European and Northwest African Middle Pleistocene Hominids1

by F. Clark Howell

THE SPARSE REPRESENTATION of human skeletal remains known from the Middle Pleistocene of Europe or from the Middle Pleistocene has always been one of the Africa with in situ human skeletal remains, stone im· greatest gaps in human-paleontological knowledge. At plements, and the bones of slaughtered animals. first, Southeastern Asia was unique in having provided These human skeletal remains, taken in conjunction remains from the Trinil beds in Java, but the signifi­ with those from the Middle Pleistocene of eastern and cance of this poorly preserved skull-cap was confirmed southern Asia, have an important bearing on interpre­ and greatly amplified by subsequent discoveries (Von tations of the course of human evolution. The signifi­ Koenigswald 1940) of better preserved specimens at cance of these discoveries has been obscured by the pre­ other localities of similar age, as well as in the still occupation of some human paleontologists with other older Djetis beds. Still tfuly unique in all the world is human remains either suspected to be of Pleistocene the somewhat younger occupation site of Locality 1 antiquity or questionable due to an extraordinary com· Choukoutien, with its extraordinarily abundant, prob­ plex of morphological features (the famous hoax of ably cannibalized, human remains in association with Piltdown). Largely as a consequence of this, there have hearths, stone implements (Choukoutienian chopper/ grown up two main interpretations of man's phylogeny chopping-tool complex), and remains of slaughtered in the Pleistocene, one depending on the possible im­ animals. portance of the suspicious "fossils," and the other de­ For many years, the only such find from the West was pending only on the scanty, but well-dated, human fos­ the enigmatic human mandible from the Grafenrain sils enumerated above. The former interpretation gravel pit at Mauer in the Rhineland. Then, within recognizes an early, at least earlier, Middle Pleistocene a few years in the mid-thirties, three additional speci­ separation of a morphologically modern (sapiens) mens came to light in western Europe (Steinheim), lineage. The latter postulates progressive transforma· Britain (Swanscombe), and northwest Africa (Rabat, tion of primitive and variable Middle Pleistocene hu­ Morocco). In the last several years, further Middle man populations into diverse "Neanderthal" and re­ Pleistocene human remains were found in northwest lated, geographically distinctive, groups, as well as into Africa, both in Algeria (Ternifine) and in Morocco incipiently sapiens peoples. The purpose of this paper (Sidi Abderrahman). All these discoveries (Fig. I) have is to discuss tI-1e significance of the :Middle Pleistocene excellent paleontological associations, and, in three human remains from Europe and North Africa for the cases (Swanscombe, Ternifine, Sidi Abderrahman), resolution of this basic problem in the study of human there are associated stone implements (Acheulean of phylogeny. various stages). However, no occupation site is yet

F. CLARK HOWELL is Associate Professor of Anthropology, De­ COMPARATIVE STRATIGRAPHY partment of Anthropology, University of Chicago (Chicago, AND ASSOCIATIONS Illinois, U.S.A.). He was born in 1925, and educated at the University of Chicago (Ph.D., 1953). HOWELL has undertaken field and other studies on early man THAMES RIVER: SWANSCOl\'IBE in Europe (1953,1956) and in Africa (1954,1957-58,1959), and The Swanscombe human remains were recovered made a recent brief visit to Israel (1959). He has published various papers on human paleontology, especially as regards from gravel deposits exposed in the Barnfield pit, be­ the Neanderthal problem, and on early man and the Pleisto­ tween Dartford and Gravesend, on the south bank of cene in general. Prior to submitting the present paper to CURRENT ANTHRO­ the lower Thames River valley. Marston (1937) dis­ POLOGY, HOWELL sent it, for comment and criticism, to three covered a complete occipital in June, 1935, and a left colleagues, of whom W. W. Howells and Kenneth P. Oakley parietal in March, 1936. Twenty years later Wymer re­ responded. The response was primarily commendatory, and except for HOWELL's addition of some paragraphs along lines covered the right parietal of the same individual. The recommended by Oakley, the paper stands as first written. three fragments occurred in the same seam of sandy

