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The Palaeolithic occupation of Europe as revealed by evidence from the rivers: data from IGCP 449

DAVID R. BRIDGLAND,h PIERRE ANTOINE/ NICOLE LlMONDIN-LOZOUET/ JUAN I. SANTISTEBAN/ ROB WESTAWAy4t and MARK J. WHITEs

1 Department of Geography, University of Durham, Durham DH1 3LE, UK

2 UMR CNRS 8591-Laboratoire de Geographie Physique, 1 Place Aristide Briand, 92195 Meudon cedex, France

3 Departamento Estratigraffa, Facultad Ciencias Geol6gicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Calle Jose Antonio Novais 2, 28040 Madrid, Spain

4 Faculty of Mathematics and Computing, The Open University, Eldon House, Gosforth, Newcastle upon Tyne NE3 3PW, UK

5 Department of Archaeology, University of Durham, Durham DH1 3LE, UK

ABSTRACT: IGCP 449 (2000-2004), seeking to correlate fluvial records globally, has compiled a dataset of archaeological records from Pleistocene fluvial sequences. Many terrace sequences can now be reliably dated and correlated with marine oxygen isotope stages (M IS), allowing potentially useful patterns in artefact distribution to be recognised. This review, based on evidence from northwest European and German sequences (Thames, Somme, Ilm, Neckar and Wipper), makes wider comparisons with rivers further east, particularly the Vltava, and with southern Europe, especially Iberia. The northwest and southern areas have early assemblages dominated by handaxes, in contrast with flake-core industries in Germany and further east. Fluvial sequences can provide frameworks for correlation, based on markers within the Palaeolithic record. In northwest Europe the first appearance of artefacts in terrace staircases, the earliest such marker, dates from the mid-late Cromerian Complex. Flake-core industries may have significantly preceded handaxe industries in southern Europe. An important technological innovation-Levallois technique-occurs at the Lower-Middle Palaeolithic boundary, correlated with MIS 9-8. Humans deserted northern Europe during MIS 6, apparently returning to central Germany and northern France (Somme valley) by MIS 5e but not reaching southern England until the appearance of Mousterian culture during MIS 4-3.

KEYWORDS: Palaeolithic; fluvial; river terrace; Thames; Somme.

Introduction The importance of Palaeolithic artefact assemblages from fluvial sequences is well established, syntheses having been compiled for the Thames (Wymer, 1968, 1999), Somme In northwest Europe, where some of the best-known studies of (Tuffreau and Antoine, 1995) and several rivers in Iberia river terrace sequences have been carried out, Pleistocene (Santonja and Vi Ila, 1990; Raposo and Santonja, 1995). In fluviatile deposits are an important repository for Palaeolithic Britain the importance of such fluvial records was acknowl­ artefacts, from which a record of early human occupation can edged in the funding by English Heritage of the 'Southern be reconstructed. Indeed, in Britain and on the adjacent Rivers Palaeolithic Project' (1991-94) and 'the English Rivers European mainland, river terrace deposits have provided much Palaeolithic Survey' (1994-97), the results from both being of the evidence for the presence of Lower Palaeolithic hunter­ summarised by Wymer (1999). This outstanding piece of gatherers (Wymer, 1968, 1988, 1999; Roebroeks and van work proved to be John Wymer's last major project and will Kolfschoten, 1995). This is also true of fluvial sequences in remain a testament to his enormous contribution to the central and southern Europe, the Near East, the Middle East and subject. parts of Asia and Africa, although the data from these regions Building upon this, the UNESCO-funded International are patchy (e.g. Bar-Yosef, 1998). Geoscience Programme (iGCP) project no. 449 ('G lobal Correlation of Late Cenozoic Fluvial Deposits'), has included a Palaeolithic working group. During the course of the project (2000-2004) there were significant advances in Europe, with discoveries of very early fluvio-estuarine archaeological records in eastern England (Parfitt et al., 2005) and of a fossiliferous tufa at the Acheulian type locality, St Acheul (River Somme), northern France (Antoine and Limondin-Lozooet, widespreadEuropean evidence.The geographical ,cope ofthi' 2004; see below). During this period the initial projects born ,ynthesi, i, indicated in Fig. 1. out of the British Government's Aggregates LevySustainability Fund included newstudies ofPalaeolithic fluvial archives in soothern Britain. This period has also coincided with the Leverhulme-funded AHOB (Ancient Human Occupation of Fluvial sequences as contexts for the early Britain) project, ....nich has initiated re""arch on several fluvial archaeological record sites and contriooted to activities at many others, notably Lynford, Norfolk(Boismier etal., 2003), and Whitemoor Haye, Staffordshire (Coate" 2002). The fact that a large proportion of the Plei,tocene archae­ These initiative" on top of an already healthy ,tatutory ological record come, from fluvial deposit' i, unsurpri,ing, a, developer-funding 'y,tem for archaeological assessment and river, receive much coar"" detritu,from the land,cape' they rescue ahead of civil engineering and building project" has drain and much ofthi' remains in their valley,in varioo, bodie, led, ,ince 2000, to enhancement of knowledge of the British of""diment. Stone artefact,have thu, foond their way naturally fluvial Palaeolithic record. High-profile example, of into fluvial deposits (lNymer, 1999; Hosfield and Chambers, advance, ,temming from developer-funding include new 2005), althoogh ,ome are included by virtue ofhuman action, de,criptions ofthe key Thames locality at Putileet (Schreve in that knapping location, on river bed, and beaches have et al., 2002), the di,covery of artefact, in the celebrated occasi onally beenpre""rved a, pri mary-contextin du,trial site,. fossiliferoo, deposit' at Aveley (Bridgland et al., 2003) and a Recogni,ed by the presence of conjoinable material, ,uch ,ite, new Clactonian locality that wa, di,covered in association are arguably more importantcomponent, ofthe record than the with River Thame, tributary deposit' at Southfleel Road, considerably more common instances where the artefact, are SwanscombdEbb'fleet (lNenban-Smith et al., this issue, mere clast' within the former bedload of the river. The pp. 471--483). The main value ofthe IGCP 449 data bank, coincidence between the fluvial and archaeological record however, i, in it, u,efulne" for inter-regional and inter­ may re,ultfrom other factor" ,uch a, the attractivenes, of river national compari,on and correlation. valley location, for early human habitation and the opportu­ The last decade or so ha, ""en a newunder,tanding ofLower nities for artefactdiscovery that resultedfrom gravel extraction, and Middle Palaeolithic technological sequences, largely especially before mechani,ation. e,tablished from fluvial record, and predominantly from the The most valuable fluvial archives are those in which dating reinterpretation of the British archive (Bridgland, 1998; White, evidenceal,o occurs, providing a chronological frameworkfor 1998a,b; VVhite and Schreve, 2000; VVhite and Jacobi, 2002; the archaeological record (cf. Wymer, 1999; Bridgland, 2000; White et al., thi' i"ue, pp. OOO-DOO). It ha, even been Bridgland et al., 2004a). Example 'equence, in which thi' ,ugge,ted that the artefact record from the Thames terrace, can principle ha, been well establi,hed, and which will be provide an indication of human population densitie, during the ,ummarised in this paper, include tho"" of the Thame, Pleistocene (Ashton and Lewi" 2002). (,oothern England), the Somme (northern France) and the Thi' paper will review the fluvial contribution ,ince 2000, in Wipper, IIm and Neckar (Germany). Once a well-dated the contextof the IGCP 449 data resource, and particularlywith archaeological ""quence ha, been establi,hed from ,uch a view to ,e1ting the British archive in the context of more record" it might be possible, within the ,ame region, to u,e

