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de la experiencia en Bogotá y Euro­ nalmente limitada al papel en pe­ una revisión histórica e n sentido es­ pa, el paso a la escultura, la relación queño formato. Búsquedas sorpre n­ tricto ni de una reconstrucció n de con México (y una revelación: " Yo dentes de texturas en la superficie , época. Es más bien una exposición viví en México como turista", indi­ mediante la utilización del papel que, aunque admite marginalmente cando que no se integró a las escue­ a mate , fabricado po r artesanos los cambios expe rimentados hasta las o tendencias mexicanas). No se mexicanos, se e ncuentran e n piezas mediados de la década de 1960, se aborda una re visión detallada del como An' gel de la guarda (1992), en concentra eñ mostrar la coherencia medio siglo que se celebra ni con­ la que un etéreo y macizo ser alado pictórica d e s u obra, la profun­ tiene recuerdos novedosos del pasa­ protege a un pintor mie ntras traba­ dización en los te mas, las variantes do. Incluso contiene una peque ña ja e n el caballe te, y Mi habitación en adoptadas - no sie mpre convincen­ errata: el pintor asevera que la ex­ Medellín ( 1999), e n la que el artista tes- y el cambio de paleta, e n vir­ posición de 1949 fue en marzo, cuan­ se presenta durmiendo. tud del cual da mayor importancia a do en realidad se abrió en junio. los colores locales encendidos. Aparte de Mujer llorando (1919), la exposición en San Ildefonso, cu­ SA NTIAGO L ONDOÑO rada por el propio Botero, ofreció VÉLEZ tres obras de los años cincuenta, en­ tre las que sobresale La apoteosis de Ramón Hoyos (1959), que en el ca­ tálogo figura como Homenaje aRa­ món Hoyos, así como una de las ver­ Gold Museum siones expresionistas que hizo el pintor sobre el Niño de Vallecas en 1959. D e los años sesenta sólo se E FRAÍN SÁNCHEZ CABRA incluyó Ecce H orno (1967), que muestra la influencia recibida por On 22 december 1939, the Banco de entonces del arte colonial hispano­ la R epública, the Central Bank of Co­ americano. Las demás telas están lombia, purchased a 23.5 centimetres­ fechadas en su mayoría en los tres high pre-Columbian gold artefact últimos decenios, e ntre las cuales weighing 777·7 grams that was to be­ hay varias obras maestras, como es come the Gold Museum's foundation el caso de L a viuda (1997), Picnic ston e. D escribed as a Quimbaya (1989), La orquesta (1991), El presi­ poporo, it is a masterpiece of pre-His­ dente (1989) y La primera dama panic goldwork, an object of beauty (1989), así como Después de Piero D os esculturas de gran formato, whose brightly burnished body and della Francesca (1998), la e norme La mano y Mujer fumando, adorna­ neck, crowned with four sphere-like or­ versión boteriana del retrato de Fe­ ron la e ntrada y uno de los patios de naments, rest on an exquisite cast derico de Montefeltro y su esposa. la sobria edificación de piedra, de­ metal tiligree base and which seems to También se presentaron cuadros de corada con frescos de José Clemen­ ftoat in a space of its own. The beholder la polé mica serie sobre la violencia te Orozco. Entre las piezas de pe­ cannot but leap up in amazement, and en Colombia, e ntre los cuales sohre­ queño formato, que posteriorme nte feel joy and admiration for those who sale por su calidad pictórica y testi­ son agrand adas hasta alcanzar di­ made it. monial El desfile (2000), una proce­ me nsiones monumentales, cabe des­ The purchase of the poporo re­ sión fúnebre que pasa j unto a un tacar Centauro y ninfa ( 2000 ), por el ftects a great deal of genuine official pueblo monocromático destruido. desarrollo que hace de la temática concern about the protection of treas­ La colección de dibujos es mag­ mitológica, abordada antes con pie­ ures that we re beginning to be re­ nífica y corrobora la gran maestría zas como Rapto de Europa y Esfin­ garded as part of Colombia's national alcanzada por Botero como dibujan­ ge, ausentes de la muestra. Esta ex­ heritage. This is clearly expressed in te, así como s u admiració n por posición viajó a Estocolmo, donde a number of documents relating to Ingres. D e excepcional delicadeza y fue exhibida en el Museo de Arte the new acquisition. In M arch 1939 pe rfección son Picador en la plaza M od e rno e ntre septiem bre y no­ the Ministry of Education sent a note (1986), Naturaleza muerta con man­ viembre de 2001. to the Central B a nk's Executive dolina (1997) y Una pareja (1997). La celebración de medio siglo de Committee, urging the m to '· buy, to Dos grandes telas dibujadas con vida a rtística se hizo muy a la mane­ preserve the m, the gold and silve r sanguina, tituladas Naturaleza muer­ ra de Botero, q uie n como c urador a rtefacts of indigenous manufacture ta (fechadas e n 1973 y 1974), pone n de la exposición no parece muy afec­ a nd from p re-Columbia n time s, de manifiesto las innovaciones con­ to al pasado y prefiere e l presente y which the Ministry would buy a t their seguidas con esta técnica, tradicio- el futuro. Por lo tanto, no se trata de material value'·'. ln the sa me le tte r,

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the Ministry put forw ard t he popo ro. T he plunder continued afte r in­ disappointed treasure hunter to move which h ad becn put up fo r sa le by dc pe nd c ncc with t he pract ice o f o n l o othe r ventures in the newly a lady. Ma gd a le n a Ama d o r d e guaquería. or the hunting fo r t rea­ settled areas7. In Cundinamarca and Maldonad o. The re wa s a rea l risk sures in ancient lndian graves. car­ Boyacá. the heart of Muisca territory, that i t would have been priva te ly ried o ut by peasants who made a treasure hunting in lndian graves has sold if the re had b ee n no p rompt livelihood out of this activity. Refer­ been f a r l ess in te nse tha n in the officia l acti o n. T he g overnme n t ring to the province of A ntioquia. Q ui ndío rn o untains. altho ugh a the re fore d id try to p reve nt a r­ the a rea where. according to all in­ number o f ambitious e ngineering chaeo logical a rtefac ts such as the dications. the poporo purchased in schernes for d raining the Guatavita 2 po po ro fro m leaving • the co untry 1939 by the Banco de la R epública and Siech a lakes in search of the T he risk that a cu lturally valuable was found, A gustín Codazzi. the treasures o f El Dorado have been object wi ll be lost as co llective prop­ ltali an author of the first systernatic atternpted e ver sin ce Spanish colonial erty increases in direct proportion to geographical description and rnap of times. its aesthetic value o r histo rical sig­ Colombia, wrote in r852: nificance. With go ld artefacts, how­ ever, the re is an additio nal factor N o t content with looting the that places them at the highest r isk. precious jewels with which the In W estern history, the e xch ange lndians adorned themselves, and value o f precio us metals has p re­ unwilling co search f or gold in its vailed over its utility value , which natural locations, the conquerors was predominant am ong indigenous made their way into the sepulchres, pe oples prior to the co nquest o f from which they took enormous America3. The fact that goldwork quantities of gold jewels o f the was a significant vehicle of material most exquisite workmansh ip. expression among m any pre-H is­ More than three centuries have panic societies in Colombia b ecame now elapsed, and even t oday the a d ecisive fa ctor in the destruction amount of gold ex tracted f rom o f their cultural remains. lndian graves is very considerable, T he Spaniards found these metals an activity to which large numbers in abundance in t h e newly-dis­ of A ntioquians apply themselves covered J and , buried in rich mines by preference. One could almost in New S pain and Perú , decorating say that it is the only industry that In addition to being tolerated and wa lls in te m ples or adoratorio s is firmly established, with masters socially accepted , the h u nting fo r (shrin es) in the Kingdom of New and exp erts whose h ereditary treasures in l ndian graves was a per­ G r anada, adorning chieftains and expertise is like the famous magic fectly legal activity, becau se until 1918 ove rlords in lndian villages, dangling wand for finding treasures5. there was no rule preventing or re­ fro m trees and roofs, accord ing to stricting this activity. Law 4 8 of that sorne chro nicle rs, to mak e the m T he rush for pre-Hispanic gold was year d eclared all pre-Columbian shin e under the tropical sun, or bur­ intensified i n the second half of the rnonuments as "belonging to the rna­ ie d in graves and n ecropolises, alo ng nineteenth century by the expansion terials of national history", and pro­ wit h hum a n r e mains a nd potte ry of Antioquia's economy to the south, hibited "the destruction, repair, orna­ vesse ls. The Spanish Crown required and the colonization of the Quindío menting or assignment of these relics pr ecious metals to maintain an ern­ m ountains. The decline of r ubber without previous authorization frorn pire "where the sun ne ver sets". Pre­ exploitation around 188o was followed the Ministry of Public Education"8. cio u s metals were indispensable to by a period when there was a great I n p ractice, howeve r, things re ­ suc h a degree that the power of the increase in guaquería activities that rnained as they had b een b efore the H ab sburgs would have been incon­ reached its peak by 1885 and did not enactment of t his law, and the o b­ ceivab 6 le without the gold and silver dirninish until about 1915 . In addition jects taken from lndian graves con­ of the Indies4. In addition t o finan­ to the fortunes that were arnassed tinued to be sold as usual, to be cia! needs, the Spaniards failed to thro ugb this practice, it has been melted d own and turned into gold und erstand or appreciate the c reeds affi rmed, for good r easons, that the ingo ts or jeweller y. A number o f and custorns of the lnd ians, which search f or treasu res in Quirnbaya artefacts carne into t he possession they viewed as being of the Devil and burial places played a crucial r ole in of f oreigners through sale o r gift, barbarie. The o utcorne was the dis­ the foundation of new towns in the and left the cou ntry witbout much ap pearance of an i nd eterminable , Quin dío region throughout tbis period. difficulty. tho ugh presumably v ery significant, Success ensured funds for the advance It was not until 1920 that the law arnount of the goldwork produced by of colonization and the opening up of probibited taking a rch aeo logical the a ncient inhabitants o f America. new lands; failure e ncouraged the objects out of Colo mbia, including

