KUA TU PU TE PA HARAKEKE DEVELOPING HEALTHY WHANAU RELATIONSHIPS L�p�a,vui, N �opvV Uit,Y\,€/C£iU11te.Yo-rv

A. Opening with Pepeha A. Opening with Pepeha Ko Taranaki te maunga Taranaki is the ancestral B. Retaining Our Identity mountain Ko Waitara te awa Waitara is the river C. Puriikau:Traditional Stories as Ko Nga Tai o Rehua toku Nga Tai o Rehua is the Guidance moana ocean Ko Tokomaru te Tokomaru is the canoe D. Teachings about Relationships Ko Te Atiawa, Ngati My tribal groups are Mahanga, Nga Mahanga Te Atiawa, Ngati Mahanga E. Traditional Maori Society and Views a Tairi oku a Tairi, Ngati Mahanga Ko Ngati Rahiri toku hapu My subtribe is Ngati Rahiri on Family Violence Ko Leonie Pihama toku My name is Leonie Pihama ingoa. F. Colonization and Family Violence Ko Taranaki te maunga Taranaki is the ancestral G. TuT ika oAroT ika mountain Ko Urenui te awa Urenui is the river H. Glossary Ko Nga Tai o Rehua te Nga Tai o Rehua is the moana ocean I. Resources Ko Tokomaru me Takitimu The canoes are Tokomaru ngawaka and Takitimu Ko Ngati Mutunga me Ngati My tribal groups are naa iwi Mutunga and Ngati Kahungunu Ko Kaitangata me Ngati My subtribes are Kaitangata Pahauwera oku and Ngati Pahauwera hapu Raumati is my extended Ko Raumati te whanau family Ko Ngaropi Cameron My name is Ngaropi toku ingoa Cameron

225 We have opened this chapter with our pepeha. aware of the connection. Through this process we link Pepeha are ways through which our people introduce to people whom we may never have met before.We link ourselves. These vary from tribe to tribe. The essence on an ancestral level. We link on a spiritual level. We of pepeha is that it links us to our tribes and all associ­ link on a tribal level. These connections keep our ated with it-our mountains, our rivers, our canoes, relationships, our collectivity, our language, and our our ancestral lines. It links us to each other. It places knowledge alive. And they remind us we are respon­ us, as Maori, within a wider collective consciousness sible for one another and for all we live alongside of on and set of relationships. It is important to highlight Papatuanuku, this great Mother Earth. that the term Maori is a term that brings us together This knowledge has been passed down to us from as Peoples. It is a term that our people have chosen our tupuna, our ancestors. It is exactly the knowledge to use as a means of unifying ourselves in the wake of and protocols that our colonizers sought to deny us. the arrival of our colonizers. Prior to colonization all The systematic and unrelenting attacks on our lan­ identification was done through our whanau (extended guage and culture have been deliberate. They are acts family structure), hapu (group of whanau connected of denying our identity as (People of though common ancestor/sub-groupings of iwz) or iwi the Land). For Maori, the suppression of our language (nations connected through common ancestor). Maori and culture was key to the denial of Maori knowledge means to be "normal" or "pure," a fitting term foran that enabled healthy relationships. As is the case on Indigenous People. We have, however, also been active Great Turtle Island, violent attacks upon our language in maintaining our hapu and iwi identities, and it is and culture aligned with acts of war and murder of through pepeha that we can culturally share that iden­ our people. The importation of guns, alcohol, and the tity with one another. Our people have been doing this Bible brought about significant societal changes both for generations. And in spite of colonization seeking to within and between tribes. undermine our cultural identity, many of us continue to do this. B. Retaining Our Identity Locating ourselves in relation to our natural The struggle to retain our identity as Indigenous world, our relations, and our lands is important to Peoples is a part of a wider struggle to decolonize. Maori. It acknowledgesand affirms our cultural con­ Colonization has violently forced ways of being upon nections. It reminds us of our cultural obligations to our communities that have changed our lives in ways one another, to the land, and all our relations who live that our ancestors could never have imagined. In our with us on our lands. It recognizes the many genera­ context within (referred to in colonial terms tions that have come before us and gives those around as ), Maori have been struggling for the us an ability to place ourselves within the Maori world. past two hundred years to find ways to maintain those That is also important. cultural protocols, language, and practices that enable Often when our people recite their pepeha in a us to hold our place as Indigenous on our own lands. gathering, you will hear responses within the group The experience of family violence within our commu­ that indicate a dose relationship. People will respond nities is a symptom of historical acts of genocide and kia ora whanaunga, "Greetings relation," to make us ethnocide upon our Peoples. ACTIVITY:

Are there particular ways that your People/nation introduce themselves or express their identity that affirm an Indigenous identity?