Figur� 1 Loc.tion m.p, ed provided that thi, i, carried oot with cautioo and awareness of within fluvial ,equence" be u,eful a, dating proxies. The,e potential confoonding i,sues. An example,ystem in ...... -hich thi, were (1) the first appearan ce ofartefact" (2) the fi rstappearance ha, been attempted i, the er,twhile Solent River of ,oothern of levallDi, technique and (3) the di,appearance of fre,h England (Bridgland, 1996, 2001; Westaway Et al., in press), artefact, owing to depopulatioo before the la,t interglacial loog known a, a rich ,oorce ofartefact, oot, 00 accoont ofit, (prior to reappearance a, Moo,terian and Upper Palaeolithic). acidic ,Dil, and groundwater, generally lacking the calcareDhand axe: (1) twi,ted ovates, nology, both ofwhich have been important in elucidating the tentatively a,>Dciated with MI5 11 (lNhite,1998b), and (2) bout Thame, record. CDup�, which generally date from MI5 4/3 (lNhite and Jacobi, 2002). The earlie,t ofthese age indicator" the first appearance of artefacts,i, poorly identified in the Thame,. The lower Thames River Thames record (Fig. 2) begins with the Anglian glaciatioo, before which the river flowed in a different valley further north (Gibbard, There i, a loog and well-documented hi,tory of geological, 1977, 1979; Bridgland, 1988, 1994) and by which time people palaeootological and archaeological research on the Thame, had already arrived in Britain. In the Middle Thames there are ,equence (for review, ,ee Wymer, 1968, 1999; Roe, 1981; artefact, in the Anglian Black Park gravel, ofthe 'Caver,ham Bridgland, 1994, 1998). The view that the archaeological Channel' (lNymer, 1968; Bridgland, 1994) oot nooe are record can be u,ed a, a dating tool ha, a loog pedigree in the recorded from the higher Winter Hill terrace (al,o Anglian) Thame,; King and Oakley (193&) erected a correlation scheme or from any older Thame, depo,it. Thi, fact ha, become u,ing artefact assemblages a, well a, bio,tratigraphy, although increa,ingly pDciated with the Pre-Anglian Bytham ootmoded, althoogh their ,cheme, at lea,t in part, wa, widely River (Pariitt Et al., 2005). A possible explanatioo lies in the adhered to a, late a,the 1970. (Conway, 1970; d. Evans, 1 971; Anglian glaciation of the former Thame, valley north of Wymer, 1974). FoIlcr.ving thi" and perhap, because the loodoo, which not ooly diverted the river (Gibbard, 1977, archaeological aspect, of the King and Oakley ,cheme were 1979) oot al,o, throogh the effect, ofglacio-i,o,ta,y, depre,sed ,een to have been mi,leading, a view ha, prevailed during the crust in the Middle Thames area. A, a re,ult, the recent decades that artefact typology ,hould not be used for cootemporaneDDstatic recovery, (1994) demonstrated that, in the cootextof a more complex late the Winter Hill terrace ,uriace i, ,ome 22-25 m higher than it Middle Pleistocene dimato-,tratigraphy, the Palaeolithic woo Id have been withoot thi, effect (Maddy and Bridgland, record of the Thames ,howed dear pattern, of probable 2000; We,taway Etal., 2002). Downstream in northea,t Essex, chrooological ,ignificance. Hi, ,cheme for the po,t-Anglian where an early Middle Plei,tocene Thame, terrace ,tairca,e i, lower Thames, sub,equently underpinned by mammalian preserved beyood the direct influence of the Anglian glaciatioo biostratigraphy (Schreve, 2001; Bridgland and 5chreve, 2004), (Bridgland, 1988, 1994), there have been Palaeolithic i, illustrated in Fig. 2, which al,o show, the ,tratigraphical di,coverie, at a number of localitie" althoogh the depo,it, locatioo, ofdifferent archaeological assemblages. yielding artefact, have typically been interpreted a, reworked