Vol. I . No.3' Ma)' 1960 195 gravel. "the position of the three fragments forming a FIG. 1. Outline map of Europe and the circum· Mediterranean regions. The continental oUllines are triangle with sides 51, 49 and 24 ft." apart (Wymer those of the earlier Middle Pleistocene during the ex­ 1955). These gravels and sands represent fluviatile ac­ tensive Romanian regression, correlative with the first cumulations within the High (100 feet) or Boyn Hill major continental glaciation (Elster) and the Mindel Terrace, which extends as a nearly level feature for glaciation of the Alps. Key to abbreviations: S = Swans­ some fifty miles (Fig. 2) (Smith and Dewey 1913; Dewey combe; A = Abbeville; M = Mauer; St = Steinheim; 1932; Wooldridge and Linton 1955). At the time of the S-A = Sidi Abderrahman; R =Rabat; T = Ternifine. aggradation, the river flowed in a wide, meandering course, successively cutting, filIing, and then abandon­ hand axes, flake tools, and many waste flakes but rarer ing channels. The Barnfield pit exposes some thirty-five cores, constitute a Middle Acheulean industry (Acheu­ to fony feet of gravels, sands, and loams that filled in lean Ill-IV of the Somme classification of Breuil) one such ancient channel, its base at seventy-five feet, (Smith and Dewey 1913; Swanscombe Committee 1938). CUt into the local bedrock (Thanet Sand and Chalk) This same industry is present also in the underlying (Fig. 3). Lower Middle Gravels as well as on the surface of the The human remains occurred in an obliquely-lying Upper Loam. However, Wymer's (1958) recent work at gravel seam at the base of the Upper ~1iddle Gravel, Swanscombe indicates that ovates and cleaver-forms of some sixteen to twenty feet of current-bedded reddish­ bifaces, as well as tortoise cores, are lacking in the skull­ yellow sands (below) passing upward into pale yellow layer, whereas the former are present on a land surface cross-bedded sands with some silty layers. Above these of the Upper Loam. He has also found traces of fire, "gravels," a thin wedge of soliflucted rubble is inter­ including reddened and crackled flints and small pieces posed at the base of the three to four feet of thick sandy of charcoal, in the skull-layer. Upper Loam. These deposits fill a small channel cut It has been suggested that the Middle Gravels and during a minor erosional phase into the underlying Upper Loam constitute a recognizably distinct deposi­ Lower Middle Gravel (and sands), the Lower Loam, tional stage, the Middle Barnfield or Late Boyn Hill and in part the Lower Gravel. The skull fragments ap­ stage, separated by" an erosional interval (represented pear to have reached the base of this channel shortly in certain localities) from the Lower Gravel and Lower after it was cut and still dry, quite clearly prior to the Loam, the Lower Barnfield or Early Boyn Hill stage of deposition by floodwaters of the successive seams of King and Oakley (1936). Judging from the molluscan Upper Middle Gravels and sands. The stone tools as­ faunas, the Thames and Rhine rivers were separate sociated with the human remains, including numerous during the earlier stage, whereas, in the Late Boyn Hill

196 CURRENTANTHROPOLOCV stage, species of freshwater Rhenish mollusca began to Howell: MIDDLE PLEISTOCEN"t: HOMINlDS penetrate into the Thames River valley (d. Oakley 1952). The Lower Loam, a silty deposit laid down in one a giant form; also, in a silty layer in the Upper reed-filled swamp conditions. was probably weathered Middle Gravels, small mammals occur, including ex­ during that interval. A very rich Clactonian industry tinct voles (Microtus agrestis-arvalis, M. ratticepoides) (Clactonian II of the classification of Breuil 1932), com­ and a lemming (Lemmus sp.) (Schreuder 1950). The prising many flake tools, cores, and core· choppers (but composition of the fauna in both gravel series is typi­ no hand axes), is present in the Lower Gravel (Smith cally interglacial (Swanscombe Committee 1938; Oakley and Dewey 1914; Chandler 1930, 1931, }932, 1935). The 1952, 1957b). The fluorine content of the human skull mammalian fauna from these laner gravels is especially fragments and of the animal remains is similar, confirm­ rich, with two forms of elephant (Elephas antiquus, El_ ing that the Swanscombe cranium is of the same age as trogontherii), broad-nosed rhinoceros (Rhinoceros its containing deposit (Oakley 1951, 1953). merckii), hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), Several distinct lines of evidence permit quite ac­ wild boar (Sus scrota), deer (Cervus elaphlts, C. browni), curate relative dating of these deposits within the frame­ wild ox (Bos pri7Jligenius), wild forest horse (Equus work of the Pleistocene succession of Britain (King and caballus), giant beaver (Trogontheril£m cuvieri), and Oakley 1936; Oakley 1952, 1957b). It is clear that one, various small rodents and voles, The faunal assemblage from the series of Middle Gravels is similar, but lacks giant beaver, oxen, and wild boar, and includes tWO ex­ FIG. 2. Terraces of the lower Thames Valley and the 10· tinct fallow deer (Dama clactoniana, Megaceros sp.), cation of Swanscombe (redrawn after Wooldridge and Linton 1955). _-.---- ···------.----butliers of Chalky 1::::::::::1 Block Pork Terrace o 0 II B61:J}der Cloy ..---­ o Boyn Hill Terrace ~~~~ .. ~:---.-.u----- o Taplaw Terrace

o . ~ <:::> ~"T 0 G 01 o 2 3 4 Swanscombe Section

N S

FIG. 3. Diagram of terrace relationships in the lower SKULL Thames Valley with (inset) the filling of the Barnfield SITE channel of the Boyn Hill Terrace (redrawn after Dines in Swanscombe Committee Report 1938).