C. Purakau:Traditional Stories as findhim. Mataora spoke with Uetonga of his desire Guidance for Niwareka to return with him to the earthly world. This is the story of Niwareka and Mataora, two Uetonga questioned the act of abuse, stating that, well-known ancestors in Maori tradition who brought like temporary moko, that was not the way of their to our people the arts of moko (Maori tattoo forms) people. Mataora pleaded with Niwareka to return and tiiniko (a decorative formof weaving). This story, with him and, in doing so, agreed that by wearing the as is the case with Indigenous traditional stories, pro­ permanent moko ofUetonga he would take to his vides insights and messages for our people today. people both moko and the challenge to stop any abuse amongst his people. Niwareka agreed to return and Niwareka lived in Rarohenga ( the underworld). She she took the art form of taniko weaving back to the chose to go to the world above, to Te Ao Marama World of Light to share with the people above. (the world oflight) to live amongst those tangata (human beings) who live in this world. In the world This chapter is about relationships. It is about of light Niwareka partnered with Mataora. Mataora how our ancestors have passed to us knowledge about was abusive to her and in response Niwareka returned ·what is and is not acceptable amongst our people. It to Rarohenga to be amongst her people who did not is also about how traditional ways and stories, in their agree to such behavior. Mataora followed Niwareka many forms,provide us with guidance in this contem- and after overcoming many trials and challenges he . porary world as we live on our own lands that have came across her father, Uetonga, who was a great been colonized by others. It is argued that there is a carver of moko. Mataora wore the painted markings need to draw fromtraditional knowledge as a source of of the human world on his face, but in his encounter healing contemporary issues. with Uetonga he was told that the markings of Raro­ There is a growing focus on drawing upon henga were permanent, and in time Uetonga began traditional knowledge to support the revitalization of to place permanent moko on the face of Mataora. our language and culture. This has been difficultto During that time Niwareka became aware of the achieve given the impact of colonial beliefs and prac­ presence of Mataora in the underworld and went to tices upon our people. The denial of te reo Maori (Maori language) through the imposition of English Indigenous People have for some time critiqued the and the native schooling system has had a huge impact ways in which our histories have been told from the on being able to access knowledge. The attack on our perspective of the colonizer. This concern over the language was part of a sustained process by which to representation of Indigenous Peoples by our coloni­ advance the assimilation of colonial ways of being. zers is held by many Indigenous Peoples around the Many of our people have been forced to live on tribal world. Vine Deloria Jr. wrote that "for most of the lands that are not theirs in order to findjobs and feed fivecenturies ...whites have had unrestricted power to their families. describe Indians in any way Colonization undermined Di Grennell, a long-term worker in they chose." What this means Maori cohesion and relation­ is that we must be vigilant in the area of family violence, has high­ ships through acts that stole our the telling of our own stories in lands and individualized the lighted the importance of traditional ways that are grounded within little that remained. The impact knowledge to healing in her work: our own cultural frameworks. of the historical trauma associ­ It is also clear to Indigenous Drawing on the wisdom of our ated with colonial oppression Peoples that the translation upon generations of our people tupuna (ancestors) and traditions is and interpretation of our sto­ is clearly evident. This chapter not to return us to a mythic past or ries through the colonizers' focuses on how we can draw language can create both golden age-our people have always upon traditional knowledge understandings and misun­ as healing in a contemporary adapted to new circumstances and derstandings-the story of context. experimented with new technology. Niwareka and Mataora is often AI; Indigenous Peoples Rather it is to understand and be the victim of both. Domi- we have many ways in which nant understandings of this guided by the symbols, values, and our cultural practices inform story have tended to lean to us about many formsof rela­ principles that can enhance our the belief that Mataora is the tionships: family relationships, capacity to live together peacefully central figurein the story and friendships, and intimate rela­ that he journeyed to bring to as whinau and communities. Our tionships. The story of Niwareka us the art of moko. Where that and Mataora, for example, is capacity for resilience as an may be the case, it is clear that oftenrecited as the genealogy Indigenous People is fed and the art of moko came from the of the beginnings of permanent nourished by our language, traditional family ofNiwareka, and that moko to our people. It is gener­ her actions contributed hugely practices, and oral traditions. ally referred to as "the story of to how moko came to be a part Mataora." The bringing of of our cultural practices and taniko as a weaving form, an art form,by Niwareka is protocols in the Maori world. More importantly, how­ rarely mentioned. The underpinning message of deal­ ever, is that this story clearly highlights her refusal to ing with issues of abuse is often not even considered or stay in a situation where she had experienced abuse, and is glossed over. There are many ways that meanings and that once was enough for her to leave Mataora imme­ teachings from traditional stories have been influenced diately. AI; Indigenous Peoples we must be constantly by colonization, including the processes through which aware of the ongoing obsession by our colonizers to Indigenous languages are translated and the influence translate and interpret our stories as if the only charac­ of colonial gender relations that privileged the place of ters that count are the men. The danger of such colonial men as the primary transmitters of our stories. interpretations is that the roles of our women and of Linda Tu hiwai Smith (1999) has argued that our female ancestors are dismissed and key messages about our people and our relationships are made invis­ D. Teachings about Relationships ible. Consequently, Maori women have had to fight for Stories like that of the relationship of Niwareka many years for our ancestral women to be more visible. and Mataora appear throughout our tribal histories as Although this particular story gives us a way of ways of providing us with understandings and guidance understanding the gifting of permanent moko and about relationships. They are stories that tell of what taniko to our people, it is much more than that. One is, and what is not, acceptable within our whanau, our central lesson that is often missed is the critical role extended families. The story of Niwareka and Mataora of Niwareka in this story. She is central to the mes- is one that tells us that abuse is not acceptable. There sages that our ancestors have passed through this story, is a clear message that abuse must be challenged. It is although her role is rarely acknowledged. Sadly, the a story that provides insight into the traditional belief marginalization of Maori women within our traditional that historically whanau and hapo. were expected to stories is not uncommon. Colonial ethnographers and be safe spaces for Maori women and children. It is, anthropologists actively denied the role of our women. therefore, a story that reminds us that we must take They subjugated Maori women's roles in line with their collective responsibility for such actions. own sexist and misogynistic belief systems and ideolo­ The return of Niwareka to her people tells us that gies that deemed women as both inferior and property. the response to individual acts of violence or abuse must These ideologies pervade both the interpretation of our also be a collective response. Such a belief is grounded histories and our roles, even to the extent of determin­ in our collective relationships, roles, obligations, and ing what stories were even considered worthy of being accountability. Therefore any acts of abuse were dealt recorded. In many interpretations of this story, Niwareka with collectively as a form of intervention that worked is marginalized to solely "the daughter of" Uetonga to ensure that repeat incidents of violence did not occur. or "the wife of" Mataora. She is not seen as an active, The response was both immediate and collective. Such powerful ancestral woman who made a clear decision to a notion affirms that as individuals we are a part of a leave an unhealthy relationship and return to her people. wider collective within our Indigenous worlds. That As such, the often neglected interpretation of this story has always been the way of our ancestors. It is a cultural is that it challenges abuse. In particular it is a story that belief and practice that is documented throughout our challenges male to fe male violence. It challenges such stories. It is a value that has been handed down through abuse through the act of Niwareka removing herself generations of our people. It is also a value that was from that situation and returning to her people. actively attacked through colonization.

