World Heritage Sites infrastructure developments in areas species used by the great green macaw in Danger (http://whc.unesco.org/en/ that were previously remote forested is a concern. list/711, accessed January 17, 2012). areas have increased accessibility and Although the nest cavities that the facilitated further habitat destruction Deforestation macaws prefer (deep and dry) may take and human settlement (Etter et al. 2006, 10 to 20 years to form, the nests Colombia has experienced extensive p. 1; A´ lvarez 2005, p. 2,042; Ca´rdenas themselves can last for several decades deforestation in the last half of the 20th and Rodrı´guez-Becerra 2004, pp. 125– (Chun 2008, p. 101). Even in century as a result of habitat conversion 130; Vin˜ a et al. 2004, pp. 118–119; undisturbed forests, suitable tree for human settlements, road building, Hunter 1996, pp. 158–159). A study cavities are usually limited. As a result, agriculture, and timber extraction (FAO conducted on the effects of habitat each loss of a nest site can represent the 2010, p. 233; Armenteras et al. 2006, p. fragmentation on Andean birds within loss of potentially many future chicks 354). A 23-year study, conducted from western Colombia determined that 31 that could have been raised in each tree 1973 to 1996, found that these activities percent of the historical bird cavity. reduced the amount of primary forest populations in western Colombia had cover in Colombia by approximately Agriculture become extinct or locally extirpated by 3,605 ha (8,908 ac) annually, 1990, primarily as a result of habitat Habitat degradation, particularly due representing a nearly one-third total loss fragmentation from deforestation and to conversion of forest habitat to of primary forest habitat (Vin˜ a et al. human encroachment (Kattan and agriculture or plantations, is a major 2004, pp. 123–124). More than 70 A´ lvarez-Lopez 1996, p. 5; Kattan et al. factor affecting great green macaws. The percent of rural land of Colombia 1994, p. 141). Greater exposure of soil clearing of forests and buffer zones for located in former forestlands is now to direct sunlight leads to factors such the development of plantations for devoted to cattle grazing (Etter and as drier soils and also creates a different bananas, oil palms, cacao, coffee, McAlpine 2007, pp. 89–92). Beginning growing environment. For example, the soybeans, and rice destroys great green in the 1980s, habitat loss increased creation of roads changes the habitat by macaw nesting sites and exposes chicks dramatically as a result of influxes of altering the distance of nesting and to poaching for the pet trade (Botero et people settling in formerly pristine areas feeding habitat to the forest ‘‘edge,’’ al. 2011, p. 92; Monge et al. 2009, pp. (Perz et al. 2005, pp. 26–28; Vin˜ a et al. increasing the amount of light exposure, 26, 29, 43, 54; Waugh 1995, p. 2). By 2004, p. 124). More recent studies and creating stress on (breeding) 2005, the world’s tropical forest biomes indicate that the rate of habitat individuals in part due to noise and had decreased to less than 50 percent destruction is accelerating (FAO 2010, visual stimuli (Benı´tez-Lo´pez et al. tree cover (Donald et al. 2010, p. 26), in p. xvi). Between the years 1990 and 2010, p. 1,308). part due to the above activities. Tropical 2005, Colombia lost approximately forest fragmentation due to these 52,800 ha (130,471 ac) of primary forest Coca Cultivation activities continues to be a concern. A annually (Butler 2006a, pp. 1–3). Ongoing coca cultivation has had a discussion of habitat loss and Primary forest habitats such as those significant impact on forest cover in degradation for each country follows. used by the great green macaw Colombia (Armenteras et al. 2006, p. throughout Colombia have undergone 355; Fjeldsa˚ et al. 2005, p. 205; Page Colombia extensive deforestation. Vin˜ a et al. 2003, p. 2; A´ lvarez 2002, pp. 1,088– Very little information is available (2004, pp. 123–124) used satellite 1,093). Colombia is one of the leading about the great green macaw’s status in imagery to analyze deforestation rates producers of coca, the plant species that Colombia (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez and patterns along the Colombian- provides the main ingredient of cocaine. 2011, pp. 86, 90; Monge et al. 2009; Jahn Ecuadorian border (in the Departments Between 1998 and 2002, cultivation of in litt. 2004). A large population is of Putumayo and Sucumbios, illicit crops increased by 21 percent believed to exist in Los Katı´os National respectively) and found that between each year, with a parallel increase in Park, which borders the swampy and 1973 and 1996, a total of 829 km2 (320 deforestation of formerly pristine areas sparsely populated Darie´n region in mi2) of tropical forests within the study of approximately 60 percent (A´ lvarez Panama; however, there are no recent area were converted to other uses. This 2002, pp. 1,088–1,093). Much of reported observations of the species in corresponds to a nearly one-third total Colombia’s coca is grown by farmers this area. Population surveys need to be loss of primary forest habitat, or a nearly because it generates more income than conducted (Botero-Delgadillo et al. 2 percent mean annual rate of any other crop (Butler 2006, pp. 1–2). 2011, pp. 88, 90; Monge et al. 2009). At deforestation within the study area. Illegal drug crops are cultivated within least 40 percent of the great green Habitat loss and degradation, including the great green macaw’s range (BLI macaw’s original distribution area in conversion of this species’ habitat to 2014b, p. 4). Large-scale coca northwestern Colombia was deforested other forms of use such as agriculture, production has moved into the by 1997 (Etter 1998 in Jahn in litt. 2004). plantations, or harvesting of this extensive rainforests of the Choco´ state, Threats to this species in Colombia have species’ plant food sources, continue to which is considered to be a biodiversity been identified as: Agriculture occur and affect the quality of this hotspot in northwest Colombia and in (particularly illegal coca cultivation), species’ habitat. the range of the great green macaw. agroindustrial farms, large forest In addition to the direct detrimental A 1990 United Nations study plantings of exotic trees, wood effect of habitat loss, there are several estimated that coca growers can make extraction, development of indirect effects of habitat disturbance about $4,000 U.S. dollars per hectare infrastructure, and hunting, capturing, and fragmentation, such as road (Tammen 1991, p. 12 in Page 2003, pp.

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15–16). A farmer can only earn about species remains. Despite Costa Rica’s researchers noted that the annual rate of $600 per hectare growing an alternative progress in conservation of this species, deforestation was 0.88 percent for the crop such as coffee, which is the most the historical breeding area for this 1987–1998 period, and 0.73 percent for often cited potential substitute crop for species in Costa Rica has been reduced the 1998–2005 period, taking into coca (Page 2003, pp. 15–16). Page (2003, by 90 percent (Villate et al. 2008, p. 19; consideration recovery of secondary pp. 15–16) notes that production of Chosset et al. 2004, p. 38). In 2004, forest. The researchers also noted that, coffee and tea requires 3 to 4 years from approximately 30 reproductive pairs in the area studied, deforestation rates planting to first harvest and then can remained in the wild in Costa Rica were higher than national averages for only be harvested once per year, while (Madriz-Vargas 2004, p. 4). Up until the the same time span (Chassot et al. 2009, coca can be harvested 8 months after it 1960s, Costa Rica’s human population p. 9). is planted and can be harvested every 90 was growing by approximately 4 percent In the 1990s, plans to form the San days thereafter. The coca bushes annually (World Bank 2011, Juan-La Selva Biological Corridor began themselves do not require much care unpaginated; Chun 2008, p. 6). Logging in response to the significant decrease and can be cultivated on plots of land in the 1960s and 1970s decimated this in habitat available to the great green that are much smaller than those species’ habitat (Hardman 2011, p. 8). In macaw and its decline in population required for crops other than coca the 1980s, the area near Puerto Viejo de numbers. In 1993 and 1994, about 1,000 (Tammen 1991, p. 6 in Page 2003, p. Sarapiqui experienced severe km2 (386 mi2) were identified as 16). Unfortunately, not only do coca deforestation and conversion to banana important nesting areas for this species crops displace native habitat and and pineapple plantations. By 1996, in Costa Rica. In 2002, the San Juan-La species assemblages that are important 52,000 ha (128,495 ac) of lowland forest Selva Biological Corridor, an area of for the great green macaw, but they also had been converted to banana 60,000 hectares (148,263 ac), was deplete the soil of nutrients, which plantations (Brewster 2009, p. 8). The established to protect the nesting sites hampers regeneration following loss of forested area in the north has and migration flyway of the great green abandonment of fields (Van Schoik and primarily been due to the production of macaw in Costa Rica, up to the Schulberg 1993, p. 21). livestock, forestry products, sugar cane, Nicaragua border (Guedes 2004, p. 280). Drug eradication efforts in Colombia and (in more recent years) pineapple Although this corridor is in place, have further degraded and destroyed (Villate et al. 2008, p. 15). recent reports indicate that habitat primary forest habitat by using In the mid-1980s, policies changed degradation and other factors continue nonspecific aerial herbicides to destroy from granting incentives for livestock to affect the great green macaw (Monge illegal crops (BLI 2007d, p. 3; A´ lvarez and cattle ranching to reforestation for et al. 2009, p. 121). 2005, p. 2,042; Ca´rdenas and Rodrı´guez forest management. However, these Costa Rica was the only country in Becerra 2004, p. 355; Oldham and incentives led initially to the clearing of Central America that had a positive Massey 2002, pp. 9–12). For example, in forests for conversion to exotic species overall increase in forest area during the 2006, eradication efforts were plantations. As a result, forestry in Costa period 2000–2005 (FAO 2010, p. 19; undertaken on over 2,130 km2 (822 mi2) Rica (and Panama) has been dominated FAO 2007). Intense efforts are under of land, which included spraying of by the use of exotic species such as way in Costa Rica to conserve and 1,720 km2 (664 mi2) and manual Tectona grandis (teak) or Gmelina recover this species, in part by eradication on the remaining land. arborea (melina) (Schmidt 2009, p. 10). addressing habitat degradation. In some These eradication efforts occurred over This trend changed in 1986 with the areas, the commercial use of the an area 2.7 times greater than the net Forestry Act 7472. In the 1990s, the almendro tree is now being replaced by cultivation area (UNODC et al. 2007, p. government began to create incentives synthetic material due to conservation 8). Herbicide spraying has introduced for small farm owners to establish and efforts focused on the great green harmful chemicals into great green maintain native tree species plantations macaw. In some areas, landowners are macaw habitat and has led to further (Piotto et al. 2003, p. 427). By 1992, a being paid to protect and ‘‘adopt’’ destruction of the habitat by forcing project was implemented to improve the almendro trees, and several ecotourism growers to move to new, previously use of forested areas; however, it projects have developed using these untouched forested areas (A´ lvarez 2007, estimated that by this time only 5 trees and the macaws as part of the pp. 133–143; BLI 2007d, p. 3; A´ lvarez percent of original forest area remained ecotourism attraction. As of 2009, 12 2005, p. 2042; Ca´rdenas and Becerra intact (Chassot et al. 2001 in Villate et nesting trees had protection agreements 2004, p. 355; Oldham and Massey 2002, al. 2008, p. 15). Reforestation projects (Brewster 2009, p. 10). Still, habitat pp. 9–12; A´ lvarez 2002, pp. 1,088– began initially through an agreement degradation continues to impact the 1,093). between Costa Rica and Germany. The great green macaw (Villate et al. 2008, The ecological impacts of coca program was implemented by the p. 14), and even trees that are production are significant. Farmers clear Agribusiness Association and Forestry designated as protected are either cut forest to plant coca seedlings. Not only Producers (APAIFO) and the down or targeted for poaching (Chun does each hectare of crop production Cooperation for Forestry Development 2008). Logging still occurs in the result in the clearing of roughly 1.6 ha San Carlos (CODEFORSA). remnant forests of both the northern (4 ac) of forest, this practice also results In Costa Rica’s border zone with zone of Costa Rica and southeast in secondary effects such as the Nicaragua, Landsat TM satellite images Nicaragua (Chassot and Arias 2011, p. 1; pollution of land and local waterways from 1987, 1998, and 2005 showed a Monge et al. 2009, pp. 128–129). with the chemicals used to process coca fragmented landscape with remnants of Logging, while it may be illegal, has also leaves, including kerosene, sulfuric natural ecosystems, which has been documented in the buffer zone of acid, acetone, and carbide (Butler 2006, implications for the conservation of this the Indio-Maı´z Biological Reserve pp. 1–2). species. The images identified several (Monge et al. 2006, p. 10). The buffer classes of cover and land use (natural zone is within the breeding range of the Costa Rica forest, secondary forest, water, great green macaw and likely affects the Most of the research on this species agriculture and pasture, banana and species’ viability. Additionally, both has been conducted in Costa Rica, pineapple plantations, and bare ground) primary and regrowth forest in the San where a very small population of this (Chassot et al. 2009, pp. 8–9). These Juan–La Selva Biological Corridor

