158

CHAPTER VII

Comparison of Cultures

The cultural horizons ami sequences of the Upper Son Valley are compared with the other regions to know their positions in the development of Stone Age Cultures* However, ft must not be forgotten that the industries of various regions were more or less in­ fluenced by the local factors: the environment, geology f topography, vegetation, climate and animals; hence some vsriitions are bound to occur in them*

The comparison is first made with industries within India and then with those outside India.

i) Within India • Punjab

Potwar The Potwar region, which lies between the Indus and Jhebm, including the Salt Range, was examined by Oe Terra and Pater son. The latter has recently published a revised 2 stuiy of the cultural horizons.

1. De Terra, H., and Paterson, T.T., 1939, Studies on the Ice Age in India and Associated Human Culture, pp.252-312 2. Paterson, T.T., and Drummond, H.J.H., 1962, Soan,the Palaeolithic of Pakistan. These scholars had successfully located six terraces (Including TD) in the Sohan Valley: "nowhere else in the Potwar is the leistocene history so well recorded as along the So&n Hiver and its tributaries.w The terraces TD and TI placed in the Second Glacial and Second Inter- glacial, respectively fall in the Middle Pleistocene, terraces ? and 3 originated in Third Glacial and Inter- glaual period. Th succeeding terrace viz., T4 has bean connected with the Fourth Glacial period. The last terrace - T5 - belongs to Post-glacLal and Holacene time.

The oldest artifacts are located in the Boulder Con­ glomerate and are placed in the earliest Middle Pleisto­ cene or Lower Pleistocene. The collection contains six flakes and two pebble tools, rill today this was known as 'Prc-Sohan' industry but now Paterson inclines to call it Lower Sohan A. The tools in Lower Sohan 3 are found from the high deposi tional surface of the Boul jer Conglomerate wti placed in the first phase of the Middle Pleistocene. The third cultural stage, called fMiddle Sohan A» is located on the highest deposit\onal terrace surface of the Boulder Conglomerate which belongs to the beginning of the second phase of the Middle Pleistocene. Middle Sohan B occurs in gravels of the second phase of the Middle

3. Paterson, T.T., and Drummond, H.J.H., 1962, Soan, the Palaeolithic of Pakistan., po. co-60

.. • • • • . • Pleistocene, The tools of the Upper Sohan divided into two phases, viz., Upper Sohan A and Upper Sohan B are found in the gravels of third glacial age (Terrace 2) and the basal gravels of the terrace 3 and dated to the first phase and the second phase of the Upper Pleistocene, respectively. The First Sohan industry comes from Dhok Pathan and the Fourth Glacial Age. "he Upp^r Glacton industry, classified into two groups, occurs in the basal gravel and in the Potwar Loess, a few f>et above the gravel. As It intervenes between the Upper Sohan A and Upper Sohan B, it is regarded as an intrusive culture. The Abbevillio-Acheulian and Acheulian artifacts sre dafd to the second phase of the Middle Pleisto ene and the second phase of the Uoprr Pleistocene and ailed 'Middle Stellenbosch1 and *Upper Stellenbosch', respectively. At Morgan the Acheulian tools are found a Ion? with the tools of the Upper Sohan and hence it is designated ris fUpp*r Sohan stellenbosch.

^he results of the Italian expeditions show that hand- axes, cleavers and pebble tools come from the same hori­ zon.

4. Paterson, T.T. and Crummond, H.J.H., 1962, Soan, the Palaeolithic of Pakistan, p. 92 5. Ibid., pp. 95 ff. 6. C-raziosi, P., 1964, Prehistoric Research in Worth- Western Punjab, pp. 13-47 The choppers of our collection made on rounded or oval pebbles, and generally having flat under surface cannot be compared with Sohanian choppers as the latter show a large flake scar on their surfaces, while the choppers of the Upper Son Valley have a few scars. Some chopping-tools and -H scolds may go with the similar tools of the Sohan. lllan and Acheullan handaxes are also comparable with the handaxes of all the three stapes of the Upper Son Valley. However, it must be mentioned that the industries of both the regions belong to two different trad: tions—chopper-chopDing-tool and handaxe and to completely different environmental features.

The microliths made of jasoer and flint were also picked up from the Potwar loess surface,' but details are not available and hence the comparison of these tools with similar ones cannot be made.

Beas and Bangan^a Valleys In the Banganga Valley near Guler, five terraces were traced by Lai. The first terrace having the height of 565 ft. from the river bed an-3 1964 ft. above

7. Krishnaswami, V.D., 1947, Stone Age India, A.I.. No.3, p. 22 1. Lai, B.B., 1956, Palaeoliths from the Bees and Banganga Valleys, Punjab, A.I.. Ho.l2, pv* 59-92 sta-level is formed by large-sized boulders, intermixed with medium to small sized sub-angular pebbles and over­ lain by reddish sandy soil. The tools were found mostly on th* surface. The terrace 2 with an height of 375 ft. from the river-level is constituted by the deposits of gravel and silt. PalaColiths were discovered from the nullah and the slope of

At Dehra on the river Beas, from a thick gravel-bee* of a terrace at the height of 115 ft. from the river- 1 vel, pal':coliths were discovered. 2 About the genuineness of some of the tools, doubts are raised because of the Bangaaga and Beas originate from the hi«rh Himalayas* C.A. Bur land, who investigated Cromer Baach, Norfolk, writes that he rot "hundreds of stones, there were some hundred and fifty that ware worth second examination - of thes<* twenty-three were of sufficient interest to bring- home Tor meditation." A$ter the discovery

2. Burland, C.A., 1950, The High level gravels: k com­ parison with Cromer Beach, SAAB, Vol. V, pp. 23 of Banganga and Beas tools, Desmond Clark showed from the evidence recovered from the Batoka gorge^ that rivers falling from a high altitude yield flaked-pebbles and flake-b removed by natural agencies. However, on this point, nothing can be «aid with certainty unless a de­ tailed re-exam!nation of these valleys is lone, but the association of higher altituie with these tools cannot be rale: out from our mind.

The choppers and chopning-tools cannot be compared with the similar tools of Upoer Son Valley. The discoidi of these Valleys are v^ry inferior. Ho specimen is comparable with the pebble-head ixes of Benganpia /alley. The \bbevillian handaxea also cannot be compared. lo^'ever, we fail to have a fair idea about the Acheullan hand­ le from the ire Wing and therefor* difficulty is f*cd in the comparison.

Sirsa Valley >en explored the area around tfalgarh on the river Slrsa, a tributary of the SutleJ. He located three terraces having heights of 70 ft., 40 ft. and 10 ft. and

3. Clark, J.D., The Natural "racture of Pebbles rrom Batoka Gorge, Northern Rhodesia, and its bearing on the Kafuan industries of -frica, 195 **, fPS* Vol. :nv, pp. 64-67

1. Jen, D., Halagarh Palaeolithic Culture, ...IM 1955,

V„l. 35, N0.3, Pp. 177-1*4 named them, Upper, Middle and Lower, gxcept latter, both of then are covered by gravel spread. The distinction between then is made on the n? ture of gravels. The Upper Terrace has cemented gravel, while the Lower unconsolidated and covered by thin layer of silt or clay* The tools discovered from this valley are made on fine grained ^uarzite. They fall into two groups: pebble tools «>ni flake tools. There is not much typological variation between the tools from the Upper and Middle terraces except that pebble tools appear to be slightly more frequent in the Upper terrace than in the Middle terrace and that the general workmanship of the tools from the Middle terrace.^

Prufer claimed to have fossil wood artifacts fron some sites , but in the absence of detailed description and illustration of these artifacts, noth ing can be said on their natur g tad relationship with palaeolithic tools.

Flakes having high angles with centered or simple unseated platforms are found, and there is no evidence of Levallolsian flakes.

These flakes may be compared with the flakes of the Upper Son Valley.