ACTIVITY:

What are some examples of traditional stories within your community and tribe that talk about relationships and how we relate to one another? For the past twenty years we have been honored present in the lives of Maori children, especially elders, to work alongside our people as a researcher (Leonie) the grandparent generation. and a service provider (Ngaropi) on projects that have The term whanau as "birth" also exists within both a decolonizing and transformative intent. This the context of a wider cultural belief system concern­ work came more closely together in the evaluation of ing our relationship as people to Papatiianuku (Mother the programs offeredby Tu Tama Wahine O Taranaki, Earth.) The land for our people is known as whenua, the organization headed by Ngaropi. The programs are which is also the word for afterbirth. When a child is grounded in the belief that in order to make change in born, the cultural process for our people is to return the area of domestic violence for Maori there must be a the afterbirth to the earth; it is buried within the Earth KaupapaMaori approach. Mother. It connects us to our land. The whenua (after­ KaupapaMaori, in general terms, refers to Maori birth) is returned to the whenua (the earth). As noted philosophies, Maori approaches, and Maori ways of in the opening of this chapter, we stressed the cultural being. These are definedand controlled by Maori. means by which we as tribal people within the Maori Inherent to Kaupapa Maori theory, methodology, and Nation link to our tribal areas, to our mountains, our practice is the notion of Maori as self-determining. rivers, our lands. The practice of returning the after­ Kaupapa Maori is a culturally defined approach that birth to the earth is yet another cultural practice that enables us as Indigenous Peoples to draw upon our affirms those connections and affirms our collective own language and protocols to develop and operate a relationships. Such is the centrality of whanau within wide range of services and initiatives within our com­ Maori society. Whanau is about collective responsi­ munities. It is not a singular approach, as tribal-specific bility for the well-being of generations present and ways of being and tribal dialects provide us with a future. It is also the place where issues and problems multitude of possibilities, but rather a cultural and could be addressed and resolved. This is highlighted in political framework that advances Maori aspirations the story of the healing of the relationship of Niwareka and desires for our own people. In this regard, many and Mataora. Maori practitioners, counselors, and healers in the area The story of Niwareka returning to her people is of domestic, family, and sexual violence have worked a story of returning to whanau after being insulted by to develop both prevention and intervention strategies her partner. The story of Mataora taking the journey that align with a Kaupapa Maori approach. Part of to Rarohenga and seeking the return ofNiwareka is that process has been to challenge the notion that such a story about his accountability to her people. It was violence impacts only the individual, and recognize within the whanau that the abuse of Niwareka was that it impacts the entire whanau, the entire extended discussed, with the resolution being intervention and family unit. futureprevention. The return of Niwareka to her Whanau is the building block of Maori soci­ whanau was an act of transformationin their lives ety. It consists of at least three generations who live through collective responsibility. Mataora was called to together as an extended family and ensures the inclu­ task for his actions, not by Niwareka as an individual, sion of grandparent generations in the lives of Maori but by her whanau as a collective. This is highlighted by moko expert Mark Kopua: children. The term whanau relates to both "extended family" and "birth." The plural meaning of the word It is said that as Mataora journeyed through Raro­ highlights its significance in a society that was, and is, henga seeking Niwareka he came upon Uetonga, his reliant upon future generations. Whanau enables the wife's father, preparing to place a moko on the face raising of children by many adults. The parent gen­ of a man. It was here that the terms of Mataora's eration is only one group caring forand raising our acceptance were discussed. However the final decision children. There have always been many adults was made by Niwareka. It is said that upon hearing Mataora's song of lament and love forher that she individuals their place, but rather highlights that we knewhe would not mistreat her by speaking poorly are all relations, and as such are a part of a much wider of her again, and so she allowed Mataora to not only collective. Our survival and well-being are dependent receive a moko himself but to learn the art of tamoko upon balanced relationships, roles, obligations, and for the overworld. accountabilities. Our survival as Peoples is also about ensuring the well-being of futuregenerations. In order Maori society, like many Indigenous societies, has forthat to be possible, specific ways of relating needed clear tikanga (traditional protocols and lore) indicating to be grounded in an understanding of the well-being that collective well-being is central. Our stories, our protocols, our cultural ways, and our original instruc­ of the collective, which in Maori terms means the well­ tions all highlight that our relations and relation- being of whanau (extended family),hapu (subtribal ships are interwoven not only between human beings groupings), and iwi (tribal groupings). but with all living things. This does not deny the

ACTIVITY:

What are the social structures for your People/nation? And how do those structures help to provide ways of protecting the collective well-being of your People?

Another example of such relationships is the present, and futureis embodied within that term and term mokopuna, which is used forgrandchild. Moko­ as such within that child. Elder and healer Rangimarie puna can be broken down into two terms: moko and Pere states: He taonga te mokopuna, ka noho mai hoki puna. Moko, as highlighted in the story ofNiwareka te mokopuna hei puna mo te tipuna ka whakaaro tiitou and Mataora, relates to traditional tattoo forms and in ka noho mai te mokopuna hei Iii moko mi5 te tipuna, he this case can be seen as children being a representation tino taonga rii tona. He mokopuna rii tiitou, he mokopuna of their ancestors. The term puna relates to a "spring" ano hoki nga tipuna. (A grandchild is very precious, a or "fountain." A mokopuna is then a spring or image fountainfor ancestral knowledge and an everlasting of our ancestors; it is a living representation of those reflection of those who have gone before. We are all who have come before. The relationship between past, grandchildren, as are our ancestors.) This concept alone indicates the sanctity of generations. To abuse a whanau member is an act of children. Children are the embodiment of all past and abuse against the entire whanau, it is an act of abuse future generations, and as such, to hurt a child, hit a against our past, present, and futurerelations. That child, or abuse a child is to hurt, hit, and abuse all past was how our ancestors understood acts of abuse. To and future generations that link to that child. Acts of know that is to also understand the sacredness of abuse and violence towards Indigenous children are whanau within Maori society. Whatis clear is that then acts of abuse and violence upon all of our ances­ such knowledge and practices have been denied and tors past and all those yet to be born. That is the extent marginalized through colonization. This has occurred of such violence. That is what our language, culture, in many of the violent processes through which colo­ and stories remind us. nizing forces have attacked Indigenous Peoples. One Clearly then, family violence, in Maori terms, consequence of such colonial violence is seen in the is not only about the abuse of a partner or another huge impact that colonization has had on how we familymember. Such acts of abuse are considered to be now see and practice relationships. acts of violence against both the ancestors and future

ACTIVITY:

What are the words or terms within your language that relate to family, children, grandchildren?

Family______

Children------

Grandchildren ------

How do those terms position children within your People/nation?