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continue to be threatened by timber home/Crucitas_Mining_Concession_ (FAO) reported in 2010 that, in Ecuador, extraction and agricultural expansion Cancellation_Confirmed, accessed ‘‘planted forests are predominantly (Chassot and Arias 2011, p. 1; Monge et January 12, 2012). However, prior to the composed of introduced species,’’ such al. 2009, pp. 128–129). court ruling, 121 ha (300 ac) of primary as rubber plantations and other forest had already been cleared (http:// nonnative species (FAO 2010, p. 93), Mining www.santuariolapas.com/profile_ which do not provide appropriate Gold mining may also affect 003.html, accessed December 14, 2011). habitat and nutritional needs for the conservation efforts for the great green The ultimate impacts and outcome of great green macaw. Despite these macaw in Costa Rica. In 2001, the the mining project are unclear; however, activities, due to the efforts of the Ministerio del Medio Ambiente y the species is and will continue to be ProForest Foundation—the NGO in Energı´a (MINAE) granted a mining impacted by pressures for resources that charge of the reserve—the population in concession (Resolution R–578–2001– affect its habitat. the Cerro Blanco forest preserve is MINAE) in San Carlos to clear nearly reported to be stable (Horstman 2011, p. Ecuador 202 ha (500 ac) of old-growth rainforest 17). The Cerro Blanco forest preserve is for a project (Villate 2009, p. 57; http:// Although the population of great a small area that is being managed www.infinito.co.cr and http:// green macaw is reported to be stable and particularly for this species. It is jointly www.nacla.org, both accessed slowly increasing in the Cerro Blanco owned by the ProForest Foundation and November 15, 2011). The Crucitas Protected Forest, it is an extremely a cement company, Holcim, as mining project is located in the small population (Monge et al. 2009, p. mitigation for its nearby limestone Northwest Corridor of San Juan–La 256). There are likely fewer than 100 quarries. Reserve managers are Selva, a few miles from the San Juan individuals remaining in Ecuador. In converting former cattle pasture to River (which separates Costa Rica from this part of its range, three tree species native tree farms, which they use to Nicaragua). The Crucitas area is part of are noted as crucial for the survival of help restore dry tropical forest in other a major zone for bird conservation the species: Lecythis ampla (salero) and locations, including a corridor to nearby initiatives, partly implemented by BLI, Cynometra bauhiniaefolia (cocobolo) as patches of forested areas (Horstman that includes both the Water and Peace primary food sources, and Cavanillesia 2009 pers. comm.). Despite the Biosphere Reserve and the San Juan–La platanifolia (pigio) as a nest tree conservation efforts in place, logging, Selva Biological Corridor (Chassot et al. (Horstman 2011 pers. comm. 2011). poaching, and illegal land settlement 2009, p. 9), including the El Castillo Logging, poaching, and illegal land continue to affect the population in the extension. It is reported that 72 percent settlements continue to occur in the Cerro Blanco Protected Forest of the area that had been proposed for great green macaw’s range and are (Horstman 2011, p. 17; Fundacion Pro- implementation of the project is forested threats to the population in Ecuador, Bosque, undated, p. 3). A conservation and contains almendro tree (and particularly in the Cerro Blanco strategy for this species recommends consequently great green macaw) Protected Forest (http:// that a ban be instituted on the cutting habitat. The company proposed to www.worldlandtrust-us.org, and commercialization of the three tree clearcut the area in order to establish unpaginated; World Wildlife Fund species described above that were noted the open pit mine. 2011, p. 5; Horstman 2011, p. 12). as crucial for the great green macaw’s In adjacent Nicaragua, the area of Between 1960 and 1980, the human survival (Monge et al. 2009, pp. 256– influence of the mining project is also population in Ecuador grew from 4 to 258). However, deforestation, part of the buffer zone of the two 10.2 million, which resulted in more encroachment, and habitat degradation reserves: San Juan River Biosphere than 90 percent of Pacific lowland and activities such as these continue Reserve and the Indio-Maı´z Biological foothill forest below 900 m (2,953 ft) (Horstman 2011, p. 17). Reserve. These areas contain features of being converted to agriculture (Dodson Another threat to the macaw’s endemism and species compositions and Gentry 1991, p. 279). Much of the population in this reserve is the rapid that are unique (Sistema Nacional de species’ habitat was converted to expansion of the city of Guayaquil. A´ reas de Conservacio´n (SINAC) 2007 in plantations of bananas, oil palms, cacao, Squatter settlements develop on the Villate et al. 2008, p. 58). Although coffee, soybeans, and rice (ELAW 2005, city’s outskirts and encroach the forest Crucitas is not part of the current p. 1; Dodson and Gentry 1991, p. 279). (Fundacion ProBosque undated, p. 3). nesting area of the great green macaw, In 2002, the Government of Ecuador Illegal settlements are a problem, and it is only about 10 km (3 mi) southeast authorized the conversion of 50,000 ha squatter communities have attempted to of the historical distribution of the (123,553 ac) of tropical forest in the take over property within Cerro Blanco. species. The mining activities are likely Choco region of western Ecuador into The local NGO conducts educational to affect the current population of the oil palm plantations (ELAW 2005, pp. awareness programs to mitigate these great green macaw by impacting its 1–2). As of 2005, 374 ha (924 ac) of activities. An example of awareness habitat as well as ongoing conservation native forests were being cut daily campaign activities is educating the efforts. The project lies within a (Horstman 2005, p. 8). Clearing forests local communities about the effect on geographical area that is of critical for this monoculture crop has their water supply when they destroy importance to the conservation of this threatened thousands of endemic forested areas (Horstman pers. comm. in species. Additionally, the removal of species and introduced dangerous Hardman 2011, p. 13). However, more primary forest cover would further pesticides to local ecosystems (Alba´n pressures to this species’ habitat reduce the ability to maintain and Ca´rdenas 2007, p. 43). For example, continue to impact the species. connectivity along the San Juan–La in Esmeraldas Province, pesticides are Selva Biological Corridor, which used intensively in a 36,000-ha (88,958- Honduras continues to be subjected to ac) area of oil palm plantations (ELAW In Honduras, threats have included fragmentation (Villate 2008, p. 58). As of 2005, pp. 1–2). Local villages cite illegal trafficking of this species and November 2010, a court ruled that the problems from the pesticides and deforestation due to agriculture, cattle open-pit gold mine was improperly effluents from the processing plants. grazing, and logging (Devenish et al. permitted (http:// The Food and Agriculture 2009, p. 256). The threat of deforestation centralamericadata.biz/en/article/ Organization of the United Nations is particularly important because a

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recent study found that 87 percent of Nicaragua and, therefore, is not protected. Honduras is only suitable for forest In Nicaragua, great green macaws face Additionally, much of the logging that (Larios and Coronado 2006, p. 13) due reductions in populations due to illegal occurs is illegal and is not monitored to its generally mountainous terrain. extraction of timber and agricultural (Pellegrini 2011, p. 21; Richards et al. There is very little information available expansion (McGinley et al. 2009, pp. 13, 2003, p. 283). on the status of this species in 33, 35; Jeffrey 2001, pp. 1–5). Overall, As an example, the Bosawas Reserve Honduras, particularly scientific there is a lack of information about the is one of the areas believed to contain literature (Monge et al. 2009, p. 122). status of the great green macaw great green macaws as well as suitable Only six papers on avian diversity and population and its habitat in Nicaragua habitat for a viable population. It was avian population surveys in Honduran (Monge et al. 2010; Monge et al. 2009, designated a reserve in 1979, in response to the advance of the forests were published between 1968 pp. 52–53). However, a population of agricultural frontier (Cue´llar and Kandel and 2004 (Anderson et al. 2004, p. 456). the great green macaw is known to 2005, p. 9). However, during the 1980s, However, we do know that the threats occur in the Indio-Maı´z Biological the area was not managed; it was the in Honduras are similar to those in other Reserve, located in Nicaragua just across battleground for the armed conflict countries within the range of this the San Juan River at the northeastern between the Sandinistas and the Contras species (McCann et al. 2003, pp. 321– border of Costa Rica (Monge et al. 2009, (Cue´llar and Susan Kandel 2005, p. 9). 322), and the most significant threat is p. 51), where suitable habitat for this In October 1991, Bosawas was declared deforestation. In 2008, the species remains. This reserve, which is Departamento de A´ reas Protegidas y de a National Natural Resource Reserve believed to be one of the few Vida Silvestre (DAPVS) in Honduras through Executive Decree No. 44–91. strongholds for the great green macaw, estimated that 80,000 ha (197,684 ac) of Despite its designation as a protected is nearly 264,000 ha (652,358 ac) in size. natural areas were being destroyed area, encroachment and habitat It is likely that the Indio-Maı´z Biological annually (DAPVS 2008 in Devenish et degradation still occur (McCann et al. Reserve contains extensive forest areas al., 2009 p. 256). 2003, p. 322). In Bosawas, indigenous The great green macaw is believed to with high densities of almendro trees tribal communities have rights to use exist in the Rı´o Pla´tano Biosphere (Chun 2008, p. 94) and, therefore, is the forests under the Autonomy Statute Reserve within the watershed of the critical to this species’ survival. Chun of 1987 (Cue´llar and Kandel 2005, p. Pla´tano River (Monge et al. 2009, p. 8). suggests that many areas in Nicaragua 11). As of 1998, the indigenous The area is also known as the may exceed the minimum great green population was approximately 9,200 in ‘‘Mosquitia Honduren˜ a,’’ which is macaw nesting requirement of 0.20 trees or near the Bosawas reserve (Stocks et 500,000 ha (1,235,527 ac) in size. The per hectare within the breeding al. 2007, p. 1,497). In 2005, the reserve serves as protection to the 100- territory. Although the Indio-Maı´z Nicaraguan Government granted land km (62-mi) long Pla´tano River Biological Reserve is considered one of titles to 86 indigenous Miskitu and watershed in addition to protecting Nicaragua’s best preserved forested Mayangna groups in Bosawas and parts of the Paulaya, Guampu, and Sicre areas and has limited access, its buffer contiguous indigenous areas (Stocks et rivers (Devenish 2009, p. 256). Several zone has recently been under assault al. 2007, p. 497). Generally, these indigenous tribes such as the Miskito, from activities such as loggers in search indigenous communities manage the Tawahka, Pech, Garı´funas, and of lumber and illegal farming of Elaeis forests well and want to maintain their ‘‘Mestizos’’ use this area for their guineensis (African palm) trees for traditional way of life. However, traditional livelihoods. Although this biofuel (Chosset and Arias 2010, p. 3; ‘‘mestizo’’ communities were reserve was designated as a World Ravnborg et al. 2006, p. 2). As resources encouraged to settle in the area that is Heritage Site, pressures to the reserve become scarcer in the buffer zones, now the reserve’s buffer zone during the area for its resources continue (TNC illegal activities push farther into the period when lands were being 2011, unpaginated). In 2011, the Rı´o lesser disturbed and lesser accessible converted to plantations. Both the Pla´tano Biosphere Reserve was added to areas. Despite the existence of this mestizo and indigenous communities the list of World Heritage Sites in protected area, deforestation continues depend on access to land to ensure their danger due to encroachment (UNEP– to occur. livelihoods. However, the mestizo WCMC 2011, p. 1). Deforestation is one of the major communities convert primary forest to In the Rı´o Pla´tano Biosphere Reserve threats to biodiversity in this region; one agricultural or livestock uses (Cue´llar of Honduras, the unregulated extraction steadily increasing form is the and Kandel 2005, p. 13), while the of timber and mass production of conversion of forest into agricultural or indigenous communities have less bananas has caused an alarming decline pastural lands (Chassot et al. 2006, p. impact on the ecosystem. Land rights of great green macaw populations 84). In Nicaragua, between 1990 and disputes are common in these areas, and (Devenish et al. 2009, p. 256). The 2005, 1.35 million ha (3.34 million ac) land use rights are often unclear. The deforestation in Honduras is occurring of forested areas were converted to Government of Nicaragua is attempting as a result of an increase in the human agriculture or were deforested due to to manage these issues (Pellegrini 2011, population, which requires clearing other reasons such as logging (FAO p. 21), but conflict and practices that areas for home development as well as 2010, p. 232; FAO 2007). Much of degrade the great green macaw’s habitat wood products (Devenish et al. 2009, p. Nicaragua has protected status. In 2005, persist both in the Bosawas Reserve and 256). The annual human population approximately 36 percent of Nicaragua’s in other areas within the range of the growth rate as of 2011 was estimated to forested area was designated as species. be 1.09 percent (U.S. Department of protected or in some form of One of the factors contributing to State 2011, unpaginated). Palacios and conservation status (FAO 2007). deforestation in this area is a high rate Brus Laguna, towns on the coast Additionally, in 2007, there were 72 of poverty (Pacheco et al. 2011, p. 4). approximately 5 km (3.1 mi) from the protected areas in Nicaragua’s National Nicaragua is the poorest country in park on either side of the reserve, are System of Protected Areas (Castellon Central America (CIA World Factbook likely contributing to the pressures such 2008, p. 19). However, 88 percent of 2014). In part, due to the high rate of as agriculture and logging that are Nicaragua’s area designated as forest is poverty, the great green macaw occurring illegally in the reserve. privately owned (FAO 2010, p. 238) continues to face threats to its habitat.