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Reappraisal of such occurrences may now be Indeed, the early archaeological discoveries from the Abbeville appropriate. area (Commont, 1910) are now considered less reliable than The timing of what is arguably the most important the well-dated younger in situ Acheulian assemblages (MI5 12- archaeological marker, the appearance of Levallois technique, 9) discovered during the last two decades (Antoine et al., has largely been established from the Thames. Artefacts 2003a; see below, also Fig. 3). showing the use of Levallois technique first appear within The chronostratigraphical interpretation of the 50mme the Thames sequence towards the top of the Lynch Hill/Corbets terrace staircase was initially based on the recognition of a Tey Formation, an observation based on the record from cyclic glacial-interglacial pattern within the fluvial sequences Purfleet in the Lower Thames (Wymer, 1968; Bridgland, 1994; and the overlying loess-palaeosol deposits (Haeserts and 5chreve et al., 2(02), although Wymer (1968, 1988) had noted Dupuis, 1986, Antoine, 1990, 1994; Antoine et al., Levallois occurrences at some Lynch Hill sites in the Middle 2003a,b).lt has been confirmed by amino-acid geochronology, Thames. Explanation of the appearance of Levallois is based on mollusc shells from the fluvial sediments (Bates, complicated by the occurrence in basal Lynch Hill deposits, 1994), and by site-specific supplementary data from biostrati­ both at Purfleet and Little Thurrock, of Clactonian assemblages graphy (Auguste, 1995), magnetostratigraphy and by E5R and (Bridgland, 1994; White and 5chreve, 2(00). Once thought to U-series dating (Laurent et al., 1994; Antoine et al., 2000, be of considerable chronological significance and earlier 2003a,b, in press; Fig. 3). within the British sequence than the Acheulian (King and Although numerous handaxe industries were found in the Oakley, 1936), then questioned as a separately definable early 20th century within the 'old terraces' at Abbeville and industry (Ashton and McNabb, 1992; McNabb, 1996), the Amiens, is difficult to determine the age of the earliest human Clactonian is now regarded as of limited chronological value. occupation in the 50mme basin. This has generally been Its appearance in basal Boyn Hill/Orsett Heath deposits as well ascribed to the Carpentier Quarry at Abbeville (Commont, as in the Lynch Hill Formation, in both cases followed by 1910). However, excavation here in 1989, for E5R and Acheulian occupations (Bridgland, 1994, 1998; White and palaeomagnetic sampling, failed to find artefacts, although 5chreve, 2000), indicates separate Clactonian occurrences mammalian remains were recovered (Antoine, 1990). At this early in both MI5 11 and MI5 9 (Fig. 2). White and 5chreve have quarry, the well-known Marne Blanche is represented by fine­ related these to Britain's fluctuating climatic and island status, grained temperate-stage deposits, overlying cold-stage fluvial the Clactonian possibly representing an early interglacial gravels of the Renancourt terrace (alluvial formation VII). The dispersal of hunter-gatherers from an eastern province in which temperate-stage sediments have yielded abundant mammalian handaxe making was absent (see below). At Purfleet, in a evidence with clear pre-Elsterian characteristics, including sequence representing MI5 10, 9 and 8, three distinctive Stephanorhinus hundsheimensis (Commont, 1910; Pontier, industries appear in superposition (5chreve et al., 2002), with 1928; Tuffreau and Antoine, 1995). The MarneBlanche is dated Clactonian below Acheulian within MI5 10-9, then Levallois to MI5 15 by one E5R date from quartz grains (600± 90 ka) and appearing in the upper cold-climate gravel (Fig. 2). Whether the others (509±110 and 589± 134 ka) from sand lenses in the last-mentioned reflects the MI5 9-8 cool i ng transition or earl ier, underlying cold-stage gravels at Cagny-Rocade (Antoine et al., following the MI5 9c-9b boundary, remains a question for the 2003a). future (cf. Westaway et al., in press). The Saint Acheul type locality coincides with the Garenne The Thames record was also key to White's (1998b) Formation (MI5 12-11), located two bedrock steps below the suggestion that assemblages rich in twisted ovate handaxes level of Abbeville (Fig. 3). The intervening Freville Formation date from late in MI5 11. Collections with this characteristic are (MI5 14-13) has also yielded abundant Acheulian artefacts, documented from Wansunt and Bowman's Lodge Pits, Dartford particularly at Rue Marcelin Berthelot, 5aint-Acheul (Tuffreau Heath, the Upper Loam at Barnfield Pit, 5wanscombe, and the and Antoine, 1995), where handaxes have been found in the deposits at Rickson's Pit, 5wanscombe, all within the Boyn Hill/ cold-stage gravel. In the main 5aint-Acheul terrace (Garenne Orsett Heath sequence and ascribed to MI5 11 (Fig. 2). The Formation) there have been significant advances in knowledge other two potential archaeological markers, however, are during the life of IGCP 449, with the discovery of a fossiliferous poorly represented in the Thames sequence. Both bout coupe tufa at the type locality, for which an E5R age of 403± 73 ka has handaxes and Upper Palaeolithic artefacts are known in the been obtained (Antoine and Limondin-Lozouet, 2004). The Lower Thames only from deep beneath the valley floor (or molluscan fauna from this tufa is composed of 60 taxa, of which dredged from the river bed); this is unsurprising, since the Late 23 are forest species (Antoine and Limondin-Lozouet, 2004). Pleistocene fluvial contexts that would contain them are This assemblage points unequivocally to climatic optimum con­ unrepresented at higher levels in the terrace staircase (Fig. 2). ditions. The presence of certain molluscs beyond their modern range, together with the extinct Retinella (Lydrodiscus) skertchlyi, indicates that the 5aint-Acheul malacofauna (with similar tufa assemblages elsewhere) belongs to the Lydrodiscus River Somme biome, attributed to MI5 11 (Rousseau, 1987; Rousseau et al., 1992; Preece et al., 2000). Other geochronological control for The 50mme valley in northern France is another that has a long the Lyrodiscus biome includes the U-series dating from Vernon, history of Palaeolithic research (e.g. de Mortillet, 1872; in the Seine (Lecolle et al., 1990), and U-series and TL dates Commont, 1910; Breuil and Koslowski, 1931, 1932; Bourdier, from Beeches Pit, West Stow, England (Preece et al., 2000, and 1969; 50mme and Tuffreau, 1978; Tuffreau et al., 1982; 50mme this issue, pp. 485--496). The comparable tufa in the Seine et al., 1984; Haeserts and Dupuis, 1986; Antoine, 1990, 1994; valley at 5t Pierre-Ies-Elbeuf, feared to have been quarried Antoine and Tuffreau, 1993; Tuffreau and Antoine, 1995; away, has been rediscovered recently. Antoine et al., 2000). It is the location of two Palaeolithic type The Garenne Formation is also represented by a major localities: Abbeville and 5t Acheul. The latter has given its Palaeolithic site at Cagny-Ia-Garenne, which has yielded name to the Acheulian, which accommodates all the Lower numerous Acheulian artefacts, as well as E5R dates of - - -