232 P�ci,nd,Ci;unerow The impact of family violence upon whanau can­ genocide and ethnocide upon Indigenous Peoples. not be understated. The Second Maori Taskforce on For those working towards healing within Whanau Violence noted: whanau, it has become clear that a critical part of our call forself-determination, forsovereignty, for control Whanau Violence is understood by this Taskforce to over being Maori is the reclamation and maintenance be an epidemic because of the magnitude and serious of healthy relationships. That is the essence of this nature of it for whanau, hapii and iwi and the way chapter. in which it is collectively spread and maintained. Whanau violence is intergenerational and directly E.Traditional Maori Society and Views on impacts on whakapapa (genealogical links). It has Family Violence taken several generations of learned behavior and It is important to note that acts of violence practice to entrench whanau violence as the most within Maori society did exist. lntertribal disputes and devastating and debilitating of social practices. It will wars occurred prior to colonization within a particular take time for whanau violence to be unlearned. cultural frameworkand context, and included ways of For over twenty years there has been a growing resolution. They were not indiscriminate acts of vio­ understanding about the underlying causes of such lence. War and struggle between tribes was also signifi­ violence. The definition of whanau violence by the cantly different from how warfare is operated within taskforce highlights that such violence happens not contemporary societies. For example, pre-colonization only within our whanau, but is perpetuated upon intertribal battles were in the formof hand-to-hand us by the state. That adds another layer of structural struggle whereby combatants could see "the whites analysis to the issue of family or domestic violence. of the eyes" of their enemies. Cultural practices often Such a definition brings to the discussion the wider meant that fe w deaths occurred, and in many instances issues of colonization, oppression, injustice, racism, arranged partnerships were formed ro lead whanau and the �any acts of violence of colonial states upon within tribes to forgenew and long-term relationships. Indigenous Peoples. Such arrangements were agreed upon and referredto as The struggle to bring an end to whanau vio­ te tatau (the greenstone door), because such lence for Maori people is a part of a wider struggle politically arranged relationships acted as a door to of decolonization and self-determination. In order peace between the tribes. to fully understand the origins of the epidemic of We are not seeking to be idealistic in our discus­ violence within our whanau we must engage directly sion within this chapter, but to show that in a society with the ways in which colonization itself has altered based upon extended family relationships, acts of and disrupted fundamentalrelationships amongst violence were clearly not acceptable within that unit. our people. For example, in a cultural framework that Research tells us, in fact,that beforecolonization fam­ recognizes and honors our kaumatua (elders), how can ily violence was rare within Maori society. there be growing incidences of elder abuse within our Whanau are cultural structures that traditionally families? It is clear that the denial of key knowledge supported both prevention and intervention. They and practices through colonization has had a signifi­ provided for collective responsibility, obligations, and cant impact on how we see ourselves and one another accountability.As an extended family structure,. whanau in a contemporary context. Understanding the link is based within whakapapa (genealogical) relationships. between colonial- and state-imposed violence and Whakapapais not a linear relationship like that of whanau violence is critical. The two are intertwined. our colonizers, as we are led to believe by white anthro­ Colonization and oppression are based upon beliefs pologists and ethnographers. Whakapapa is literally that colonizers possess a cultural and racial superior­ about layers of relationships that are culturally com­ ity. Those beliefs provide the justification for acts of plex. Those relationships are highlighted within