Vol. I . No.3· May 1960 197 and more likely several, glacial advances preceded the gram from Clacton (Pike and Godwin 1953) indicates a aggradation of the deposits that constitute the Boyn' mixed-oak forest (oak, elm, and linden, in decreasing Hill Terrace, since: (1) within' the gravels, far-traveled order of abundance) extending from the upper part of glacial erratics are found, attributed by Baden-Powell the freshwater series well into the estuar·ine series, (1951) to the Lowestoft (Lower Chalky Boulder Clay) where it is replaced by a coniferous forest phase particu­ Glaciation; (2) the Thames River flowed at the time larly high in silver fir. West (1956: 340) has pointed out in its present terraced valley, previously having been that "this forest development exactly parallels that of diverted southward [rom more northeasterly courses by Stage III (= Late Temperate) at Hoxne, with the com­ glacial advance(s) (Wooldridge 1938, 1957; Wooldridge ponent trees the same," However, the basal freshwater and Linton 1955); (3) such gravels overlie glacial beds are not represented in the diagram, and it is pre­ boulder clay at certain other exposures (Hornchurch); sumed that these would fall into an earlier Early Tem­ and (4) the great thickness of the Swanscombe gravels perate stage, very likely even older than the Swanscombe indicates a considerable rise in sea level during their Middle Gravel series. Thus, this evidence does not aggradation, a rise, in fact, of approximately 107 feet, necessarily contradict the former relative dating of the corresponding with the extent of the Tyrrhenian I Clactonian from the Clacton channel to a phase earlier marine transgression of the Mediterranean. The than the Late Boyn Hill stage. These different types of initial point is of particular importance, since the stone industries do not necessarily imply that morpho­ southeasterly-directed Lowesroft glacial advance pre­ logically distinct peoples were responsible for the ceded the southerly-directed Gipping glacial advance Acheulean and the Clactonian. Oakley (1952: 291) has and was separated from it by a major interglacial stage suggested that it is very probable that "the hand-axe (Baden-Powell 1948; .West and Donner 1956). This people ... were mainly adapted to life in open grass­ interglacial stage, termed the Hoxnian ("Vest )955), land, rather than to wooded country," whereas the equates with the Needian of the marine succession of Clactonian industry "represents the facies of Lower the Netherlands, and with other continental localities Palaeolithic culture which was more related to forest of Great Interglacial age on pollen-analytical grounds life." "Vhile this is not yet proved, and may very well (West 1956). The Gipping Glaciation is equivalent to be extremely difficult ever to prove, it is evident that the continencal Saale Glaciation; the preceding Hox­ man's tools. his way of life, and the environments in nian interglacial is the equivalent of the Great Inter­ which he lived are all inextricably linked, and that this glacial, that is, the Mindel-Riss stage of the Alpine is the most productive manner in which to approach the succession. Thus, on geological grounds the deposits problem. that constitute the Boyn Hill Terrace are of Great Table 1 illustrates the specific succession under dis­ Interglacial age, and this is further substantiated by the cussion, and relates it to the general Pleistocene se­ faunal and stone tool assemblages. quence of Britain (King 1955; West 1958) and also that The exact position within the admittedly long Great of the Netherlands (Van der V1erk 1950, 1953; Van der Interglacial is a more difficult matter. Oakley (1952; Vlerk and Florschutz 1953; Zagwijn 1957). The well­ Oakley and Leakey 1938) attempted to show that the defined interglacial stages are used as marker horizons later Barnfield deposits (Late Boyn Hill stage) repre· (cf. Van der Vlerk 1955, 1956; West 1955). '0 attempt sented the latter half of this interglacial, probably has been made to offer a correlation with the still in· equating with the earlier part of the marine Drenthian