2. Sen, D., Nalagarh Palaeolithic Culture, **«!„. 1955$ Vol. 35, N0.3, PP. *2£x*ix 130 3. Ibid., P' iei Gujarat

In the Sabarmati Valley, Gujarat, the artifacts of -SA industry come from the gravel conglomerate, the junction of gravel and silt and the lower half of the silt. This industry contains choppers, chopping*tools, discoids, handaxes, cleavers and flakes. Both types of tools--cruder and fine*—made by 'stone hammer* and •cylinder ha rmer1 techniques are found from the bottom stratum—gravel conglomerate, and, therefore, the cultural evolution or technical development cannot be attested. :7ron rhe UpprT Son Valley the implements of this industry— though they are divided Into three stages—are found from the lower horizon; no specimen comes "rom the junction of gravel and silt or silt.

In discolds of the Upper Son Valley the working edge is formed by tht intersection of the sloping of both the sir faces but in two cases the working edge is formed by the st«ep flake scars removed 'Yom a side of the upoer surface with the flaked nearly olain under surface. These characteristics are also teen in Gujarat's specimens. The tools showing deep and big scars may be compared with the tools of our Stage I and II and some well trimmed tools may 166 be correlated with the tools of Stag* III.

So far no tools of MSA are found. Recently Soundara- rajan announced the discovery of some tools of this industry from a fine gravel deposit lying as a small terrace under thick deposits of loamy silt, but he himself said that only a very few in situ gravel patches existed there and the other-called disturbed— were lying in 'depressions.1 Hence the exact position of the in situ tools is doubtful. However, the illus­ trations anl the presence of the fluted cores suggest that these belong to the microlithic industry—perhaps of the later period.

The tools of this industry consisting points, borers, scrapers and flakes are found from Saurashtra. Its stratigraphical position is similar to the other regions of the peninsular India. This industry may b* correlated with the identical industry of the Upper Son Valley.

1. Sankalia, H.D., 1946, Investigations into Prehistoric Archaeology of Gujarat; Subbarao, B., 1952; Archaeological Explorations in the Mali Valley, JMSUB, Vol.1, pp. 33-72 2. Soundara Rajan, K.V., I960, Kiddle Stone Age Sites from Khaira District in Gujarat, JORIB, Vol.X, pp. 167-179 3. Sankalia, H.D. /9V ^^ P>& ^< 167

Microlithic industry of Gujarat Tha southernpart of Gujarat is partly formed by the recent alluvium of the rivers, while the northern and central are overlaid by a lar^e ieposit of wind-blown san 's. This loamy plains contain hundreds of microlithic sites. Of these, one site was excavated b Sankalia between 1941-49; by Subbarao in 1953 and by K.A.R. Kennedy in 1963.^ The microlithic deposit is divided into three p*rlods. Period I deposit lies b'low the buried soil and contains mlcroliths with most of -he human skeletons, animal remains and a few potsherds* Period II yields mlcroliths in association with iron and modern pottery. The striking feature of this industry is the presence of a large number of animal bones and some human skeletons. Here "the makers of the microliths sat on a sand hill, much as was the case in so many microlithic sites all over the world."5

Our microlithic industry is purely non-geometric and devoid of pottery and hence it may be compared only with the identical tools of the Langhnaj industry.

4* Sankalia, H.D., 1956, "The Microlithic Industry of Langhnaj, Gujarat," JGRS., Vol. XVIII, No.4, pp.275-S4; Sankalia, op.cit.. 1962, pp. 14 3-149; and some new information given by him. 5. Zeun-r, F.F., 1952, "The microlithic industry of Langhnaj," MAN. Vol.HI, p. 129 16

Ra jasthan

In no^th-west of Malwa and east of Gujarat is tht State of Rajasthan. The country Is iivided into two parts by the AravalU mountain ran^e. The -estern part of the \ravalli is almost waterltvt country consisting of sanis and stunted acacia, while the eastern part con­ tains more hills an 1 fertile Ian s.

In astern Rajasthan,the layers of gravel and silt form river-cliffs. he evidence of second cycle's sedi mentations was found at Bigod and half a mile down­ wards on the Banas and Chitargarh on the Berach. In western Rajasthan, only the ieposits of second cycle consisting of gravel and silt are founi.

Typologically the Upper Son Valley is similar to the SSA industry found in Rajasthan. However, the number of handsxes and cleavers are more in this region, because of the abundant raw material, "he notable element of SA industry of this region is the occurence of the fLevalloi- sian* "lakes wh3ch ^o not form a part of *Jie similar industry of our region. The other feature of this region

1. Misra, y.N., 1961, fThe Stone \ge Cultures of Rajputana , Ph.D. Thesis, Copies in the libraries of the Dec can College and the Poona University - ^he author also had to visit ''*gon and the Cambhiri and Berach rivers along with Dr. Ssnkalia in 1962. 169

is that handaxes and cleavers continued in the MSA industry, i'he rat tool-types of MSA of Hajasthan, mmely scrapers, borers, borer-scrapers ^nd points are similar to the tool'' of

Malwa

V#st of the Upper Son Valley and east of Gujarat is Mabfa, >here the river Chambal and its tributaries have been explored by Khatri. x^ept at Natergarh, the region provides similar strati pr^aphy. The collection made from her* contains handaxes, cleavnrs, scrapers, choppers, 2 chopping-tools—di^coids, cores and flakes. ''hey have been classified into three croups which correspond to our three staffs. B,jt the notable feature of this industry is 2 that a 11 the flakes have simple platform.

AllX the tool types, except point-cum-hollow scrapers, occurring in MSA industry of this region have their oarallels, in the collection of the Upper Son Valley.

1. Sankalia, H.J. and Khatri, A.P., 1957, Stone Ape Culture of Malwa, JPSI. Vol.2, pp. 163-139. Khatri, A.P., 1^57, Palaeolithic Industry of R.Shivna, BPCRI. Vol. 16, pp. 159-172 2. 195#, Stone Age Cultures of Malwa (C.India), Ph.D. Thesis, copies in the librarires of D.ccan College, Poona and Poona University The Microliths of Malwa, called 'Pre-Chalcolithic Bllcroliths, are non-geometric like the Upper Son Valley.

Madhya Pradesh

In this State only the detailed results of two valleys have been published.

Sonar Valley R.V. Joshi surveyed the Sonar basin lying between 7$° 45f and 79° 39' last Longitude and 24° 20f and 23° 15f North Latitude in Ssgar and D<*moh districts of Madhya Prad sh. The river Sonar rises in the north rn riige of the Vindhyas 9tnd merges into the Ken, a souther affluent of the Yamuna* The rivers Ken and Son with their tributa­ ries constitute the northern and southern irainage of the Vindhyas respectively.

Like the Upoer Son Valley, this region also has the deposits of two cycles. The M>bevillian and Acheulian implements are found from the bouldery-pebbly gravel layer, but they have been -iivided into stages on the basis of rolling, weathering and technique. and arly Acheulian tools are rolled nd therefore they are regarded earlier than the \?heulian tools* The industry f this region like the Uoper Son Valley contains choppers, chopping tools, handaxe, ovat*s, ehavers and flakes, 1 he faceted

1. Jo*i, 1961, opjcitt, pp. 5-36 platform flakes art absent in this industry. O^r tools of I, II and first phase of III are similar to the Abbe- villian, raid-Acheulisn and Late Acheulian tools of the Son: r Valley* The tools of the second phase of St ape III do not have their parallel in the E5A industry of this region. In MSA industry, botji the valleys have pronounced similarity es with each other.

The tools of MSA consisting of scrapers, points and flake-blades from the deposit of fine sand and coarse silt from Churhat and Marks ndeya Bridge found by him are repre­ sented in our collection.

Narbada Valley The Narbada rising on the summit of the Ajjprkantak plateau flows in a south-western direction, south of the Vindhyas. The stratigraphy and the Stone Age cultures of this river, specially between Jabalpur and Hoshangabid, have been examined by various scholars; but so far no unanimous observations on the stratigraphy are available, obviously because of the omplexity of the area.

De Terra divided the stratigraphy into three groups. The first group which rests on laterite consists of a gravel conglomerate and pink silt—the latter =>t the top. It is followed by the Upper Group constituting gravel and pink silt with an unconformity st the base. The third group is composed of fine gravel and black soil.