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those made of precious metals, with­ edly, the most celebrated among the been bought from a Mr. Abraham out government permission9. Until collections that left the country is the González 16. They can be described as then, virtually no distinction was one known as the "Quimbaya Treas­ minor works in tenns of size and qual­ made in the export of Colombia 's ure", presented in 1892 by President ity. and sorne of them are little more gold between the metal obtained Carlos Holguín 's government to than fragments. This could hardly be through mining, and that from pre­ María Cristina of Habsburg, the called a collection, and it is said that Hispanic goldwork, since the latter Queen Regent of Spain, in apprecia­ they were képt in a cardboard box was melted down as it carne to light. tion of a decision favourable to Co­ inside a safe in the office of the Di­ In the countries of destination, Eu­ lombia in an arbitration of its bor­ rector General, Julio Caro. Why the 12 rope in particular, these objects as der dispute with Yenezuela • Spain Bank preserved these items is an in­ such elicited little interest untillate had organized an American histori­ triguing question, but the fact that it in the eighteenth century, and the cal exhibition in the same year, to did seta significant precedent for the collections of Colombian goldwork commemorate the fourth centenary history of the Gold Museum. In con­ known to have existed at that t1me ofthe discovery. Paradoxically, what trast to most prívate collections, the are indeed rare. However, with the attracted the most attention of all Banco de la República did not restrict opening of ethnological museums to of Colombia's exhibits was the its acquisitions to works of art of out­ the public, the interest in scientific Quimbaya Treasure and Gonzalo standing quality or of a large size. In expeditions sent to the New World Ramos' collection '3. fact, the Museum's current collection to study its geography, fauna, flora This background fully justifies the is a vast array of artefacts that allows and ancient monuments, and the or­ urgency of the appeal of Colombia's the researcher a vision of Colombian ganization of the first exhibitions of education authorities to the Banco de pre-Hispanic goldwork that is much American antiquities in London and la República in 1939· The fact that any wider than that offered by the exhib­ Paris during the first half of the nine­ goldwork object had survived at all its, and puts within their reach mate­ teenth century, the interest shown until then is almost a miracle. Yet many rials that would otherwise be totally 10 towards metalwork objects grew . survived, partly because of the vast inaccessible. Their archaeological and aesthetic volume of pre-Hispanic metalwork value began to be appreciated. production, and partly because many indigenous villages, shrines and burial places were located in inaccessible or concealed spots. However they also survived because of the existence in Colombia of collectors of sound judge­ ment with a genuine personal interest in the pre-Hispanic past. A number of intellectuals assembled their own prí• vate collections, among them Alberto Urdaneta, owner and editor of the Papel Periódico ilustrado, and Vicente Restrepo, author of Los chibchas an­ tes de la conquista española, published in 1895'4. The most renowned of these collections was that belonging to Antioquia merchant Leocadio María Arango, who published a catalogue in 1905 that listed 167 gold objects and 2,219 ceramic vessels, in addition to The Ba nco de la R epública under­ A number of pre-Hispanic gold silver and stone artefacts and samples took the mission requested by the objects ended up in new museums. of gold in íts native state1s. government to preserve this part of Mention is frequently made of Lady Prior to the acquisition of the Colombia's heritage urgently and Brassey's collection, assembled be­ Quimbaya poporo, the Banco de la seriously. lt pursued a strategy that tween 1876 and 1883 and composed of Re pública already had 14 pre-His­ was perhaps the only one feasible artefacts from Northwest Antioquia. panic gold items, which explains why considering the circumstances of the This collection went to the City of the number for the poporo in the country at the time, whe n the insti­ Birmingham Museum in England. Museum catalogue is 15. The three tutionalization of the profession of Another collection, that of Gonzalo first items had been sent to Bogotá archaeol.ogist was still decades away, Ramos-Ruiz, of Bogotá, was ac­ between December 1936 and March no research centres e xisted that had quired by the Berlín Museum für 1937 by the Bank's gold trade office the capacity to fund controlled ex­ 11 cavations, and the first expeditions Yolkerkunde in 1888 • Undoubt- in Honda. The remaining eleven had

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to archaeological a reas with govern­ it ems from the Caribbean lowlands bo ug ht fro m Santiago V é lez, a ml.!nt suppo rl we re o nly then bcing in 19 ..p integrated the no rthe rn Manizales collector. The number of organized. The strat egy was to ac­ coastal area. and a truly natio nal items had risen by 75 per cent in a quirc the main prívate collections goldwork map started to take shape. single year. It was not long before that were available . The purchase The time span covered by the collec­ the Gold Museum was torced to of three splcndid goldwork objects tion now carne to two thousand years. leave the limited space it had in the in 1 9~ 0 was fo llowed in November By the e nd of the 1940's. the col­ boardroom, which was clearly inad­ 19~ 1 by the first m ajor accessio n. lection was exhibited permanently in equate to house it, in addition to the 153 ite ms that had made up the col­ the Bank's boardroom. Contempo­ obvious access restrictions. lection of El Mensajero, a Bogotá rary photographs show display cabi­ 1 bookshop 7 . A new addition carne nets crammed with goldwork items, in the foll owing mo nth, 67 ite ms perhaps the whole of the collection. bought from Fernando Restre po surrounding a huge meeting table. Vélez. One can distinguish the forms of masks, pectorals, nose ornaments, ear ornaments, necklaces, poporos, o rna me nta l plates, golde n snail shells, pins, and a host of tiny items arranged in rows by size, in an ini­ tial effort to make order out of the chaos of a new-found universe. Sym­ bolically, a bust of Simón Bolívar, the Liberator, presides over the scene, as if a reminder that the origins of na­ tionhood were represented in that room. One thing was still missing, a name for the collectio n. However it had found one by 1944, when the first catalogue was published with a study written by the archaeologist Gregario H ernández de Alba •8• The Gold At the beginning of the 1950s, in Museum had come into existence. a step described by a source as "the 20 With the display cabinets and the reform" , the Museum moved into newly-acquired name, exhibiting the a s pacious, e legant room of t he The year 1942 was c rucial to the items to the public was the next logi­ Bank, which by this time had its newly-formed collection. In January cal step. Until the n few people in headquarters at the Pedro A . López t he Bank made the most significant Colombia, perhaps with the excep­ building in Bogotá city centre. It re­ acquisition since the purchase of the tion of treasure hunters and collec­ mained there until 1959· During that Quimba ya poporo: Leocadio María tors, had ever seen an object of pre­ period the Museum was o pen prin­ A rango's collection, that he described Hispanic goldwork. Plates that had cipally to special guests, including as a museum. Two large groups of appeared in a handful of books deal­ heads of state and other foreign dig­ it ems were added over the following ing with archaeological subjects writ­ nitaries, members of commercial, months, and by the end of the year, ten by Colombians or foreigners, and military or diplomatic missions, and with I .987 items of the highest stand­ also a number ofwoodcuts originally famous, distinguished Colombians, ard, the Banco de la República's col­ published in the Papel P eriódico like beauty queen Luz M arina lection was a lready the largest and Ilustrado in the 188os to illustrate Z uluaga, Miss U niverse 1959. mos 1 t important collection of pre-H is­ Liborio Z erda's El Dorado 9, which A leading commentator on art panic goldwork in the country, and carne out in instalments, had been the and culture at that time, Gustavo undoubtedly in the world. only vehicle for spreading the knowl­ Santos, wrote the following words in The collection had not just grown edge of the nation's wealth in this the second editio n of the general in terms of size. There was also con­ field. But even these publications catalogue of the Museum, published siderable progress as regards the were accessible to only a small mi­ in 1948 to coincide with the Ninth geographical area represented in it. nority of the population, in a country International Conference of Ameri­ Until then it had been a collectio n where illiteracy rates were high until can Sta tes, held in Bogotá: "The almost exclusively composed of well into t he twentieth century. Gold Museum is, without doubt, the Quimbaya and Muisca goldwo rk, The coll ection grew r e latively most extraordinary c ultural attrac­ with a number of samples of Calima quickly, a nd by the end of 1943 it tion tbat Bogotá can offer to our fel­ and Tolima origin. The accession of comprised 3.489 items, including 864 low countrymen and to strangers,