Kt,W/TupwTe, pa,lfa,rak.ek,e, 233 te reo Maori, the Maori language. For example, the term to the desire for a particular relationship that, if denied, for mother is whaea; the term for our aunties and other would mean that future generations would not flour­ women of the same generation within the whanau may ish. The sanctity of future generations is dear. also be whaea. Likewise the term for father is matua, Whanau violence within Maori worldviews is not which is also the term for uncles or men of the same viewed as only physical forms of violence. It includes generation within the whanau (there are tribal dialects violence that occurs on multiple planes. For example, that may use different terms for mother). What this in an oral tradition such as that of our ancestors, the tells us is that it is not only birth parents who care for power of the word is clearly articulated. The follow­ and nurture children. In fact, within Maori society ing two whakatauakigive examples of how our people the role of raising children was collective and inter­ view the power of language: generational, often with birth parents having a lesser Ko te putake o te Miioritanga ko te reo Maori, he taonga daily role than that of the grandparent generation. The tuku iho nii ngii tupuna point is that our relationships within whanau were The root of Maori culture is in the language, a gift multiple and about collective well-being. from our ancestors. Cultural values, protocols, lore, and worldviews ensured that there were mechanisms by which to He wero o te tao e taea te karo, te ki e kore e taea acknowledge and care foreach generation. There are The flight of the spear can be parried, the spoken many traditional sayings that tell us of the sanctity of word cannot. people. One often-quotedsaying from the Northern The power of verbal insult is acknowledged within tribe Te Aupouri is: Maori traditions. Insults or transgression in regard Hutia te rito o te harakeke to disrespectful ways of behaving towards whanau Kei hea te komako e ko? were considered unacceptable. There are many stories Kimai koe ki ahau of both women and men leaving relationships and He aha te mea nui o te ao? Maku e ki atu Denise Wilson on the impact of He Tangata, He Tangata, He Tangata violations to the womb: Pluck the centre shoot from the flax bush Any violation of te whore tangata (that is Where will the Bellbird sing? Ask me the house of the people), such as abuse of the What is the most important thing in the world genital area and rape, has the potential to I will say create distress amongst Miori women. This It is people, It is people, It is people distress is not only physical or psychological This saying draws upon the metaphor of the in origin, but also spiritual and has multiple harakeke (the flax plant) as a symbol of the whanau. When harvesting harakeke for weaving, the center dimensions to it. Not only is this a violation of shoot of the plant must never be removed, as it is the the woman herself, but also a violation of her core from which the entire plant grows. It is likened tu,puna (ancestor) and her future generations. to the whanau, with the middle shoot being the new growth or child, the surrounding leaves being the Spiritual distress is often a dimension that is parents, and grandparents being the outer leaves. To neither recognised nor acknowledged, but one remove the center shoot will remove the ability of the that impedes recovery and healing. plant to grow and flourish. The proverb relates directly returning to their own people after fe eling aggrieved. One of our ancestors, Ruaputahanga, lefther partner In their report Maori Family Violence in Whatihua after being insulted by his behavior. She Aotearoa, Balzer et al. note that when returned to our tribal lands in Taranaki, a tribal region on the West Coast of the North Island. people transgressed boundaries, the Acts of physical and sexualviolence are violations response was swift: of an entire people. Denise Wilson, a Maori woman In radical cases of violence they go to that working in health, notes that such acts were deemed traditionally as acts of violation against the entire person with a whariki (mat) or coffin,have a whanau, hapii, and iwi. Within Maori society the tangi (grieving at death) to them and from womb is referred to as Te Whare Tangata, ''The there on treat them as they weren't alive house of the people." The sacredness and status of the womb is central to providing us with an under­ and within months they would die ... standing of the key position of Maori women in certainly utu (reciprocity) was really swift. Maori society. Any violation is thereforea violation If you abused someone in the old days then of the people. Maori activist and counselor Mereana Pitman you were abusing the whakapapa, therefore provides a view of abuse as acts of transgressing the retributions were quite strong. (the status and dignity of people). It was therefore addressed directly with severe consequences. She high­ In the rare cases that such violence did occur, it lights that sexual violence is also imposed more broadly was dealt with collectively and swiftly. Such cultural upon Maori collectively, through the many forms of responses indicate that violence within whanau was rape that occur through the act of colonization. not condoned or socially sanctioned, and that was Whatis clear is that whanau violence was seen reflected in the collective response to such actions. Our always within the context of wider relationships and people speak of responses in regard to the well-being of dynamics. It was never seen as violence only against not only the individual and whanau affected, but also that individual. Balzer and others place familyviolence of the need to protect future generations. in this manner: Mereana Pitman argues that dealing with such A person was not believed to exist as an individual, transgressions was grounded in cultural protocols and but was linked through their whakapapa to their included: whanau, hapii, iwi, and ecosystem. A slight or attack [The calling of] Wa nanga (gathering for discussion) on one member of a hapii would therefore be con­ so all those affected by the transgression could vent sidered an attack on the whole hapii and collective their shame and their anger at the actions of the retaliation might be considered warranted. On other abuser(s). Resolutions were agreed upon and sacrifices occasions the whanau or hapii of the offender might were made through death, through the taking of land be expected to impose sanctions of their own in order and resources as payment, the destruction of the mana to save face with the offended group. Preservation of through enforced exile from tribal home-lands, the the people was paramount and the life-giving roles holding of the abuser's (funeral) while he of land and women were therefore revered. It would still lived. And upon death the abuser's body being appear that the ties to whakapapa, the need for the buried standing up or face down to always face the preservation of the people and the social order of womb of Papatiianuku and wear the shame. Maori communities would, if not totally obviating violence against women, at least limit its occurrence. Reflecting on these examples of traditional responses to familyviolence shows that it was deemed and severely in order to ensure the well-being of a cultural transgression that must be dealt with directly whanau and future generations.

ACTIVITY:

How were acts of violence within families and between partners seen and talked about historically for your people? What are some of the cultural mechanisms used to both prevent and intervene in such acts of violence?

F. Colonization and Family Violence from England. It did not exist in our culture, as chil­ Both our traditional stories and our proverbs dren were revered. Children were considered chiefly support the position taken by Maori specialistswork­ and so we would never hit them or expose them to ing in the area of whanau violence that such behavior abuse. However, through colonization we experienced was unacceptable prior to colonization. Rangimarie significantchanges that have caused problem for us. Turuki Pere puts it succinctly: Our children were chastised by order of the missionar­ ies. It was not our way, but rather, it began with the I te Wii i haramai nga mihingare mai i Ingarangai i arrival of Pakeha. That's it! erii whenua. I timata mai enei tu iihuatanga i a riitou, kaore i hanga mai i a ngai taua, te tamariki he ariki Colonial belief systems impacted Maori society katoa, te tamariki he rangatira katoa kaore ke e pa. atui in other major ways, as well. The imposition of the a riitou ringaringa, kaore riitou e tukino ana i tenei mea nuclear familyunit has undermined Maori structures te tamariki. I te Wii i tae mai te Piikehii, kiitahika ta and consequently weakened traditional educational mata ki te whakaaro pai kare kei te raruraru tatou. Ng ii systems that were dependent on the whanau concept. tamariki mokopuna me whakatikatika ki a riitou i te As a unit, the nuclear family isolates Maori whanau ko rero a ngii mihingare me patua e koutou. Kaore e tika from each other and from the nurturing, knowledge, kia mahi perii nga tamariki mokopuna i timata mai i and support provided within those structures. te Wii i tae mai a tauiwi i tae mai nga Pa kehii ki tenei The Land Wars instigated by the theft of Maori whenua. Ka mutu! land were devastating to many hapu and iwi. Acts of legislation by settler governments saw the confiscation This behavior came with the arrival of missionaries oflands of any iwi who were considered "rebels." Much of what land remained was created as Reservelands and collective relationships of whanau by creating an idea leased to settler families at minimal cost or put into that the normal familyis the colonial two parent and individual ownership through various Native Land Acts. children unit that is separated culturally, economically, The idea of individual tide and ownership of property, materially, and physically from the wider extended let alone women being treated as property, was com­ and tribal structures. The family,then, became defined pletely foreign to Maori people. One intent of these acts by colonial gender beliefs whereby men were deemed of colonial oppression was to create instability within the "head of the household" and "breadwinner," and Maori structures as a mechanism by which to ensure the women the "domestic servant" and sole child-rearer. imposition of colonial rule through both violent and These ways of believing what constituted a family assimilatory means. actively undermined our collective relationships for What is dear for Maori is that imposed colonial­ many of our people. centered values, beliefs, and worldviews have brought One of the earliest moves to undermine whanau about major changes in the ways we relate to one came with the establishment of Mission schools in another. Many of our beliefs in the sanctity of whanau 1816 and later the transfer to Native Schools in 1847. have been undermined and replaced with practices that Linda Smith described Native Schools as "Trojan are both unhealthyand harmful. Living in a nuclear horses" within Maori communities. Native Schools familystructure has facilitated that process. The promoted colonial ideas of family within Maori com­ nuclear family as a supposedly "normal" familyhas munities as the model of civilization. Missionaries both domesticated and privatized our ways of being. preached the superiority of white men and actively Living in houses that accommodate only immediate denied Maori women's roles as rangatira, chiefly family has meant that the support and knowledge that positions, within our tribal communities. The idea of comes with grandparent generations and wider whanau God as white and male permeated all parts of colonial being present in a daily way is rarely experienced by society both in ideas and in policy. The colonial view our people. The idea of private relationships denies any of women as chattels, as property of their husbands, form of collective responsibility and accountability. It was embedded in all colonial institutions including is often asserted that what happens in one's home is that of marriage; women were to succumb to the "no one else's business." This provides an environment demands of their husbands and men had the right whereby violence and formsof abuse can be hidden to beat their wives. The system of colonial rule was and where it is difficult for others to intervene. grounded in violence. The nuclear family has served to undermine the