K^tri pointed out that the conglomerate lay against the ba«al red greasy clay, but in a recent excavation carried out by 3hri ••?« Suoekar of the Deccan Collere, It has been found that the gravel do^s not rest a pa Inst the red greasy clay but underlies it.

Ls i'erra sn i Paterson found Abbevillian and Acheulian tools and flake* with prominent bulb, mo tly highly rolled from th travel conglomerate; and a few unrolled flakes and fr**sb \rh^ulian bifacial tools from the succ »diag silt; an'* rollfd flakes and most toolr, which ?,o in 'late 3oan industry' from both the ieponits. The rolled \cheLi­ lian haniaxes obtained from the travel of the Upper Group are r warded to have -ome from th lower b*ds nnu reds- posited here. he larfre flakes with prominent bulb are taken 'as the reminiscent of the ?re-3oan industry.' The beds of both the groups yield Mjddle Pleistocene fauna.

H0wever, th* flakes ^omine from th- basal gravel described

2. De Terra and Paterson, op.cit.t Dp. 313-326 3. Khatri, A P., 1961, Stone Ape and Pleistocene Chronology of the Narmada Valley (Central India), Aqthropos. Vol.56, pp. 519-530 5. De Terra and Peterson, op.cit., p. 316 by Oe Terra seems to be •« part of the same handaxe culture'^ and the tools obtained from the gravel III are not identical -with the arfcifacta of the Late 3ohan.^

The flakes -and tools of the first stage of the Upp*r Son Valley may be correlated with the tools of the basal gravel and th tools of Sta^e III with the fccheulian hanuaxes of pebble gravel, Th<» tools of MSA can b- compared with he similar tools discovered from the .hslcedony gravel.

Uttar Pradesh

In the south-eastern part of this province is the district of Mirzapur where th*4 flat alluvial plains caused by the Ganges and its tributaries by washing the Himalayas are m t with the formations of the Vindhyans. Its southern part, whi *h omes in the mid-valley of the river Son was examined by Zeuner and his party •

Southern part of Mirzapur Like ohe upper part, the raid-part of the Son Valley- reveals deposits of two cycles. The bottom gravel con­ tains the tools of CSA, but unlike the upper part, the

6. Sankalia, op« cit>» 1962, p. 54 7. Ibid., p. 53 17*4 succeeding gravel is unimplementiforous, where it yields tools of MSA. The notable factor is that no tool of this cultural ohsse is found from this area. However, nearly •11 the tool-types of the Singrauli basin have their parallels in its upper part; the 'true Levalloisian flake1 of the ISA of this area ioes not occur in our collection.

The microliths, devoi 3 of pottery, were found four f*»et below the Upper alluvium made mainly of quartz along the southern bank of Balia nadi near K©ta unlike our area where they are predominantly made of chert. In the Upp?*r Son Valley, they occur an open surface of river banks and hills except at one place Kusarwar on the bank of Chundi nadi embedded in the alluvium deposit. except backed blades ani lunat s, all the tool types of this industry occur in our collection. Till various types of scrapers of the mierolithic industry of the Upper Son Valley are not found from this part. However, the microlithc Industry of our region seems to be contemporary with that of niraapur.

Bihar

Southwards, part of Bihar has the well-known Chota Naz^ur plateau consisting of the rocks of Archaean period occasionally meeting with the formations of Lower and Upper

1. Kris maswaml, V.D., and 3undara Rajan K.V., op.cit.. 1951, pp. 40-65 17S

Gondwana fornations. On its southern fringe is tha district of Singhbhum.

Singhbhum This district is entirely covered by the Archaean rocks consisting of quartzite, ^uartzitic sandstone, jasper etc. and three small outcrops of granitic genesis, two in the east and one in the south. Laterite occurs in many places.

D, Sen and one of h's pupils exolored Chaibasa and it? neighbourhood. On the left bank of Raro, a tributary of Kharfaal, tfiey locat d three terras* at t he height a of 60 f~., 40 ft., and 20 ft. r spectively.

The last terraca is younger one made of recent allu­ vium, but both the former are old and covered by travels* The surface of the top terra ve it places is covered by a chin layer of yellow soil and an underlying layer of muruffl. Mostly too tools are obtained from the top terrace, but a few from the second and third terrace which a re rolled and weathered. They went farther to -h ck up the stratigraphy,

• . * -. 1. S^n, '• and Ghoah, A.K. I960, On the occurence of

Palaeoliths In Singhbhum, M.ltl Vol. 40, No.3, p*>* 170.191 176 visited a quarry which axhibittd the following succes­ sion: 1. fallow sandy soil 2. Hod murum soil 3. Smaller gravel bed

4* 3Qulder bed 5. 3teatite bed

The industry revealed by them includes chopper, chopping-tool, scraper., cleavers ani and Acheulian handaxes^an be compared with the oarly Zfn* latter Stone A^e tools of Upper Son Valley.

>*onghyr

In 1959, !*K« B0se and others discovered six ^SA tools from the surface near Bhimbandh in this district* The line drawings and descriptions of the tools indi­ cate their resemblance with some of the tools of &3A of the Upper Son Valley.

Wg«t Bengal

The district of Bankura in West Bengal is the meeting place of the plains on the east and the Chota

lt Bose, N.K, I960. Palaeoliths from Monghyr district.

Bihar, M.It. Vol,40, pp. 63-75 177

Nagpur plateau on the west. D. Sen and his team explored this district*1 It is divided into two parts. The first consists Dwarakeswar Valley and the other Ratal*

Dwarakeswar Valley In this Valley, SSA tools are found from the detrital laterite with gravels which rests on the bed­ rock and capped by recent soils. At no place in the river-cliffs of the Upper Son Valley, the laterite or detrital laterite occur, and therefore the tools of ;SA come from the cemented or slightly consolidated coarse travels.

Kasai Valley More or less the same picture is *een in this part. The detrital laterite, 1n *ome places, is overlaid by a thin layer of unimplimentiferous pravel? in ferrugi­ nous matrix and in turn followed by a yellowish loamy soil.

Purulia Krishnaswami claims to have discovered some tools of mk from the Kasai Valley in this district, but Sankalia

1, en D., Ghosh* A.i. and Chatterjee, M., 1963, Palaeolithic Industry of Bankura, W*tt Bengal, MJ. VoU 43, No«2, pp. 100-lia. 178 who personally saw this collection, thinks that thty belong more to the microlithic tradition.

The microlithic industry of this region is basically geometric and hence it is uncomparable with the industry of the Upper Son Valley,

Bur d wan The Chota Nagour plateau extends into the wast of Burdwan district. Here, near the Durgapur Railway Station at Birbhan- pur, one small excavation was done by B.B. Lai vfoich re­ vealed a microlithic site. The top of the layer consisting of lateritic gravel with stone fragments was like the land surf act over which the microlithic man lived. The second layer consisting of earth mixed with coarse granules yielded the mi otoliths—the main bulk jam e from che ltwor part of this deposit—and in turn followed by another lay r of sandy light brown earth.

This industry is regarded as non-geometric because of the absence of typical geometric forms like triangles and trapeses. Like Mirzapur microlithic industry, the industry of this place is mostly on (parts, but in the Upper Son Valley the main raw material used for this industry is chert. CV use of quartz in the microlithic industries of to'rzapur *nc Birbhanpur seems to be responsible for the poor >orkman- ship of ^he tools. tifcOtaer this reor'sents an altogether different tradition from the microliths of the Upper -on Valley, or whether it should be attributed to the new material remain? to be investigated*

However, except lunates, all the tool types o<* this industry occur in the similar collection of the Upper Son Valley.

Or! ssa

In the southeast of our region lies the State of

c Ori«sa. Here, from 193 onwards, N.K# Bose and his colleagues made Kuliyana their centre of investigation, in the district of MayurbhanJ. r>om the laterite pits, locally known as gusi kadanh, a large number of artifacts were taken out ani many implements encrusted with l-)te- rir.e matrix lay on the surf?^e« The latter in fact were derived from the underlying laterite. The Kuliana industry Tti« mainly • CO re-industry with an important addition of pebbles nd small admixture of flakes with high flaking angle and prepared or unifac ted striking platforms," K©st of the hsndaxes, except a few which are Acheulian, are made by f block-on-bloek' or 'St.on hammer1 technique* From the boulder-conglomerate lyin?r over "lay or later!t e

1, Bore, N.K.. and Sen, D. 194$, xcavations in Kayurbhanj Bose N.K., Sen D. and Ray G., 195S, Geological and Cultural -vi Jences of the "tone Age in Mayurbhanj, M.I,. Vol. 3*. pp. 49-55 and capped by a huge deposit of alluvium, the crude pebble tools end bifaces were obtained. "These are comparable with the so-called pebble tools and may be said to belong to the same facias as the pebble tools from our river sections and those from Africa or else- where."