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Communities living within the range of inaccessible areas. This leads to more tracts of deforested land. Other factors the great green macaw practice pressures on the forested areas, such as that affect the stability of great green unsustainable activities, such as conversion to agriculture, competition macaw populations include the conversion of habitat to agriculture or for resources (such as the extraction of National Authority for the logging, which contribute to plant species that may be consumed by Environment’s (ANAM) inability to deforestation of the species’ remaining the great green macaw), and more fund programs for protected areas and habitat in Nicaragua (McGinley 2009, p. logging. buffer zones, and the extraction of other 36; Castellon 2008, pp. 21, 30; Richards A 2006 report indicated that the minerals and building materials, et al. 2003, p. 282). Much of the Indio- advance of the agricultural frontier and whether legal or illegal (Angehr et al. Maı´z Biological Reserve is described as ‘‘spontaneous colonization’’ occurring at 2009, p. 291). Logging and mining is being intact and unlogged (Chun 2008, a rate of 50,000 to 80,000 ha (123,500 to legally restricted in the area; however, p. 116). Despite this, some loggers cross 197,700 ac) per year is rapidly shrinking logging still occurs outside the Darie´n the border into Nicaragua to harvest the Panama’s forests and protected areas reserve, and the practice encroaches on almendro tree (Schmidt 2009, p. 16; (McMahon et al. 2006, p. 8). Prior to its remaining forest cover in the buffer Chassot et al. 2006, p. 84). Anecdotal formal designation in 1990, La Amistad zone. Problems in or adjacent to reports indicate that Costa Rican loggers National Park, which spans the border protected areas include illegal clearing pay Nicaraguan farmers about $15 for between Costa Rica and Panama, for development, agriculture, and cattle each almendro tree, bring the logs to experienced impacts from cattle grazing; road construction; and Costa Rica, and sell them for about ranching, timber extraction, burning, extraction of minerals or construction $1,450 in Costa Rica (Arias 2002, p. 4). and illegal settlements (UNEP–WCMC materials (Devenish et al. 2009b, p. 291). Because incomes in the Bosawas region 2011, p. 7). Trails, human The presence of gold mines in the of Nicaragua were found to average encroachment, roads, grazing, and Darie´n Region, particularly the Cerro under $800 per family per year (Stocks hunting continue in this area and affect Pirre area, was also indicated to be a et al. 2007, p. 1,498), the almendro trees this species’ habitat (TNC 2012, threat to the species. Significant mining are quite valuable. Consequently, a unpaginated; UNEP–WCMC 2011, p. 7). activities in this area were conducted binational biological corridor between Soil and water resources have been prior to the 18th century. The clearing Nicaragua and Costa Rica was proposed depleted due to traditional agricultural of forests to create roads for mining in an attempt to prevent the extinction practices and inadequate conservation facilitates the transport of materials and of the almendro tree (Chassot et al. measures. Indigenous production personnel in and out of the mining 2006, p. 84). Although this corridor systems, with their low-intensity land zones (Robbins et al. 1985, pp. 200, exists and efforts are in place (refer to use, long rotation periods, and plentiful 202). Roads exacerbate deforestation discussion under Factor D, below) to forests for hunting and gathering, are practices such as logging and mitigate border issues (Hernandez et al., increasingly becoming unsustainable conversion to agriculture or other land undated, pp. 1–14) in this region, due to economic pressures. These uses, as well as colonization. This area habitat degradation continues. indigenous production systems are is now an ecotourism site; as of 1985, being replaced by farming systems that there is now second-growth forest Panama emphasize monoculture without recovery from the gold mines that had In Panama, this species is believed to rotation, which leads to depleted soils been abandoned during the 18th primarily exist in the Darie´n region, and encourages greater expansion of the century. It does not appear that mining which borders northern Colombia agricultural frontier. These threats are in this area still occurs, and, therefore, (Angeher 2004, in litt.). Deforestation exacerbated by rural poverty that drives mining is not currently impacting the was estimated to exceed 30 percent of populations in search of areas with high species. the species’ original range in Panama levels of globally significant biodiversity Summary of Factor A (Angehr 2004, in litt.). Although there is (Pacheco et al. 2011, pp. 4, 18). As a limited information available on the result of competition for resources, The global population of great green threats affecting great green macaw many farmers and indigenous people macaws is decreasing due to the loss of populations in Panama, deforestation is have emigrated to the Darie´n and Bocas much of the older forested areas, thus known to occur within this species’ del Toro provinces, where the great reducing high-quality habitat for this range (Monge et al. 2009, p. 68; Angehr green macaw is believed to exist in species, and relegating it to relatively 2004, in litt.). Conflict regarding land larger numbers than in other parts of the small and isolated patches throughout rights of indigenous communities has species’ range. Unsustainable land its range; however, suitable habitat become one of the most critical issues practices, the lack of capacity by both remains in some protected areas in in the Darie´n region. The most public and private stakeholders to Central and South America. Habitat significant threats to tropical forests in encourage sustainable land use, degradation poses a significant threat Panama overall include road infrastructure development, and the throughout the range of the great green construction and road improvement, lack of management plans further macaw, which is especially vulnerable especially in the Darie´n region, and exacerbate the degradation of this to the effects of isolation and agricultural expansion, particularly in species’ habitat. fragmentation because it tends to mate the Darie´n and Bocas del Toro regions, Darie´n forests are under pressure from for life, it has a small clutch size and which results in increased access to the expanding agricultural frontier and specialized habitat requirements, and its forests (Parker et al. 2004, p. V–2). related colonization (TNC 2011, p. 1; populations are small and decreasing. Roads have been found to be one of the McMahon 2006, p. 8). The region’s The great green macaw is naturally leading causes of global biodiversity human population is growing at a rate associated with unfragmented, mature, loss (Benı´tez-Lo´pez et al. 2010, p. of about 5 percent a year. Loss of forest forested landscapes, and is considered a 1,307). The construction of the Pan- cover is often linked to agricultural habitat specialist that selects areas of American Highway and other roads are expansion, which often follows new or contiguous mature forest in Central affecting the Darie´n forest area (TNC improved roads, and which results in America and parts of northern South 2011, p. 1). When roads are constructed, increased access to forests. Slash-and- America (Monge et al. 2009; Madriz- they increase access to previously burn agriculture has resulted in huge Vargas 2004, p. 7). This species requires

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large areas for its feeding requirements macaw for more information about and the sale of parrot species were and is not well adapted to fragmented WBCA) (UNEP–WCMC CITES trade focused in Nicaragua (Herrera-Scott landscapes. Deforestation results in database, accessed September 6, 2011). 2004, pp. 1–2). A study published in fragmented forests with high ratios of The great green macaw was listed in 2004 assessed the origin and local sale edge to forested area, and the original CITES Appendix II, effective June 6, and export of parrots and parakeets in biodiversity upon which this species 1981, and was transferred to Appendix Nicaragua (Herrera-Scott 2004, pp. 1–2), depends is lost. Greater exposure of soil I, effective August 1, 1985. Most of the and focused on the buffer zone of the to direct sunlight leads to factors such international trade in great green macaw Indio-Maı´z Biological Reserve, a critical as drier soils and also creates an altered specimens consists of live birds. area for the great green macaw. The growing environment. Because there are Data obtained from the United study followed the marketing chain fewer remaining older, complex forest Nations Environment Programme– from rural areas to the capital city. Most stands providing adequate habitat for World Conservation Monitoring Center of the wildlife trade was found to occur breeding, feeding, and nesting, great (UNEP–WCMC) CITES Trade Database in Managua. As of 2000, poaching was green macaw populations are in decline. show that, during the 4 years the great still occurring in the buffer zone of the The great green macaw is threatened by green macaw was listed in Appendix II, Indio-Maı´z Biological Reserve (Herrera- the impacts of both past and current 26 live great green macaws (and an Scott 2004, p. 6). An estimated 7,205 habitat loss, including ongoing habitat additional eight feathers) were reported parrots were sold during that year modification that results in poor quality to UNEP–WCMC as (gross) exports. In (Herrera-Scott 2004, p. 1). The legal and insufficient forest habitats, habitat analyzing the data, it appears that export of wildlife species from fragmentation, and isolation of small several records may be overcounts due Nicaragua in general decreased populations. The ability of the great to slight differences in the manner in significantly between 2002 and 2006 green macaw to repopulate an isolated which the importing and exporting (McGinley 2009, p. 16). Despite the patch of suitable habitat following countries reported their trade. It is likely decrease in legal trade, in 2007, a decline or extirpation is particularly that the actual number of live great number of parrot species could be still unlikely due to the species’ large home green macaws in international trade found for sale along roads to tourists range requirements, and this is during this period was 22. All of the live (Kennedy 2007, pp. 1–2; BLI 2007, p. 1). exacerbated by its small overall birds were reported with the source Nicaragua is the poorest country in population size and the large distances ‘‘unknown.’’ Exports from range Central America and the second poorest between the remaining primary forest countries included six live birds from in the Hemisphere, and has widespread fragments. Despite the existence of the Panama and five live birds from underemployment and poverty (CIA binational corridor in Nicaragua and Nicaragua (UNEP–WCMC 2011). World Factbook 2011, unpaginated; Costa Rica and a multitude of During the more than 28 years FAO 2011, p. 1). Approximately 17 following the transfer of the species to conservation efforts, we find that the percent of its population lives in Appendix I (August 1985 through present or threatened destruction, extreme poverty (Castellon 2008, p. 21). December 2013, the last year for which modification, or curtailment of habitat is Many of Nicaragua’s citizens live in complete data were available at the time a threat to the great green macaw now rural areas where they usually earn a the following numbers were compiled), and in the future. living from agriculture and fishing, and the UNEP–WCMC database shows 920 the sale of a parrot can significantly B. Overutilization for Commercial, live birds in international trade. increase their earnings. As mentioned Recreational, Scientific, or Educational However, because it is some over-counts above under the Factor A discussion, Purposes likely occurred in the database due to incomes in the Bosawas region of Because this species has an extremely slight differences in the manner in small and fragmented population, which the importing and exporting Nicaragua were found to average under poaching, while apparently uncommon, countries reported their trade, it is likely $800 per family per year as of 2007 remains a concern (Botero-Delgadillo that the actual number of live great (Stocks et al. 2007, p. 1,498). The great and Pa´ez 2011, p. 13; Monge et al. 2009, green macaws in international trade green macaw was found for sale at an pp. 26, 40, 106). Removal of this species during this period was 831 (U.S. CITES average of $200 to $400 U.S. dollars from the wild has a significant Management Authority 2015). Of these, (USD) (Fundacion Cocibolca in BLI detrimental effect to this species 776 were reported to be captive-bred or 2007, p. 1). For perspective, in the because this species tends to mate for captive-born, 5 were reported as wild, United States, captive-bred specimens life and only produces 1 or 2 eggs and 15 were reported as ‘‘pre- can sell for up to $2,500 USD (Basile annually. The species has been heavily Convention.’’ The source of the 2009, p. 6). The high commercial value, poached in the wild historically and is remaining live birds is unknown. especially in relation to the average still trafficked for the pet trade in Exports of live birds from range family income, indicates that it is still Honduras and Nicaragua (Anderson countries included 17 from Costa Rica, worthwhile to poach and sell this 2004, p. 453; http:// 10 from Ecuador, 12 from Nicaragua, species. Due to the extreme poverty in www.lafeberconservationwildlife.com/ and 6 from Panama. Note also that some Central America, particularly in ?p=1714, accessed December 14, 2011). of these birds may be personal pets that Nicaragua, and due to the high Although there are no known current are counted more than once. commercial value of great green reports of poaching in all parts of its Historically, the pressure to remove macaws, poaching continues to be a range, poaching was raised as a concern this species from the wild for the pet significant concern for this species. at the 2008 workshop held in Costa Rica trade has contributed significantly to the Poaching can be intertwined with on this species (Monge et al. 2009, decline in population numbers for this habitat destruction (Factor A). Some various). After regulatory mechanisms species. Poaching continues to occur in poachers still cut down trees to obtain such as CITES and the WBCA were put this species’ range, particularly in nestlings (Hardman 2011, p. 13; Chun into place, particularly since 1992 when Nicaragua (Castellon 2008, pp. 20, 25; 2008, p. 105). This practice of cutting the WBCA went into effect, much of the Kennedy 2007, pp. 1–2; BLI 2007, p. 1). down trees to remove nestlings is legal trade in the great green macaw The majority of information available particularly devastating to small declined (see discussion of military for Central America regarding poaching populations reliant upon certain types