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particularly to strangers. tourists clear that Colombia was not just ·•a This is confi rmed by the foundation of who come to visit us from distant country of vandals", as a politician the National Archaeological Service in 21 lands in the hope of finding new, ex­ described it at the time. It was also the previous year • In 1931 a Span­ otic things here, things that they the country of El Dorado, and this ish translation of Konrad Theodor 2 1 h ave not seen elsewhere" • At a introduced a way for Colombians to Preuss ' book Monumeruale vorges­ time known in Colombian history as take pride in their origins. The treas­ chichtliche Kunst, or Arte monumen­ "La Violencia", or The Yiolence, the ures of El Dorado constituted a tal prehistóriéo [Monumental Prehis­ Gold Museum began to play a cru­ positive reassertion of nationality, toric ArtF3, was published. lt had cial role in the public relations of the and that is why they were shown been the result of excavations by nation. "particularly" to foreigners. lf there Preuss in the San Agustín area in was a moment in which the poporos, 1913-14. This area had also been the pectorals and nose ornaments of the place chosen for the fi rst archaeo­ ancient inhabitants of Colombia logical expeditio n prometed a nd started to become symbols of na­ funded by the government. It was tional identity, a rich, complex, con­ carried out in 1936, and led by Span­ tradictory national identity, this was ish arch aeologist José Pé rez de that moment. Barradas2 4. Also in 1936 a new edi­ These years were also pivota! in tioo of Ezequiel Uricoechea's Anti­ the development and growth of the güedades neogranadinas [An.tiquities Gold Museum in regard to its col­ of New Granada], appeared. A pio­ lections and display organization. neering work on the archaeology of The non-metal collections began to Colombia, it was first published in be assembled in 1946 with the pur­ Berlín in 185425. In addition, an ef­ chase of two ceramic items from Luis fort to arouse publi c interest had Albe rto Acuña. These we re fol­ been made with an exhibition organ­ lowed by a se-t of 264 items from ized by Gregorio H e rnández d e Fernando Restrepo-Yélez. A few Alba in Bogotá and opened in 1938 stone items bought two years later, in the Las Aulas building which is in 1948, were the beginning of the now the Colonial Art Museum, and Museum's current rich collection of then in the new building of the Na­ stone artefacts. tional Library26. On 9 April of that year (1948), The diversification of the Gold Liberal Ieader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán Museum meant that dispersed rem­ was assassinated a block away from nants of pre-Hispanic material cul­ cc.c.ccc<.() the Museum, and partisan política) ture began to make sense again as ccc.ccc.<..c violence raged out of control. What part of a whole. Metalwork objects the Museum then showed to "our ceased to be just isolated objects and fel1ow countrymen and to stran­ beca me expressions of real societies. gers", and "particularly to strangers", What treasure hunting had d e ­ was another facet of a country that stroyed by re moving ite ms from was falling apart; a golden, shining burial places and shrines started to facet. To Colombians themselves, it be repaired in sorne way in the Gold also showed that, a thousand years Museum's showcases and storage ago, those fields where massacres rooms. This made it possible for fu ­ and abuses were now being commit­ ture research about the way of life ted, had been inhabited by commu­ and thinking of pre-Hispanic soci­ nities that left works of remarkable eties to be pursued on surer founda­ beauty and perfection. It was a pro­ tions. In additio n to preserving from found lesson. If there was anything loss and destruction a part of na­ left in Colombians of their pre-His­ tional heritage of great significa nce panic ancestors, and few doubted to Colombians, as well as exhibiting that there was, there could be no beautiful goldwork objects. the Mu­ Paul Rivet, founder of the Musée consistency between the images of seum earned the attributes of an de I'Homme in París, had dominated savagery that the newspapers re­ importa nt place fo r research and the anthropological scene in Colom­ vealed and the evidence of the artis­ study. bia eve r since 194 r and continued to tic development and refinement of Some serious preoccupa[ion with do so for the next twe nty years. Fa­ the nation 's forebears that the Mu­ the study of the indigenous past al­ mous for his theori es about the o ri­ seum now held. lt started to become ready existed in Colombia by 1939. gin of American man, Rivct consid-

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ercd e thnological rcsearch a prio r­ ish traveller José María Gutiérrez de quisitely arranged, the emphasis be­ it y. because of the imminent danger Alba described and drew the neck ing on the aesthe tic aspect of the that the survi\'ing indigeno us groups of a poporo, derini ng it as a ·· sort of exhibits. The eyes of the observer 2 woul d soon disappear 7. For this rea­ fr uit bowl containing imitation indig­ were presented with a harmonious, son, he was 1 one of the leading pro­ e no us fruits'':l , because of the clear, intelligible set of objects. de­ moters of the fo undatio n of the Na­ sphe res on its to p. Even in 1 939, spite the fact that sorne of the dis­ tional Ethnological Institute in 1941. when the Banco de la Re pública play cabine ts contained over 300 Merged with the existing Archaeo­ bought it. its real fu nction continued items. An unmistakable educational logica l Service. it became the Co­ to be uncertain. Documents relating aim was perceptible in the booklets lombian Institute of Anthropology to its purchase describe itas .. a gold that hung from the s howcases, with in 1953. Despite the e rnphasis on vase worked in a very perfect fash­ brief descriptions of the objects on ethnology, archaeology also made ion"33. Only a careful study of simi­ display. These were clearly organ­ significant progress, particularly in lar pre-Hispanic objects and a com­ ized according to "styles", as Pérez the exploration of San Agustín, parison with artefacts of common de Barradas called them, or "cul­ Tierradentro. Valle del Cauca. the use among Colombia's present-day tures", a more commonly u sed term. high plains of the Eastern Cordillera indigenous people made it possible The display cabinets were sorted and the Atlantic coastal area. to establish that the object in ques­ into groups of objects according to The rich seam represented by the tion was far more unusual than ini­ their function, which, to a large ex­ Gold Museum in terms of archaeo­ tially thought. It is, in fact, a con­ tent, determined their shape. Newly­ logical research began to be e x­ tainer t o keep lime, extracted with a acquired ceramic and stone items ploited towards the end of the 1940s. thin stick or dipper, and used in the were now among the exhibits. The The Banco de la República made the ritual chewing of coca leaf; in other large number of items in the Mu­ first step by funding the publication words, a poporo. lt is seldom recog­ seum began to find a meaning. At of works re lating to pre-Hispanic nized that it took over a hundred the same time, a coherent vision of 28 metalwork . First on the list was an years to give a convincing answer to pre-Hispanic societies or periods Estudio inicial de las colecciones del the basic question of what this mys­ that, until then, had been little more Museo del Oro [An lnitial Study on the terious object was. than abstractions, began to take Gold Museum~ Collections] was pub­ shape. lisbed, written by Mexican researcher In 1958 the Banco de la República 2 Carlos Margain in 1950 9. This was fol­ moved to new headquarters. The lowed by the Spaniard José Pérez de building was erected at a site where Barradas' substantial work, six large the renowned Granada Hotel, burnt volumes published in Madrid between down in the I 948 riots, had previ­ 1954 and 1966 with the title Orfebrería ously stood. The Gold Museum was prehispánica de Colombia [Pre-His­ set up in the building's basement, panic Goldwork of Colombia], focus­ and opened to the public in July ing on the Calima, Tolima, Muisca and 1959. If the move from the Bank's Quimbaya styles, which formed the boardroom to a special room was bulk of the Museum's metalwork col­ referred to as "the reform", the step lection at the time3°. now taken amounted toa revolution. Two main preoccupations charac­ For the first time the general public terized arcbaeological r esearch on was given unrestricted access to the Colombian goldwork during this Museum. However, it still continued period: the identification of objects to be an essential port of call for the and their classification according to nation's distinguished visitors. Among "styles". The m agnitude of the task public figures photographed at the that Margain, Pérez de Barradas and time are Prince Philip from Great the archaeologists that followed Returning to the history of the Gold Britain and Archbishop Makarios them faced, can be recognized by Museum, photograpbs of the period from Cyprus taking a close look at the considering the case of a significant under study, 1944 to 1959, show a radi­ exhibits and signing the visitors' book, item, the Quimbaya poporo that cal change in its museography from the wbich by 1967 had been autographed founded the Gold Museum's collec­ time when it was situated in the Bank's by over 500 foreign dignitaries35. In tions. Towards the middle of the boardroom. lt was a change brought contrast to previous years, the Mu­ nineteenth century, this object, or a about by the advances made in seum was now actively looking for a similar one, was referred to as some­ archaeological knowledge. U nder the closer integration into nationallife. thing resembling a "large vessel", a guidance ofLuis Barriga del Diestro, With its entrance a few steps away ''lamp" ' a "censer" , a ''candlestick" its diligent director for 38 years34, the from the busiest street of the capital's or "a bottle"3•. In the 187os, Span- Museum's showcases were seen ex- city centre, the Gold Museum repre-

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sented an open invitation to ordinary great an impact thesc attcmpts to Paulo. BraziL and this was foll owed Colombians to en ter into a world that create spaces that mimicked nature in r966 by exhibitio ns at the Colom­ was quite different from the one they had on the public. They were soon bian Center in New York. and at had been taught about in history les­ abandoned and there was a return Mexico's National Muse um of An­ sons. Bogotá was growing at a fast to neutral backgrounds and geo­ thropology and the headquarlers of pace and its population had doubled me trical structures that made it the Ve nezuelan Centr al Bank in in ten years, reaching a million easier for the observer's attention to Caracas in i967. Also in 1967. the inhabitants. The country was just be­ concentrate on thc displays. Gold Museum had its first experi­ ginning to recover from the period of ence of ho lding temporary exhi bi­ partisan violence. These were the fi rst tions in the country itself, with one years of the National Front, with its called Pre-Columbian Ceramics. or­ promise of reconciliation and peace. ganized at the Bogotá GaJiery. With over 7.200 goldwork items The most significa nt chapter in at the time of moving to its nev• lo­ the Museum's life during this decade cation, the Muse um was no longer was its move to a permanent build­ able to exhibit the whole of its col­ ing, specially built to house its col­ lection. At most, it would put little lections, and opened to the public on more than two hundred items on dis­ 22 April 1968. It was a change of far­ play at one time. What was impor­ reaching consequences. At its new tant now was to concentrate vn mak­ home , the Museum was to develop ing a new, unusual visual universe in severa! ways, and to fulfill pur­ accessible to a diverse public with poses that went far beyond the am­ schoolchildren forming the largest bitions of those who had founded it group. The experience was as new thirty years before. to its visitors as it was to the Museum The initial steps were taken in itself, and experimentation in display 1961. The Banco de la Re púbbca, is patent in photographs from these presided over by Eduardo Arias­ years. The arrangement of the col­ The goldwork collection grew at Robledo, acquired a plot of land lection according to "styles" follow­ a steady pace during this period, al­ close to its new headquarters, fac­ ing Pérez de Barradas' system was though the ceramic collection re­ ing the Santander P ark. The initial preserved, although the display cabi­ mained relatively stagnant. It only plan of the Bank 's directors was to nets tended to show partial aspects increased by 87 items in 19 years. extend the bank's offkes and have a mostly determined by the objects' However, the purchase of ceramics new building, in which a whole floor shape and function. Quimbaya resumed in June 1966 with the ac­ would be assigned to the Gold Mu­ poporos, Calima diadems, To1ima quisition of a set of 2 15 i tems from seum38. The Esguerra, Sáenz, Suárez. pendants and pectorals, and Muisca Alfredo Ramos-Valenzuela, a de­ Sarnper firm of architects, that in the tunjos were the exhibition 's recur­ scendant of Gonzalo Ramos, whose previous decade had constructed the ring themes. Toa certain extent, this gold collection la ter went to the Ber­ building for the Luis Ángel Arango type of arrangement led the public lín Ethnographic Muse um. Ther e Library, also part of the Bank's cul­ to associate each "style" with par­ was also sorne diversification during tural section, was commissioned to ticular objects. this p eriod, with the initiation in develop the idea, and from the be­ The room itself was rectangular 1967 of two new valuable collections, ginning it took advice from the an­ in shape, with display cases posi­ those of shell and bone. thropologist and archaeologist, Luis tioned at regular intervals along the The first pre-Hispanic goldwork Duque-G ómez, director of the Co­ long walls. At the bottom of the e xhibitions outside Colombia , a lombian lnstitute of AnthropologyJ9. room, opposite the entrance, an ar­ significant activity of the Gold Mu­ The architects travelled to Mexico ray of maps of Colombia showed the seum, took place in these years. The City, where the N ational Muse um of political division of the country at first of these exhibitions was staged Anthropo logy, which opened in the time, with the departments and in 1954, when 80 masterpieces were 1964, was under constructio n. There their capitals, and the geographical taken to the Metropolitan Muse um they gained valuable experie nces areas associated with the various of New York, for the bicentenary of that allowed them to plan, with a 6 "cultures" represented in the collec­ Columbia UniversityJ . In 1962 the new vision, a building that was to be tion. Curtains and fancy textiles International P etrole um Company unique in Colombia to house a mu­ played a crucial role in the presen­ took a group of objects be longing to seum that was unique in the world. tation of the Museum displays, cas­ the Museum to be exhibited in sev­ Under the guidance of their sci­ entilic advisor, the architects came cading in the background or conceal­ eral European countries37. Anolher ing the bases that supported the group was displayed at the Seventh up with an ambitio us project that required not just a f~oor. but a whole displays. It is difficult to know how Inte rnational Art Bie nn1 al in Sao