ACTIVITY:

Discuss and list ways in which colonial thinking has changed the roles of women and men within your People/nation. What are some of the ways in which colonial settler schooling systems have impacted your People/nation?

The impact of colonization on our relation­ our families,our whanau, our tribes, and our people. ships is clearly seen in the current statistics related to In order to work towards decolonizing our domestic violence, familyviolence, and sexual violence relationships, it has become clear that we must explore within and amongst our people. There is no doubt that key ideologies and practices through which the process familyand domestic violence has taken hold within of colonization imposed foreign values, language, and our communities. Current data in the report "The social structures upon our people. This has occurred Scale and Nature of Family Violence in New Zealand" on multiple levels in multiple ways, and thereforethis highlights that Maori people are more likely to report chapter needs to be read alongside the other chapters all formsof domestic assault. Maori women are nearly in this book that explore a wide range of facets of our twice as likely as non-Maori to report "intimate partner lives that need decolonizing attention. violence." It is also known that there is a high degree One Maori social service provider organization, of violence within and upon our people that is never Tu Ta ma Wahine O Ta ranaki, grounds their work reported and therefore never appears in the statistics. within the history of the Taranaki region. Tu Ta ma The Second Maori Taskforce on WhanauVio­ Wahine provides a range of counseling, mental health, lence, which was a taskforce of respected Maori people and social services programs to support well-being working in the area of familyviolence prevention and for whanau. Being located within the Ta ranaki region counseling, referred to whanau violence in our whanau, means working alongside eight lwi and a wide range of hapu, iwi, and urban communities as an epidemic. Maori who have come to the region from other tribal They used the term "epidemic" because of the "mag­ areas. The incidence of family violence amongst our nitude and serious nature" of such violence amongst people is disproportionately high, as is the case across Maori. This taskforcedescribed whanau violence as Aotearoa. The history of Ta ranaki is one of invasion both the violence amongst Maori whanau and also and confiscation. The impact of historical trauma shows the violence that is imposed upon our whanau by the itself daily amongst our people and tribes in the oppres­ state. The impact of such violence on our people is sive acts of successive national and local governments. devastating and is, in their view, a direct outcome of The name Tu Tama Wahinewas gifted by tribal colonization. elders Matarena Marjorie Rau-Kupa and Dr. Huirangi It is clear that in order to deal with the impact Waikerepuru. It is a name that affirms the position of all formsof violent relationships within our whanau, of women in Taranaki. Derived from the response of within our Indigenous families,we must find ways Taranaki women to the invasion of our people at to unlearn the behavior. We have to decolonize our Parihaka, it is a name that acknowledges and recog­ relationships. We have to decolonize our practices nizes an act of historical trauma. It acknowledges the towards one another. We have to stop abuse amongst forcedinvasion, illegal arrests, and imprisonment of