A£ter*».irds a more extensive survey was made by Mohapatra. The results have been recently published. He has established the succession of three cycles. The B3A tools came *"rom the ooarse gravel layer and the detrital laterite, while the tools of K3A come from the fine gravel layer assigned to second and third wet phases respectively.

In the Upper Son Valley the tools ire not found from the laterite; however, the first and second gravels yield, like Crissa, the tools of .3A and MSA. Both the regions represent the tools made by 'block-on-blook* or 'stone- hammer1 technique, and the later evolved •cylinder- hammer' technique. No chopper or chopping tool occurs in Mohapatra's collection. However, unlike the Upoer Valley of the Son, cleavers and handaxes are in abundance.

2. Mohapatra, S.C., 1962, The Stone \ge Cultures of Orissa In Orissa, "thara is no evidence to show that the authors of this culture knew the making of prepared platform flakes." This technique ended there in the succeeding culture, except burins, all the tool types of Oris sa are represented

The collection of mi^roliths from Orissa is very small and therefore they do not represent the various types of scraper^as are seen in our collection. Backed- blades and burins of this industry are not found from the Upp*r Son Valley. The remarkable feature is that both the industries ara non-geometric and devoid of pottery*

Aftdhra

Andhra Pradesh whiah lias to the srath of Orissa provides tae relic3 of Stone Age rom three of its districts, Kurnool, Guntur and N el lore. The former has been fully explored by Isaac.

Isaac located t iree gravels each followed by silt, in this district.

1. Isaic N., I960, The Stone Ape Cultures of Kurnool, Ph.D. Thesis, copies in the libraries of Demean College and Poona Jniversity Kuraool The tools of the C3A come from river Travels as well as detrital laterite. The remarkable feature of the ISA Industry of this district is the pebble tools which form a out 40$ of the total collection. Isaac ha? iivid*d the tools or this region into thr e stages like the Upper Son Valley, Series II tools of this district can be compared with the tools of the MSAf but Series III is unparalleled a* it corresponds to the (Jpp^r Palaeolithic culture. The microlithic industry of this arcs xmists of geometric ~nd non-geometric forms, vh'le th#» Vpp* r Son Valley has non- peom^tr1 - shape?,

Ountur In the district of Ountur two valleys.. Krishna at Marparjunakonia anr? Napulrru near KarempucL >.'ere nvesti-

Krishna Valley K,V. Souniarsjan2 discovered thr e tool? in ?itu. one from the third gravel and the rest two from the 'lowest gravel or th* next.1 About the exact location of these two tools, h* has left us *n the dark.

2, Souniararajan, K.V., 195?, Stuiies n the Stone Afe or Na^arjunakonda and it? Neighbourhood, \I» ,^o»l/»* pv. 40-113 18a

In his paper a picture of only two cultures— LoT*er Palaeolithic and Upper Palaeolithic is presented and not or the Middle Palaeolithic. Moreover, the tools assigned to the Upper Palaeolithic are surface-finds nd, therefore, they may be rightly transferred to the Middle and the Late Stone Ages.

Phi Abbevillian handaxes, pebble tools and Clacto- nian flakes of Nagarjunakonda may correspond to our Stage I tools. Neater artifacts with a thinner section showi'np the s-'cond steo of development may harmonize with the tools of Stajre II. The tools of Stage 112 may be correlated with the advanced Acheulian tools. No true Levalloislan flake is foun*? prom the Upper Son. Some tools of the Jppt r Palaeolithic of this place may b^ com­ pared with our MSA tools. i»ikt tha Upper Son Ladustry, the micro lit hi of Hagarjunakoada are non-seometri;; *nd except burins and backed blakee, all xh t types ^re repre­ sented in our collection.

Nellore Frank x>. Manley of the American Baptist ' -lupu Mission collected tools from Nellore :istrict and on his invita­ tion, F.H. Gravely and A. Aiyappan visi ted various sites

1 1# Nos. 5 to 7 are described as 'crescentic tools, but as the illustrations show, they da not have the form of a crescent • 1

of this district. The latter compiled the result of his strati graphical investigation and typological examina­ tion.2

Most of the tools are round from the hill slopes, fields and forests and others from the gravel layer, and mud bank of the streams, :1ay pits, bed of a tank yielding late- rite and laterite gravel pits. But we do not know whether the tools rtiscover*d in situ were from the loose laterHo or hard laterite and furth-r the later!tic matrix on the surf.-* ?e of the tools may not nrove their existence in in 3J.tu laterite or primary laterite.

The classification of the tools has been done on the nature of patination. In clas ifyinp the tools of the BSA of the Upper Son Valley, only the techniques are considered, as the division on the basis of patiaation is not often dependable.

The industry consists of choppers, chopping-tools, diecoida, Abbevfllian and Acheulian handaxes, cle overs and aerapera. These tools may be compared w*th the similar tools of tht Sa of the Upper Son Valley.

2. Afyappan, A., The Manley Collection of Stone Age Tools, M.A.S.I.. No. 6S 18*

Slnct the blades, burins, awls and soma scrapers are found from the surface, it Is difficult ta place them In an exact chronological place.

Madras

Around Madras, Patersonx and Krishnaswami worked to exhibit the picture of Stone Age Cultures* Here the primary laterite was cut by rivers and covered by boulder conglomerate and the latter in turn was capped by detri- tal laterite. This horizon was eroded and the result was the formation of three terraces at Vadamadurai. The tools of first group consisting of Abbevillo-Acheulian tools are said to have come from the boulder conglomerate, while the mid-Acheulian wart found from the succeeding laterite deposit and the Late Aeheulian from the post-laterite horizon.

At attrampakkai^i a large number of Aeheulian handaxes is claimed to have been discovered from th* basal laterite gravels of terrace two. A few cords and flakes which are

1. Da Terra and Paterson, op. cit.. 1939, pp. 327-330 2. Krishnaswami, V.D., 1936, i-nvironmental andCultural changes of Prehistoric Man near Madras, GMGA, Vol. XITI, No.I, po. 5£-90 fresh were discovered from th^» overlying silt layer. The Vaal t*chni *ue of South Africa is observed in the cleavers made on flakes showing parallelogram section• The Levalloisian-like flakes having faceted platform and much primary flaking on the upp^r surface were picked up from the top of the loam.

The handaxes of the Upper 3on Valley grouped into three stages correspond to the similar classification of the Madras industry. One cleaver of our collection shows Vaal technique; the rest may be similar to the U- and V-shaped cleavers founJ from these localities. However, no •Levalloisian flake* occurs in our collec­ tion.

Tinnevelly Microlithic Industry The microlithic industry of this place 1s studied by Zeuner and Allchin ani the former presents a geological picture of this region, in relation to the microlithic industry.

During the dry climate when the sea level was nearly 20 to 30 ft. higher than at present, because of wind acti­ vity terls or sand-dunes and lagoons were formed and microlithic people occupied them. "Following the forma­ tion of dune-sand and lagoons, weathering occurred and this was followed by a second phase of wind-activity. The latter nay be equated with the recent or sub-recent phase, which is also represented by the modern lagoon. Between it and the earlier phase, therefor*, the weather­ ing intervened, and it corresponds thus to a drop of the sea-level from 20 ft, to sero, or ven to a nega­ tive oscillation.w*

Except Kulath^r industry, which is geometric, the microliths of other sites are heavily patina ted and hence called Tinnevelley Peri Industry. This industry is tentatively dated 4000 B.C., hoping to take it back into the Pleistocene by further scientific research.