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400±101 ka (Tuffreau and AntDine, 1995) and 448±68 and between the,e 10es5-f'alaeosol cooplet, and glacial-intergla­ 443 ± 53 ka (Antoine et al., 2003aJ. Tuffreau and Antoine cial cycles during MIS 8 and 7, becau", the Montia-e, tetTace i, (1995) inferred that a ,mall number ofLevalloisflakes and core, thooght to mart: the later part of MIS 7 rather than a complete may be present in the", deposits, but these may instead be by­ climate cycle (Fig. 3). AccOfding to the Somme data the impact product, of handaxe manufacture. The assemblage discovered of the cold ,tage within MIS 7 (MIS 7bl) wa, ,ufficient to in the Sables Roux (Atelier CDmmon� overlying the Garenne produce an incision and a new gravel aggradation (Montiere, Formation at Saint-Acheul i, located within ,ignificantly FOfmation). Thi, interpretation i, ,upported by an ESR date of younger ",diment, included within the ,lope deposit" clearly 200 ± 57 ka fOf the temperate-stage depo,it, of thi, terrace, by unrelated to the Garenne fluvial "'quence. Thi, a,,,,mblage, the number of inci,ion, (foor) betweenthe well-dated Garenne including numeroo, twi,ted handaxes and variou, tool, of (MIS 1 2-11) and modern valley (MIS4-1) fOfmation" and by the 'Mi ddle Palaeolithi c ,tyle', h a, beeninterpreted a, the yoon gest evidence of significant loos, accumulation between the two Acheulian indu,try from the Somme (MIS 91), repre",nting a ,Dil, of MIS 7 (AntDine, 1990, 1994; Fig. 3). transitional facies between Acheulian and Middle Palaeolithic The yoonge,t Somme terrace i, the boovie fOfmation, lying (Tuffreau, 1987). at 5--<0m above the maximum inci,ion level in the valley(Fig. 3). The next terrace in the Somme ,tairca,e i, fOfmed by the Thi, fOfmation compri,es periglacial gravel, with many tpinette FOfmation (Fig. 3), ....nich wa, well expo,ed at it, type LevallDi, flakes, overlain by fluvial ,ilt, and locally by locality, Cagny-I'tpinette. The aggradation of the fine calcar­ interglacial (Eemian) calcareDPaleolithic The tpinette ,ite repre,ent, the last in situ occurrence of typical artefact" thu, providing important evidence that humans Acheulian indu,try within the Somme valley ,tairca,e. reached northern France during the La,t interglacial (AntDine A, wa, noted byTuffreau (1982, 1995; d. White and Ashton, et al., in pres,). Thi, la,t terrace i, buried by a ,lope "'quence 2003), the Argoeuve, Formation, overlying the next bedrock dated from the La,t Glacial period (Early Weich,elian humic ,tep (terrace Ill), marks the first clear evidence of Levalloi, ,Dil, then loe" in MIS 4--2). Later Middle Palaeolithic i, al,o technique within the Somme ,y;tem (Fig. 3).The lower terrace, foond a, reworked artefact, in the gravel, of the ValleyBottom repeat the characteri,tic Somme pattern of temperate-,tage fOfmation. depo,it, overlying cold-,tage ones. A, i, indicated by the In ,ummary (Fig. 3), the oldest unequivocal human notation in Fig. 3, the yoonger terrace, are overlain by occupation in the Somme date, from within the Freville progressively fewer loo" and palaeosol layer" providing an FOfmation aroond MIS 14 and i, Acheulian. An earlier indication of the number of climate cycles ,ince the formation occupation, coincident with the Mame Blanche (ca. MIS ofeach terrace. However,there i, not an exactcorrespondence 15), i, po"ible but need, further research. In situ Acheulian occupation, are well known from modern excavations within dating (Blackwell and Schwarcz, 1986; Mallik et al., 2000; the deposit' ofthe Garenne and Epinette formations (MI5 1 2-9). Fig. 5). Middle Palaeolithic indu,tries (Levallois) appear at the Figure 4 ,how, interglacial travertine, at ,ix 'eparate levels transition between the end of the aggradation of the tpinette within the Wipper ,tairca,e. Althoogh the lowe,t three and the Argoouves formations (MI5 9--8) and then develop in travettine levels have been established only in temporary the following 'Iow terrace' alluvial formations (MI5 8--5e). ,ection" and have yet to be investigated for faunal content, Finally, yoo ngest Middle Palaeolithic artefacts are foo nd in the there are several dating con straint, for this sequence. At aroond gravels ofthe modern valley-fIOOf, deposited during the La,t 10 m higher than the highe't travertine,in a different ,ection of Glacial (MI5 4-31). valley, ootwa,h from the EI,ter I glaciation ha, been recorded, incised below till attributed to the ,ame glacation (Fig. 4). The Elster I wa, correlated with MI5 14 by s.brava (1986). Thi' might allow the oIde,t Wipper travertine, at the Bilzingsleben I Rivers Wipper and Ilm level (Fig. 5), ca. 35 m above the river, to be attributed to MI5 13 (d. Bridgland et al., 20Mb). However, a gravel at a 'imilar The Wipper, a tributary ofthe 5aale-Elbe 'ystem, i, a minor level, interpreted a, pre-dating this travertine (although not river, but one that ha, an exceptional Quaternary record, present in the Bilzingsleben meander core-,ee Fig. 4) wa, thanks in no ,mall partto the calcareoo, Mu,chelkalk bedrock ,tated by Mania (1995: 86) to be 'generally regarded a, oflate in it, catchment. The resultant calcareoo, groondwater has Elsterian origin'. If thi' i, taken to mean Elster 11 (_ MI5 12 caused ,ubaerial travertine,to form on the Wipper valleyflOOf according to Sibrava, 1986), the oldest Wipper travertine must during ,ucce,sive Plei,tocene interglacial" a, ha, been date from MI5 11 (HoIsteinian), a, ,uggested by Schreve and documented from the remarkably complete sequence in a Brid gland (2002). Both the travertine at this highest interglacial 'ingle meander core at Bilzingsleben (Mania, 1 995; Mania and level and fluvial sediment, beneath it contain mammalian and Mania, 2003; Bridgland et al., 20Mb; Fig. 4). The ,ame i, true molluscan fo,sil" the assemblage, including Stcpnanorninus of the River IIm, another 5aale-Elbe tributary, the travertines kircnbergensis, Palae%xodon antiquus and Theodoxusserra­ from it, valley having been quarried for building ,tone over a ti/ iniformis.The fl uvi al deposit' al,o contain flint flake, (Man ia, lengthy period. Occurring at ,everal levels within the IIm 1995). ,equence (Fig. 5), these include the well-kno"",, Ehringsdorf The best known ofthe travertine,i, that at the Bilzing,leben 11 travertinesat Weimar, within which hominin fossils and living level, ca. 30m above the Wipper (Fig. 4), within .....nich the ,ites are recorded, a, well a, an assemblage of predominantly archaeological site ha, been excavated. Thanks to it, (but not exclu,ively) ,mall Palaeolithic artefact" termed 'Lower preservation in travertine, the archaeological assemblage, Palaeolithic Microlithic Tradition' (LPMT; e.g. Burdukie.vicz ,ummari,ed by Mania and Mania (2003), includes bone, tu,k and Ronen, 2003), of a general type that i, characteristically and (pseudomorphic) wooden artefact" a, well a, flint and foond in central Europe (Valoch, 1984, 2003; Moncel, 2003). quartziteartefact,. The lithic, are predomin antly ,m all (another At T aubach i, anothertravertine,again overlying an IIm terrace, example ofLPMTj, made from glacially transported clast" but that i, widely attributed to the Eemian (Bridgland et a/., 2004b). larger piece, are pre,ent. Even at the larger extreme, handaxe, It ha, yielded another LPMT a,semblage, providing a clear are missing, althoogh ,ome tools are bifacially worked (cf. i ndicati on that hum an pop

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Figur� S ide.! i!ion "'" Fig. ,. Th� d"'initiv� de>eription dth� Ilm ire.",cl; 10 oggr.dotion.J t"'roe",_ SoerSt!l pI.""d lh� Ehringldorf intergi .ci1li between the depo (Bridgl""d era/., 20D4b).During the 5o.li.n gl"";1IIiOl1('), jet! did not ruch the Weimor .r

regarded as an indicator ofthe Hoxnian (MI5 11) interglacial can also be dated, like those of the Somme, with reference to (Preece, 1995). The rich mammalian fauna {rom this travertine soils in loess/colluvial overburden (Bibus and Wesler, 1995; ha, element, characteristic of MI5 11, notably Trogontherium Bosinski, 1996; Fig. 6). One of",veral tie-points in the Neckar cullieri and Ursus deningffi-spelaEus (Schreve and Bridgland, sequence is the type locality ofHomo heidelbergensis at Mauer 2002; Bridgland Et al., 2004b). It ,eem, likely that the (Schootensack, 1908). The sand pit here yielded no unequi­ Bilzingsleben I and 11 interglacials both date from MI5 11, vocal artefacts, althoogh it was a rich soorce of mammalian perhaps representing the two warm sub-stages 11c and 11a (cf. fossi Is, includin g the hu man mandible. It is situated in a 16 km Schreve and Bridgland, 2002), although this is very much long meander loop that was abandoned by the Neckar during dependent on the interpretation of the local Elsterian glacial the early Middle Pleistocene. The mammalian fauna is ofearly deposits (cf. Bridgland et al., 20Mb). Middle Pleistocene affinities, with, for example, Arllicola The Bilzingsleben III travertine, ca. 25 m above the river cantiana., Ursus deningffi, Stcphanorhinus hundsheimensis (Fig. 4), has also beenstudied by Mania (1995), althoogh only and Homothffiumsp., and resembles immediately pre-Anglian its molluscan fauna has been reported thus far. This is an faunas in Britain such as that from Westbury-sub-Mendip, assemblage characteristic of the Middle Pleistocene, with implying a late Cromerian Complex age. 'Cromerian shells' components suggestive of a mixed oak forest. Mania (1995) recorded in the 23-m terrace, which is below the Mauer (33-m suggested correlation ofBilzingsleben III with the 5c:n1'iningen terrace) level,suggest that the Mauer deposits do not represent Interglacial at the site ofthat name (seebelow; Fig. 1) and with the most recent partof the Cromerian Complex,however. If A the DiXnnitzinter;';lacial (_MI5 9 according to Sibrava, 1986). cantiana is characteristic of the last two Cromerian Complex As Fi g. 4 reveals,there are three lower travertines, at ca. 18 and interglacials (van KoIfschoten and Turner, 1996; Preece and ca. 12 m above the river and near river level. If the last is Pariitt, 2000), then it woo Id seem that Mauer represents the regarded as HoIocene it seems reasonable to ascribe the earlier ofthese, perhaps the older of the two substages of MI5 1 3 other two to MI5 7 and MI5 5 in descending order, (cf. 5chreve and Bridgland, 2002; Tydcek et al., 2004). perhaps repre",nting the warmest (woodland) substages of The second hominin locality in the Neckar system is each (7e and 5e). 5teinheim-an-der-Murr; the human skulls from 5teinheim and 5wanscombe, frequently compared, have both been considered HoIsteinian (MI5 11; cf. 5chreve and Bridgland, 2002). Their accompanying vertebrate faunas are, indeed, highly similar, with s. kirchbergensis, s. hemitoechus and U. River Neckar spelarus. CompariSCIn of the stratigraphical position of the 5teinheim deposits within the Neckar/Murr terrace "'quence Situated ca. 250km soothwest ofthe Wipper and IIm, and alSCI with that of the 5wanscombe sediments in the Thames on Muschelkalk, the Neckar system again combines a well­ strengthens the suggested correlation; there are three terraces developed terrace record with interbedded fossiliferous (inter­ below the HoIsteinian level and above the floodplain in both glacial) travertines and hominin fossil occurrences. Its terraces (Figs. 2 and 6). -- •