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and sizes of nesting trees. Not only are Summary of Factor B populations are widely dispersed, poachers removing vital members of the Conservation efforts by various which provides an element of resiliency population, they are destroying a nest entities working to ensure the long-term to the overall population. We conclude, site that may have taken a breeding pair conservation of the great green macaw based on the best available scientific several years to find and cultivate. One may result in its population slowly and commercial information, that study looked at 51 nest sites that had increasing (Monge et al. 2010, pp. 12– disease is not a threat to the great green been identified between 1994 and 2003 13). However, overall, the best available macaw now or in the future. (Chun 2008, p. 105). The study information indicates that the In addition, we have no information evaluated potential habitat by population is still declining (Botero- indicating that predation threatens the examining the presence and density of Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. 91; Monge great green macaw. This is the second almendro trees by aerial survey. It et al. 2009). The species still faces largest New World macaw, and the best examined portions of two protected threats such as habitat loss and available information does not indicate areas—the San Juan-La Selva Biological poaching. Often, there is a lag time after that predation is a factor that negatively Corridor and the Maquenque National factors have acted on a species (i.e., affects this species. While predators Wildlife Refuge (Chun 2008, p. 117). Of poaching and habitat loss) before the undoubtedly have some effect on 51 nest sites, 10 trees had been cut by effect is evident (Sodhi et al. 2004, p. fluctuations in great green macaw the end of the survey period. In some 325). Even though the great green numbers, there is no evidence to suggest cases, the nests had been deliberately macaw is listed as an Appendix-I that predation has caused or will cause cut even after the tree had received species under CITES and commercial long-term declines in the great green protection status and had been international trade is now significantly macaw population. Therefore, we have reduced, there is still concern about the distinguished as a nesting tree with a determined that this factor does not illegal capture of this species in the plaque. Nest destruction has also been pose a threat to the great green macaw, wild. This species is desirable as a pet, now or in the future. reported in Ecuador (Bergman 2009, pp. and its native habitat is in impoverished 6–8), where it is estimated to have an countries, where the sale of an D. The Inadequacy of Existing extremely small population. Another individual bird can significantly Regulatory Mechanisms study confirmed the presence of nest increase an individual’s income. Despite destruction, although this was a regulatory mechanisms in place, Regulatory mechanisms affecting this different parrot species, and found an poaching is lucrative and still occurs. species that we evaluated could average of 21 nests was destroyed per Additionally, because each population potentially fall under categories such as poaching trip (Gonzalez 2003, p. 443). of great green macaws is small, with wildlife management, parks management, or forestry management. Poaching for the pet bird trade can possibly between 10 to 500 individuals (Monge et al. 2010, pp. 21, 22), poaching We primarily evaluated these regulatory destroy pair bonds, remove potentially mechanisms in terms of nationally reproductive adults from the breeding is likely to have a significant effect on the species. The populations are protected parks because this is where pool, and have a significant effect on this species generally occurs. A small populations (Kramer and Drake distributed widely throughout the range of the species (see Figure 3) and are summary of the status of forest policies, 2010, pp. 511, 513). This is in part regulatory mechanisms, and laws in the because this species mates for life, is highly fragmented, and the amount of interaction between populations is range countries of the great green long-lived, and has low reproductive macaw is below. The most authoritative rates. These traits make them unknown but likely infrequent. Based on the best available information, we source for assessing the state of forests particularly sensitive to the effects of find that overutilization, particularly is the United Nations Food and poaching (Lee 2010, p. 3; Thiollay 2005, due to poaching, is a threat to the great Agriculture Organization’s Forest p. 1121; Wright et al. 2001, p. 711). In green macaw throughout its range now Resources Assessment (FAO) (Chomitz some areas in Costa Rica, there were no and in the future. et al. 2007, p. 42). FAO’s 2010 study recent reports of nest poaching due to found that each range country for this conservation efforts (Villate et al. 2008, C. Disease or Predation species has a national forest law, policy, p. 23). However, despite conservation We have no evidence of significant or program in place, and Table 1 efforts in place, the conservation adverse impacts to wild populations of indicates the year it was last evaluated. workshop for Ara ambiguus held in great green macaws due to disease. However, the study found that few 2008 indicated that poaching of this Diseases are a normal occurrence within forest policies at the subnational level species is still a concern throughout its wild populations. They do not occur to (such as jurisdictions equivalent to range (Monge et al. 2009, pp. 18, 26, 29, an extent that they are a threat to this states in the United States) exist in these 40). species, particularly because the countries.

TABLE 1—ADAPTED FROM FAO GLOBAL FOREST RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 2010, PP. 302–303

National forest policy National forest program Forest law national Country Sub- Exists Year Exists Year Status National-type Year national exists

Colombia ...... Yes ...... 1996 Yes ...... 2000 Under revision ...... Incorporated in other 1974 No. law. Costa Rica ...... Yes ...... 2000 Yes ...... 2001 Under revision ...... Specific forest law ...... 1996 No. Ecuador ...... Yes ...... 2002 Yes ...... 2002 In implementation ...... Specific forest law ...... 1981 No. Honduras ...... Yes ...... 1971 Yes ...... 2004 In implementation ...... Specific forest law ...... No. Nicaragua ...... Yes ...... 2008 Yes ...... 2008 In implementation ...... Specific forest law ...... 2003 Yes. Panama ...... Yes ...... 2003 Yes ...... 2008 Unclear ...... Specific forest law...... 1994 No.

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In 2007, FAO noted that many Colombian wildlife and flora that are inside and outside the government felt countries (in the range of the great green considered ‘‘threatened.’’ Colombia there was a lack of effectiveness of macaw) had enacted new forest laws or defines threatened as those species SINA. For example, Colombia’s efforts policies within the past 15 years, or had whose natural populations are at risk of to eradicate the coca trade has not been taken steps to strengthen their existing extinction if their habitat, range, or the effective at reducing the amount of coca legislation or policies. Among countries ecosystems that support them have been being cultivated (Page 2003, p. 2; also that had enacted new forest legislation affected by either natural causes or see The present or threatened were Costa Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua, human actions. Threatened species are destruction, modification, or Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador (FAO further categorized as critically curtailment of its habitat or range). In 2007, p. 43). Despite the existence of endangered, endangered, or vulnerable. addition to not adequately addressing these laws and policies, the populations Colombia defines a critically the coca cultivation, which destroys the of the great green macaw are still endangered species as one that faces a great green macaw’s habitat, aerial negatively affected by habitat loss, very high probability of extinction in fumigations of the coca crop have encroachment, and, to a lesser extent, the wild in the immediate future, based destroyed banana fields and polluted poaching. on a drastic reduction of its natural the environment (Page 2003, p. 2). The populations and a severe deterioration effectiveness of these regional Parks and Habitat Management of its range. An endangered species is management groups varied; the study Throughout this species’ range, we one that has a high probability of found that the effectiveness was found that many of the threats that extinction in the wild in the near future, correlated with the CARs’ age, occur to this species are the same or based on a declining trend of its natural geographic size, and level of poverty similar. Threats generally consist of populations and a deterioration of its (Blackman et al. 2006, p. 16). Due to the various forms of habitat loss or range. A vulnerable species is one that decentralized structure, CARs were degradation (see Factor A discussion, is described as not in imminent danger found to be ineffective at environmental above). Each range country for this of extinction in the near future, but it management in Colombia (Blackman et species has protections in place, but for could be if natural population trends al. 2006, p. 14). reasons such as limited budgets and continue downward and deterioration of This species’ habitat occurs to some its range continues (EcoLex 2002, p. 10). limited enforcement capabilities, the extent in areas designated as protected Colombian Law No. 99 of 1993 laws and protections are generally not by SINA, including five national parks created the Ministry of the Environment able to adequately protect the species. ´ and Renewable Natural Resources and (Rodrıguez-Mahecha 2002a). Two parks Our analysis of regulatory mechanisms ´ the National Environmental System are particularly significant: Katıos is discussed essentially on a country-by- ´ (SINA). SINA sets out the principles National Park and Utrıa National Park. country basis, beginning with Colombia, Although this species likely exists in at and is summarized at the end. governing environmental policy in Colombia, and provides that the least these two parks (Botero-Delgadillo ´ Colombia country’s biodiversity is protected and and Paez 2011, p. 92), no protective measures have been actually Colombia has enacted numerous laws used primarily in a sustainable manner (Humboldt Biological Resources implemented to curb human impacts on to protect species and their habitats. the species’ habitat by the indigenous This species exists predominantly in Research Institute 2011, unpaginated; EcoLex 1993, p. 2). SINA is a set of and farming residents within these areas that are protected, and Colombia protected parks (Botero-Delgadillo and has several laws that pertain to activities, resources, programs, and institutions that allow the Pa´ez 2011, p. 92). Cultivation of plants protected areas. Some of these laws for cocaine production is known to include: implementation of environmental principles. Consistent with the occur within the boundaries of Katı´os • Natural Resources and Decree Law Constitution of 1991, this management National Park. The cultivation of illegal number 2811/74. system was intended to be crops (particularly coca) poses • Decree 1974/89: Regulation of Article decentralized. However, an additional threats to the environment 310 of Decree 2811, 1974, on environmental assessment study beyond the destruction of montane integrated management districts of conducted for the World Bank in 2006 forests (Balslev 1993, p. 3). Coca crop natural renewable resources. production destroys the soil quality by • found that Colombia’s current Law number 99/93: Creates the decentralized system is inadequate as causing the soil to become more acidic, Ministry of the Environments and the implemented (Blackman et al. 2006, p. depletes the soil nutrients, and National Environmental System. ultimately impedes the regrowth of • 15). Although Law 99 assigns the role of Law number 165/94: Biological leading and coordinating environmental secondary forests in abandoned fields Diversity Treaty. (Van Schoik and Schulberg 1993, p. 21; • management in Colombia to the Decree 1791/96: Establishment of the Ministry of Environment (Ministerio del also see The present or threatened Forest Use Regime. Medio Ambiente, MMA), Colombia’s destruction, modification, or A list of legislation that applies to Autonomous Regional Corporations curtailment of its habitat or range protected areas in Colombia is available (CARs) have the role of implementing discussion, above). As of 2007, at http://www.humboldt.org.co/ingles/ environmental laws (Blackman et al. Colombia was the leading coca producer en-politica.htm and at http:// 2006, pp. 39–40, 42). CARs have (United Nations Office of Drugs and www.regulations.gov in Docket No. responsibility for both management of Crime (UNODC) et al. 2007, p. 7). Since FWS–R9–ES–2011–0101. A discussion natural resources and economic 2003, cocaine coca cultivation has of Colombia’s regulatory mechanisms development (Ministry of Environment remained stable at about 800 km2 (309 with respect to the great green macaw et al. 2002). mi2) of land under cultivation (UNODC follows. In 2006, an analysis of the et al. 2007, p. 8). This activity continues The great green macaw is listed as effectiveness of Colombia’s CARs was to degrade and destroy great green vulnerable on Colombia’s Red List conducted for the World Bank. In macaw’s habitat. With respect to Utrı´a (Renjifo et al. 2002, p. 524). Resolution Blackman et al. 2006’s analysis, they National Park, little to no information is No. 584 of 2002 provides a list of reported that many individuals both known about the status of the species in