The industry includes blade-flakes, blades, backed blades, obliquely blunted blades, hollow-scrapers, concave-scrap< rs, side-scrapers, end-scrapers, thumb­ nail scrapers| simple points, asymmetrical ooints, uni- facial points, bifacial points, lunates, transverse arrowheads, triangles, chopoing-tools and cores.

1. Zeuner, F.E. and Allchin, Bridget, 1956, The Micro lithic Sites of Tinnevelley District, Madras State, A.I.. 12, pr>. 4-20 2. Ibid.. 188

The microlithic collection of the Upper Son Valley exhibits points, borers, borer-scrapers, various types of scraprrs, simple and used blades, flakes, fluted and simple cores, but not lunates. However, the Tinnevelly industry appears to have been more advanced than the U^per Son*

Mysore

Mysore has been explored at some places*

» Malaprabha basin This valley was systematically surveyed by Joshi. The main raw material is fine grained iuartzito of various colours* The collection consists of Abbovilllan, Achau- lian tools and a few Levalloisian flakes. The Acheulian tool* are in a majority* The Abbevillian and Acheulian artifacts closely resemble our tools of Stage I and III* The artifacts showing deep and shallow scars of the Mala­ prabha valley may be compared with the tools of Stage II of the Upper Son Valley* The Levalloisian flakes do not have their parallel in our collection. Unlike the Upper ^on Valley, the cleavers are found from the region in good number. N0 cleav r of the Upper Son Valley has

1* Joshi, R.V., 1955, Pleistocene Studies in the Malaprabha Basin 189 concave edge. The high percentage of well-trimmed handaxes and cleavers aid the presence of the Leva- llotsian flakes, in spite of the occurence of huge cores, choppers, core-scrapers and discolds of the Malaprabha industry appears more advanced than the Upper Son Valley industry.

Kibbanthalli From this place in the district of Tumkur, a palaeolithic industry has been reported by Seshadri. It contains a collection of ii verse elements such as Abbevillian and Agheulian handaxes, cleavers, choppers and chonping tools of the aSA along with side and 2 hollow scrapers, points and blades of the MSA -—the latter might be a re-deposit. All these tools can be compared with the tools of ESA and MSA of the Upper

Son Vtliey. M3A Industry In 1956, Seshadri held that 'the microlithic period must be regarded as an immediate successor to the vast period of industries of Lower Palaeolithic aspect.1^

2. Seshadri, M., 1955, the Palaeolithic Industry of Kibbanahalli, Mysore State, AA^, Vol.XVIII, pp.271-37

3. Seshadri, M.t 1956, The SJrone-using Culture of Pre­ historic Mysore, p. 21d But in the next year an intervening culture between the Lower Palaeolithic and the Microlithic was revealed by Banerjee from North Karnstak which we call "Karnatak Nevasian" . Again in 1960-61 the tools of this industry were discovered from Bijapur district.' These include points, scrapers, borers, cores and flakes as in the Upper Son Valley.

Bellary Recently Sankalia and his colleagues carried out excavations at Sanganakal with a view to reexamining the earliest phase yielding microliths of ^uartz along with patinated trap flakes revealed from a small exca- 7 vation of Subbarao on the Sannarasamma hill.

Un^er the neolithic habitation they found two cultural horiaons; one from blackish soil consisted of scrapers, lunates, cores and flakes of chert and quarts and the other a reddish murrum formed by disintegrated granite. In this layer were choppers, cores, flakes and

4* Banerjee, op. cit.. 1957, ??• 218-260 5. IAR.. 1960-61, p. 64 6. Sankalia, H,D., 1965, Prehistoric Migrations in South India, The Times of India, Feb. 23 7. Subbarao, B., 19W, Stone Age Cultures of Bellary 191 blades of basalt* Sankalia feels that the earlier Industry "resembles in technique and type the tools made by the &arly and Middle Stone Age-men.11 However, the occurence of the blades takes this Industry nearer to the MSA rather than 2SA*

So far there is nothing in the Upper Son Valley to compare with th*» stratigraphical and cultural mani­ festation*

Jalahalli Microllthic Industry Todd in 1946 collected microliths from the surface of the hill* Ho also got some microliths below a layer of black soil in a reddish murrum described by him as g "pellatic laterite#w A<* in Bellary, this layer also seems to be disintegrated granite.

This Industry Includes points, triangles, lunates, transverse arrowhead, burins, scrapers and flakes, )x- r?ept burins and lunates all the tool-types are represented in the microlithic industry of the Upoer Son Valley.

Maharashtra

Geographically this State is divided into two parts, the Deccan plateau and the Konkan* The former contains rich relics of Stone Age Cultures.

g. Todd, K.R.O., 194S, "A Microlithic Industry in Eastern Mysore,• Man, March, Vol* XLVIII, pp. 2S-30 19

Deccan Plateau The God a vary Basin. The Deccan Plateau, which is formed by the lava, was inhabited by Sarly Man is testified by finds from Haslk, Akola and Nevasa.

At Gangapur near Nasik in the upper reaches of the Goiavari. the brownish clay is laid over the basal rock because of the presence of hollows there. On this layer, two gravels and silts r?st as in the Upper Son Valley.

At Akola and Vite which are also in the higher reaches of its tributary, the Pravara, a thick deposit of rubble­ like gravel directly lies over the basal rock and is in turn 2 capped by silt. However, these deposits belong to first aggradatJonal cycle which la equivalent to first two depo­ sits—the first gravel and silt—of our region.

The Pravara was further examined at Nevasa where three gravels and two silts were found in a section near Hathi (Elephant) well. Ahe gravel I yielded the tools of i3A and gravel II and III tools of MSA which were called

Series II by Sankalia. As there is no intervening layer

1. Sankalia, op.cit., lr62, y>p. 43-44; UR, 1959-60, pp.29-30 2. Sankalia and others, op. cit., I960, p. 52£ 3. Sankalia, op.cit.. 1956, pp. 35-52; Sankalia and others, op. cit., I960 between gravel II and III and the latter deposit is much finer in nature, R.V. Jjsbi thinks that possibly they represent one cycle of aggradation with coarser fades at the bottom."^ Hence the gravel I and gravels II-III may be compared with gravels first and second of the Upper Son Valley.

The GoJavari industries are well dated on palaeon- tolopicsl evidences. The earliest culture which comes from the first gravel along with the fossil of Bos namaclcus is placed in the Mid-Pleistocene, while its succeeding Culture—M3A from the gravel II being asso­ ciated with the fossil of Bos namadicus Falconer of the fam-5 period but regarded as a survival of the species as 'in a horizon a new age is h< raided," is assigned to the Upper Pleistocene.*

At Gangapur, cleavers, flakes, scrapers, chopping and chopping-tools along with a few highly advanced Acheulian tools were di scovered from the "top of the lower-most reddish clay , at the junction of the clay and overlying gravel and in the gravel itself."

4. Joehi, op. cit.. 1*261 f p. 21 5. Sankalia and others, op, cit.. I960, p. 105 6. UR, 1959-60, pp. 29-30 194

The flakes shewing essentially bifacial working predominate in this industry. The cleavers of all types are found in good number* i'he side scrapers and choppers obtained from here are considered as a 'special feature oi the Godavari industry.1 A few handaxes along with ha ran rstones or round balls are also found. The latter is notable for its non-occurence in the other collections o o" India, except Bina in the district of Sagar. These have been also fbund from an excavated site in Northern Rhodesia, Africa. No such specimen is found from the Upp*r Son Valley. The tools of all the three stages of the Upper Son Valley have their parallels in the coll ction of this valley*

The tools of MSA discovered from this region, named •Nevasian1 by K.D. Ban*rjee, are represented in our industry. The Microliths consisting of fluted and ir­ regular cores, parallel sided blades and scrapers, except lunates, 1? observe the similarity with the mlcroliths of the Upper Son Valley.