•

''' ... '· .. \:JijI -_.. -..- - '<��""� ''7"y;-·;; 0' ';;;.. @ ... _. .. . � .. --­ �,

Figur�6 Ide.1 jecllhrough the lerr""'" olthe Ri"", Neck., in the H.,;delbu rg .nd Slul1g.rt ",eo< dGerm.nr, tigrophic.1 pOd Bridgl.nd (2002) ond by them from Bibu, .nd We;Jer (1 99 5). For loc.lion >ee Fig. 1

Wider comparisons in Europe 2000). Example, of the ea,tern noo-handaxe, dOOlinantly diminutive indu,trie, (LPMn have already been enmuntered Given that humans are believed to originate in Africa, it i, abDve, in the IIm valley, where they occur at Ehring,dDt1and perhaps to be expected that the earliest European artefact, will Taubach. At nearby Bilzing,leben the lithic, are very ,imilar, befoond in the ,ooth. The oldest material of all, datingfrom the althoogh larger tDDI, made frOOl booe and quartzite are al5D early partof the Early Pleistocene, is found in sootheast Europe, foo nd (BrOhl, 2003), a fact that mi ght lend ,uppDrt tDthe nDtioo presumably reflecting the initial migration of early humans that ,mall stDne tDOl, were a re,ponse tD poor raw material from Africa into Europe via the Levant, tracking structurally resoorce,. familiar biomes (e.g. Denneli, 2004). Key site, ofgreat antiquity The earlie,t claimed evidence of handaxe-making in (Fig. 1) include Dmani,i in Georgia (ca. 1.8 Ma) and Ubeidiya ,oothern France i, frOOl the 'Sol P' ,tratigraphic level at Caune in Israel (1AMa; Bar-YD,ef, 1998). The earliest unequivocal de l'AragD cave, Tautavel, in the ea,tern Pyrenee, moontain" evidence of a human pre,ence in the central and we,tern thDught by ,000e tD date frOOl MIS 15-14 (Barsky and de Mediterranean regioo, indeed appears ,000ewhat later in the Lumley, 2005; Fig. 1). Thi, level ,tratigraphically DVerlie, remrd. LDwer Palaeolithic material i, well knCMIn frOOl the ,peieothem fDr which a U-series date Df ca. 600 ka ha, been terrace depD,it, ofmany Iberian River, (e.g. Santooja and Villa, repDrted (deLumley et al., 1 984). Similar timing, are evidentin 1990; Rap05D and Santooja, 1 995), the earlie,tevidencedating river, in central France. FDC instance, terrace F Dfthe LDir, ba,e frOOl ca. 1.1 Ma (,ee beIDw). In Italy the earliest evidence fDC 22 m above river level, i, the Dlde,t tD have yielded any Dccupatioo i, gerl€rally coo,idered tD be at MDnte P<>ggiDID handaxe, and ha, ESR dates Df 482±77 and 491 ±75ka (Fig. 1), where a rich a,semblage ofartefact, made frOOl ,mall (Despriee etal., 2005). FrOOl the ,equence ofheight, and date, flint pebbles ha, been remvered from deltaic gravel, associated of<>ther terraces in the LDir ,tairca,e, thi, fluvial gravel prooably with fD,siliferoo, sand, that are al,D dated (ESR and aggraded in MIS 14. palaeomagneti,m) tD ca. 1 Ma (e.g. Antooiazzi et al., 1993; The earliest evidence of LevallDi, in ,oothern France date, Mu,si, 1995). In ,oothern and central France, in situ pebble­ frOOl MIS 9, fDC example at Orgnac 3 in the Ardeche regioo, culture artefact,have been claimed in high fluvial terraces Df a where it i, dated by U-,eries and ESR tD 309±34ka (MDigne number ofriver" such a, Terrace I (52 m above river level) of and Moocel, 2005). The appearance ofLevallDi, i, thooght tD the LDi r (tributary ofthe LDire; Despriee et al., 2005; VDin chet occur aroond 300 ka in many river ,ystem, in central France, 00 et al., 2005). Althoogh n<>tyetdated, nDC independently verified the ba,i, of numerDU, ESR date, (VDinchet et al., 2005), (d. Roobrooks and van KDlfsch<>ten, 1995) the ,tratigraphical althoogh re,Dlutioo tD Dxygen i5Dtope ,tage i, limited by the pmitiDn Df thi, site relative tD yoonger, dated, terrace, ,uggest, ,mall number of terrace, in many Df these ,equences. FDr a prDbable age ofca. 1 Ma. One example that ha, been dated i, instance, in the LDir, terrace B (ba,e 6m above river level) the Poot-de-Lavaud pebble-culture ,ite, ,ituated in terrace 0 of mnsi,t, Df twD ,uperimpo,ed gravel, ,eparated by ,and, the the river Creu,e, an<>ther LDire triootary (Desprilie et al., 2004, upper gravel with LevallDi, and the ICMler gravel withoot, the 2005; VDinchet et al., 2005). There are 10 ESR dates frOOl thi, ,and being ESR dated tD 241 ±42 ka (Despriee et al., 2005). terrace (e.g., Despriee et al., 2004), ranging frOOl 905 ± 1 00 ka tD 1187± 200 ka; the weighted mean i, 1 034 ± 57 ka (± 2<>). There i, a pattern apparent in the di,triootiDn of LDwer Palaeolithic artefact assemblages in Eur<>pe: handaxe (Acheulian) ,ignature, are nDCmal in the ,ooth and we,t but Iberia generally absent in the nDrth and ea,t. In the latter area noo­ h andaxe a,semblages are foon d, 5Dme with larger artefact,and The Iberian Peninsula (Fig. 7) offer, an alternative migratioo including ,imilar technDlDgy tD the Briti,h Clactooian (,ee roote frOOl Africa tD Europe, via the Strait of Gibraltar above); in many, hDwever, the dOOlinant characteri,tic i, the (RDe!xook" 2001; Strau" 2001). LCMler PalaeDlithic artefact, ,mall ,ize ofartefact" perhap, indicatin g scarce DC POOf -quality are frequently foond in situ in fluvial cootext, here, particularly raw material.The interdigitatioo in Britain ofClactDnian and in the river, draining tD the Atlantic (e.g. in the terraces ofthe Acheulian assemblage, (Fig. 2) ha" a, nDted above, been DuerD, Tagu" Guadiana and Guadalquivir), althoogh in Dther attributed tD immigratioo of pe<>ples with different lithic area, (the EbrD and the rivers draining tD the centraV,oothern traditioo, frOOl different part, of Europe (lNhite and Schreve, Mediterranean cDa,tline) nD recDCd ha, been foond. Age ...... '. - :: ...... ; ...... '......