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building-! . It uid not take lo ng for spcctive effect. achieved by gradu­ done in the mid-1980s under the guid­ thc 13ank's direc tors to give their ally narrowing the staircase as it goes ance of Clemencia Plazas and Ana approval. The gene ral principie was up. The archítectural design domi­ María Falchetti-13. A contract t o de­ to establish .. an institutio n o rganized nates again at the e nd of the s tair­ sign the Musewn displays was awarded accordi ng to ncw concepts of what a casc, where there ís a vast open space to museologist Vida! Antonio Rozo modern muscum is. n amely a li ve. which stretches up three floors and and British arch.itect Alee Btight, who acti ve institutio n a t the service o f is bathed in inte nse natural light took chargc of this aspect of the Mu­ culture .. ·P. as o ne ca n r ead in the coming in through a large plate-glass seum over the years that followed its proposal t ha t the architects submit­ ceilíng. opening. Complex technical difl1cu1ties ted to the Bank. This principie trans­ The idea of a modern museum as had to be resolved, lighting among lated itself into the id ea o f setting up a live. active institution, the idea that them. due to the relative uniformity of an cxhibition e mbracing "all aspects inspired the a rchitects, was more the exhibits in terms of size and colour, o f pre-Columbia n culture'', in other clearly visible in the distribution of and also to the fact that most of them words, dis playing goldwo rk objects space inside the Museum. In addition are ftat objects-1-1. A principal role in in a cont ext that was meaningful and to the exhibition areas, the new build­ the selection of the iterns that were took full adv antage of the diversity ing had storage areas housing the ar­ to be exhibited was played by the of the Muse um 's existing collections. chaeological collections, and a small, person who had the best knowledge From an architectural point of specialized library, as well as an ad­ o f the collection gathered by the Mu­ view the fund amental postulate was ministrative area. The latter, located se u m thus far, the Director, Luis a simple one: rather than the build­ on the top ftoor, naturally reftects the Barriga del Diestro. ing ítself, the important thing was íts modernist concept adopted by the Structurally, the architects created conte nts, the pre-Híspaníc objects. architects. However it does also re­ on the first ftoor an enorm ous empty The design sho uld make the natíon 's call the structure of the Spanish co­ space to be compartme ntalized by gold herítage stand out , without lonial house, with a central patio sur­ showcases that seem to hang in the sacr íficing the aesthetíc value of the ro unded by rooms and profusely air supported by rods of steel at­ building itself. illuminated by naturallight. tached to a metal framework that The exhibition areas were de­ hides the ceiling. A s on the second signed following the concept that a ftoor, the showcases demarca te small modern museum must have an edu­ areas for the purpose of ensuring the cational mission and should, at the privacy necessary for study and con­ same time, be a space for aesthetic templation. With the assistance of contemplation. A plan was adopted s pecially traine d guides, maps, from the o utset concerning the chronological tables, audio-visual collection's permanent exhibition: it devices, diagrams, sketches, models, was to be o rganized into two levels, dumrnies, full-scale reproductions of the fi rst of which should emphasize diverse types of tombs, and o ther the e ducatio nal aspect. The second rnodern museological d evices, the was to be a space for aesthetic con­ visitor is introduced to the daily life, templation42. The former would con­ the means of production, the eco­ stitute an introduction to Colombian nomic, social and political organiza­ pre-Hispanic metal-using societies, tion, the religious and funerary prac­ and the latte r a journey thro ugh tices, and the metalwork techniques their extraordinary metalwork pro­ of pre-Hispanic societies. Ceramic duction. In the final design these lev­ items are predominant, and the di­ The result was a structure that, els corresponded to the first and sec­ versity of styles proves that these from the outside, looks like a plain ond ftoors. A t emporary exhibition were far from being static societies. white box resting on a glass plinth, roo m was also included, on the first A large number of stone or gold tools, without d ecoration or distraction, a level. objects made from shell, borre, wood, sharply-outlined receptacle that con­ Archaeologist Alicia Dussán de and textiles, and also sarcophagi with stitutes a firm declaration of archi­ R eichel took on the responsibility of human remains and mumrnies, one tectural modernism . The hand of the devising the Muse u m 's layout, to give o f which i s remarkably we11 pre­ architect can most clearly be seen in concrete form to this general scheme. served, make the general picture of the corridors and stairways which The layout has evolved to reflect the the goldsrniths' lives less obscure, and link the exhibition rooms. Afte r progress made in archaeological stud­ prepare the visitor better to under­ crossing the e ntrance the visitor is ies, including field research projects stand and enjoy their extraordinary met by a mo numental staircase that and investigations carried out in the metalwork production. plays with the perception of distance Museum itself. A comprehensive re­ The best of the goldwork exhibi­ and depth by means o f a false-per- view of the Museum's layout was tion is on the second floor. In the

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Museum it is known by a word in­ duc te d into a d a rk ro om tha t is in six years, reaching 5,225 items in herited from the language used by gradually lighte ned . The visito r is D ecem ber 1974. Growth was more the Bank: ''the vault". In the Ba nk sudde nly surrounded by hundreds of gradual over the following ten years, itself the vault is a fo rtress ho using masks, pectorals, penda nts, cerem o­ a nd was at its lowest leve! d uring the the go ld that used to be the standard nial staffs, nose orname nts, a total 1990s. Today the collection of met­ for curre ncy and which measured of 8,ooo gleaming items in a dazzling alwork objects is composed of sorne the wealth of the nation. The re is a n scene. It is the ''G o lde n Room'', a 33,800 ite ms -and that of ceramics of obvious parallel with the Museum's ma te rialization of the conque rors· nearly 13,500. In addition, the re are second ftoor. It is a "vault" with rein­ dreams. close to 3,400 stone ite ms, 1,200 she ll forced concrete walls, without win­ dows, and with one e normous strong­ box door. It houses the gold of the Indians, a standard to measure the na tion 's pre-Hispanic cultural we¡;¡.Jth. The "vault" keeps select samples of the various "styles" associated with geographical areas. The samples are distributed following an approximate chronological succession sche me, which conveys a message that there was as much variety in the course of time as the re was in space. The exhi­ bition starts with goldwork samples from Tumaco and Calima, the oldest The building was awarded first items, 330 bone ite ms, 139 archaeo­ goldwork producíng areas known to prize in the Fourth Colombian Ar­ logical woode n objects, 145 samples us, and continues with objects from chitecture Bie nnial in 1970, in rec­ of textiles and a number of mum­ Malagana, San Agus tín, Tie rra­ ognition of the fact that " the fabu­ mies. The curre nt exhibition com­ dentro, Cauca, Tolima, Químbaya, lous and now world famous Banco prises sorne 1,300 goldwo rk items, Urabá, Z e nú, and Nariño. To con­ de la República's gold collection is apart from the 8,ooo in the G olden elude, there are examples of the now in an appropriate, austere space Room. These figures provide a basis Tairona and Muisca societies, tha t that has been well planned and well on which to evaluate the role that the survived until soon after the Span­ e xecute d ", as the jury 's ve rdict Central Bank a nd the Gold Museum ish conquest. Nariño Goldwork, first reads46. "This building", it adds, "ful­ have played ever since 1939 in the discovered in the 1970s4s, was at the fils, in addition, cultural and educa­ preservation of Colombia 's cultural e nd of the exhibition, closing a sort tional functions that are of an extraor­ heritage, and in the developme nt of of geographical tour in the South of dinary ímportance to the Colombian a solid foundation to improve o ur the country. In contras t to the pubüc". It was a re markable success knowledge of pre-Hispanic metal­ museological arrangeme nts in the for a building that, as one of the ar­ using socie ties. previous buildings of the Museum, chitects says, should be like a case for The extraordinary wealth of the the items are shown he re according a jewel: fine and provocative, but not Museum is already highly repre­ to their individuality -many show­ more than the jewel47. sentative of the production of Colom­ cases exhibit only one item-, and The de velopme nl of the collec­ bian me tal-using socie ties. It might also their functional, formal, and tions made rem arkable progress dur­ have been expected that following conceptual relationship with othe r ing the first few years after the ope n­ sixty-flve years of collecting the re­ items from the same stylistic group. ing of the Museum's perma n e nt mains left by almost flve centuries Conse quen tly, the visitor is con­ building. By the e nd of 1968, the of the widespread looting of to mbs. stantly re minded of the diversity of goldwork collection carne to mo re graveyards and sanctuaries. this part each geographical area or "culture", than ro,ooo ite ms, and the ceramic of the nation's a rchaeological he rit­ while the unity of concept that de­ collectio n numbe red abo ut o ne age had become exha usted . H ow­ fines each particular style is kept in thousand. Soon afterwarcls the col­ ever, a number o f acquisitio ns made evide nce. lectio ns sta rted to grow a t a pace in the past thirty years provide genu­ Inside " the vault", to round off unpara lleled in the Museum's his­ ine surprises. T he first was a model the Museum visit the re occurs a tory. In j ust f1ve years the ·.:ollection raft on which a number of figures. moment of great dramatic effect. In of metalwork objects clo ub led, and lccl by a chieftain, can be seen. It re p­ case all that the visitor had seen thus reached the to tal of 20,046 ite ms in resents a ceremo ny that took place far had not already put his or he r D ecembe r 1973. The collection of on a lake, a nd has been give n the capacity for astonishment and de­ ceram ics developed in a n e ven more name of El Do rado. The Muisca raft. light to the test, he or she is con- notable way, as il increased fivefold one o ( the most outsta nd ing obj ects