adequately known earlier glaciations of the Alpine of the Netherlands. It is now clear that the ~1iddle region. The complex nature of the post·Villafranchian Achelliean assemblages from the Barnfield pit at Swans­ but pre- Great Interglacial stratigraphy is especially combe, and the silled·up Hoxne lake basin, belong to to be noted (d. Boswell 1931, 1936; King 1955)_ Prior the same industrial stage (West and McBurney 1954). to the well·defined and distinctive Hoxnian (= Need­ If the Hoxne pollen sequence (West 1956) is utilized ian) interglacial stage, there were at least two warmer as a measure of the climate during this interglacial, such phases, the earlier represented by the well-knmvn an Acheulean industry was practiced at the onset of a Cromer Forest Bed (Norfolk) (Sainty 1929; Boswell deterioration of climate (end of Early Temperate stage 1958), and the later by the fossiliferous marine sands of 2) marked by deforestation (high non tree pollen; de­ the Corton Beds (Baden-Powell and Moir 1942); the lat­ cline in elm, oak, and hazel; increase in pine and birch), ter might represent only an interstadial, although the which foll01ved on a long phase of mixed-oak forest, series cover an interval of erosion, weathering, and presumably representing the interglacial maximum. marine transgression. The industry of the old Caver­ This same shift in climate is probably reflected in the sham channel, containing a high proportion of Abbe­ solifluction wedge between the (Upper) Middle Gravels villian and early Acheulean types, was tentatively re­ and Upper Loam in the Barnfield pit. ferred to this stage (Treacher et al. 1948), but Wool­ The type site of the Clactonian, Clacton-on-Sea (Es­ dridge (1957) agreed that it might be slightly later, and sex), representing an old channel filled with two lower Oakley (in \Vest and Donner 1956: discussion) now con­ freshwater beds (the lowermost yielding Clactonian siders that it is unquestionably no earlier than Great implements in great quantity, a yew-wood spearpoint. InterglaciaL The Forest Bed series is distinct from the as well as fauna and flora) overlain by estuarine beds Hoxnian, both on faunal (Newton 1882; Osborn 1922; (Wan-en 1923, 1924, 1932, 1951, 1955), was generally Azzaroli 1951) 2 and floral (Reid 1890; Reid and Reid assumed to correspond with the interval represented in 1908; Thomson in Woldstedt 1949; Rein 1955) grounds, the weathering of the Swanscombe Lower Loam (King and is generally agreed to represent a full "interglacial and Oakley 1936; Oakley and Leakey 1938; Oakley stage." However, the Forest Bed is clearly post­ 1952; Warren 1955). The recently published pollen dia­ Villafranchian (post-Tegelen), and also underlies the 198 CURRENTANTHROPOLOCY earliest true glacial morainic deposits in Britain (Bos­ Howell: MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE HOMINIDS well 1958; Harmer 1902). These complexities have an important bearing on the age of the Mauer sands and course than it does at present, and a number of such old, gravels, as will become evident below. now abandoned, meanders between Stuttgart and the junction of the Neckar with the Rhine River west of Heidelberg (Fig. 4) are well known and have been NECKAR RIVER mapped (Deecke 1926; Wil,er 1937). Upon reaching the site of the present town 'Of Neckargemi.ind, the MAUER ancient Neckar made a sharp bend to the left and flowed The Mauer (or Heidelberg) mandible was recovered southward through the now dry Wiesenbach Valley for in 1907 from the basal sands and gravels complex 'Of the a distance of some seven kilometers (Fig. 4, inset); the Grafenrain pit, on the Elsenz River just north of the village of Mauer. Mauer is situated some five kilometers south of the Neckar River town of Neckargemi.ind, and is about ten kilometers southeast of Heidelberg. During TABLE 1. Provisional correlation of Middle Pleistocene the earlier and Middle Pleistocene the Neckar River stratigraphy in the lower Thames Valley and in East followed a somewhat different, more meandering, Anglia, with correlative stages in the Netherlands rna· rine succession.