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o kilof!1etres 200 GUlo,IquiW {iIll"" .

Figur� 7 Loc,lion mop for Ih�

frameworks have been derived mainly from morpho,tratigra­ potential artefact (e.g. Santonja and Perez-Gooz"Jez, 2000- phical correlatioo of the be5t-dated fluvial 'equenc85. 2001). There are other po55ible artefact" da55ed a, 'materiale, The earli85t evidence of human occupatioo include, the de dificile interpretacioo' (e.g. Santooja and Perez-G:>nzalez, preo;ence of noo-handaxe lithic indu,trie, in bed 3 at Fuente 2000--2001), from higher terrace, of the Tagu, (T5-T7 in Nueva, in the upper part of the ,tacked fluvial/lacu5trine Fig. 8(a)). ,equence ofthe Guadix-Baza ba,in and a550ciated with lower The Arneulian i, more widely di,tributed, both in caV85 (e.g. Plei,tocene fauna, including Mammutfws meridionalis and AtapMorocco, where the earlie,t Arneulian a,o;emblag85 reviewing in the light offinding, by Gilbert etal. (2006). Noo­ aroond Ca,ablanca (Fig. 1) appear from magneto5tratigraphyto handaxe a55emblag85 are al,o pre,ent in the Atap

b) Guadalquivir

200

175

150 @ 'Date is for ca/crete, post-dating the '" > 125 @ fluvial deposits -" Matuyama-Brunhes T6 c @ '" reversal between � T7 '" 100 terraces 4 and 5 = Reverse-polarity event '" T8 > I @ 0 Calabrian Ridge 1? = UndifferentiatedI � 9 '" 75 J T t;;"\ � Lower Palaeolithic '" \V W T1O @ '" 50 T11 CD Acheulian -----.L.T12 0(.'\ 25 80ka' T130 I T14

Mousterian Guadalquivir floodplain -25

c) Guadiana

75 Late Early

'" T1 Pleistocene -"> mammals c 50 '" T2 � '" Undaled T4 1 = @ '" 25 T5 � > Ihe T6 121±14ka o ;�����:� I �� �@ = Early Pliocene I '" Olduvan ______0 � __ CD '" l T Acheulian�-B 1 Guadiana '" I '" floodplaln Mousterian -25

Suggested marine oxygen isotope stage at time of formation @ (highly uncertain for older terraces)

Figure 8 Schematic composite transverse profiles across the terrace staircases of major rivers in Iberia. (a) The River Tagus and its tributaries upstream of Toledo and in the vicinity of Madrid (the Henares, Jarama and Manzanares); after Perez-Gonzalez (1 994), Santonja and Perez-Gonzalez (1997), Benito et al. (1 998), Silva et al. (1999) and Santonja and Perez-Gonzalez (2000-2001 ). Incision by the Tagus is thought to have begun in the Late Pliocene (Middle Villafranchian, biozone MN1 7; Perez-Gonzalez and Gallardo, 1987). (b) The Middle Guadalquivir between Cordoba and Sevilla, including data from Bujalance, Carmona and Campana; from Diaz del Olmo et al. (1 993) and Baena and Diaz del Olmo (1994). Along much of the Guadalquivir, incision began shortly after the Olduvai subchron (Baena and Diaz del Olmo, 199 7). However, in the Guad ix-Baza (Orce) Basin, now the uppermost part of the Guadalquivir catchment, stacked fluvial and lacustrine deposition continued until around the Early-Middle Pleistocene boundary (e.g. Martinez-Navarro et al., 1997). (c) The Guadiana (where much less incision has occurred), based on sites in the upper Guadiana: Guad iana (near Ciudad Real) and Zancara (near Alcazar de San Juan). From Portero (1988), Mazo et al. (1 990) and Perez-Gonzalez (1 994). The start of incision postdates the end of lacustrine deposition at the Valverde de Calatrava II mammal site, dated biostratigraphically to ca. 1.9-1 .5 Ma (Mazo, 1999). Some inconsistencies exist between the cited refere nces, indicating that fur ther work is needed and that the terrace schemes illustrated should not be considered definitive. For locations see Fig. 7 Henare, (Benito Et al., 1998). In the Guadalquivir, the earlie.t the Bilzing,leben 11 and Schooingen 11 deposit, and ofAzolla evidence of Acheulian po.tdate, the Matuyama-Brunhe, fllliculodes in Schooingen III (Bridgland Et al., 1997; 5chreve boundary(Dlaz del Olmo et al., 1989, 1 993; Baena and Dlaz and Bridgland, 2002; Fig. 9). Artefact, also occur in the del OImo, 1994; Fig. 8(b)). 5chooingen I deposits, in the form of ,mall flakes and flake­ Middle Palaeolithic (levalloi,or Moo.terian) ,ite, are mainly tool" in the company of burnt flint, from which Tl ages in caves, ,uch a, Atap400 ka have been obtained (Thieme, 2003). The archae­ level, (T011 in Gran Dolina) that are dated by E5R and U-,erie, ology from the Reinsdorfinterglacial (5choningen 11) includes to 33 7 ± 2 9 ka (F alguliresEt al., 1 99 9), or on the ,urface,of river wooden 'pears a, well a, 'cleft haft,'for 5IJpposed hafting of terrace,. The few record, of Moo,terian from fluvial context, ,tone point,. Once again the lithic, are dominantly ,mall include terrace, T13 (13-14m) and T14 (6--8m) of the (LPMT) and lack both handaxes and levalloi,. Guadalquivir, .....hich po.tdate calctBte, capping tetTace T12 IGCP 449 participant, have collected data from fu rther ea,t (Fig. 8(b)), that ha, a U-,eries age ofca. 80 ka (Dlaz del Olmo than these German ,ites, with valuable fluvial record, being Et al., 1989, 1993; Baena and oiaz del Olmo, 1994). In the reported from Bulgaria, the Czech Rep

Racineves, River Vltava, Czech Rep

H�".,.. ," �oI'��,� �"'Il 1 I1 ..