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m a d ~ by the a ncicnt inhabitants o f lo sorne degree of accuracy. the mean­ of plans for doing this. E ver since the thc high pl ains of the Eastern mo un­ ings and the motivations behind their 1950s attempts had been made, with tain range known to us. was fo und making. This deprives everyone inter­ meagre results, to implement a pro­ by peasants early in 1969 in Pasea. ested in pre-Hispanic societies of clues tection system ca11ed ''rescue archae­ Cundin arn arca. and bought by the that are essential to unravel the mys­ ology". lt was based on a legal prin­ Museum in April that year. In 1987 a teries surrounding them. cipie that the construction of roads, sumptuous set of burial offerings was dug o ut of a Iomb in the Magdalena va Uey. I t consisted of helmets. diadems, poporos and other objects, and was given thc na me of the New Quimba ya Treasure. an analogy with the Treasure donated t o Spain by the Colombian govemment in 1892. But perhaps the most important find was made o n the Malagana estate in 1992. The case of Malagana draws at­ tention, once more, to the issue of the indiscriminate exploitation of Colombia ·s archaeological heritage by treasure hunters. Following the accidental discovery of a group of pre­ Prior to the adoption of the 1991 the laying of pipelines and other civil Hispanic tombs in the middle of a Co nstitution, the most significant works must b e preceded by studies sugar-cane field by workmen, a few step f orward as regards legislation on the environmental impact. There months were eno ugh for inhabitants conce rning the protectio n of the was also an obligation to protect the of the region and professional treas­ nation's cultural heritage was Law archaeological heritage. However, ure hunte rs to devastate the area 163 of 1959, and a decree regulating this onJy began to produce an effect which in aerial photographs taken it, enacted in 1963.J9. Apart from pro­ after the issuing of the 1991 Consti­ soon afterwards looks like a bomb viding essential definitions, this law tution. lt is a rgued that over a thou­ 8 site4 . Even with police and army expressly forbids taking any object sand archaeological discoveries have protection, the archaeologists whom belonging to the nation's historical been made in Colombia s ince then, the Colombian Institute of Anthro­ and artistic heritage out of the COU:n­ and a number of engineering projects pology rushed t o the area only man­ try without satisfying certain re­ have eve n b een t emporarily sus­ aged to excava te a handful of tombs. quirements. Article 72 of the new pended for reasons pertaining to ar­ In addition to the pressure put on Constitution laid more solid founda­ chaeological heritage. None of the them by the treasure hunters, who tions for the introduction of a more discoveries has resulted in the recov­ kept a close wa tch o n what they compre hensive legislation. "The ery of metalwork objects of any sig­ were doing, archaeologists fo und nation's cultural h eritage", the ar­ nificance in their own context. the mselves in a situation whe re ticle reads, "is under State protec­ The problem is undoubtedly com­ what they had achieved through pa­ tion. Archaeological heritage and plex, and there is no easy or imme­ tient effort during the day was ru­ other cultural effects that constitute diate solution. It is not just a matter ined during the night. national identity belong to the na­ of issuing regulations or protecting Archaeologists know quite well tion and cannot be transferred to archaeological research with the that this kind of event does irrepa­ others. The Law will lay down the army or the police. The case of rable damage to the s tudy of pre­ mechanisms to be used in order to Malagana shows clearly that cultural Hispanic s ocie ties. A grave o r a re-acquire them if they are in the and educational factors have con­ shrine is not simply a repository of hands of priva te individuals, and will tributed to the formation of a men­ things put there a t random by indig­ also regula te the special rights of eth­ tality that justifies treasure hunting, enous peoples. The position of the nic groups settled in archaeologically contrary to the principie that the objects, the s hape a nd size of the rich t erritories"5°. Law 397 of 1997 common interest ought to prevail tombs, the number of artefacts placed fills many gaps in the preceding leg­ over individual interests. Clearly, in them, the materials of which they islation. It even provides for the pun­ these are essential factors to be are made, their quality and splendour, ishme nt of offences against the taken into consideration when de­ 1 always express clearly-defin ed inten­ nation's cultural heritage5 • ciding policies on the protection of tions. When treasure hunters remove There had been no lack of will cultural heritage. items from a tomb, they wipe out valu­ a m o ng the a uthorities in e arlie r As far as the study of pre-Hispanic able evidence that could have made it times to protect archaeological herit­ societies is concemed, progress in the possible for archaeologists to interpret, age, and there was certainJy no lack past four decades has been closely

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linked to the development of archae­ Karen Olsen-Bruhns, Warwick Bray, the time w hen it was installed in its ology. Until 1964 the training of an­ Thomas van d er Hammen, Henning new b uilding, it has continuo usly thropologists was carried out by the Bischof. a nd Ma rianne C a rd ale. spo nsored and even u sed its own National E thnological I nstitute and among others, were soon joined by specialists in research projects o n its successor, the Colombian lnstitute professionals from the younger gen­ Colombia ·s goldwork and gold-using of Anthropology. Until then progress eratio n who substantially widened societies, thus persevering with the was s low, judging from t he results. the scope and range of archaeologi­ task initiated by Carlos Margain and Only 38 anthropologists had gradu­ cal studies. José Pérez de Barradas in the 1950s. ated since 1941 , when the fi rst o f The Foundati on fo r National Ar­ Notable among these is the laborious 2 these institutio ns was founded5 • chaeological Research, set up by the iconographical study of the collection This is explained chiefty by a lack of Banco d e la Repúbli ca, played a of metalwork objects commissioned opportunities in the labour market. leading role d uring this perio d, a towards t he e ncl of the 1 98os by The Department of Anthropology of period that could be described as the Gerardo Reichel-Do lmatoff, which Los Andes U niversity was establi')hed formative stage of m odern Colom­ provided the basis for his outstand­ in 1964, with Gerardo Reichel-Dol­ bian archaeology. Created f or the ing book Orfebrería y chamanismo 55 . matoff and his wife, Alicia Dussán, in purpose of promoting and p roviding U ndoubtedly, apart f ro m Pérez de charge. Two years later other univer­ support for projects focusing on the Barradas's works, the most inftue n­ sities founded anthropology depart­ exploration of Colombia 's archaeo­ tial studies have been those carried ments, including the National U ni­ logical heritage, particularly among out by Clemencia Plazas and Ana ve rsity in Bogotá a nd A r.tioquia fi nal-year or newly graduated stu­ María Falchetti d uring the quarte r University in Medellín. Cauca Uni­ dents, from the outset the Founda­ of a century in which they worked versity in Popayán founded its own tion has operated in close coord ina­ for the Museum , where they became anthropology department in 1970, tion with the Colombian Institute of director and technical assistant d i­ and t he N a tio na l U niversity in Anthropology, the university depart­ rector r espectively. We owe much of Manizales followed suit in 1999. In­ ments of anthropology, the Gold our knowledge of Colombian m etal­ terest in the new discipline soon be­ Museum and o ther institutions, in a using societies to them. Sorne of their carne apparent, a nd over 700 stu­ commo n effort that rapidly bo re books, particularly those focusing on d ents g raduated in the s pace of fruit54. A quick l ook at the list of the Sinú and Lower San J orge river fifteen y ears53. projects that it supported during its areas, - they conducted an intensive field study of the latter funded by the Museum and Econíquel between 1975 and 198o-are essential reference ma­ 6 terial for their particular subjects5 . The Museum currently employs a staff of anthropologists who, in their respective fields and with their o own publications, conduct research projects at a steady pace, and pro­ vide technical s u p po rt fo r the M useum's program mes. A lso of great importance is the highly tech­ nical w ork done in the Museum in connectio n with the conservatio n With the introduction of anthro­ first twelve years reveals many book and restoration of the items o f ev­ pological studies into university cur­ titles that have beco me indispen­ ery kind found in the c ollections. ricula and the conso lidation of the sable reference materials. By 1998 These include golclwo rk objects. Colombian Institute o f Anthropol­ the Foundation had sponso red over subject to de te rio rati on thro ugh ogy as a research institution, archae­ 220 research projects and published facto rs such as oxidatio n. corrosio n ology gained a new momentum in upwards of sixty monographs, in ad­ and material stress57 . the country. Colombians and foreign­ dition to the Boletín de Arqueología The Museum co mpleme nts its ers who had promoted the a dvance [Archaeology Jo urnal], no w ap­ acad emic, technical and scie ntitic 11 ith the Bo le tín M usco of archaeology since the 1940s, in­ proaching its so' issuc. pursuits, w cluding Gregorio H erná ndez d e The Go ld Museum pl C'tyed a sig­ de l Oro [The Gold Museum Jo ur­ Alba, Luis Duque-Gómez, E liécer nificant ro le in these academic de­ nal]. a scie ntific publicat ion that Silva-Celis, Gerardo Reichel-Dolma­ velopments. partly because it is the also fulfils the purpose o f publiciz­ seu m 's activitics. l t toff, Alicia Dussán de Reichel, Julio place where the bulk of any research ing t he Mu licat io n in 1978 unde r César C ubillos, H enri Lehmann, work on Colombian pre-Hispanic started pub o n o f the anth ropo logist Wendell Bennett, Sylvia Broadbent, metalwork is done. 1n addit ion, rrom the directi