238 P�CM'\dtCcwt.e.YOW the men of Parihaka who were taken in chains on colo­ We know that many of our people do not have nial ships to Dunedin in Te Waipounamu (referred to access to Maori language and culture. We also know as the ), a great distance from their tribal that to seek to understand our traditions we must also homelands. The name derives from the proverb spoken have an awareness of the depth of the impact of colo­ by Te "Whiti O Rongomai, a renowned leader of the nialism. We need to be able to identify those places and Taranaki people and an advocate of peaceful resistance. spaces within our culture that have themselves become The proverb E tu tamawahinei te waote kore was reflective of colonial thinking. "Whendealing with coined at the time of the invasion in acknowledgment whanau relationships, and in particular gendered rela­ of the role of our women to stand strong at the time tionships, Maori women activists have for some time of the removal of the men from the village. It may be cautioned us to be aware of the insidiousness of colo­ translated as "Stand women in the time of the void," nial beliefs about the roles of women. In the programs and relates to a state where women of the tribe took on offered by To Ta ma Wahine, building such an awareness all roles for the people in the absence of their male kin. is critical. So too is developing a sense of both indi­ This history and tribal experience is the basis for vidual and collective responsibility amongst those Maori the way in which To Tama Wahine was formed and men who act in violent ways towards their own. now operates. It provides a foundation built on the words and actions of our ancestors. It promotes the G.TiiTika oAro Tika central place of whanau. It promotes the philosophy of To Tika o Aro Tika is a program for Maori men non-violent intervention. It affirms the place of women who have been directed to attend by the courts under and children in the futureof our people. These cultural the 1995 Domestic Violence Act. The program has a beliefs and practices give those who work within the strong Kaupapa Maori approach and uses a methodol­ area of familyviolence a basis from which to act. ogy that seeks to address violence from a Maori cul­ A report on family violence by Te Puni Kokiri tural worldview. It is structured around tikanga Maori, (Ministry of Maori Development) described To Ta ma our cultural values and practices, which assist in facili­ Wahine's work: tating learning and self-examination. The program is about bringing cultural understandings alongside the It is this historicalcommitment to whanau in a time diverse experiences of the Maori men involved. There of adversity, and an ethos of non-violence, which has is an acknowledgment that the experiences of our shaped and guided To Tama Wah ine o Taranaki. In men are diverse and varied as a direct result of colonial today's contemporary world, staffsee themselves as oppression in Taranaki. continuing the legacy of non-violence (that is, of stop­ The principles that informthe program are ping violence within whanau), caring forwhanau and grounded in Maori knowledge. These principles are as drawing practical strength and application fromnga follows: mahi a nga tiipuna me nga tikanga o mua (fromthe deeds of ancestors and historical cultural practices). Tikanga In seeking whanau well-being, To Ta ma Wahine Tikanga refers to our cultural practices. It is a provides a range of programs and services that incor­ set of beliefs, values, and principles that informs and porate both individual and collective healing. One guides actions and behaviors. It is also the application program focuses on providing a space for Maori men and use of cultural practices, which makes explicit the who are perpetrators of violence to come to terms with historical and contemporary relevance of tikanga. For both their actions and what underpins their acts of example, the first session (Te Timatanga: The Begin­ violence against their whanau. The program is based ning) includes the cultural practice of whakatau (a pro­ upon traditional values and practices with a dear cess of greeting) by which elders welcome the men to decolonizing intent. the program and mihimihi (introductions) are made by themselves through understanding what has occurred everyone. These cultural practices locate the program in their whanau. within a Maori context, and demonstrate and model For many of the men, their experiences of the application of tikanga within the program. whanau have not always been positive, so key to this The term tikanga is based on the word tika or principle is an analysis and understanding of some of what is correct. It is the practice of doing what is cor­ the reasons why violence occurs, how they gave expres­ rect. Throughout the program, tikanga is presented sion to violence, and strategies to manage and change as a valid, relevant, and correct way for participants their behavior. to live and order their lives. Therefore, any deviation from doing what is right or correct, such as acts of Whanaungatanga violence, is a transgression of tikanga. Where whanau is the extended family relation­ ship, whanaungatanga is a practice of how we relate to Wh akapapa each other. Whanaungatanga embraces whakapapa and Whakapapa relates to our genealogical lines. It focuses on relationships. Whanaungatanga defines the defines, determines, and connects an individual with relationships, obligations, and responsibilities between their whanau, hapu, and iwi. Whakapapa confirms whanau members. Whanaungatanga within the pro­ an individual's membership in hapii and iwi and gram emphasizes the importance of whanau and provides the means for learning about the history of whanau relationships. The men are asked to talk their tupuna. Knowledge of whakapapa is important about their cultural identity-who they are; their to engender a sense of pride and belonging through whanau (immediate and extended); where they come understanding the roots of one's heritage. Within the from; their connections to the land; and how they are program, whakapapa is about participants knowing connected to others. It is about the knowledge the their identity and having pride in their identity as men have about themselves-their identity, their Maori because of their ancestral links. roles within their whanau, their knowledge of the Maori world, their tribal links, and their connected­ Whanau ness to all those things. Whanaungatangais not just Whanau is the fundamental unit of Maori society about the individual, but is about all those connec­ into which a person is born and socialized. It is the tions we each carry, and coming to understand those means by which the rules and obligations around things. Whanaungatanga is not only about how people whanau functioning are conveyed, transmitted, and are related to each other, but it also encompasses how enforced. Within the program, much of the discussion people relate to others, the way they express themselves, focuses specificallyon the importance of whanau and and the manner in which they interact. The principle reinforcesthe centrality of whanau to Maori. of whanaungatanga is about constant building of rela­ For some men, one of the causes of their violence tionships with your whanau and others, and with the could be attributed to a breakdown in their relation­ land and environment to which we connect. ships with whanau. Participants are first shown how important the whanau is to the well-being of Maori Ta ranakitanga and then they are shown ways in which they can The term Taranakitanga literally encompasses all attempt to take responsibility for their action and that it means to be ofTaranaki descent and includes begin to re-establish the bonds that may have been Taranaki protocols and practices, our ancestors, his­ broken as a result of their violence. Men are encour­ tory, traditional stories, etc. The program draws on aged to look at the history of violence within their tribal knowledge to affirmparticipants' identity as own whanau. This enables them to better understand Maori ofTaranaki descent; it connects and links all to whanau, hapu, and iwi of the region. It highlights Personal and group relationships are mediated and the historical deeds of our ancestors and links those guided by the high value placed upon mana. To violate deeds to a contemporary context. It identifiestribal the mana of an individual is to violate the mana of the focal points such as maunga and to reinforce a whole whanau, including your own inherent mana. sense of pride and belonging in being Maori and being Restoration of mana in a context of family violence is ofTaranaki descent. The weaving of the history and crucial. For men to take their rightful place as fathers, stories ofTaranaki fosters a sense of place, pride, and as partners, as grandparents, there needs to be a resto­ respect for what it means to belong to this land and its ration of their mana so that they have a strong sense people, and to live amongst them. Through this prin­ of who they are and the roles, responsibilities, and ciple are many opportunities to contextualize stories obligations that go with each of these positions in of Ta ranaki-its land and its people. The stories can the whanau. relate to current times. Personal Responsibility Mana Men taking personal responsibility for their Mana is an external expression of achievement, actions is a key principle. Throughout the program the power, and influence. In Maori terms we understand men are encouraged and challenged to stop blaming mana in a number of ways. It is that which is bestowed others within their whanau for what they do or have upon us at birth-in this sense it comes fromwhaka­ done. The key messages are that change is possible papa. Then there is the mana that comes frombeing and that change starts with them once they own their descendants of tupuna, our ancestors, who are well­ behavior and stop blaming others. It is also a form of known for their actions and deeds. Some whanau are empowerment enabling them to embrace their actions known for certain traits, abilities, and skills, which can and take full responsibility for themselves. Developing bring mana to that particular whanau. an awareness of the six aspects discussed above is key to All people have mana. Mana can be enhanced by taking personal responsibility and forseeing the collec­ one's actions and achievements, and it influencesthe tive impact of violent behaviors within whanau. way in which people and groups conduct themselves.

ACTIVITY:

Identifyini tiatives within your tribal nation that draw upon traditional knowledge and original instructions as the basis for healing in the area of family violence. What are some of the key cultural practices and original instructions that can inform a process of decolonizing our relationships and support the prevention of family violence within your community?