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Figur� 9 Sequ""",, cl; Quotern",y ",dimen\< expoit;(MI5 111. Moo ified from Fig. 1 ofThieme (20031. For locot",n ",e Fig. 1 180

160 Ctineves (Hykovina) slope deposits Scattered gravels (. Schotterbestreuu n g') 140 @ of uncertain age and origin @ ROVne (A) KrabCiCe (l) 120 @

ill > -cc 100 co ill

ill"' "'- ill > 80 0 .0 '"

ill"' '" 60 :2

Racineves 40 interglacial (Holsteinian)

20 @>

-20

Figure 10 Idealised transverse section through the terraces of the River Vltava at Mel nik (ca. 25 km north of Prague), Czech Republic, showi ng the stratigraphical position of the Racineves archaeological horizon. Modified from Tyracek et al. (2004). For location see Fig. 1

another of the central European LPMTassemblages, comprising one of the many LPMT assemblages from central and eastern cores, notches, kn ives, scrapers, wedges and hammerstones, all Europe (Moncel, 2003; above). Most of the 8890 artefacts are small and almost all made of Proterozoic Iydite; some are in flakes and modified flakes, although a few have been fresh condition, indicating a primary or near-primary context interpreted (e.g. Dobosi, 1990) as diminutive handaxes or (Tyracek et al., 2001; Fridrich and 5ykorova, 2003). Cut-marks 'proto-handaxes'. on some of the mammal bones provide further evidence of Like Racineves, the chronology of this key site has proved human occupation and activity. The small size and non­ problematical. Dobosi (2003) attributed the travertine to the Levallois characteristics of the artefacts have led to compari­ 'intra-Mindel' interglacial (MI5 13), between the Mindel l (? MI5 sons with the assemblages from other Middle Pleistocene 14) and the Mindel ll (MI5 12) cold stages (cf. Si brava, 1986), localities, such as Vertesszolos, in the Danube valley in whereas Moncel (2003) suggested that it dates from MI5 9, on northwest Hungary (see below), and Bilzingsleben II (see the basis of numerical ages (e.g. an E5R date of 333 ± 17 ka and above). Vertesszolos is undoubtedly older than the other two a U-series date of ca. 350 ka; Pecsi, 1990). As illustrated in sites, since it has yielded species characteristic of the late Fig. 11, the Vertesszolos deposits are assigned to terrace Vof Cromerian Complex (contra Moncel, 2003; see below). The the Tata River, which is thought to correlate with terrace Vof Racineves artefacts are also likened to the later, but similar, the Danube and has been assigned an early Middle Pleistocene LPMT assemblages from the Ilm sequence (Burdukiewicz and or 'GUnz' age (e.g. Pecsi, 1990). The site has a complex Ronen, 2003; see above). Nevertheless, it demonstrates that stratigraphy (Pecsi, 1990) but the fluvial/colluvial interbeds humans were active in central Europe by ca. 0.4 Ma (see also forming Tata terrace Vare ca. 35-45 m above present river level Vertesszolos, below). (Fig. 11), a position that is closely comparable to terraces of mid-Middle Pleistocene ages in other parts of Europe, such as the 50mme (Fig. 3). Vertesszolos, River Tata, Hungary Probably the best guide to the age of the Vertesszolos deposits comes from mammalian biostratigraphy. The traver­ The fossil and Palaeolithic assemblages from Vertesszolos are tine has yielded a number of mammalian species that are from travertine capping Terrace V of the Tata, a tributary of the believed to have become extinct in MI5 12, notably the vole Danube (e.g. Kretzoi and Vertes, 1965; Kretzoi and Dobosi, Pliomys episcopalis, the rhinoceros Stephanorhinus hundshei­ 1990; Fig. 11). Most of Hungary lies within the Pannonian mensis and the bear Ursus deningeri (Kretzoi, 1990; janossy, Basin, a major Late Cenozoic subsiding depocentre in which up 1990). Critically, the water vole is Arvicola cantiana (e.g. to 2000 m of sediment has accumulated since the earliest janossy, 1990), which further constrains the age to late within Pliocene, ca. 600 m of it during the Pleistocene (e.g. Ronai, the Cromerian Complex (cf. Preece and Parfitt, 2000). A final 1985; Gabris and Nador, in press). In contrast, Vertesszolos is in key indicator is the vole Microtus gregalis, which appears at northwest Hungary, which is uplifting, leading to terrace Vertesszolos only in the upper part of the travertine and in formation by the Danube and Tata (Fig. 11). overlying loess (Kretzoi, 1990; janossy, 1990). In southeast In addition to chert, quartzite and bone artefacts, the England this species is considered to have appeared in the latest Vertesszolos travertine has yielded human remains and Cromerian Complex (e.g. Preece and Parfitt, 2000), being abundant mammalian and molluscan fossi Is. It has yielded notably present at Boxgrove, a site that is attributed to MI5 13 Coastal wavecut Miocene terrestrial gravels platforms and capping ancient (7) Mesozoic Vertessz6116s palaeo-cliffs of subaerial land surface travertine, with Parathethys Sea Palaeolithic remains 50 and latest Cromerian Complex age fauna >350ka 40

� 30 m 190±45ka Terrace V a; '" Terrace III 20 Te rrace IV 10 @

kilometres I

� Sediments of Pannonian Basin • Travertine

m Triassic limestone I ..,"00"" I Gravel Ini-l Loess with palaeosols Figure 11 Transverse profile illustrating the terrace staircase morphology for the Danube and the Tata, its right-bank tributary, showing the stratigraphic position of the Vertessziiliis Palaeolithic site (northwest Hungary) and older landforms, including Miocene 'marine' terraces of the landlocked Paratethys 'Sea'. Modified from Gascoyne and Schwarcz (1982). For location see Fig. 1

(Roberts and Parfitt, 1999), perhaps MIS 13a (Westaway et al., fauna to date from around the Early to Middle Pleistocene in press). boundary (Ljubin and Bosinski, 1995; cf. Markova, 2005). At Gerasimovka, an assemblage of LPMTaffinity is derived from a coarse fluvial gravel, now 45 m a.s.l., related to the outlet spillway, known as the Manych palaeochannel, which The Caucasus and its surroundings connected the Caspian Sea to the Black Sea during highstands of the former (Praslov, 1995; Mitchell and Westaway, 1999). The earliest evidence of human occupation anywhere in Mammals from the gravel and overlying sand date the sequence Europe (in a broad sense) is provided by the well-documented to the Early to Middle Pleistocene transition. Dmanisi site in Georgia (e.g. Gabunia and Vekua, 1995; Gabunia et al., 2000; de Lumley et al., 2002; Fig. 1), in the Lesser Caucasus Mountains. Human remains in fluvial and volcanogenic deposits at this site are securely dated to ca. Discussion 1.8 Ma from Ar-Ar dating of stratigraphically underlying and overlying basalt flows and from magnetostratigraphy that establishes normal polarity, indicating the Olduvai subchron. The value of Quaternary fluvial sequences as contexts for This site adjoins the confluence of the Mashavera and Pinezauri Palaeolithic artefacts has long been appreciated. However, it is rivers, which now flow at a level ca. 90 m lower. Handaxes are only with better understanding of the Pleistocene climatic absent at this site, which is characterised instead by flake record, and by integration of data from different regions, that artefacts typically made of either lithified tuff or quartz, the full potential of this archive will be realised. Primary­ materials that were locally available in this volcanic region, context preservation is rare (although far from unknown) in either in situ or from fluvial cobbles (Ljubin and Bosinski, fluvial settings, but the quantity of artefacts recovered is often 1995). considerable and can represent an excellent demonstration of At Achalkalaki, further east in Georgia, Ljubin and Bosinski human presence and activity, from which patterns of human (1995) reported evidence from fluvial silt, in which abundant movement and occupation can perhaps be determined. More faunal remains suggest a butchery site, although only a single than this, distinctive lithic signatures might have stratigraphical flake artefact has been reported. They placed this site around significance (as trace fossils). Crucially, the fluvial stratigra­ the Early to Middle Pleistocene boundary from the faunal phical context can provide a valuable dating framework for evidence. There is abundant evidence of handaxe making in the regional interpretation and wider correlation of Palaeolithic Greater Caucasus from the later Cromerian Complex onwards, archaeology. From the selected datasets reviewed here, it is from cave sites such as Azych, Kudaro I and III and possible to make a number of broad and preliminary Treugol'naya (Ljubin and Bosinski, 1995), their interpretations statements. reinforced by mammalian biostratigraphy and geochronology The dating evidence now available, from cave sites as well as (Ljubin and Bosinski, 1995; Ljubin and Beliaeva, 2004; fluvial contexts, suggests that the earliest occupation of Derevianko and Petrine, 2004). The oldest site north of the southern Europe was diachronous; oldest in the east, at ca. western Caucasus is thought to be Cimbal quarry, Kurgan, in 1.8 Ma at Dmanisi in the Caucasus, but only ca. 1 Ma in Spain the Taman Peninsula (Ljubin and Bosinski, 1995; Fig. 1); a small (Fuente Nueva-3). Data from Kozarnika cave, in northwest number of flake artefacts has been found here in association Bulgaria, fits this pattern, since humans reached here by ca. with abundant mammal bones, some of which are broken, 1.4 Ma (Guadelli et al., 2005). As already noted, the oldest site apparently by butchery. This site is thought from the mammal in Italy, Monte Poggiolo (near Forli in Emilia-Romagna), is thought to date from around the Jaramillo sulxhron (e.g. with different lithic traditions, to be unravelled. Many of the Antonazzi et al., 1993); Pont-de-Lavaud (noted above) appears important sites are from non-fluvial environments, with cave to be of comparable age or slightly younger. This earliest sediments generally providing richer, better preserved and/or human population is represented by non-handaxe assem­ more readily dated assemblages of both artefacts and fauna. blages. The first evidence of handaxe-making in Iberia appears Cave deposits, however, occur in geographical and chrono­ around the Matuyama-Brunhes transition (Fig. 8(a)). The logical isolation within the geological record. If they can be handaxe makers may well have crossed the Gibraltar Strait correlated, preferably by multiple means (cf. Bridgland et al., from Morocco, where the earliest Acheulian assemblages 2004a), with a regional fluvial record that extends through appear to date from the latest part of the Matuyama chron (see much ofthe Quaternary, their geological context will inevitably above). However, handaxe making is also evident in the Levant be enhanced. Beach deposits, which can also be repositories by 1.4-1.2Ma (Bar-Yosef, 1998), presumably the route by for archaeological data, can also form part of lengthy which handaxe makers reached the Caucasus, and in India by Quaternary sequences, but are of course restricted to coastal 1.2 Ma (Petraglia et al., 1999). Handaxes appeared in France in regions. Fluvial records can extend the contextual framework MI5 15-14 (e.g., Carpentier Quarry (?) and the Freville into continental interiors. Formation in the Somme) and in southern England in MI5 13