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Lu1s Duquc-Gó mcz. its main pro­ substanti al contributions to the devel­ took place of a novel exhibition that m o l er a nd me nt or. An essentia l opment of museum-based non-tradi­ for the fi rst time gave the general o urce for consult atio n b y s pecial­ tional education. Programmes of par­ public a n o ppo rtunity to have an ists. and of knowledge fo r the gen­ t icular significance among those overview of goldwo rk from the e ra l publi c. in over 40 issues the implemented by the Museum are the whole of t he conti ne nt. Gold in Gold M useum J o urna l has re ­ recreational workshops, the ''Educa­ America. as the e xhibition was corded thc progress of research o n tio nal leaflets'', interactive materials called, brought together items from the lifc o f indigenous communiti es that h elp children gain a deeper in­ México. Guate ma la. Costa Rica, and o n prc-H ispanic me talwork. in sight into the e xhibitions. and t he Panamá, Ecuador and Perú59. a rticles a nd re vi ews writte n by "Educatio nal suitcases", specially U ntil 1968 the Gold Museum and leading a utho rities in C olombia designed boxes containing replicas of its collections, and therefore the only and from abroad . gold figures and objects of ceramic, opportunity that the public had to stone, shell, and bone that t eachers see anything of pre-Hispanic metal­ can brihg to the classroom. Children work, were confined to the capital. can handle the objects, enjoy play­ A first attempt to send round the ing the games which come in the box, country what Colombians of all re­ and as k q uestions of the teacher, gions considered t o be part of their who has been prepared in advance own heritage was made that year in through an specially written book­ Manizales, formerly Quimbaya ter­ Tbis perspective of today 's Gold let58. Nearly two hundred children ritory. An "Exhibition of 25 Master­ Museum, which corresponds to the and young people a day visit the Mu­ works of Pre-Hispanic Goldwork" classical definition of a museum as seum on school trips. belonging to the Museum was organ­ a source of knowl edge and a place National and international exhi­ ized, along with a display of a group where a sig nificant part of a nation's bitions have been an indispensable of ceramic items owned by Santiago heritage is kept, is by no means ir­ complement to the permanent exhi­ V élez, a local collector. It did not reconcilable w ith another facet of bition. They provide an opportunity take long before this kind of event the Museum , o ne which i s more to investigare particular subjects in was replicated in other Colombian widely known: that of being a c en­ greater depth, highlight specific as­ cities, particularly in order to mark tre of info rmation , le arning, con­ pects or groups of items, and look at occasions of historical, cultural or templation, and e nj oyment of the pre-Hispanic societies from new per­ social significance. In 1970, to cel­ nation's he ritage. As a matte r of spectives, with the help of cata­ ebrare the Pan-American Games, fact, the Mu seum has never lost logues, posters, audio-visual presen­ another exhibition was put on in sight of the fact that it holds a nd tations, and other museological aids. Cali, and a further one the follow­ exhibits exce ptional works of art These exhibitions, usually accompa­ ing year in !bagué, as part of a Cul­ that arouse admiration and curios­ nied by talks and seminars delivered tural Week. The first Gold Museum ity among t hose who look at them. by specialists, also serve the purpose to uring e xhibition, s uccessively Nor has it ig nored the fact that these of revitalizing the Museum itself, shown in different cities, was called works constitute a testimony to re­ since they renew the interest of the Pre-Columbian Goldwork, initially markable human societies who de­ public who are already familiar with organized in Barranquilla in 1977, veloped uniqu e world views; human it. Furthermore, temporary exhibi­ and taken later to !bagué, Popayán, societies that preceded present-day tions frequently allow new discover­ Bucaramanga, Pereira, Cúcuta a nd Colombians, a nd are ther e fore ies to be made during the setting up Medellín. hope-inspiring symbols of national of the Museum's displays, as previ­ identity in which to take pride. Con­ o usly ignored facets of the collec­ seq uently, the Gold Museum's o ri­ tio ns or little known facts come to entation is towards the public, its light. e ducation and its inte llectual and The first temporary exhibition of emotionfll enrichment. the Gold Museum in Bogotá took The m ain vehicle for spreading place in 1968, coinciding with the knowledge of the metalwork of pre­ o pe ning o f its new building. lts Hispanic societies is, of course, the highly appropriate theme, The Leg­ pe rmane nt exhibition, s tructure d end of El Dorado, was undoubtedly and displayed as described in previ­ an additional attraction to draw the ous pages. Guided tours and audio­ public's attention to a revitalized in­ The structure and routine of the vi sual presentations are organized stitution that had just been re­ M use u m were disturbed in 1978, around it. School chj)dren come top opened. Two years later, in 1970, fol­ when the whole display on the first of the agend a, and e ver sin ce 1987 the lowing a number of exhibitions o n a fl.oor was dismantled. The reason Education Services Office has made diversity of subjects, the opening was the arrival in Bogotá of Textiles

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and Goldfrom A ncient Perú, the first Museum of Amazonian Ma n was Colombia, a mission that they have great international exhibition on a established in Leticia in 1988, and never fa iled to accomplish with un­ pre-Hispanic theme to be shown at the Gold Museum in Cali in 1991 , equivoca! success. the Museum. A few years later, in with pieces of Calima culture. Each Gold Museum exhibitions have 1985, the first international touring of them exhibits collections that in­ been staged in 120 cities in fifty ca un­ exhibition arrived at the Museum: elude the work of goldsmiths who tries on five s:;ontinents, reaching dif­ México: J,ooo years of history. It then inhabited that particular region, re­ ferent peoples from a great diversity visited other cities throughout the ally unique art work. At the same of cultures. Sent abroad by invita­ country. time, they organize temporary exhi­ tion, the gold items have been shown Organized at regular intervals, bitions of archaeological or ethno­ in over r8o exhibitions since 1954, a the temporary exhibitions of the logical interest, and also host tour­ great deal more than the number of Gold Museum, held in Bogotá as ing exhibitions from other regions. exhibitions that the Gold Museum well as in other cities, have allowed Be tween 1984 and 1986 the Mu­ could have organized in Bogotá in an ever increasing number of mem­ seum , under the direction of María its entire history. Under certain cir­ bers of the public, pa rticularly Elvira Bonilla, initiated an interest­ cumstances the exhibits have been people who live far from the capi­ ing experiment when it brought ex­ shown in ten or even fifteen coun­ tal, to gain access to its rich collec­ amples of goldwork to Banco de la tries in one year, which is remark­ tions. They have also reinforced a R epública's gold-trading offices in able even for the world's best-trav­ message of cultural identity, both rem a te towns such as Condoto, elled collections. Many illustrious national and regional, that has been Barbacoas and Guapi on the Pacific institutions have hosted these exhi­ associated with the Museum's con­ coast, gold producing centres for sev­ bitions, including Mexico's National tents from the outset. This is particu­ era! centuries61. Museum of Anthropology, the Mu- larly true in relation to exhibitions such as 7, 000 Years of Calima His­ tory, shown in Cali in 1986 to mark the city's 4501h anniversary, The M uisca at the arrival ofth e Spaniards, staged in the country's capital to commemorate the 4501h anniversary of Bogotá and Tunja, and I492: The American R esponse, staged to mark the fifth centenary of the discovery of América. It was precisely an attempt to fa­ cilita te access to pre-H ispanic art throughout the whole country and to promote both the ancestral and current cultural values of the re­ gions, that motivated Banco de la The exhibitions that the G old seum of Modern Art and the Mu­ República to initiate, in 1980, the Museum has sent to other countries seum of Fine Arts of Buenos Aires, opening of regio nal museums60. First e ver since 1962 al so convey a mes­ the Museum of America and the was the Gold Museum in the Cus­ sage related to Colombia 's cultural National Archaeological Museum toms House in Santa Marta, contain­ and national identity. It seems clear of Madrid, the Hermitage Museum ing tairona art pieces. Next carne the that, like international exhibitions of Leningrad (now St. Petersburg), Gold Museum of Manizales, which shown in Colombia, they are expres­ the National Museum of New opened in 1981 and specialized in sions of goodwill among nations, and Delhi, the R oyal Academy of Lo n­ Quimbaya goldwork. This was fol­ con tribute to the spreading of culture don, the Palazzo Sforza in Milan, lowed in 1982 by the Gold Muséum from different countries throughout the M armottan Museum, P e tit of Cartagena whose collection is the world. In the case of Colombia, Palais and Grand Palais in Paris. based on Zenú culture. Two other a country that in the past was gener­ a nd Washington's National Gallery were established in 1985, the Gold ally ignored by the outsi de world, o f Art. Museum of Pasto and the Gold Mu­ and is now remembered c.hiefly be­ Sixty years aft er its foundation, the seum of Ipiales, focusing on Nariño cause of drug trafficking, violence Gold Museum is being extended and metalwork, and then two more in and natural disasters, the nose orna­ refurbished in every aspect. As far as 1986: the Gold Museum of Pereira, me nts, pendants, bracele ts a nd the structure is concerned, a substan­ for late Quimbaya goldwork, and the poporos of the pre-Hispanic world tial project is under way, with the as­ Gold Museum of Armenia, for early have been assigned a missio n to help sistance of Genn<1 n S