NETHERLANDS EAST ANGLIA THAMES VALLEY

'< q :r:- >-­ '<. UJ Q: a GIPPING GLACIAL ADVANCE MAIN COOM B E ROCK (:. Upper Chalky Boulder Cloy) (~Co fuve/launmn of ArkelIJ

...!I..J .....'-.___O"Uf Park Tundra c-; c ~ Upper Loom Spruce-pine 0 w forest - Solifluction M. Acheu/lOn . w - occupation site u , '< z

-Q: a CORTON BEDS ['early Claetonion'] GRAVEL TRA!NS '< q >< --)0- southward diverSion of Thomes R q f-- CROMER GLAC1AL ADVANCE CHILTERN GLACIATION (=North Sea Drift) (~Berroclan of ArkellJ

Z Upper; Freshwater, peary. <1: Zones of Srerksel- C2 CROMER Budel ~ Woensel ~ W FO RES T Middle: Estuarine Ween :;;' 0 BED Lower: Freshwater, peaty. '"U Vol. ) . No.3' May 1960 199 river then made a great bow to the west and returned traces of the earliest fluviatile accumulations within the northward, following the same course as the present meander are present in the so-called "Wiesenbach northward-flowing Elsenz River (Sauer 1898, 1909; gravels": these lie at high levels, varying from 200 to 150 Thurach 1909; Ruger 1928b). To the north, the two meters (a.s.1.), and at some localities are known to rest branches of this uncommonly long, parallel-sided loop on the eroded shelly limestone bedrock (Muschelkalk). were separated by the Hollmuth horst or upland. A The Wiesenbach gravels, predominantly Buntsand­ fairly substantial basin, particularly favorable for ex­ stone, differ from the I\ilauer gravels proper in the rela­ tensive fluviatile deposition by a sluggishly-moving tive absence of limestone elements (probably originally stream, lay in the bow of the meander at the south end present, but removed by weathering), in the loamy of the loop. The latter coincided with the boundary of nature of the gravel matrix, and in their brownish the uplifted Odenwald Buntsandstone shield and the color. Becksmann (1950), in stressing the importance Kraichgau depression (northern Mulden flank). of these deposits, pointed out that, at two pits (Ziegler's The tectonic instability of the Rhine Valley in gen­ and Schafer's) in the vicinity, there is evidence of ero­ eral, and of this region in particular, is well known, and sion of the Wiesenbach gravels prior to subsequent various workers (Schmitthenner 1922; Kolb 1931; Wag­ burial by the overlying Mauer Sands. The uplift of the ner 1929a,b, 1950; Becksmann and Richter 1939) have Odenwald, which must have largely ended by late stressed the important role of tectonic movements in Pliocene times, took place prior to the aggradation of the formation of ancient meanders. This Hollmuth the Wiesenbach series, and subsequent to the erosional meander of the Neckar follows closely the course of the phase that developed the Pliocene surface. two, parallel north-south trending, fault zones. The The succession exposed in the Grafenrain pit com­ Neckar River, which originally ran near its present prises (1) a lower series of fluviatile deposits of the course over the earlier-Pliocene surface (Salomon 1924), ancient Neckar River, overlain by (2) a loessic complex was apparently forced southward due to terminal with intercalated weathering horizons (Fig. 5). The Pliocene-basal Pleistocene uplift of the Hollmuth horst lower or fluviatile series (Mauer Sands) consist of a basal along this unstable zone (Becksmann 1950). Some sandstone gravel followed by a thick accumulation of