(e.g. Boxgrove, Waverley Wood). Acknowledgements The efforts of the many participants in IGCP 449 A related issue concerns the possibility of human migration whose work has been cited, but who are not authors of this review, are across the central Mediterranean Sea from Tunisia into Sicily gratefu lly acknowledged. This paper is a contribution to IGCP 518, the and southern Italy. Early Middle Pleistocene archaeological follow-up to 449. We thank the Royal Society and the Geological sites in southern Italy, such as Notarchirico near Venosa in Society of London for funding UK participation in IGCP 449. IGCP 449 has ended, but its work continues within the new project IGCP Basilicata (a fluvial site, River Ofan to, dated to 640± 40 ka 518 'Fluvial sequences as evidence for landscape and climatic evolution in from associated volcanic tephra; Piperno and Tagliacozzo, the Late Cenozoic' (which began in 2005 and again has an archae­ 2001) provide evidence of handaxe-making, whereas at ological subtheme) and within Focus 1 of the Fluvial Archives Group contemporaneous sites further north, such as Isernia La Pineta (FLAG). (also dated to ca. 600 ka; e.g. Minelli and Piretto, 2005; Fig. 1), there is no evidence of handaxe-making and only flake artefacts are known. In contrast, the LPMT assemblages that characterise eastern References and central Europe during the Middle Pleistocene, at sites such as Vertesszolos, Racineves, Schoningen and Bilzingsleben, as well as Pogrebya in eastern Moldova (anczont and Madeyska, Achi lli A, Rengo C, Magri C, Battaglia V, Olivieri A, Scozzari R, 2005), suggest the presence of a distinct tool-making repertoire Cruciani F, Zeviani M, Briem E, Carelli V, Moral P, Dugoujon L in that region. Roostalu U, Loogvali E, Kivisild T, Bandelt H, Richards M, Villems R, After the introduction of handaxe technology into western Santachiara-Benerecetti AS, Semino 0, Torroni A. 2004. The mol­ Europe at ca. 600ka, it can be envisaged that, in response to ecular dissection of mtDNA haplogroup H confirms that the Franco­ climatic cyclicity, the limits of human occupation would have Cantabrian glacial refu ge was a major source for the European gene repeatedly fluctuated northward and southward and also pool. American Journal of Human Genetics 75: 91 0-918. eastwards and westwards. During glacial maxima, populations Antoine P. 1990. Chronostratigraphie et environnement du Pa!eolithi­ can be presumed to have retreated southward to refugia in que du basin de al Somme. Publications du Centre d'Etudes et de southern France and Iberia, returning north when conditions Recherches Pn§historiques 2: Lille. Antoine P. 1994. The Somme Valley terrace system (Northern France): a were less hostile. Presumably something similar was also model of river response to Quaternary climatic variations since occurring in the non-handaxe-making populations of central 800,000 B.P. Terra Nova 6: 453-464. and eastern Europe, with the refugia located in the Balkans. Antoine P, Limondin-Lozouet N. 2004. Identification of MIS 11 Inter­ Evidently, Britain lay close tothe limit typically reached by both glacial tufa deposit in the Somme valley (France): new results from populations, thus explaining the alternation of handaxe and the Saint-Acheul fluvial sequence. Quaternaire 15: 41-52. non-handaxe assemblages in the archaeological record of Antoine P. Tuffreau A. 1993. Contexte stratigraphique, climatique et southern England (cf. Breuil, 1932; Wymer, 1968; White and paleotopographique des occupations acheuleennes de la moyenne Schreve, 2000), a plausible consequence of the wider European terrasse de la Somme. Bulletin de la Societe du Prehistoire de France picture. This pattern of cycl ic retreat of populations into distinct 90, 243-250. Antoine P, Lautridou J-p, Laurent M. Long-term fluvial archives in southwest- and southeast-European refugia has an analogue in 2000. NW France: response of the Seine and Somme rivers to tecton ic the movement of the population of modern humans during the movements, cl imatic variations and sea-level changes. Geomorphol­ last glaciation, as revealed by molecular genetics (e.g. Achilli ogy33, 1 83-207. et al., 2004; Rootsi et al., 2004). Antoine P, Auguste P, Bahain JL Coudret P, Depaepe P, Fagnart JP, Falgueres C, Fontugne M, Frechen M, Hatte C, Lamotte M, Laurent M, Limondin-Lozouet N, Locht JL, Mercier N, Moigne AM, MunautAV, Ponel P, Rousseau DD. 2003a. Paleoenvironnements pleistocenes et Conclusions peuplements paleolithiques dans le bassin de la Somme (Nord de la France). Bulletin de la Societe prehistorique Fran�aise 100: 5-28. Antoine P, Coutard J-p, Gibbard P, Hallegouet B, Lautridou J-p, Ozouf The review of fluvially based evidence for early human J-c. 2003b. The Pleistocene rivers of the English Channel region. 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