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Tht: arca for the collec tio n ·s perma­ mation and the enjoyment of a n aes­ its weight and purity, reasons good ne nt cxhi biti on, on the second and thetic experience by the public. Es- cnough to put it on the market in the third leve ls. wi ll double. The arca o f e ntially. the aim is to enable visitors form o f ingots. H owever one day the temp o rary e xhibitio n room will to view the collections from a diver­ so meth ing new appeared o n the incrcase f 1 10 rom square metres at sit y of perspectives. including a n ar­ market, something that was not an p resent. to 450 square metres. and c haeological one. The re will be ingot but a large vessel of pre-His­ th e capacity of the asscmbly hall will rooms in which the e mphasis will be panic times. and it was noticed that increase fro m 40 people to one hun­ laid o n the ar tistic aspects, while in this had been worked "in a very per­ dred. These existing facilities will be others the s hamanic and symbolic fect fash ion''. It was officially recog­ comple me nted with new ones, in­ facets, or the metalwork techniques, nized that many other pre-Hispanic cludi ng a n Education Activities will be prominent. The " Offerings objects had also been worked in a Room, and workshop areas for chil­ Room", ending the visit to the Mu­ similar fashion, and therefore it was dren and young people, a restaurant, seum, will provide an opportunity to decided that these objects should be and a café. Visitors will be able to learn about the function of many acquired and preserved by the gov­ u se compute rs and multimedia items as offerings made for the pres­ ernment. Soon a collection had been equipment. The Museum itself will ervation of the balance of the uní­ put together and placed in display beco me an "intelligent building", verse. Therefore, the Gold Museurn cabinets. Then the great discovery with the re novation of its technical will substantially strengthen its tra­ was made. There was a revelation. devices and networks, lighting, and dition as an active, dynamic cultural This was something that until then so o n. In addition, the Museum will centre for the inhabitants of the city had only been recognized by a hand­ hav e functional areas to keep the and its visitors. ful of Colombian visionaries such as reserve collection, and restoration The Gold Muse um is sui generis. Ezequi, el Uricoechea, Manuel Uribe- and packing areas for all the collec­ lt was not born as a cabinet of curi­ Angel and Leocadio María Arango, tio ns, including those of metalwork, osities bequeathed by a philanthro­ and above all, a number of foreign cl ay, stone, she ll, bone, and wood pist collector, nor did it develop into collectors and scientists, as well as the objects, textiles and mummies. an archaeological museum, or a visitors to the American Historical Exhibition which opened in Madrid in 1892. lt was discovered that these objects were things of beauty; amaz­ ing, intriguing things, artefacts that demonstrated that monumentality was nota matter of size, but of pro­ portien. It was discovered that these were great masterworks in minia­ ture. Further, a great European ex­ pert, Paul Rivet, was there to con­ firrn this. Suddenly, it became clear that this was something for tbe na­ tion to be proud of, and for this rea­ son it was exhibited to foreigners The number of goldwork items on natural history museum , like almost first of all. dis play will be considerably in­ all museums of its kind had done. It is a common belief that the creased. Eve n more so will be the R econstructing its story is recon­ Gold Museum was set up because ceramic, stone, shell, bone, textile structing the history of a great discov­ the country was becoming conscious and wooden items, in order to offer ery. Colombia was not among the of its ancestry and its cultural iden­ a m o re complete vision of the destinations of the great international tity, because sorne artists had started artefacts used by pre-Hispanic soci­ scientific expeditions that were organ­ to paint the myths and rituals of pre­ eties, thus placing metalwork objects ized during the nineteentb century historic peoples. History seems to in their proper context. The scien­ and the first decades of the twentieth demonstrate that in fact things were tific script of the exhibits is being century to countries such as Greece, mucb less clear, and the opposite was comprehensively reviewed and up­ ltaly, Egypt, Asia Minor, Mexico or perhaps true. lt is a known fact that, dated , in the light of new knowledge Peru, because there were no pyra­ behind the nationalistic ideas of gained in the recent past about pre­ mids or Cyclopean constructions, or Colombian painters and intellectu­ Hispanic societies, their culture and any fabulous temples of the ancient als of the 1 930s, there was a great representations. At the same time, world to be found in Colombia. In­ deal of "mexicanism " . Toa large ex­ the museography and exhibition stead there was wrought gold, but tent, the bachués represented the techniques are being revised, to fa­ how beautifully it had been worked impact on Colombia of the muralistic cilitate the spread of scientific infor- did not matter. What mattered was movement led by Rivera, Orozco and

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Siqueiros, and its manifestos and po­ they entered into new dimensions of 15. Catálogo del Museo del señor Leocadío litical attitudes. There was no such value that were very different from María Arango de Medellín. capiral del thing as a cult of the Indian peoples those that the Spaniards had in mind. departamento de Antioquia en la Reptí­ See El oro y la piara de las Indias en blica de Colombia. Medellín. Impren­ in Colombia. Such a cult did in fact la época de los Ausrrias, a book ta Oficial, 1905. exist in Mexico where their ancient ' published as the catalogue of an 16. Santiago Londoño Vélez, Museo del monumental constructions could be exhibition by the ICO Foundation, Oro 50 años. op. eir. , p. 61. The assistant seen, anda revolution of Indians and Madrid. 1999. manager-st!cretary to the Bank at the peasants had recently taken place. 4· !bid. See, in particular, the essays in time was Luis Ángel Arango. whose sections V, Las transformaciones del name was subsequently given to the oro y la plata, VI, Los centros del po­ public library founded by the Bank in der, and VII, La expansión del oro y la Bogotá. Luis Ángel Arango held tbat plata por Europa. position from 1947 to 1957 . ...-~o- ., ~'O\-~ o 5· Agustín Codazzi, "Jeografía física i po­ 17. Data regarding the growth of the Gold .~ooo lítica de la provincia de Antioquia" Museum's collections come from the o o e> 1 (continuación), in Gaceta Oficial, Bo­ Museum's Purchase Register. gotá, no. 1710, 23 March 1854, p. 267. 18. El Museo del Oro, Banco de la Repú­ \ \ 6. Sources on the topicoftreasure hunting blica, Bogotá, Colombia, Bogotá, Ban­ 1 in the Antioqueño colonization area co de la República, July 1944. ( include Luis Arango Cano, R ecuerdos 19. See Liborio Zerda, El Dorado, Bogotá, de la guaquería en el Quindío, Bogotá, Biblioteca Banco Popular, 1972, 2 vols. Editorial Cromos, Luis Tamayo y Cía., 20. Museo del Oro, Photography Archives, J s.f. and Albeiro Valencia Llano, " La Bogotá. guaquería en el Viejo Caldas", in Bo­ 21. Gustavo Santos, El Museo del Oro. An letín Museo del Oro, Bogotá, Museo edition commemorating the Banco de There is little doubt that there was del Oro, Banco de la República, no. 23, la República's 25 1h anniversary, Bogo­ an element of genuine appreciation January-April 1989, pp. 61-74. tá, Banco de la República, 1948. of the country's pre-Hispanic past in 7· Albeiro Valencia Llano, "La guaquería 22. An easily accessible source for the Colombia at the time. But this only en el Viejo Caldas", op. cit., p. 72. history of archaeological studies and 8. Luis D uque Gómez, Etno-historia y ar­ institutions in Colombia is Gerardo began to develop when sufficient queología, Bogotá, Historia Extensa de Reichei-D olmatoff, Arqueología de material evidence had been gath­ Colombia, vol. 1, Prehistoria, t. 1, Aca­ Colombia. Un rexto introductorio, Bo­ ered, for everyone to see, of how demia Colombiana de Historia, Edicio­ gotá, Presidencia de la República, 1997. wonderful the works of the ancient nes Lerner, 1965, p. 8r. 23. Konrad Th. Preuss, Arte monumental inhabitants of Colombia were. It was 9· /bid., p. 81. prehistórico, Bogotá, Dirección de Di­ vulgación Cultural de la Universidad then that the indigenous element of 10. Elizabeth A. Williarns, "Art and Artifact at the Trocadero. Ars Americana and Nacional de Colombia, third Spanish nationality started to be viewed as the Prirnivist Revolution", in Stocking, edition, 1974· Transl. by Dr Hermano an asset, not as a liability. lt is for G. W. (ed.), Objects and others. Essays Walde-Waldegg and Dr César Uribe this reason that the Gold Museum on Museums and Material Culture, Piedrahíta, Ed. and comments by means so much to Colombians, for Madison, UniversityofWisconsin Press, Eugenio Barney Cabrera and Pablo its collections are powerful symbols 1985, pp. 146-166. Gamboa Hinestrosa. 11. An inventory in Madrid National 24. Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff, Arqueo­ of national identity. Archaeological Museum lists the items logía de Colombia, op. cit., p. r6. presented by Colombia to the Queen 25. Ezequiel Uricoechea, Memoria sobre las r. Minutes of the Banco de la República Regent of Spain. Museo Arqueológico antigüedades neo-granadinas, Berlín. Executive Committee, no. 505, 30 Nacional, Madrid, 1893, Número de Librería de F. Schneider i Cia., 1854, March 1939· orden 181, Sign. III- 3-99, caja no. 99· Bogotá, BibLioteca Banco Popular, 197 r. 2. Minutes of the Banco de la República 12. Santiago Londoño Vélez, Museo del 26. Gerardo Reichei-Dolmatoff, Arqueo­ Board of Directors, no. 1174, 17 May Oro 50 años, op. cit., p. 38. logía de Colombia, op. cir., p. 16. 1939· For further details on the Gold 13. Ernesto Restrepo Tirado, " Colombia", 27. /bid., pp. 16·17. Museum's early history, see Santiago in El Liberal, Madrid, October 1892. 28. A good source for works published Londoño Vélez, Museo del Oro 50 14. Alberto Urdane ta was an active previous to 1950 on metal work in Co­ años, Bogotá, Banco de la República. nineteenth century promoter of Co­ lombia is Gabriel Giraldo Jaramillo, 1989, pp. 61 -63. See also Museo del lombia's prehispanic past. In addition to Bibliografla selecra del arre en Colonr­ Oro, " Historia del Museo del Oro", in publishing Liborio Zerda's El Dorado bia , Bogotá. Editorial A B. C.. 1955. Boletín Museo del Oro, Bogotá: Mu­ in instalments in the Papel Periódico "Arte precolombino". pp. 42-60. seo del Oro, B anco de la República, Ilustrado, he had each article illustrated 29. Carlos Margain. Esrudio inicial de las Year 1, January-April1978, pp. 3-12. with woodcuts, thus making a significant colecciones del Museo del Oro del Ban­ 3· Evidence gathered by archaeologists contri bution to the spreading of a co de la República. Bogotá. Banco de and ethnohistorians as well as recent heritage that was virtually unknown to la República. 1950. insights into the matter suggest that most Colombians. Vicente Restrepo. 30. José Pérez de Barradas. Orfebrería gold and other precious metals did Los chibchas ames de la conquista espa­ pre!Jispánica de Colombia: Escilo ccrli­ ha ve a value as elements of power and ñola, Bogotá, 1895· Another relevant ma, Madrid. Banco de la República, were used for trade and exchange. work by Restrepo is Estudio sobre las 1954. 2 vols.: Orfebrería preltispánica de Colombia: Es ritos rolima y muisw, However, when these metals became minas de oro y plata en Colombia, Madrid, Banco de la República, 195X. ritual objects through the goldsmitb 's MedeUín. Fondo Rotatorio de Publica­ 2 vols.; Or febrería pre!Jispcínica de Co- work and gained a symbo)jc meaning, ciones, FAES, 1979.