HIRSCHHORN 0

, ' I ~( I \ '. \_) I:: NECKARGEMUND (I I \_1 j} \ t ,1 II, t'l o U \ II I , "/. MOSBACH I , ' ...... /

FIG. 4. The course of the Neckar River below Heidelberg, indicating major faults and ancient meanders (redrawn after Deecke 1926; ,"Vilser 1937), with (inset) the old Hollmuth bow of the Neckar and the Mauer lo­ cality (redrawn after RUger 1928ai Soerge1 1933). zoo CURRENTANTHROPOLOCY yellow or gray sands, vvithin which occur thin clay Howell: MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE HOMINIOS lenses (Lettenbank). Another sandstone gravel of slight thickness caps these sands. All these sands and gravels, ~ the latter composed largely of quartz, shelly limestone, '" r-:-""7"----j Hum u5 and red sandstone (Soergel 1928, 1933), are lacking in [~ p;~~~ Weathered loam glacial erratics, and must therefore antedate the first extensive continental glaciation, the Elster (Mindel). '" ---J b--=cc-==I c~ Weathered loam The human mandible was found within the Mauer '"~ -0," Buried soil Sands, at a depth of some twenty meters from the top of 0,3 f,-:-,==cd the pit. These sands have also yielded a particularly ..- ._-- Weathered loamy sand abundant and weil-preserved mammalian fauna, in· Floodloom cluding, in decreasing frequency, extremity bones, mandibles and teeth, portions of skulls, but only one complete skeleton, that of a young red deer (Ruger 1931, also 1928b). The fossils occur in a completely unrolled and fresh condition (d. Salomon 1926), and Clay lenses are present discontinuously throughout the thickness (c. 5 meters) of the sands. It is clear that at the time of deposition the stream must have been relatively slow­ moving and sluggish, with numerous marshy and ponded places where animals came to drink Clnd where Mauer man probably took full advantage of opportuni· Sands ties for hunting. The faunal assemblage, in contrast to that from other such sites, is neither derived nor mixed, but represents a faunal unity and a good sample of local mammals of the time at which the sands were accumu­ lated. According to the figures first published by Soergel (1923; d. Wurm 19l2d, 1913; Freudenberg 1914), seventy per cent of the fauna is comprised of etruscan rhinoceros (Rh. etrusclls = 20.5'70) (Wurm 1912b,c), red deer (C. elaphus = 18'70), straig!Jt-tusked elephant (El. antiquus = 18'70) (Soergel 1912), and bison (Bison priscus=14~o); a further eighteen per cent is made up FIG. 5. Stratigraphic succession exposed in the Grafen­ by moose (Alees latifrons = 5.5'70), roe deer (C. capre­ rain pit at Mauer (redrawn after Muller·Beck 1957). olus = 6.5%), and horse (Eq. mosbachensis). More rare, each constituting 2% to 3~o of the assemblage, are re· mains of a primitive bear (U. arvernensis = U. stehlini from the not far distant sites of Mosbach (near Mainz, of Heller 1949), both primitive (T. cuvieri) and modern Rheinhessen) and Jockgrim i.d. Pfalz.' (Castor (tber) beaver, and wild boar (S. scrofa). The list The Mauer fauna is older than the later (Stage II) is completed by rarer specimens of various felids (Felis fauna from Mosbach. It is also older than the fauna leo, F. calus, F. pardus, F. issidorensis) (Wunn 1912a; from the high·level (50-70 meters) gravels at Sussen­ Ruger 1928a; Voelcker 1930), a sabretooth tiger (Homo­ born, situated about five kilometers east· of Weimar, in therium crenatidens = !l1achairodus latidens) (RUger an old meander of the Urn River. Both these sites are 1929; Voelcker 1929), a primitive wolf (Canis mos­ older than the main faunal assemblage(s) from Stein~ bachensis), primitive hyena (Hyaena arvernensis), an· heim (see below).' other bear (U. arctos deningeri), and hippopotamus (H. There is a good faunal sequence here, from the ap­ amphibius) (Voelcker 1931), and a microfauna includ­ parently fully interglacial Mauer assemblage, through ing voles (Arvicola greeni, A. mosbachensis) Dolomys to the semi-periglacial steppe assemblage of Sussenborn, episcopalis) and moles (Talpa gracilis, T. praeglacialis) the main Mosbach fauna being more or less intermedi­ (Heller J934, 1939). This assemblage, as well as the ate. The Sussenborn fauna is widely regarded as of invertebrate fauna (Geyer 1910, 1913), indicates a wood­ Elster (= Mindel 2 of some authurs) glacial age (Soergel land biotope, probably a deciduous mixed-oak forest 1923,1924, 1939a; Adam 1952, 1953; Zeuner 1945). The (remains of oak do occur in the Mauer Sands), which is full advance of this glaciation extended as far south as widely agreed to be of interglacial age. Thuringia and the Mittelgebirge (Woldstedt 1950, The Mauer fauna is post-Villafranchian, and thus 1954-8). The Mauer Sands were accumulated in the bow constitutes the oldest truly "interglacial" assemblage in of the Hollmuth meander during an earlier interglacial continental Europe. On comparative paleontological phase, but the difficult question is to determine which grounds, its relative age can be fairly well detennined, phase. Frequently, since they were known to be "pre· since it is bracketed between an older and a younger Mindel," the Mauer Sands and their contained fauna steppe fauna (Adam 1952, 1953). The fauna from the have been referred to the so-called "First Interglacial," l\fauer Sands is recognizably younger than the warm· the Gunz-Mindel or Antepenultimate Interglacial of steppe fauna represented by earlier (Stage I) assem­ Zeuner; this view was held by Soergel (1933), although blages, characterized by El. meridionalis-trogontherii, he (1928) had earlier held the view that an interstadial