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this area (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez Latin America (Butler 2012, p. 3). Forest the tree from becoming extinct; 2011, p. 91). Although it is extremely cover in Costa Rica steadily decreased however, forest clearings continued to remote, human communities reside from 85 percent in 1940, to around 35 occur at an alarming rate due to the lack within and around the park, and percent today, according to the FAO’s of resources to protect biological continue to use the resources within the State of the World’s Forests (Butler reserves (Madriz-Vargas 2004, p. 8). For park. 2012, unpaginated; FAO 2010, pp. 227, example, researchers reported in 2003 Despite Colombia’s numerous laws 259; FAO 2007). Historically, clearing that, of the 60 great green macaw nests and regulatory mechanisms to for agriculture, particularly for coffee identified since the great green macaw administer and manage wildlife and and bananas, in addition to cattle conservation project was initiated in their habitats, the great green macaw pastures was the main reason for Costa 1994, 10 had been cut down by forest continues to face many threats to its Rica’s rainforest destruction. During the engineers working in forest management habitat. There is little information 1970s and early 1980s, vast expanses of plans (Monge and Chassot 2003, p. 4). available about the species (Botero- rainforest had been burned and In 2008, Costa Rica’s Supreme Court Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. 90), and converted to cattle pastures. Today, stated that MINAE must abstain from the most recent information indicates although deforestation rates of natural the continuation or initiation of the use, that no conservation action has been forest have dropped considerably, Costa exploitation, or extraction of the proposed for this species (Botero- Rica’s remaining forests still experience almendro tree (Chun 2008, p. 113). In Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. 88). On- illegal timber harvesting (in protected Costa Rica, fines for those who cut the-ground enforcement of existing areas) and conversion to agriculture (in down almendro trees have been wildlife protection and forestry laws, unprotected zones) (Butler 2012, proposed as a measure, although and oversight of the local jurisdictions unpaginated; Monge et al. 2009, p. 121; penalties reportedly have not been implementing and regulating activities, FAO 2007). Despite its abundance of instituted (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez are ineffective at mitigating the primary conservation legislation, Costa Rica has 2011, p. 92). threats to the great green macaw. As undergone significant periods of Great Green Macaw Conservation discussed under The present or deforestation (Butler 2012, unpaginated; threatened destruction, modification, or FAO 2007, p. 38), which have had a In the two core areas where the great curtailment of its habitat or range severe effect on the great green macaw. green macaw exists in Costa Rica, (above), habitat destruction, Almendro Tree Protection conservation activities are under way, degradation, and fragmentation and the breeding populations are being In Costa Rica and Nicaragua, the great continue throughout the existing range closely monitored. Quebrada Grande is green macaw is highly dependent on the of the great green macaw. Therefore, we a community-operated, 119-ha (294-ac) almendro tree. This tree species is now find that the existing regulatory reserve in the center of great green protected by law in Costa Rica; cutting mechanisms currently in place are macaw habitat. Additionally, the any almendro tree over 120 cm (47.2 in) inadequate to mitigate the primary or less than 70 cm (27.6 in) in diameter National Green Macaw Commission was threats of habitat destruction to the great is prohibited (Rainforest Biodiversity formed in 1996 to protect and manage green macaw in Columbia. Group 2008, p. 1). The remaining Costa this species’ habitat. This commission Costa Rica Rican populations of almendro trees are was formed in response to the severe concentrated in the northeastern corner decline of the great green macaw In Costa Rica, there are more than 30 population, and included 13 laws related to the environment of the country from the San Juan River south to Braulio Carrillo National Park government agencies, NGOs, and the (Peterson 2010, p. 1). A list of the Sarapiquı´ Natural Resources environmental laws in Costa Rica is (Hanson 2006, p. 3). Although little forest remains undisturbed in this Commission (CRENASA). This available at: http:// region, many almendro trees were left conservation effort was formalized by www.costaricalaw.com/costa-rica- standing in fragments or pastures, partly Executive Order No. 7815–MINAE of environmental-laws.html. As due to the extremely dense nature of the 1999. The group served as an advisory deforestation is the most significant tree’s wood and the difficulty in cutting body to MINAE regarding factor affecting the great green macaw, down these trees. environmental issues in the northern some laws applicable to the As a result of the great green macaw’s zone of Costa Rica that affect the great conservation of the great green macaw dependence on almendro trees, green macaw (Chassot and Monge 2008 are: conservation efforts for the great green in Villate et al. 2008, p. 22). • Law No. 2790 Wildlife Conservation macaw have focused on this tree Conservation efforts are still in progress; Law (‘‘Ley De Conservacio´n De La species. A decree was enacted in 2001 in 2008, a workshop was held to bring Fauna Silvestre,’’ July 1961). to limit extraction of the almendro tree. together species experts and government • Law No. 7317 Wildlife Conservation Harvest was temporarily suspended officials to identify priorities and goals Law (‘‘Ley De Conservacio´n De La until a study could be conducted to in order to conserve the species (Monge Vida Silvestre,’’ December 1992). evaluate the status of this primary food et al. 2009, entire). • Law 7554 Law of the Environment and nesting source in relation to the Additionally, a corridor was created (‘‘Ley Orga´nica del Ambiente,’’ great green macaw (Chosset et al. 2002, in 2001, with the goal of maintaining October 1995). p. 6). According to Costa Rican connectivity and biodiversity between • Law No. 7575 Forestry Law (‘‘Ley legislation (Decree No 25167–MINAE), protected areas in southeastern Forestal,’’ February 1996). the removal or logging of almendro trees Nicaragua, the Protected Conservation • Law 7788 Biodiversity Law (In 1998, had been illegal in the area between the Area Arenal Huetar North (ACAHN), the National System of Conservation San Carlos and Sarapiqui Rivers and Conservation Area of the Central Areas (SINAC) was created through (Madriz-Vargas 2004, p. 9). The Volcanic Cordillera (ACCVC) in Costa this law (Canet-Desanti 2007 in objective of the restrictions placed on Rica. The primary purpose was to Villate et al. 2008, p. 24). extraction of almendro trees was to promote the creation of protected In the early 1990s, Costa Rica had one increase the number of nesting sites for wilderness and encourage habitat of the highest deforestation rates in the great green macaw and to prevent protection necessary to preserve and

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increase the great green macaw place, such as conservation awareness Guayaquil macaw has been confirmed, population (Villate et al. 2008, p. 24). programs, research, and monitoring, the incorporating new areas that are critical In 2005, the Maquenque National population has declined significantly for conservation of the species, and Wildlife Refuge (MNWR) was over time and is still only estimated to providing connecting corridors between established primarily to protect be approximately 300 individuals. the areas; breeding habitat for the great green Because this species mates for life and • Reforestation with appropriate tree macaw. Approximately 43,700 ha has a small clutch size, the loss of any species in its habitat; (107,985 ac) of land identified as one individual can have a significant • Incentives and sustainable potential great green macaw breeding effect on the population. Costa Rica has alternatives for communities and private habitat lies within the boundaries of implemented many environmental laws property owners within its range; and MNWR (Chun 2008, p. 113). This region in conjunction with conservation efforts • Conservation of the Guayaquil was targeted because it contains several to protect species, particularly the great macaw. large nesting trees used by great green green macaw and its habitat. The Despite the existence of this strategy, macaw breeding pairs. MNWR protects situation of this species is still the great green macaw still faces foraging habitat that may be critical precarious, and any of the threats acting significant threats in Ecuador (Horstman during the great green macaw’s breeding on the species, such as habitat loss and 2011, p. 12). There are likely fewer than season. MNWR is within the larger San degradation, poaching, or other 100 individuals of this subspecies Juan La Selva (SJLS) Biological Corridor, unknown factors, could have a remaining in Ecuador. Ecuador and its goal is specifically to connect significant effect on the population in recognizes that threats exist to its protected areas in southern Nicaragua to Costa Rica because it is so small, and natural heritage, not only to this species, those in central Costa Rica (Chun 2008, because of its life-history characteristics. but to all of its wildlife. In 2008, p. 98). However, even in this refuge, The existing regulatory mechanisms, as Ecuador approved Article 71 of its habitat degradation continues to occur. implemented, are insufficient in Costa Constitution, which states, ‘‘Nature has A RAMSAR (the Convention on Rica to adequately ameliorate the a right to integrally respect its existence wetlands) report on this refuge (which current threats to this species. as well as the maintenance and is a RAMSAR site), indicated that the regeneration of its vital cycles, main threats there are agricultural and Ecuador structures, functions and evolutionary forestry activities, which are most As of 2006, the Ecuadorian processes.’’ Article 73 also mandates, prevalent near the Colpachı´ and Manatı´ Government recognized 31 various legal ‘‘measures of precaution and restriction lagoons (RAMSAR 2012, p. 1). categories of protected lands (e.g., for all activities that could lead to the In summary, as of 2002, less than 10 national parks, biological reserves, extinction of species, the destruction of percent of the great green macaw’s geobotanical reserves, bird reserves, ecosystems, or the permanent alteration original range was estimated to exist in wildlife reserves, etc.). The amount of of natural habitats.’’ Costa Rica (Chosset et al. 2002, p. 6). protected land (both forested and non- Ecuador has made significant strides The great green macaw greatly depends forested) in Ecuador as of 2006 was in conservation. Ecuador’s Article 103 on the almendro tree as its primary food approximately 4.67 million ha (11.5 of Book IV on Biodiversity decreed that: and nesting resource. However, due to million ac) (ITTO 2006, p. 228). ‘‘It is prohibited, on any day or time of Costa Rica’s complex deforestation However, only 38 percent of these lands the year, to hunt species, whether birds history, the great green macaw remains had appropriate conservation measures or mammals, that constitute wildlife imperiled primarily due to habitat in place to be considered protected and that are listed in Appendix 1 of the fragmentation, degradation, and habitat areas according to international present Record that are qualified as loss. In 2004, a maximum of 35 pairs standards (i.e., areas that are managed threatened or endangered. Hunting is were estimated to be breeding in for scientific study or wilderness likewise prohibited in certain areas or northern Costa Rica (Chosset et al. 2004, protection, for ecosystem protection and zones while the bans are in effect’’ p. 32), and the population in this recreation, for conservation of specific (Monge et al. 2009, p. 256; Unified Text country appears to have increased since natural features, or for conservation of the Secondary Legislation of the a conservation program and regulatory through management intervention) Ministry of the Environment). Despite mechanisms have been in place. Costa (ITTO 2009, p. 1). Moreover, only 11 the recent advances made in Rica’s population was estimated to be percent had management plans, and less conservation efforts, Ecuador has gone approximately 300 birds in 2010 than 1 percent (13,000 ha or 32,125 ac) through periods of devastating habitat (Chassot 2010 pers. comm. in Hardman had implemented those management loss and degradation, which affected the 2011, p. 11; Monge et al. 2010, pp. 13, plans (ITTO 2006, p. 228). great green macaw’s habitat such that it 22). Despite the apparent increase in the In 2004, the Ecuadorian Minister of only remains in two fragmented and population in Costa Rica, the population the Environment signed a ministerial small areas. It is unclear how is extremely small and has experienced decree forming the National Strategy for sustainable the remaining habitat is, significant decline in available habitat the In-Situ Conservation of the particularly because this species has over the past 60 years. Guayaquil Macaw (Ara a. specialized feeding requirements and guayaquilensis) into law (ProForest requires a large range to provide its Habitat Degradation 2005, p. 3). The strategy included the nutritional needs. In addition to the historical loss of following components to be The National Strategy for the In-Situ habitat, the species continues to face implemented within 10 years. Aspects Conservation of the Guayaquil Macaw threats such as habitat degradation. This of this conservation plan, which focuses was revised in 2009. As a result, the first species requires a complex suite of plant on the Cerro Blanco Protected Forest, a national census of great green macaw species over the course of a year for its stronghold for great green macaw, was conducted in Ecuador in late 2010 nutritional needs. Pressures to its include: (Horstman 2011, pp. 16–17). The Cerro habitat such as logging, encroachment, • Applied investigation for the Blanco Protected Area has been habitat degradation, and likely other conservation of the species; managed by the Pro-Forest Foundation, factors continue within this species’ • Management of the conservation an NGO, for approximately 20 years range. Despite conservation efforts in areas where the presence of the (Horstman 2011, unpaginated).