The work of Tu Ta ma Wahine in this program that dignity to futuregenerations yet to be born; affirm focuses on sharing with Maori men knowledge of our right to be Maori, our right to be Indigenous, our themselves, their people, their history, and their con­ right to be who we are fully on our own lands. nections. Working from this point enables a grounding That is the work that is ahead forour people if forunderstanding collective tribal relationships and we are to intervene in the occurrence of family vio­ a recognition that those around them also carry with lence and child abuse that plagues our people, and to them ancestors, histories, and connections. This aware­ prevent this behavior in the future. What is clear is ness provides a basis from which to explore the impact that the approaches that have been taken by succes­ of colonization on those relationships and collective sive colonial governments in this country have done responsibilities and to question the basis upon which nothing to transformthis context, and the reality is these men have come to justify perpetrating violence that they never will as they have no interest in our against other family members. people affirmingour language, our culture, and our To undertake such decolonizing work requires cultural identity. The work remains with us as Indig­ us to be aware of who we are, where we are from,and enous Peoples globally to decolonize and reassert those our presence in this world and on Indigenous lands cultural ways of being that will bring well-being to this as reflectionsof our ancestors, and to come to under­ and future generations. stand that forMaori any form of abuse on any of our Ehara taku toa i te toa takitahi, he toa takitini ke whanau is an abuse of generations past and generations to come. We must come to know that to be healthy as My accomplishments are not mine alone, but are a people we must be healthy within our whanau-in those of many. our relationships to all within our whanau and more widely to all our relations. We can no longer accept H. Glossary Western colonial family structures as the models for Aotearoa: Land of the long white cloud: The Maori name for our way of living, but must return to relationships that New Zealand carry with them collective caring and obligations that Hapu : Groupings of extended families (linked through common affirmthat we are all related; affirm that we carry the ancestors, sub-grouping oflwi); Pregnant status and dignity of our ancestors and that we pass Harakeke: Flax plant lwi: Nation (linked through common ancestor); Bones I. Resources Kaumatua: Elders Balzer, R., D. Haimona, M. Henare, and V. Marchirr. "Maori Family Violence in Aotearoa." A Report Prepared forTe Puni Kaupapa Maori: Maori philosophies, Maori approaches, and Kokiri.We llington, NZ, 1997. Maori ways of being Deloria, V.Jr. "Comfortable Fictions and the Struggle forTu rf: An Mana: Status/power/influence Essay Review of the Invented Indian: Cultural Fictions and Maori: Indigenous People of Aorearoa; Pure; Normal Government Policies." Na tiveand Academics: Researching and Marae: Communal gathering place Writing about American Indians. Ed. Devon A. Mihesuah. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998. Matua: Father, uncles, or men of the same generation within the whanau Grennell, D., and A. Pivac. ''Amokura-Indigenous Innovations." 1 Och Australasian Conference on Child Abuse and Neglect. Maunga: Mountain Wellington, NZ, Feb. 15, 2006. Mihimihi: Greetings Kruger, T. , er al. Tra nsforming Whii nau Violence-A Conceptual Moko: Permanent cultural formof skin carving Fra mework. Updated version of the report from the former Mokopuna: Grandchild Second Maori Taskforce on Whanau Violence. 2nd Edition. Wellington, NZ: Ministry of Health, 2004. Papatuanuku: Mother Earth Lievore, D., and P. Mayhew (with assistance from Elaine Moss­ Pepeha: Proverbial saying of introduction man). " Th e Scale and Na ture of Fa mily Violence in New Pono: Faith/belief Zealand:A Review and Evaluationof Kn owledge. " Crime and Purakau: Traditional story Justice Research Centre & Centre forSocial Research and Evaluation, Ministry of Social Development, Victoria. Rarohenga: The underworld University of Wellington, 2007. Ta mariki: Children Mikaere, A. Th e BalanceDest royed: Th e Co nsequences forMa ori Tangata We nua: People of the Land Women of the Colonisation of Ti kanga Ma ori. Unpublished Taniko: A formof weaving Master of Jurisprudence thesis. University of Wa ikato, Hamilton, NZ, 1995. Ta ranaki: A region located on the West Coast of Te Ika a Maui (North Island) Pihama, L., K. Jenkins, and A. Middleton. "TeRito " Action Area 13 Literature Review: Fa mily Violence Prevention forMa ori Ta ranakitanga: Practices and protocols related to the Ta ranaki Prepared for the Ministry of Health and Te region Research Report. RicoMaori Advisory Committee. International Research Te Ao Marama: The world of light Institute forMaori & Indigenous Education (IRI), University Te Reo Maori: Maori language of Auckland. Auckland, NZ: Auckland Uniservices Limited, 2003: 35. Te tatau pounamu: The greensrone door Pirman, M. "The Maori Experience." The Proceedings of Rape: Te Whare Ta ngata: The house of the People; Wo mb Ten Years' Progress? An Interdisciplinary Conference. Ed. Tika: Correct/right J. Broadmore, et al. Wellington, NZ: DSAC Tikanga: Protocols/cultural practices 1996: 301. Tu puna: Ancestor Smith, L. T. "Is 'Taha Maori' in Schools rhe Answer to Maori School Failure?" Ngii Ke te Wa nanga : Ma ori Perspectives of Taha Whaea: Mother, aunties, and other women of the same genera- Ed. G. H. Smith. Auckland, NZ: Auckland College tion within the whanau Ma ori. of Education, 1986: 3-66. Whakatau: Cultural process of greeting/welcome ---. Decolonising Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Whakapapa: Cultural genealogical relationships Peoples. London: Zed Books Ltd., 1999. Whanau: Extended family ---. "Maori Wo men: Discourses, Projects and Mana Wahine." Whanaungatanga: Relationships Womenand Education in Aotearoa 2. Ed. S. Middleton and A. Jones. Wellington, NZ: Bridget Williams Books, 1999. Whenua: Land and Afterbirth Te Puni Kokiri. Arotake Tukino Wha nau LiteratureReview on Documentary Fa mily Violence. Wellington, NZ: Government Printer, 2010. Te Taonga o TakuNffi kau. Maori Te levision. Rose Rangimarie Pere, ---. Rangahau Tukino Wha nau: Ma ori ResearchAg enda on Maori and Indigenous Analysis Led., Auckland, NZ, 2008. Fa mily Violence. Wellington, NZ: Government Printer, 2010. Wilson, D. Fa milyViolence In tervention Guidelines: Ma ori and Fa mily Violence. Maori Advisory Committee, Ministry of Health, Family Violence Project, School of Health Studies, Wellington, NZ: Massey University, n.d.