Vol. 1 . No.3' May 1960 201 age within the Mindel Glaciation was more probable elements of the complex. Soergel (1928, 1933, 1939a) (accepted by Zeuner 1937, 1945, 1952). Since there is concluded, and most \vorkers agree, that this lower­ no straightforward way of linking these deposits with most Older Loess is of Elster age, and was weathered the Alpine Pleistocene succession, and since the "First during the Great Interglacial. The overlying, double Interglacial" of the Alps has been equated by some Older Loess, split by a period of considerable weather­ authors (cr. Movius 1949b) with the Cromerian stage, it ing and erosion, undoubtedly constitutes the well-de­ is simpler to avoid such an attempt at correlation. fined Saale and Warthe phases of the Penultimate In terms of the sequence of interglacial stages dis­ Glacial stage. These are separated from the typical (for cussed earlier. the problem might be best framed as the Rhineland) two-fold Younger Loesses of Last follows: Is the ~1auer fauna, which is manifestly post­ Glacial age by a well-developed loam at the top of the Villafranchian (i.e., specifically post-Val d'Arno, post­ Older Loess; the latter is characteristic of the Last Tegelen, etc.) and pre- Great Interglacial, of Cromerian Interglacial throughout western and central Europe. (Bilshausen of northern Gennany) age or of still later This unique succession provides additional dear-cut interglacial/interstadial age? geologic confirmation of the age of the Mauer Sands. The fauna from the freshwater and estuarine horizons BunlSandstone pebbles and flakes, supposedly show­ of the Cromer Forest Bed, studied in the last century by ing traces of human workmanship, have been discovered Newton (1882; summary in Osborn 1922, and in Zeuner by Rust (1956a,b) in the Mauer Sands. However, 1937), is clearly mixed and derived from several sources neither Oakley (1957a) nor the author, who have exam­ (Azzaroli 1951; cr. Zeuner 1945). Nevertheless, even ined all or some of these specimens, accept that they when allowance has been made for such mixture, and show clear proof of human tool-making activity. Sim­ considering that the North Sea Drift that overlies the ilarly, a pointed fragment of horse or elk tibia, reponed Forest Bed series represents a pre-Elster glaciation by Voelcker (1933a,b) as a humanly fashioned spear­ which is not certainly known in the continental succes­ point, is of questionable authenticity, just as are the sion, the Mauer fauna is post-Cromerian (Table 2). This pointed bone fragments from the Mosbach Sands is evident from the composition of the bulk of the fauna (Schmidtgen 1929, 1931). However, the Mauer mandible and is clear also from Heller's (1936, 1939) study of the is still the oldest proved trace of early man on the rodent remains (replacement of Mimomys by Arvicola European continent, and indications of his stone tools at Mauer). It would appear most likely that the Mauer should eventually be discovered, given the proper geo­ Sands were accumulated during a warmer interval logical circumstances.~ within the marine Taxandrian, a period of extended duration and with a still poorly known series of climatic STEINHEIJ\I oscillations. It is altogether likely that this interval cor­ The Steinheim skull came to light in July, 1933, responds with the Corton Beds, which may be fully among ancient gravels of the river Murr, a tributary of interglacial and not merely interstadial (although these the Neckar River, exposed in the Sigrist pit on the tenns have limited usefulness at this early time level). northern edge of the village of Steinheim, twenty kilo­ As shown before, this was a warmer transgressive phase meters north of Stuttgart. As in the case of the Swans· between th,e Norwich Glacial and the Lowestoft Glacial combe cranial fragments, the exact position of the skull advances in eastern Britain. This interpretation is in is known, since it was left in place within the gravels by full agreement with all the available evidence, and the discoverer, K. Sigrist, Jr., and only subsequently re­ avoids the uncontrollable correlation with the Alpine moved by the late Berckhemer (1933b) of the Natur­ glacial/interglacial stages. If it could be shown that the historisches Museum, Stuttgart. The skull was overlain ~Iindel does indeed correspond (broadly) with the by gravels (5.5 meters) and loess (1.5-2 meters), and Taxandrian, then the Mauer Sands and their fauna underlain by other gravels (up to 9 meters). The speci­ would cOITespond to an interglacial/interstadial ameli­ men lay in a thin, brown, fine sandy-clay (Letlen) hori­ oration within this glacial stage. zon, intermixed with sand, which in places contained Overlying the Mauer Sands is a sandy and calcareous coarse pebbles; within the matrix that filled the cranial flood-loam succeeded by another thick (2.5 meters) cavity wefe small angular limestone fragments. Im­ brownish loess-like loam, the upper part of which was mediately below the skull horizon was a light, pure consequently weathered and denuded. Soergel (1933) sandy level, the sand being derived from weathering of stressed the hiatus above this flood-loam, and con­ the basement sandstone; immediately above it was an­ cluded that erosion was followed by weathering, a con­ other such light sand containing numerous pebbles. siderable lapse of time being involved. However, as These deposits (see below) are highly fossiliferous, in­ Zellner (1945) has suggested. it is equally likely that cluding snails (Geyer 1913). Only two days before the denudation and weathering took place simultaneously. skull was discovered, an El. antiquus molar was found Above these fluviatile deposits are a succession of about 120 centimeters above, and a Rh. merckii molar loesses and weathering horizons. These were regarded was found a meter below, the skull horizon; two meters by Soergel (1928) as representative of the Older above the skull, a mammoth tusk (£1. primigenius) was (Penultimate Glaciation =Saale) and Younger (Last also recovered. Subsequently. at the same height above Glaciation = ''''eichsel) loesses. They are separated the skull as the aforementioned El. antiquus molar, from the lower fluviatile deposits by a discordance, further remains of straight·tusked elephant were found, above which are reddish Neckar sands about one meter including additional molars, six tusks, two skull frag­ thick aod showing signs of sludging (solifluction). The ments, and a mandible (Berckhemer 1934, 1938). so-called "Older Loesses" are three-fold, with a major Upstream from Steinheim, the Murr River flows at a interval of weathering between the basal and middle marked gradient through a narrow limestone-walled 202 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY valley that widens (up to six hundred meters) and loses Howell: MIDDLE PLEISTOCENt: HOl\fINIDS gradient for several kilometers between Murr and Stein· heim; below Marbach, it is again narrow before it creating gravel accumulations, spits. sand bars, and empties into the Neckar River. Between Steinheim ponded waters. Such a situation, probably not too un· and Murr, where the stream gradient has reduced due to like that in the earlier Middle Pleistocene bow of the the less resistant bedrock (Lettenkohle),'the river eroded Hollmuth meander at Mauer, would provide maximum and filled a wide, meandering valley with sands and opportunity for the preservation of mammalian fossils, gravels during the Middle Pleistocene (Fig. 6). The ag­ and also afford ideal localities for encampments of early graded deposits are of variable thickness, up to fifteen man. The animal remains appear to be largely in situ, meters, with no trace of a continuous terrace: this sug· bones of the skeleton often being found together gesLS the influence of tectonic factors in this deepest (known for Bison, Bas, Gerous). Traces of rolling are part of the valley, probably due to sinking (of the Pleidelsheim basin). Presumably, as Wagner (1934; also 1929a, 1950) has pointed out, the steeply flowing~river brought down much rubble and sand from its upper TABLE 2. Provisional correlation of Middle Pleisto­ course and deposited its load in this widened valley, cene stratigraphy in the Teckar Valley and the glacial sequence of northern Germany, with correlative stages in the Netherlands marine succession.