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/omina: Estilos tflltmbaya y orros. Ma­ "Documentos dd siglo XVIII referentes Oro, Bogot

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biano", in Boletín Museo del Oro, Bo­ addition to those menlioned above: Sonia de barro: estudio de las figurinas cerámi­ gotá, Museo del Oro, Banco de la Re­ Archila, Los tesoros de los seFwres de cas de Montelibano". in Boletín Museo pública, no. 19, May-August 1987, pp. Malagarw , Bogotá. Museo del Oro, Ban­ del Oro, Bogotá, Museo del Oro, Ban­ 3-24; "Orfebrería prehispánka en el al­ co de la República, 1996: Sonia A rchiJa, co de la República, no. 34-35, January­ tiplano central colombiano" . in Bole­ Ana María Falchetti, Clemencia Plazas December 1993 , pp. 76-109. " Las águi­ tín Museo del Oro , Bogotá, Museo del and 1 uanita Sáenz S amper. La sociedad las doradas: más allá de las fronteras y Oro, Banco de la R epública, no. 25. hidráulica Zenú. Estudio arqueológico de del tiempo. El motivo de las aves con September-December 1989, pp. 3-41; 2.000 mios de historia en las llanuras del alas desplegadas en la orfebreria tairona ", "La tierra del oro y el cobre: parentes­ Caribe colombiano, Bogotá, Banco de la in Boletín Museo del Oro, Bogotá, Mu­ co e intercambio entre comunidades República. 1993. Clara Isabel Botero, seo del Oro, Banco de la República, no. orfebres del norte de Colombia y áreas The Construction of the Prehispanic Past 48,1 anuary-J une 2001. Web page edition. re lacionadas", in Boletín Museo del of Colombia: Colleclions, Museums and Maria Alicia Uribe, "Introducción a la Oro, Bogotá, Museo del Oro, Banco de Early Archaeology, r82J-194I . D. Phi! orfebreria de San Pedro de Urabá. una la R epública, no. 34-35, J anuary­ Thesis, University of Oxford, 2001. Lu­ región del noroccidente colombiano". in December 1993, pp. 3-75; El oro del gran cero Gómez del Corral, Relaciones de pa­ Boletín Museo del Oro, Bogotá, Museo Z enú. M ewlurgia prehispánica en las lla­ rentesco en las relnciones de producción del Oro, Banco de la República, no. 20. nuras del Caribe colombiano, Bogotá, en la comunidad indígena de Mueyamues January-ApriJ 1988, pp. 35-53; "La orfe­ Banco de la República, Museo del Oro, (Nariño) , B.A. thesis, Universidad Na­ brería quimbaya tardía. Una investiga­ 1995. Clemencia Plazas. Nueva metodo­ cional d e Colombia, Bogotá, 1985. ción en la colección del Museo del Oro". logía para la clasificación de orfebrería. Eduardo Londoño, " Un mensaje del in Boletín Museo del Oro, Bogotá, Mu­ Bogotá, Jorge Plazas Editor, 1975; "Te­ tiempo de los muiscas". in Boletín Mu­ seo del Oro, Banco de la República, no. soro de los quimbayas y piezas de orfe­ seo del Oro, Bogotá, Museo del Oro, 31, 1991 , pp. 31-124. brería relacionadas", in Boletín Museo Banco de la República, no. 16 , May­ 58. Details on the Museum's educational del Oro , Bogotá, Museo del Oro, Ban­ July 1986, pp. 48-57; "Santuarios, activities can be found in Ivonne Delga­ co de la República, Year 1, May-August santillos, tunjos: objetos votivos de los do Cerón and Clara Isabel Mz-Recamán, 1978, pp. 21 -28: "Clasificación de obje­ muiscas en el siglo XVI", in Boletín "El Museo como ente educador'', in Bo­ tos de orfebrería precolombina según su Museo del Oro, Bogotá, Museo del letín Museo del Oro, Bogotá, Museo del uso", in Boletín Museo del Oro, Bogo­ O ro, Banco de la República, no. 25 , Oro, Banco de la República, no. 28, July­ tá, Museo del Oro, Banco de la Repú­ September-December 1989, pp. 92-1 19; September 1990, pp. 15-37. blica, Year 3, 1980, pp. 1-27; "Forma y "El lugar de la religión en la organiza­ 59· Roberto Lleras Pérez, "Las exposicio­ función en el oro tairona", in Boletín ción social muisca", in Boletín Museo nes temporales e itinerantes", op. cit., Museo del Oro, Bogotá, Museo del Oro, del Oro, Bogotá, Museo del Oro, Ban­ p. 41. Banco de la República, no. 19, May­ co de la R epública, no. 40, January­ 6o. María Elvira Bonilla. "Los museos ar­ August 1987, pp. 25-33; "Cronología de June 1996, pp. 63-87; "El proceso de queológicos regionales, una mirada del la metalurgia colombiana", in Boletín Ubaque de 1563: La última ceremonia presente hacia e l pasado" , in Boletín Museo del Oro, Bogotá, Museo del Oro, religiosa pública de los muiscas", in Bo­ Museo del Oro, Bogotá, Museo del Banco de la R epública, no. 44-45, letín Museo del Oro, Bogotá, Museo del Oro, Banco de la República. no. 15, January-December 1998, pp. 3-77. Oro, Banco de la República, no. 49, July­ January-April r986. pp. 14-15; María D ecember 2001, Web page editio n. Victoria Uribe. " Museo regional de Roberto Lleras Pérez, Prehíspanic Nariño. Desde el spondylus hasta el Metallurgy and Votive Offerings in the barniz de Pasto", in Boletín Museo del Eastern Cordillera, Colombia, Oxford, Oro, Bogotá, Museo del Oro, Banco de ~\ BAR International Series 778, la República, no. 15, January-April - -- Archaeopress, 1 999; "Las estructuras del 1986, pp. !6-19. -- - pensamiento dual en el ámbito de las so­ 61. Clemencia Plazas, interview by author. ciedades indígenas de los Andes orien­ October 1 999· tales", in Boletín Museo del Oro, Bogo­ ~~ tá, Museo del Oro, Banco de la Repúbli­ ca, no. 40, January-June 1996, pp. 3-15. "A s oferendas muiscas na Lagoa de Guatavita", in O mar, erenU' retorno. Lis­ ¿Poeta hoy? boa, Museo Calouste Gulbenkian, 1998. "La geografía del género en las figuras votivas de la Cordillera Oriental colom­ r. La lección de Po und biana", in Boletín Museo del Oro, Bo­ gotá, Museo del Oro, Banco de la Repú­ Escribir hoy día poesía en españoL blica, no. 49, July-December 2001. Web e n Hispanoamérica, es, en primer page edition. Juanita Sáenz Obregón. lugar, sentirse parte de una tradición 57· On the specific topic of restoration, see "Notas sobre la restauración y conserva­ for example Fernando S. Barandica ción de los metales precolombinos", in muy rica y variada. Una constelación Forero, " La restauración de objetos Boletín Museo del Oro, Bogotá, Museo de grandes figu ras que bien puede cerámicos en el Museo: un estudio de del Oro, Banco de la República, no. 28. partir de Jorge Manrique, Garci laso caso", in Boletín Museo del Oro, Bo­ July-September 199<>, pp. 75-85 . "' Restau­ de la Vega y san Juan de la Cruz para ración de metales en el Museo del Oro··. gotá, Museo del Oro, Banco de la Re­ ll egar a Neruda, Borges u Octavio in Boletín Museo del Oro. Bogotá, Mu­ pública, no. 28, July-September 1990, Paz. Eso te da aliento e ímpetu y al pp. 87-91. Among the works published seo del Oro, Banco de la Reptíblica, no. by the Museum's anthropologists we 47, July- December 2000. Web page mismo tiempo te asusta e inhibe. Pero draw attention to the following, in edition. Juanlta Sáenz Samper, "Mujeres el poeta es el ser de la contradicción.

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