7. S,nkalia, H.D., 1952, The ttodavarl Palaeolithic Industry, p.12 g. Sankal ia and others, op.cit... I960, pp. 76-101 9. Sankalia, op.cit., 1962, p. 45

10. Clark, J*'d.% 195°, Further Excavations at Broken Hill, Northern Rhodesia, JtAI, Vol.89, PT>* 208-10 11. Banerjee, K.D., 1957, The Middle Palaeolithic Industries of the Deccan, Ph.D. Thesis, copies in the libraries of Deccan College and Poona University Other rivers The other rivers of the Deccan plateau as the Mula at Poorm, * the Bhima at Pandharpur,1** Sholapur district, the Taptl in th* 'Vest Khandesh district15 and the Wardha in Chanda district repeat more or less the same history noticed at Gangapur and Nevasa. The striking characteristic of hese streams is that the^r collections contain mostly cleavers, unlike the Upper Son Valley,

** Konkan - Bombay Aye a From 1949£ol960, at least thrice Sankalia visited Bombay area round Borivili and Khandivili an^ in a nala at Khan davill, noticed two sections composed of two main deposits, showing from bottom upwards: cemented gravel and silt—sand and gravel—a re-wash on the top. H0wever, no tool* of S,Sk were found from this area; the tools discovered from the bssal travel under the bridge, the ©veryling silt anc3 sand, and the rubble travel and its junction with the top humus or blackish soil, really come in the succeeding

12. Sankalia and others, oo.cit.. I960, p. 528; Sankalia, o-.cit.. 1962, p. 140; IAR, 1949-60, p.29 13. UR» 1957-58, p. 67 14. Ibid.. 1956-57, p. 78 15. Ibid., 195?-59, p. 24 16. Ibid.. 1960*61, p. 22 culture. ' The tools of this industry, except burins on the basis of raw material and technique, can be correlated with the same industry of the Upper 3on Valley.

Geometric but predominantly non-geometric microliths irt 19 are found from Bombay*0 and Satara districts. except burins, backed blades and geometric shaped microliths, all the tool-types are represented in our collection. The introduction of micro-burin and geometric microliths is believed to be later.

17. Sankalia, H.D#> 1959-60, Stone Age Cultures of B0mbay-

A reappraisal, «JA£, B0mbay (New Series), Vol. 34-35, pp. 120-131 1£. Todd, K.R.U., 1950, The Microlithic Industries of Bombay, AI, No.6, pp. 4-11 19. Malik, S.C., 1959, Stone Are Industries of the Bombay and Satara Districts, pp. 23-26

20. Todd, op«cit.% 1959, p.9 il) Outside India

Only tbe typo-technological cor relation of tho Upper Son Valley's industries is made with similar industries outside India.

East Africa

Here the earliest unquestioned stone industry comes from the Bed I of the Oldeway (Olduvai) Gorge dated to the Upper part of the L©wer Pleistocene. It is chara­ cterised by pebble-tools worked bifacially along one ?ido to produce a sharp, irregular and jagged cutting edge. Besides a small number of unifacial flat-based tools also occur. These tools belong to the pre-handaxe phase. But in the Upper Son Valley the pebble tools are associated with the handaxes. Hence no comparison of the pebble tools of the Upper Son Valley with those of Olduvai can be made. Here it may also be pointed out that the Olduvai pebble-tools are credited to give birth to Chelian Culture, but as the pebble tools in our region are found alonp with the handaxes and other tool-types, this phenomenon has not mudi significance.

1. Oakley, pp.clt.. 1964, p» 173; Leakey L.S.B., 1965, , Vol. I, p. 3 2. Uakey, L.S.B., 1951, Olduvai Gorge, pp. 34-37 Olduvti presents us with a uniqut development in well-marked stages of the Chelles-Acheul Culture•

Stage I discovered from the junction of the top of Bed I and the base of Bed II and also the lowest level of Bed II itself yielded 50% evolutionary advance tools— crude | and simple hand axes. The second stage recovered from 10-15 ft. above the base of Bed II represented hand- axes with thick, massive butts and a marked flattening on the lower face —they are really known restrocarinati£ 3tage HI w«3 noticed 20 ft. above Stag© 2, revealing new characters; large and thick handaxes, "More or less triangular but sometimes roughly oval in outline when viewed from above. The lower face is remarkably flat- due to careful flaking which usually extends over the whole inferior face."* The hand axes of these stages can be compared with the handaxes of Stage I of Upper Son Valley.

3tage 4 and 5 are regarded as transitional between the Ghellean and Acheulian, coming 10 ft. below the junction of Bed II and III and the junction of both the

1. Leakey, 1951, op.cit., pp. 41-43

2. Ibid. f pp. 2*0-56 3. Cole S., 1963, The Prehistory of ciast Africa, p. 139 4. Leakey (1951), op.cit.. p. 56

• * beds respectively. The handaxes of stage 4 have commonly a cutting edge all round, flatter lower surface than the upper, so that the cutting edge when viewed from the side is not central, but is much nearer to the lower than the upper face." The stage 5 represents the sam^ characteristics, except a few tools made by 'cylinder-hammer technique. • Our tools of Stage II are similar with the Stage 4 and 5 of the O^duvai because they also belong to the transitional phase. Tools discovered from various levels of Bad III are classed as Stage 6. Here the cleavers wore first introduced. The handaxes "display a very developed form of the cylinder-hammer technique, comparable to some of the finest AeheullA flaking in Europe•" The Stage 7 discovered from tfei base of Bed IV "is distinguished from all the previous ones by the presence of a high proportion of very large, woll made handaxes, which are in most cases much wiier in proportion to their length than the more ordinary types. Cleavers too are relatively common and In nearly all cases are sli^&tly narrower at th* cutting edge than in the middle and have a biconvex and not a parallelogram

5. Leakey (1951), QP.cit.. p. 73 6. Ibid., pp. 72-36 7. Ibid., p. 95 R section." The characteristic features of Stage 6* are that the tools are smaller than the earlier ones, cleavers are in the form of a V rather than a 'U' with their widest point at the cutting edge along with S-twist o oavtes. The latter type is not present in the Upper Son Valley. However, in consideration of "Afro-Asian correlation, it ^s worth noting that cleavers with para lie logramic cross-section made their African appea­ rance in the same stage at Olduvai" (i.e., Stage VIII).^ The occurence of cleavers In the Upper Son Valley in Xadia suggests "the direct spread of Acheulian tradition from Africa into India.* Th* cleavers in Sast Africa occur in Bed IV which is placed in the upper part of the miidle Pleistocene.12 Hence it might be held that in India the BSA culture came in this or after this period. Some tools of Stage I"I of the Upp*»r Son Valley are similar to the tools of Stag* VII and VIII of the Olduvai.

#. Leakey (1951), op«clt.» p. 106 9. Ibid., pp. 117-120 10. Oakley, op.cit.. 1964, p. 180 11. Ihidl.. p. 224 12. Leakey, op. clt.« 1965, p» 43 201

Stag* IX is generally similar to Stage VII with the adoptation of ,3t twist of the Stare VIII. T^e next stare—Stage X—marked the climax of the iohOttlian Culture. ' However, the last stage (Stare 11) recalls the Fauresmith culture.1** A few tools of the Stage III of the Upper Son Valley can be compared with some of the tools of th**se stages (IX - XI). The remarkable difference between the Upper 3on Valley and East Africa is bolas stones which occur in almost all the stares of Olduvai industry, but are 93 far not noted from many sites in India.

In the First Intermedial Period which commenced after the end of Abbevillio-Acheulian Culture, various industries originated or developed. Fauresraith flourished during the drier period preceding the Gamblian pluvial in Kenya and thiopla. It includes small handsxes, cleavers, numerous stone balls, flake tools with faceted

13. Leakey, op.cit.. 1951, PP. 129-131 U. liid., p. 143 flat forms, scrapers and chisel. Another contemporary culture, Sangoan—a forest and wood land culture origi­ nated from the combination of biface and faceted-platform technique^—got the name after the discovery of a site in the hills above Sango Bay, Uganda, on the western •Ida of Lake Victoria, The main feature of this industry is that it Includes picks instead of cleavers of Fauresmith. It also spread in the basins of great rivers such as Congo and Zambesi.

The Levalloisian culture which flourished in the whole of the Horn is divided into Lover and Upper.