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Horstman indicated that, at the Cerro Forestry Conservation and Development for crops and cattle, making logging far Blanco Reserve, the resident population (211 provisions; pp. 1–17). more lucrative for locals. However, after of approximately 15 macaws travels Before the 2007 Forest Law was areas are logged, they become more widely outside of the 6,475-ha (16,000- approved, at least 38 laws governed the accessible and are then often converted ac) reserve (http://blogs.discovery.com/ sector, creating a confusing policy to uses such as crops and cattle grazing. animal_news/2009/11/help-for- framework. The situation is further Indigenous communities have rights ecuadors-great-green-macaws.html, complicated because, in many cases, to use many protected areas. Article 107 accessed October 28, 2011). Horstman, forest tenure (ownership, tenancy, and of the Honduran Constitution protects who has worked in this area since the other arrangements for the use of the land rights of indigenous people. It early 1990s, indicated the need to forests) is unclear. Although most forest is the duty of the government to create establish a conservation corridor is officially state-owned (FAO 2007), measures to protect the rights and between Cerro Blanco and adjacent states have little practical authority over interests of indigenous communities in patches of suitable forest, and most are forest management, and individuals the country, especially with respect to less than 40.5 ha (100 ac) in size. During exercise de facto ownership. Corruption the land and forests where they are the past 20 years, at least 2,000 ha is a barrier to legal logging because it settled (Article 346). As an example of (4,942 ac) have been reforested (Monge facilitates illegal operations and creates land use by Honduran indigenous et al. 2009, p. 9). Although reforestation obstacles to legal ones (Pellegrini 2011, communities, between 15 and 40 projects have occurred, encroachment is p. 18; Rodas et al. 2005, p. 53). Bribes percent of the total value of still occurring (Horstman 2011, p. 12). are extorted from certified community consumption for two indigenous Despite conservation efforts and forestry operations, and, reportedly, Tawahka communities was found to be regulatory mechanisms in place, there is without bribes, transport of legal wood derived directly from the forest (Godoy still limited funding available for becomes impossible (Pellegrini 2011, p. et al. 2002, p. 404). Struggle over land conservation efforts. Encroachment and 18; Rodas et al., 2005, p. 53). rights is a difficult issue for indigenous other forms of habitat degradation The new 2007 Forest Law was communities in Honduras. Logging and continue to occur within its habitat (see supported by environmental groups, but mining are some of the biggest threats Factor A discussion, above). Therefore, its implementation was delayed. The not only to the great green macaw, but we find that the regulatory mechanisms law included the abolition of the also to the indigenous communities. are inadequate to ameliorate the loss Honduran Forest Development Indigenous cultures generally have a and degradation of great green macaw Corporation (COHDEFOR) (which low impact on the forests (Stocks et al. habitat in Ecuador. received unanimous support), more 2007, pp. 1,502–1,503). Because resources for enforcement, and harsher indigenous communities want their Honduras penalties against those who commit lands protected for their traditional way The National Conservation and forest-related crimes. Previously, the of life, NGOs are working with these Forestry Institute (ICF) (formerly the director of COHDEFOR and other communities to protect reserves in Protected Areas and Wildlife political leaders were owners or Honduras, which should ultimately Department, established in 1991) is employees of logging companies, an benefit the great green macaw. responsible for regulating natural apparent conflict of interest (Pellegrini In 1996, the Rı´o Pla´tano Biosphere resources and management of protected 2011, p. 20). Also at that time, the army Reserve was placed on the ‘‘World areas. The National Protected Areas was involved in enforcement. Out of the Heritage Site in Danger’’ list, but it was System includes 17 national parks resources that were spent for the removed from the list in 2007, due to a created between 1980 and 2007. As of forestry sector, the military absorbed 70 significant improvement in conservation 2009, there were 79 protected areas percent without producing any evidence efforts by NGOs. Several NGOs are (Triana and Arce 2012, p. 1). In 1991, that enforcement had improved working in this area including the the Protected Areas and Wildlife (Pellegrini 2011, p. 20). Mosquitia Paquisa (MOPAWI) and the Department (which is now the National Currently in Honduras, the great green Rio Pla´tano Biosphere Project (UNEP– Conservation and Forestry Institute macaw is believed to exist in eastern WCMC 2011, p. 5). However, (ICF)) was designated to manage natural Honduras in suitable habitat distributed investigations in 2010 and 2011 indicate resources and protected areas (Devenish from Olancho to the Rı´o Pla´tano that there are still problems within the et al. 2009, p. 257; Decree no. 74–91, Biological Reserve, the Tawahka reserve (UNESCO 2011, pp. 1–3). 1991). Prior to 1991, wildlife was Biological Reserve, and Patuca National UNESCO, as recently as 2011, managed by the Honduran Department Park (Monge et al. 2009, p. 39). Its range conducted a survey in the Rı´o Pla´tano of Wildlife and Ecology (RENARE). encompasses both unprotected and Reserve and found illegal activity Decree 98–2007, the Forest Law of protected areas; however, timber within the core zone (UNESCO 2011, Honduras, repealed Decree 163–93 of exploitation occurs even in areas pp. 1–3). Clearing of land for cattle 1993, which contained the Law on designated as protected. This practice grazing and illegal fishing and hunting Incentives for Forestation, Reforestation, has created conflicts in protected areas along the river is ongoing. The area is and Forest Protection. The Forest Law such as the Rı´o Pla´tano Biosphere protected by policy by the Department sets forth the purposes of the law, and Reserve, an area that is considered of Protected Areas and Wildlife, State regulates the use of forestry areas, the critical for its conservation (Lopez and Forestry Administration in Honduras. rational and sustainable management of Jime´nez 2007, p. 26). Demand for The reserve management plan, forestry resources, protected areas, and mahogany, which has been one of the implemented in 2000, included zoning wildlife. The law contains definitions most extracted species in the area and specific plans for conservation and created a series of administrative (Lopez and Jime´nez 2007, p. 26), has issues. One of the goals of the reserve’s agencies charged with the also put pressure on this species’ conservation plan is to integrate local implementation of forestry regulations, habitat. Selective logging creates inhabitants with their environment in including the National Forestry openings in forest canopies and changes part via sustainable agricultural Consultative Council. This law also the ecosystem dynamics and practices. This practice has been found formed the National Forestry Research composition of plant species. Income to be a good tool in forest conservation System and the National Institute for from logging is higher than that earned (Pellegrini 2011, pp. 3–8). The reserve

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plan established buffer zones, cultural mechanisms that affect the great green Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and zones, and nucleus zones. Indigenous macaw and other wildlife, the species Forestry (MAGFOR). The other relevant communities living in the reserve and continues to face habitat loss and ministry is the Nicaraguan Ministry of buffer zone are allowed to use the degradation in Honduras. Environment and National Resources resources within the reserve. The (MARENA), which supports Nicaragua integration of indigenous populations conservation awareness programs for plays a large part in the success of the Nicaragua’s General Environmental this species. In early 2003, MARENA conservation plan, both inside the and Natural Resources Law No. 217, created the Municipal Environmental reserve and outside the reserve in the issued in 1996, is considered the legal Unit in order to decentralize buffer and peripheral zones (Pellegrini framework that defines the standards environmental functions. Although a 2011, p. 3; Stocks et al. 2007, pp. 1502– and mechanisms in regard to the use, good legal framework exists in 1503). This reserve also receives some conservation, protection, and restoration Nicaragua to protect its natural funding from the World Wildlife Fund of the environment and natural resources, there are still on-the-ground and other private organizations that resources in a sustainable manner. It problems that affect this species. For assist in the management of the reserve. recognizes the sustainable development example, in the Indio-Maı´z Biological However, there are currently no park concept. By 2004, Nicaragua had Reserve, one of the strongholds for this guards or any official entity actively enacted 10 environmental laws and was species, each forest guard in the control patrolling or guarding the reserve to a member of regional and international posts along the border of the reserve is enforce restrictions. environmental agreements (Moreno responsible for monitoring a stretch of 8 There is a complex history concerning 2004, p. 9). As of 2004, Nicaragua was km (5 mi) of the border and an area of the balance of land rights of indigenous moving towards the consolidation of a 70 km2 (27 mi2) (Rocha 2012, pp. 3–6; communities and preservation of habitat National System of Protected Areas Ravnborg et al. 2006, p. 6). There are for species such as the great green (SINAP) in order to preserve the communication and perception macaw. In Honduras, there is a gap country’s biological wealth (Moreno problems that are prevalent within the between forestry policy objectives and 2004, p. 9). SINAP consists of National reserve that perpetuate the inability to the state of forestry. The policy Protected Areas, Municipal Ecological adequately manage the resources within frameworks exist to manage timber Parks, and Private Wildlife Reserves of the reserve. These resources are used extraction, but tools are not ‘‘ecological and social relevance at the both legally and illegally by Costa implemented (Pellegrini 2011, p. 1). local, national, and international level, Ricans who cross the San Juan River COHDEFOR had been responsible for defined in conformance with the law, and the local communities who live in forestry development and enforcement and designated according to Nicaragua (Rocha 2012, pp. 3–6). of laws. The Honduran Government management categories that permit In 2008, the Government of Nicaragua began to decentralize COHDEFOR compliance with national policies and published a report on the status of its beginning in 1985 (Butler 2012, objectives of conservation’’ (McGinley wildlife laws and mechanisms unpaginated) due to its ineffectiveness. 2009, p. 19; Protected Areas (Castellon et al. 2008, entire). It reported As of 2001, the management of Regulations: Article 3). However, the the following findings (p. 9): Honduran forests was administered by overall protection and administration of • Nicaragua’s current laws are the Administracio´n Forestal del Estado SINAP is hindered by an inability to inadequate to protect and sustain (AFE, Government Forestry administer its financial and human domestic and international trade in Administration), Corporacio´n resources (McGinley 2009, p. 20). Of the CITES species. They are unfocused and Honduren˜ a de Desarrollo Forestal 72 national protected areas, only 23 had lack provisions on habitat degradation (COHEFOR Honduran Forestry approved management plans in 2008, and biological productivity. Development Corporation) (Moreno and another 19 were in some phase of the • Nicaragua does not have a written Marineros 2001, p. 2). Land use approval process, and 30 protected areas wildlife trade policy or laws to planning occurs at the national level; had no management plan at all underpin sustainable species however, identifying the best use of (McGinley 2009, p. 20). Despite management in domestic and areas has not been implemented protections in place, enforcement has international trade. The regulatory (Pellegrini 2011, p. 17). In addition, been lacking in protected areas, and instruments pertaining to sustainable estimates of illegal logging are poverty continues to be a huge concern management of wildlife trade are approximately 80 percent of the total in Nicaragua (FAO 2011, pp. 1–2; relevant and coherent and provide a volume extracted for broadleaf and 50 McGinley et al. 2009, p. 16). basis for the formulation of such a percent for coniferous species (Richards Three assessments of the effectiveness policy. et al. 2003, p. 1). of Nicaragua’s laws and regulations with • The nonregulatory instruments for Honduras is making progress in respect to wildlife and forestry laws measuring the commercial sustainability managing its forested resources. In 2010, were recently conducted (Pellegrini of wildlife trade are rarely used. The Honduras implemented Agreement 2011; McGinley et al. 2009; Castello´n et most important of them are: monitoring, number 011–2010 (Ecolex 2011), the al. 2008). The first explored the research, education, and information. Forestry Reinvestment Fund and relationship between forest management • Study of wildlife harvesting shows Plantation Development, and its goal is and poverty (Pellegrini 2011). The that the income from trade in harvested to recover areas of degraded or denuded research published in 2009 evaluated species goes principally to external forests. In 2010, Honduras also put into Nicaragua’s Tropical Forests and actors, with little or no benefit to rural place Decision No. 31/10, the General Biological Diversity (McGinley et al. communities or populations. Regulation of Forestry Law, Protected 2009, entire). The other report evaluated The 2008 study also reported that the Areas and Wildlife (Ecolex 2011). This the effectiveness of Nicaragua’s wildlife Government of Nicaragua was unable to covers the administration and trade policies (Castello´n.et al. 2008, find a single case in which the management of forest resources, entire). In Nicaragua, the organization application of its laws led to actual fines protected areas, and wildlife. Despite responsible for regulation and control of or penalties for harvesting or trading the progress made in Honduras with the forestry sector is the National Forest banned species (McGinley 2009, p. 22). respect to laws and regulatory Institute (INAFOR), which is under the It found that nonregulatory instruments