The Lower is dated to the decline of the second Cambian peak, while the upper to the decline of the third Samblian peak. The former consists of prepared cores, faceted flakes and flake blades, with a very few scraoers and points an-i some "trimming stones" or core

1. Cole, 1963, p. 1S4 2. Ibid., p. Ifi5 3. Ibid., p. 183 4. Lowe, 1952, op. cit.. pt>. 2? ff. 5. Cole, oc. cit.. p. 1$6 203 scrapers. In the •upper/ the tame :h3-acteristics are noticed except generally smaller prepared flakes. It also *xten1ed into Sudan, between Nuri and Donpola an^ Abu Tabasi Wall. The Proto-Stillbay industries Bight be renamed Lower Still bay evolved out of 'Deve- looed Levalloisian.' At the sara* time another industry, contemporary with the Lo^'er Levalloisian, developed, called Pseudo-Still bay. This industry includes small points made from flakes with faceted platform (not made by pressure flaking seen in the Still bay) with secondary retouch on one side of the point. Retouch on both the o surfaces are very rare, while they are common in Proto- Still bay. This Proto-Still bay was followed by a true Still bay industry. Th«* Lupemban culture also occurs 10 here. The industry placed in Second Intermediate is Ma go si aa, having many Biorolithlc Implements, beads of ostrich egg-sheila and pottery which appear in the later stage. However, these industries are characterized by hi^ily well made tools and therefore cannot be compared with the tools of Later Stone Apes.

6. Cole, op. cit.. p. 195 7. Ibid., p. 196 S. Ibi3.. pp. 196-7 9. Ibid., p. 197 10. Ipia.. pp. 200 ff. 11. Ibid., p. 206 2

South Africa

In South Africa the wall dated sequence of zhe Pre-Chtlles-Acheulian Culture is recorded in the river Vaal at Harrisdala and Kaliptan. Though tools were found from the cemented basal older gravels assigned to the and of the Kageran pluvial but the developed Kafuan or 's artifacts vers obtained from the older gravels being extended from 300 to 50 above the river dated to the Kamasian Pluvial. The chopper-chop ping assemblage of the Son Valley can be well compared with the tool? of these industries.

Succeeding these industries, the tools of Chelles- Acheulian Cultures were discovered from the younger gravels called Vail I-V. The Staga I is the or Abbevilllan phase; Staze II marks the transitional phase from Abbevillian to Acheulian. Our tools of I Stage can be compared with Vail I, while the second with Vail II. Tae Acheulian culture in South Africa starts from Sta^e ITI of Vaal, exhibiting fine hand axes and cleavers. In Stage 17, only the Proto-Levallois of Stage III or 'pre­ pared core1 technique developed. The last stage, Vaal V dated to tile very end of Kanjeran times forms the climax

1. Clark J.D., The Prehistory of Southern Africa, A Pelican Book, 1959, 115-16. 2. Ibid., pp. 117-126 205 of Acheulian culture increasing the finished flake tools in number* Stage III of Upper Son can be compared with thi Acheulian industry of South Africa.

In between the Acheulian and Middle Stone Age, two cultures called Fauresmlth and Sanoan flourished, ranging from Kanjf ran—Garoblian Int*r-pluvial to earlier part of the Gamblian pluvial* The former extended Into the open country, grassland and high plateau of southern part, while the latter In th<» forested part—the northern part* The tools of Fauresmlth culture are smaller than in the previous in&i strips and ware made by f step-flaking • done by hammerstone or anvil* The industry of the Sangoan exhibits crude, heavy picks, handaxes, pebble choppers, points and parallel sided 'use^ux1 (chisels) etc«3 The technique of step*flaking is also seen on the tools of Upper Son Valley•

In the Middle Stone Age various cultures or variants, namely Lupemban, Pictersburg, Mazelspoort, Alexanderston- tien, Still bay, Mossel Bay and Rhodesian Still Bay existed* However, these variants having specialised tools, such as smaller picks, handaxes, chisel, handaxes, boat-

3* Clark J.D., Th* Prehistory of Southern Africa, A Pelican Book, 1959, H2-152 206 shaped planing tools, tranchet and scrapers** are quite dissimilar from the tools of Upper Son Valley.

The Late Ston*- Age with four cultures or variants known as Tshitolian, Nachi Kutan and 7 * Hilton and Smithfield consists of very well undo microliths associated with pottery and sometimes with polished implements is not comparable with the Late Ston' Age Industries of the Upp

Prehistoric Man's oldest settlement is located in North Africa at Ain Hanech, n ar St. Arnaud in Algeria. The fin^s consist of cores seen in industry.

The other site known as Lake Karar in Oran Province belonging to Early Middle Pleistocene, exhibits handaxes including finished lanceiate forms, cleavers and flakes.

4. Clark J.D., The Prehistory of Southern Africa, A Pelican Book, 1959, 1*3-165 5. Ibid., po. 190-193 6. Ibid., pp. 193-199 7. Ibid., pp. 199-204 3. Ibid., po. 204 ff. 1. McBumey, C.B.M., The Stone Age of Northern Africa, A Pelican Book, pp. 94-5 20?

2 Tht latter also has small points and side-scrapers. At Palika in the gravel pit of Ternifine, similar industry was brought t» notice. In the deposit made at the bank of a spring at Sidi Zinf four layers were recognised yielding cultural remains from bottom up­ wards; handaxes better than at Karar, scrapers and chopping tools made on pebbles; handaxes predominantly unifacial and lceaver?. similar to the first horizon; and lastly handaxes and the introduction of prepared- 4 core technique. In North Morocco near Casablanca a notable dis­ covery of Lower Palaeolithic relics was made in a quarry at Sidi Abderrahman which was riug in the marine deposits. The first industry which was , was located above the high-water lift*, while the beach was in formation. The overlei 1 terrestrial and fresh water deposits yielded a core and a few flakes. At the height of 23 and 30 m from the present sea level, an industry consisting of handaxes of pear-shaped to cordiform— some manufactured

2. McBurney, C.B.M., The Stone Age of Northern Africa, A Pelican Book, pp. 97-98 3. Ibid., po. 99-101 J*. Ibid., pp. 103-106 by soft hammer technique with U-shaped cleaver made on flakes calling 'Proto-Levalloisian1 is recorded. The third indistry which occurred in the caves comprises highly evolved hand axes being cordiform or oval, gome* times twisted *ith evolved Levalloisian flakes.

The Upper Son Valley does not present such an industrial development; however, some of its arti­ facts, disregarding for a moment their exact age, might be compared with similar tools from Northern Africa.

The Middle Palaeolithic sites of Northern Africa (excluding igypt) of worth mentioning are T,radi Derna, 7 cave of Harm Fateah. The development of this industry g called Atenan is also soon in Altas Massif. It is era racterized by Levalloiso- techniques and hence cannot be compared with our industries in the Son basin*

5. HcBuraey, C.B.M., The Stone Age of Northern Africa, A Pelican Book, pp. 114-119 6. Ibid., p. 167 7. Ibid., pp. 166 ff. 6. Ibid., pp. 177 ff.. iCQl

Tht investigations in prehistoric archaeology art mdo in Sgypt. The earliest artifacts were located in the gravels of 100 ft. terrace. This incustry is Chellian. The terrace 50 ft. above the modem alluvium contains on its gravels the rolled Chellian along with sl'jfetlv rolled Acheulian tool, both of them were likely 2 contemporary. These deposits are correlated with '30 a' 3 level of the Groat-interglacial. The handaxos of all the three stage of Upper Son Valley can be compared with the Shellian and Acheulian tools of -gypt. The Middle Palaeolithic industries were discovered from the four horizons—30 ft. terrace in Upper ^gypt and Nubia, 10-15 feet terrace in Middle £rypt, 25 ft. terrace in Lower "gypt and silt at Kom Ombo and Fayuau

1. Sandford K.3. and Arkell W.J., 1933, Palaeolithic Man and the Nile Valley in Nubia and Upper igypt. Sandford K.S., 1934, Palaeolithic Man and the Nile Valley in Upper and Middle : f-ypt. 2. Sandford and Arkell, op. cit.. p. 25 3. McBurney (I960), op. cit.» p. 129 The terraces of 25 and 10-15 feet either might be contemperary or the former may belong to the late lest Interglacial.* In the terrace 30 feet of upp?r and Middle Egypt the handaxe industry with a somewhat rudi­ mentary technique of Levalloisian character. Sand ford calls it f iarly Monsterian f. Caton-Thempson writes that "in the Oriental Institute Publications, iarly Monsterian was used breally to cover '£arly Levalloisian .' According to current practice, Early Monsterian is sepa­ rated from the Lower Levalloisian in Europe by a glacial epoch."' She prefers to call it Acheulio-Eevalloisian stage.