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such as monitoring, research, education, vulnerability. As part of its poverty Reserve, Punta Patin˜ o Natural Reserve, and information are poorly used in the reduction strategy, Nicaragua developed Brage Biological Corridor, and two oversight of commercial wildlife trade a National Development Plan reserves for indigenous communities in Nicaragua (McGinley 2009, p. 22). (Government of Nicaragua 2005 in (TNC 2011, p. 1). Panama’s National Despite these findings, a review Pellegrini 2011, pp. 21–22), the goal of System of Protected Areas (SINAP) is undertaken by the CITES Secretariat which was to strengthen the whole managed by the National Environmental found that the legislation of Nicaragua forestry production chain. However, the Authority (ANAM) and consists of 66 has been determined to be sufficient to plan was reported not to have been areas, totaling 2.5 million ha (6.18 properly implement the CITES Treaty effectively implemented (Pellegrini million ac) (Devenish et al. 2009b, pp. (see discussion below). The country has 2011, p. 22). The main policy 1–2). Of these, 19 have management made an effort to protect its resources instruments that set the framework for plans, and 36 have been through a and is attempting to address the forestry were the Forest Law and the process of strategic planning (ANAM management of its natural resources. logging ban. The Forest Law establishes 2006, unpaginated). In addition, specific, targeted the system of forest management ANAM was established in 1998, conservation measures are occurring. (Pellegrini 2011, pp. 21–22). The law through the General Environmental Law An NGO in Nicaragua, with the support includes incentives for sustainable of Panama (Law 41). ANAM is the of MARENA, is promoting conservation practices; however, Pellegrini noted that primary government institution for of this species. They have initiated a it is virtually impossible to take forest and biodiversity conservation and campaign to educate communities in advantage of the law’s provisions management. ANAM plans, coordinates, part by posting messages on buses on without support by external regulates, and promotes policies and three highly traveled public routes in organizations such as NGOs (Pellegrini actions to use, conserve, and develop Managua. For example, one message 2011, p. 22; TNC 2007, pp. 3–7). renewable resources of the country. Its describes why buying endangered Nicaragua is focusing efforts on the mission statement is to guarantee a species as pets is not a good idea; rather, restoration and protection of forested healthy environment through the they should remain in the wild. areas, and its goal was to reduce the promotion of rational use of natural Additionally, in 2003, Nicaragua and deforestation rate from 70,000 ha resources, the organization of Costa Rica participated in the First (172,974 ac) to 20,000 ha (49,421 ac) per environmental management, and the Mesoamerican Congress for Protected year by 2010 (McGinley 2009, p. 28). transformation of Panamanian culture to Areas. Senior representatives of both Recently, the Associated Foresters of improve the quality of life (Virviescas et countries discussed ways to explore the Nicaragua (FORESTAN), in cooperation al. 1998, p. 2). Law 41 also provides the framework of connectivity between with a local NGO, the Instituto de framework for SINAP. Environmental protected areas (Villate et al. 2008, p. Investigaciones y Gestio´n Social protection in Panama falls under the 52). As a result, several active (INGES), began an initiative to increase jurisdiction of three government conservation measures for the great forest cover. Their goal is to incorporate agencies, the Institute for Renewable green macaw in Nicaragua are under conservation and production areas over Natural Resources, the Ministry of way, such as the development of 5,000 ha (12,355 ac), and more Agricultural Development, and the connected habitat corridors, and the effectively use commercially valuable Ministry of Health. There are 17 great green macaw conservation tree species while at the same time management categories of protected workshop was held in 2008. In creating permanent jobs (INGES– areas that were established through Nicaragua’s Indio-Maı´z Biological FORESTAN 2005 in Sinreich 2009, p. INRENARE’s Resolution 09–94. A later Reserve, training measures for 63). In 2006, a logging ban was put in law, the Forest Law of 2004, established monitoring the great green macaw have place. The ban prohibited extraction of protections for three types of forest, been implemented. For example, six species of wood and any logging which covers 36 percent of the country. technicians associated with Fundacion operation in protected areas or within There are political and economic del Rio have been trained in great green 15 km (9 mi) of all national borders, and pressures to develop many areas macaw research (Chassot et al. 2006, p. it put the army in charge of enforcement (Devenish et al. 2009b, p. 291). 86). The species’ population is (Government of Nicaragua 2006 in Deforestation, in addition to the lack of estimated to be only 871 individuals in Pellegrini 2011, p. 23). However, management, and lease periods for these Nicaragua and Costa Rica combined deforestation rates may have increased concessions of 2 to 5 years, have left (Monge et al. 2010, p. 21), and pressures even after the ban’s approval (Guzma´n only an estimated 250,000 to 350,000 ha continue to occur to the species and its 2007, pp. 1–2). Although Nicaragua (617,763 to 864,868 ac) of production habitat. Despite regulatory mechanisms attempts to manage its natural forests in Panama (Gutierrez 2001a in in place and the existence of many resources, it has a large challenge due to Parker et al. 2004, p. I–10). strategies in Nicaragua to combat threats the pressures for its forest resources in Additionally, many protected areas in to the species such as deforestation, combination with extreme poverty (FAO Panama lack adequate staff and habitat loss, and poaching for the 2011, p. 1; McGinley et al. 2009, p. 11). resources to patrol the areas or enforce wildlife trade, these activities continue. Despite these efforts, pressure on the regulations (Devenish et al. 2009b, p. The impoverished rely strongly on great green macaw’s habitat continues. 291). In 1986, Panama initiated a forest products (Pellegrini 2011, pp. 21– national forest strategy (Plan de Accio´n 22). In an attempt to reduce poverty and Panama Forestal de Panama or PAFPAN) at the same time conserve forested areas, In Panama, the great green macaw’s supported by FAO; however the plan analyses addressing poverty reduction stronghold is believed to be in Darie´n reportedly did not directly tackle the were conducted prior to 2002. National Park, which borders Colombia causes of deforestation. Between 1980 Strategies, described as Poverty (Monge et al. 2009, p. 68; Angehr in litt. and 1990, concessions for 77,800 ha Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), 1996 in Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 121–123; (192,248 ac) of production forests were recommended approving a forestry law Ridgley 1982). The Darie´n region awarded to 23 companies, for periods by 2002 (which actually was approved encompasses nearly 809,371 ha (2 ranging from 2 to 5 years (Parker et al. at the end of 2003) and addressing million ac) of protected areas, including 2004, p. II–4). In 1994, a new forestry deforestation as a source of ecological Darie´n National Park and Biosphere law was approved, which

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institutionalized forest management. law was passed to provide incentives for of the Parties, the National Legislation Now, concessions exist only in the the establishment of plantations; Project evaluates whether Parties have Darie´n Province (Parker et al. 2004, p. however, these were mainly exotic adequate domestic legislation to II–4). Between 1992 and 2000, the species (Parker et al. 2004, p. III–6). successfully implement the Treaty Darie´n Province was one of Panama’s Panama is now implementing (CITES 2011a). In reviewing a country’s provinces that experienced the greatest reforestation and timber production national legislation, the CITES declines (11.5 percent) in forest cover projects that focus on native species. Secretariat evaluates factors such as (Parker et al. 2004, p. 32). However, This initiative is known as the ‘‘Native whether or not a Party: there are activities in place to combat Species Reforestation Project’’ (Proyecto • Has domestic laws that prohibit these pressures. For example, a training de Reforestacio´n con Especies Nativas; trade contrary to the requirements of the program exists to increase capacity in PRORENA) (Schmidt 2009, p. 10). Convention; issues such as planning, geographic Forestry managers have realized that, in • Has penalty provisions in place for information systems, sustainable some cases, native species are better illegal trade, and has designated the tourism, trail construction and adapted and perform better than responsible Scientific and Management management for park staff, community introduced species. Since 2001, the joint Authorities; and groups, and other stakeholders in the Native Species Reforestation Project • Provides for seizure of specimens protected area system. between the Smithsonian Tropical that are illegally traded or possessed. Research Institute and the Yale School The CITES Secretariat determined Darie´n National Park of Forestry has conducted ongoing that the legislations of Colombia, Costa Darie´n National Park extends along research on trees native to Panama. The Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama about 80 percent of the Panama- almendro tree, which is vital to the great are sufficient to properly implement the Colombia border and includes part of green macaw’s habitat, has been the Treaty (http://www.cites.org, SC58 Doc. the Pacific coast. The area has been subject of research projects in Panama 18 Annex 1, p. 1). These governments under protection since 1972, with the because of its high commercial value were determined to be in Category 1, establishment of Alto Darie´n Protection (Schmidt 2009, p. 17). Despite efforts to which means they meet all the Forest. It was declared a national park reduce deforestation activities, requirements to implement CITES. in 1980. The park is zoned as a strictly management problems remain. A study Ecuador was determined to be in protected core zone of over 83,000 ha conducted in 2004 suggested that the Category 2, with a draft plan, but not (205,097 ac). Another zone consists of Forestry Department needs increased enacted (http://www.cites.org, SC59 180,000 ha (444,789 ac) and contains autonomy, funding, and staff, and a Document 11, Annex p. 1, accessed indigenous Indian populations that have more appropriate mandate (Parker et al. December 16, 2011). This means the maintained their traditional way of life 2004, pp. 10–11). The study suggested CITES Secretariat determined that the and culture. Approximately 8,000 ha that strengthening the Parks and legislation of Ecuador meets some, but (19,768 ac) is designated for tourism and Wildlife Service through increased not all, of the requirements for environmental education, and the last staffing and resources would enable implementing CITES. Based on the zone is described as an ‘‘inspection them to protect and manage protected limited amount of reported international zone’’ which is 40-km (25-mi) wide, and areas (Parker et al. 2004, pp. 10–11). trade for this species, particularly in spans the Panama-Colombia border. The In summary, Panama has a suite of wild-caught specimens, the range Darie´n forests are threatened from environmental laws in place, and countries, including Ecuador, have logging, agriculture expansion, burning, conservation measures are being effectively controlled legal international and hunting and gathering (TNC 2011, implemented by the government in trade of this species. Therefore, we find pp. 1–2; Monge et al. 2009, p. 68). Other collaboration with some NGOs. CITES is an adequate regulatory threats to forest in the region include However, there is very little information mechanism. the development of projects such as available about the great green macaw in Summary of Factor D dams and highways (Parker et al. 2004, Panama (Monge et al. 2009, p. 68), and pp. II–7–II–8). the information indicates that this In the range countries for this species, Since 1986, the Asociacio´n Nacional species continues to face pressures to its we recognize that conservation activities para la Conservacion de la Naturaleza habitat. Despite Panama’s participation are occurring, and each country has (ANCON) has been actively involved in in conservation initiatives and Panama’s enacted laws with the intent of conservation of the park in conjunction regulatory mechanisms in place, there protecting its species and habitat. For with INRENARE, the World Wildlife are still significant pressures for example, in 2002, the San Juan—La Fund, and other conservation entities. resources in the great green macaw’s Selva Biological Corridor, an area of In 1995, a biodiversity conservation habitat. 60,000 ha (148,263 ac), was project was initiated. The project’s goal implemented to protect the nesting was to involve local communities in International Wildlife Trade (CITES) places and migration flyway of the great conservation and sustainable use The CITES Treaty requires Parties to green macaw in Costa Rica, as far as the activities, and was funded by the United have adequate legislation in place for its Nicaragua border, where very little is Nations Environment Programme implementation. A complete discussion known about the species. However, (UNEP) and the Global Environment on CITES is found under Factor D for most of the suitable habitat is restricted Facility. The Nature Conservancy (TNC) the military macaw. Within the recent to protected areas in clustered locations. is also active in conservation efforts in past (since 2000), 261 live great green Oliveira et al. (2007) found that forests this area through its Parks in Peril macaws were reported to have been in conservation units were four times program (TNC 2011, pp. 1–2). imported by CITES reporting countries, better at protecting against deforestation Panama has also initiated and none of these live specimens were than unprotected areas (Oliveira et al. reforestation efforts. For example, reported as wild origin (UNEP–WCMC 2007, p. 1,235). Despite regulatory beginning in the 1960s, Panama began CITES Trade Database, accessed mechanisms established by this species’ to plant Pinus caribaea (pine species) in December 8, 2011). Under CITES range countries and despite the species’ degraded areas of the Cordillera of the Resolution Conference 8.4 (Rev. CoP15), existence in areas designated as central region. Additionally, in 1992, a and related decisions of the Conference protected, this species has experienced

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threats such that its populations are 2011, p. 17). There are no current to recolonize isolated habitat patches, now so small that any pressure has a population estimates for Panama, which presently exist in a highly more significant effect. Parks, without Honduras, and Colombia, but the global fragmented state. This, in combination management, are often insufficient to population is believed to be fewer than with the species’ nutritional needs, adequately protect the species. 3,700 individuals (Monge et al. 2009, results in the species requiring large The information available with pp. 68, 79, 213). Small, declining home ranges. respect to the species’ population populations can be especially Border Conflict numbers is extremely limited in its vulnerable to environmental range countries, and the populations of disturbances such as habitat loss (Harris One of the difficulties in the this species in these countries all likely and Pimm 2008, pp. 163–164; O’Grady conservation of this species that may range from a few individuals to a few 2004, pp. 513–514; Brooks et al. 1999, not be readily apparent is border hundred individuals (Botero-Delgadillo pp. 1,146–1,147). In Costa Rica, the conflict. For example, at the border of and Pa´ez 2011, p. 91; Monge et al. 2010, great green macaw has been eliminated Nicaragua and Costa Rica, despite p. 22; Monge et al. 2009, p. 256). The from approximately 90 percent of its cooperation efforts; conflict continues populations are all in relatively former range, and one estimate (U.S. Department of State 2012, disconnected areas. Its suitable habitat indicated that there were only 275 birds unpaginated; Berrios 2004, entire). The has been severely constricted due to remaining in 2010 (Chassot 2010 pers. Nicaraguan-Costa Rican border is one of deforestation. In all of the range comm. in Hardman 2011, p. 11). the most conflict-heavy frontiers in countries, there is clear evidence of Isolated populations are more likely to Central America (Lopez and Jimenez threats to this species due to activities decline than those that are not isolated 2007, p. 21). Migration issues, such as habitat destruction and (Davies et al. 2000, p. 1,456), as navigation rights in border rivers, border degradation, and poaching, and there is evidenced by the Ecuadorian delineation, and cultural differences all decreased viability due to small population. Additionally, the great affect these countries’ relations (Lopez population sizes, despite the laws and green macaw’s restricted range, and Jimenez 2007, p. 21). Additionally, regulatory mechanisms in place. Given combined with its small population size this area has historically experienced that the species’ habitat continues to be and low prospect for dispersal (Chosset exploitation of its natural resources. fragmented and degraded, it is unlikely et al. 2004, p. 32), makes the species Since the beginning of last century, that any conservation measures are particularly vulnerable to the threat of foreign companies have engaged in adequately mitigating the factors any adverse natural (e.g., genetic, logging, rubber extraction, and mining currently acting on the species. demographic, or stochastic) and (Lopez and Jimenez 2007, pp. 24–25). Based on the best available manmade (e.g., habitat alteration and After these resources were depleted and information, despite protections in destruction) events that could destroy these activities were no longer place by the respective governments, we individuals and their habitats. profitable, some companies left, leaving find that the existing regulatory The government of Costa Rica, in behind harmful environmental impacts mechanisms are either inadequate or cooperation with Zoo Ave Wildlife (Lopez and Jimenez 2007, pp. 24–25). inadequately enforced to protect the Conservation Park, located in Garita de These activities have resulted in species or to mitigate ongoing habitat Alajuela, has participated in a captive polluted rivers, high levels of loss and degradation, poaching, and bird breeding program (Herrero 2006, sedimentation in coastal lagoons, and severe population declines. Habitat pp. 2–3) since 1994. Some of the birds deforested areas (Lopez and Jimenez conservation measures within these produced have been released in 2007, pp. 24–25). These activities all range countries do not appear to be protected areas. However, captive subsequently affect the habitat of the sufficient to adequately mitigate future breeding is a controversial issue, mainly great green macaw. Deforestation in Nicaragua has a habitat losses. This is due to a suite of due to the reintroduction of individuals. complex history. After a civil war factors, such as high rates of poverty in One of the concerns is that the throughout the 1980s, land tenure the range of the great green macaw and reintroduced birds introduce infectious diseases (which may be in dormant policies inadvertently encouraged subsequent pressures for resources, and farming techniques that led to conflicting management goals (such as phase for a period of time) into the wild (Brightsmith et al. 2006 in Herrero 2006, deforestation, soil erosion, and general economic development and protection land degradation (Sinreich 2009, p. 11). of its resources) of its range countries. pp. 2–3). There are multiple features of this Later, during the 1990s, COHDEFOR Therefore, we find that the existing species’ biology and life history that opened up timber extraction regulatory mechanisms are inadequate affect its ability to respond to habitat opportunities to local community to mitigate the current threats to the loss and alteration, as well as to organizations, mainly cooperatives, to continued existence of the great green stochastic environmental events. Due to help mitigate the economic situation for macaw throughout its range. its current restricted distribution and local people. Licenses allowed the use E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors habitat requirements, stochastic events of fallen wood and timber extraction for Affecting Its Continued Existence could further isolate individuals. An sale at local markets. However, a study example of a stochastic event impacting conducted between 1998 and 2000 Small Population Size and Stochastic the species occurred in 2010, and the found that local groups had extracted an Events death of several nestlings was recorded enormous amount of timber and there There have been few quantitative (Chosset and Arias 2010, p. 15). One was no monitoring (Colı´ndres and Rubı´ studies of great green macaw nestling fell out of a tree, and, in 2002). Although the government offered populations (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez another case, a branch fell on a nestling support to communities in its border 2011, p. 91; Monge et al. 2010, p. 12; while it was actually in the nest and it regions during the period of 1994–1999, Monge et al. 2009.). In 2009, the died (Chosset and Arias 2010, p. 15). tensions continue to affect the Bosawas combined estimate for Costa Rica and Losses such as these can have a region of Nicaragua, one of the areas Nicaragua was 871 individuals (Monge significant effect on the population. believed to contain a great green macaw et al. 2010, p. 21), and the estimate for Additionally, limited available suitable population (Lopez and Jime´nez 2007, p. Ecuador was fewer than 100 (Horstman habitat makes it difficult for the species 26). Land rights disputes continue to

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occur in Bosawas, and land use rights productivity may be reduced because of population is under way. The San Juan– are often unclear. Although the any of these threats, either singularly or La Selva Biological Corridor was Government of Nicaragua is attempting in combination. These threats occur at established to connect forest patches to manage these issues (Pellegrini 2011, a sufficient scale such that they are and join 20 protected areas (Chosset and p. 21), conflict and practices that affecting the status of the species now Arias 2010, p. 5) specifically to preserve degrade the great green macaw’s habitat and in the future. habitat for this species. persist both in the Bosawas Reserve and This species’ current range is highly We have very little information about the Indio-Maı´z Biological Reserve. restricted and severely fragmented. Each the species in many parts of its range breeding pair requires a large home (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. 91; Climate Change range to meet its nutritional Monge et al. 2009, p. 68). In 2008, Our analysis under the ESA includes requirements; it is a large macaw, and experts from this species’ range consideration of ongoing and projected its sources of food are becoming scarcer countries attended a conference to changes in climate (see discussion and farther apart, which requires more evaluate the viability of its populations under the military macaw). The 2008 energy consumption to locate. The and its habitat (Monge et al. 2009, workshop in Costa Rica addressed susceptibility to extirpation of limited- entire). In general, they concluded that environmental disasters in the range species can occur for a variety of populations are viable but they still face evaluation and assessment of the great reasons, such as when a species’ threats. The workshop also addressed green macaw, although climate change remaining population is already too goals for the conservation of the species; was not specifically addressed. small or its distribution too fragmented in some parts of its range, conservation Researchers describe environmental such that it may no longer be efforts are intensive. Based on our disasters as events that occur demographically or genetically viable. review of the best available scientific infrequently but that can drastically The species’ small and declining and commercial information pertaining affect reproduction or survival. Monge population size, reproductive and life- to the five factors, the threats to the et al. reported that in Costa Rica, the history traits, and highly restricted and species are generally consistent number of active nests in 2000 was well severely fragmented range together throughout its range. In many of the below the average of other years. The increase the species’ vulnerability to range countries, its populations are very researchers linked this with the strong any other stressors. Based on the above small, and specific information about El Nin˜ o event that occurred during evaluation, we conclude that the effects the status of the species is not available 1997–1998 (Monge et al. 2009, p. 149). of isolation and its small, declining in all countries. However, habitat loss The researchers stated that in the last 50 population size, combined with the and degradation is prevalent throughout years there were two major El Nin˜ o threats of continued fragmentation and this species’ range; its suitable habitat events, and, therefore, one would expect isolation of suitable forest habitats, pose has severely contracted, and habitat loss that in 100 years there would be four a threat to the great green macaw. is likely to continue into the future due events of this nature, which could to pressures for resources. Poaching is Finding and Status Determination for subsequently reduce reproduction by 30 known to occur within many parts, if the Great Green Macaw percent (Monge et al. 2009, p. 149). not all parts, of its range. Despite However, this correlation between the Although precise quantitative conservation awareness programs, low number of active nests and the El estimates are not available, the best poverty is prevalent within the range of Nin˜ o event is not strongly supported, available information suggests that the species, and the species is quite nor do we have supporting evidence populations of great green macaws have valuable commercially, so poaching that this is directly related to climate substantially declined, and this species continues to occur. We do not find that change. We are not aware of any likely persists at greatly reduced the effects of current threats acting on information that indicates that climate numbers relative to its historical the species are being ameliorated by change threatens the continued abundance. The factors that threaten the regulatory mechanisms. Therefore, we existence of the great green macaw. survival of the great green macaw are: find that listing the great green macaw (A) Habitat destruction, fragmentation, Summary of Factor E as endangered is warranted throughout and degradation; (B) Overutilization via its range, and we propose to list the A species may be affected by more poaching; (D) inadequacy of regulatory great green macaw as endangered under than one threat. Impacts typically mechanisms to reduce the threats to the the ESA. operate synergistically, and are species; and (E) small population size particularly evident when small and isolation of remaining populations. Available Conservation Measures populations of a species are decreasing. The direct loss of habitat through Conservation measures provided to Initial effects of one threat factor can widespread deforestation and species listed as endangered or exacerbate the effects of other threat conversion of primary forests to human threatened under the ESA include factors (Laurance and Useche 2009, p. settlement and agricultural uses has led recognition, requirements for Federal 1,432; Gilpin and Soule´ 1986, pp. 25– to the fragmentation of habitat protection, and prohibitions against 26). Further fragmentation of throughout the range of the great green certain practices. Recognition through populations can decrease the fitness and macaw and isolation of the remaining listing results in public awareness, and reproductive potential of the species, populations. The species has been encourages and results in conservation which can exacerbate other threats. Lack locally extirpated in many areas and has actions by Federal and State of a sufficient number of individuals in experienced a significant reduction of governments, private agencies and a local area or a decline in their suitable habitat. The current suitable interest groups, and individuals. individual or collective fitness may habitat in Costa Rica is now less than 10 The ESA and its implementing cause a decline in the population size, percent of its original suitable habitat regulations set forth a series of general even with suitable habitat patches. (Chosset et al. 2004, p. 38). This species prohibitions and exceptions that apply Within the preceding review of the five exists generally in small and fragmented to all endangered and threatened factors, we have identified multiple populations, and in many cases, the wildlife. These prohibitions, at 50 CFR threats that have interrelated impacts on population is so small that intense 17.21 and 17.31, in part, make it illegal this species. Thus, the species’ monitoring and management of the for any person subject to the jurisdiction

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of the United States to ‘‘take’’ (includes special purposes consistent with the Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, ESA. and Wildlife Service. wound, kill, trap, capture, or to attempt National Environmental Policy Act List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 any of these) within the United States or (NEPA) upon the high seas; import or export; Endangered and threatened species, deliver, receive, carry, transport, or ship We have determined that Exports, Imports, Reporting and in interstate commerce in the course of environmental assessments and recordkeeping requirements, commercial activity; or sell or offer for environmental impact statements, as Transportation. sale in interstate or foreign commerce defined under the authority of the Regulation Promulgation any endangered wildlife species. It also National Environmental Policy Act of is illegal to possess, sell, deliver, carry, 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not Accordingly, we amend part 17, transport, or ship any such wildlife that be prepared in connection with subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the has been taken in violation of the ESA. regulations adopted under section 4(a) Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth Certain exceptions apply to agents of the of the ESA. We published a notice below: Service and State conservation agencies. outlining our reasons for this Permits may be issued to carry out determination in the Federal Register PART 17—[AMENDED] otherwise prohibited activities on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244). ■ 1. The authority citation for part 17 involving endangered and threatened References Cited continues to read as follows: wildlife species under certain circumstances. Regulations governing A complete list of all references cited Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361–1407; 1531– permits for endangered species are in this proposed rule is available on the 1544; 4201–4245; unless otherwise noted. codified at 50 CFR 17.22. With regard to Internet at http://www.regulations.gov ■ 2. Amend § 17.11(h) by adding entries endangered wildlife, a permit may be or upon request from the Branch of for ‘‘Macaw, great green’’ and ‘‘Macaw, issued for the following purposes: For Foreign Species, Endangered Species military’’ in alphabetical order under scientific purposes, to enhance the Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service BIRDS to the List of Endangered and propagation or survival of the species, (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT.) Threatened Wildlife to read as follows: and for incidental take in connection Authors with otherwise lawful activities. For § 17.11 Endangered and threatened threatened species, a permit may be The primary authors of this final rule wildlife. issued for the same activities, as well as are Amy Brisendine and Natchanon * * * * * zoological exhibition, education, and Ketram, Branch of Foreign Species, (h) * * *

Species Vertebrate population Historic range where Status When Critical Special Common name Scientific name endangered or listed habitat rules threatened

******* BIRDS

******* Macaw, great Ara ambiguus Costa Rica, Entire E 797 NA NA green. Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama.

******* Macaw, military Ara militaris Argentina, Bo- Entire E 797 NA NA livia, Colom- bia, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, Venezuela.

*******

* * * * * Dated: September 17, 2015. Stephen Guertin, Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. [FR Doc. 2015–24820 Filed 10–1–15; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 4310–55–P

VerDate Sep<11>2014 21:34 Oct 01, 2015 Jkt 238001 PO 00000 Frm 00047 Fmt 4701 Sfmt 9990 E:\FR\FM\02OCR3.SGM 02OCR3 asabaliauskas on DSK5VPTVN1PROD with RULES