In Lower Ugypt the terrace of 25 ft. it characterized by Upp^r Levalloisian, while the terrace of 10-15 feet in the Upper and Middle -gypt by Lower Levalloisian. The industries discovered from 92 ft. and 112 ft* above sea level are called by McBurney as 'Final Levalloisian' and o 'kvolved Levalloisian,1 respectively. The Middle Pala co-

4. McBurney (I960), op. clt., p. I36 5. Ibid.. pp. 136*137 6. Sandford, op. cit,. p. 67 7. Caton-Thonpson, 5., The Levalloisian Industries of Egypt, PPS, HI, (1946) p. £0, fn., 4 8. Ibid., pp. £0-1 9. McBurney, I960, op. cit., pp. 145-149 lithic of ^gypt stems to be different from that ef India.

Surope

The earliest tools in Surope com* from Mindel glaeiation, Abbevillian handaxes with large oblong flakes •truck by block-on-block technique. These flakes aro now called Clactonian I and considered as a facias of the Abbevillian handaxe culture. The handaxes and flakes e^ Stare I from the Son Valley may be compared with these tools. The first appearance of the use of the cylinder- hammer technique is considered as the beginning of the Acheulian stage in the Lower Palaeolithic culture of 2 Surope. This culture, however, appeared there in Mindel- Riss interglacial, and afterwards at the beginning of Riss glaciation ieveloped further--new known as Middle Acheu­ lian. Towards the closing stage of this glaciation *nd at the beginning of Riss-^urm interglacial, it reached its climax—called Upper Vcheulian. It probably "represents a *Yesh wave of migration into Surope, when climatic condi­ tions had sufficiently improved."3 the Early Acheulian

1. Oakley, K P., Frameworks for Dating Fossil Man, 1964, pp. UO] 257 2. Leakey, L.S.B., 195 3, Adam's Ancestors, p. 75 3. Ibid., p. 77 may be compared with the tools of second 8tage, while tho Unoer Aoieulian with the tools of Stage III.

The Clactonian, contemporary with the Lower Acheulian stape, is known asClactonian II ani is now also regarded

• as a fades of the Lower Acheulian. Some of the flakes of the Upp*r Son Valley are similar to ths flakes of Cla ci-on1.au II,

In Europe, the L« valloisian technique was Introduced very likoly during the Rise glacistion, but in the Riss- 'furm interglacial period, its development took place. The incus tries of Middle Stone Age of Upper Son Valley yield oipht such specimens.

Towards the end of Riss-Wurm interglaclal, another industry, paying much more attention to the secondary work on the flakes than the preparation of the cores was practised in Weimar region and other parts in Northern Germany. The Mousterian culture is distinguished into three variants by Leakey; firstly, the classical 'Mouste­ rian,9 secondly, Mousterian with Levalloisian elements, and thirdly, Mousterian, bifacially with strong elements

if. McBurney, I960, p. 31 •f hand axe and Levalloisian cultures. Mc3urney calls tha 'Mousterian1 of Northern Germany as 'Western Mousterian1 and the Meusterian which was adopted in "£astern and Central Europe, from the Rhine to tha Oxus basin.*0 Tha 'classical 'gugfcIC*an,' consists points of scrapers and utilized flakes. The Middle Stone Age tools of the Upp*r Son Valley may b* compared with tha Mousterian, keeping in mind that thp highly evolved phase of this techninue is totally absent here*

However, its succ^eiing cultural horizons, the Chatelperonian formerly known as Lower Aurign«cian, Aurignacian, Solutrean, Gravettian, Magdalenian and 7 Cresswellian cultures do not have their correspondents in the Upper Son Valley*

5. Leakey, 1953, p. 115 6. McBumey. I960, pp. 32-33 7. Leakey, 1953, po. 116-122 Western Asia

In Western Asia, ths Southtrn Levant, the long and narrow strip which lias between the Eastern Mediterranean and the North Arabian D*sert, is actively exolered. Its oldest industry, including small irregular flint flakes, chunks and a few well trimmed scrapers (Tabun 0) , is called fayacian. It was succeeded by Upper Acheulian consisting of well-finished bifaces (Tabun F), The following industry of Upper Acheulian, which was formerly knowa as Final Acheulian or Micoquian, now because of the groat pre­ dominance of scrapers is called as Yabrudian— the name given aft*r the site Yabrud. The three Levalloiso-

Heusterian horizons of the labun—once divided into i-0i*er and Upper—are considered as local variations* However, this Industry did not disapoear abruptly but influenced the transitional industry, timiran. The industry overlying the

1. Oarrod, D«A«£fl and Bate, D.M.A., 1937, The Stone Age of Mount Carmel, Oarrod D.A.I., 1951, A Transitional Industry From the Base of the Upp*»r Palaeolithic in Palestine and Syria, JRAI, Vol. LXXXI, po. 121-130 1962, The Middle Palaeolithic of the Near 5ast and the Problem of Mount Carmel Man, JRAI Vol. 92, pp. 232-251 21* imerian was Aurignacian. "The Auripnscian of Palestine did not last nearly as loner as the Aurignacian of Europe," and was replaced by Atlttian which was nearly si Hilar to Vpp*r Aurignacian. Contemporary with the Magdelenian and Aslllan of Europe, in Palestine Kelaran culture flourished. Matufian closely related to the Tardenolsian of Europe appeared con­ sisting of flint blade, points, crescents and burins. The

Upoer Acteulian handaxes of M0unt Caroel may be compared with the Stage III of our ^arly Stone Ago. The tools of LSA nay also be roughly compared with the microliths of Kebaren and Natufian, though burin is totally absent hero.

^outh East Asia

The Lowor Palaeolithic culture parallel to the bifacial hand axe tradition in South loot Asia seems to form an inde­ pendent tradition consisting of two distinctive artifacts- choppers aid chopping-tools* this tradition is known as chopper-chopping-tool tradition. It forms the characteristic feature of the Early Anyathian of Burma, the Choukutiennian of China, the Patjitanian of Java and the Tampanian of Malaya,

2. Albright W.F., 1956, The Archaeology of Palestine, A Pelican B0ck, p. 52 1. Oakley, op. cit.. 1964, p. 217 besides the Early Seanian of North-western India, these industries includa choppers, topping-tools, handaxes and proto-handaxes—implements, the last group night be called as •pointed handaxes •' The artifacts o these groups can be noticed In the pebble-tools and handaxe industries of Africa and Europe, but the dis­ tinctive feature JI the absence of true bifacial hand- axes from the diopper-chopplng-tool industries*

In the iiarly Choukeutienlan flakes, only a small percentage has marginal retouch and a majority of them si 'e-ssrapers. The handaxes found in the Patjitanian culture of Java after examination "proved to differ fund am en tal ly from Chellean or Abb-villian hanJaxes, for the flaking on both faces of the Javanese core-tools is mainly longitudinal instead of criea-croaa; there is little doubt that they developed independently of their Bur- African equivalents, even 1f perhaps they served a similar function." A few flakes of this industry show faceted platform.

2. Oakely, op. cit., 1964, PP* 222-256 Mrs. Ann Sieveklng classified the artifacts into large points and small points (prote-handaxes and chopping:- tools of tfevius). In her view, the artifacts which she calls pebble-picks are the oldest implements of this industry, and closely resemble some Oldowan pebble-tools.11 Oakley points out that "the number of alternative tool- forms in an assemblage of primitive stone artifacts is so limited that it is difficult to feel any confidence in attempts to face detailed cultural affinities between one group and another when they are widely separated.

The choppers arid chopoing-tools of the Upper Son Valley can be compared with the similar tools of these culture, though entire cultural assemblage represents a different tradition-handaxe.