NETHERLANDS NORTH GERMANY NECKAR and RH INE VALLEY SITES

2 WARTH E GLACIAL ADVANCE « EI pflmlt;jentus Qrovels :r: :2 f-­ OHE INTERSTADIAL 2 OJ Q: - Cl SAALE GLACIAL ADVANCE EI pflmlgen,us· tfogonthefii IIro VI! Is W

I

Z <{ [I antlquus grovels (Homo) - « z z '" - HOLSTEIN SEA Cl- w OJ l­ OJ ff) - -' 2 a I W

f­

Vl EI Irogonrherll grovels ELSTER GLACIAL ADVANCE MOSBACH 2; SOSSENBORN (Thunngia) 2 worm ...... cool Sleppe fauna « Q:- Cl MAUER; GRAFENRAIN PIT (Homo) 2 woodland fauna « >< « MOSBACH ,; JOCKGRIM I f-- worm steppe fauna

Z <{ Zones of SllUksel­ cr Budel - Weensel - W 81 LSHAUSEN ::;0 Weerl 0 0:: U

Vol. 1 . No.3· May 1960 203 The loesses that overlie the Steinheim gravels have Howell: MIDDLE l'L.EISTOCENE HOMINIDS been carefully studied by Freising (1952). In the Sigrist pit, there are some five meters of light, yellowish loess, +60 meters altitude) is represented by conglomerates representing the !vrain ''''iirm, at the base of which is a and beach sands, overlying Cretaceous marls and pre­ loamy sandy-clay, representing the well-known Gott­ Cambrian quartzites, in the basal portion of the section_ weiger interstadial horizon. In the neighboring Sammet This deposit contains rolled pebble chopping tools and pit, the same general sequence is evident from the basal some typologically Chellean (Abbevillian) hand axes. antiquus-bearing gravels through the two trogontherii­ not unlike the assemblages in the lower limits of Bed II primigenius-bearing sandy-clay levels, overlain by (pre­ at Olduvai Gorge (northern Tanganyika). On its sur­ sumably Last Interglacial) bedded reddish sandy-clays. face an unrolled assemblage was found (described by and Early and 1\.fain ''''lirm flood-loesses; the latter are Neuville and Ruhlmann 1941) that reveals incipient subdivided by the G6ttweiger loam and an overlying solifluClion horizon_ This succession confirms the Great FIG. 7_ Distribution of fauna (excluding carnivores) in Interglacial age of the straight-tusked elephant-gravels, the interglacial straight-tusked elephant gravels (2) and and the Saale Glacial age of the overlying mammoth­ the glacial Main Mammoth gravels (3) of Steinheim gravels. (alter Adam 1954a).

Eontiquus'grovel E trog -prim-grovel ATLA1\'TIC COAST OF MOROCCO

SIOI A8DERRAHMAN n-, The Atlantic coast of Morocco, a region relatively Eantiquu5 stable since the final Tertiary (in this regard unlike the Cll- l'vlediterranean littoral of the Magreb; cf. Dalloni 1940, \) 1954), has preserved one of the best known Pleistocene ~ :r­ successions (for general discussion, see Balout 1955; ~Q Vaufrey 1955; also Alimen 1955; Choubert 1956. 1957; ¢Q:J Etrogontherii ~ Gigout 1957; Gigolit and Raynal 1957). The littoral, -. s4bjeCt to alternative fluctuations of sea level as ocean f.p.lraasi Q. water was successively locked up in ice during conti­ Q nental glaciation and later returned to the sea as melt­ E.primigenius Cll waters during interglacial deglaciation, is characterized by a series of well-developed ancient marine beaches, intercalated with which are continental formations. The highest of these marine deposits, either two or three B primigenius <:J:J in number, range up to +300 meters for the oldest, and I 0 + 100 to +60 meters for the next younger. These are <::> I\J<:: murrensis generally attributed to the Calabrian (probably includ­ 8. --.(j\1Q. ing the Emilian) and the Sicilian transgressions of the B pr;scus Q earlier Pleistocene (Lecointre 1952). The former, which Cll <::> in fact represents a progressively regressive sea, analo­ B.ef sehoetensoeki gous to the ''''altonian-'Tiglian, but most likely ., -<:: WiIh the younger Cromerian stage. More important for C.e.onguJatus '-J -. ?l-! _.3· this sea and related continental fonnations are best m '-JQ.O (j\1 Q " exposed is Sidi Abderrahman, a few kilometers south CllCll --=-Rh~orrhinus ., of Casablanca, where a number of commercial quarries 0 have been opened (Fig. 8). In 1954 one of these quarries, ';> long known (or its richness in Acheulean implements, _~lf) dQ I· provided a portion of a human mandible in an un­ 5 scr-r,fo ro usually well-dated context (Biberson 1955, 1956). The Cos tor­ terminal or regressive phase of the Sicilian (+55 to C<>liber idae

Vol. I . No.3· May 1960 205 traces of a true cylinder-hammer technique for working hand axes; the assemblage contains hand axes and nu­ A A merous flakes and the first tTue cleavers in the 'Moroccan B .",,~ .. B. succession (Biberson 1954). This would indicate a tran­ C C sitional Chelleo-Acheulean industry. like that repre· B, sented, for example. by stages 4-5 in the uppennost part of Bed Jl at Olduvai Gorge (Leakey 1951). These conglomerates are overlain by beach sands D grading into continental calcareous sands of aeolian origin that make up the prominent Great Dune forma­ tion. These sands were subsequently consolidated into sandstone during the Romanian marine regression (Bourean 1943), a time corresponding broadly with the H E first major continental glaciation (Elster) in northern Europe. During the initial phases of the Tyrrhenian (I), a transgressive sea carved out a tortuous coastline in this dunar cliff, and percolating waters eroded out F karstic caves (Fig. 8, inset). The caves and fissures were periodically occupied by cave-dwelling animals (bears G and hyenas), and also were from time to time inhabited by early man; however, the high seas of the Tyrrhenian disturbed and rearranged these continental accumula­ tions at the base of the caves and buried them under marine sediments. 1n general, the stone tool assemblages from these caves extend from earliest Middle Acheulean of proto­ Levallois technique (stage 1), represented in basal Tyr-

N OCEAN ELHANK t FIG, 9. Succession of deposits exposed in the Sidi Ab­ CASABLANCA derrahman (Cunette) quarry (left), and the deposits fill­ ing the karstic cave cut into the great consolidated dune H (right). The nomenclature on the left is that of Neu­ ville and Ruhlmann (1941); that on the right is the :;lM~rtln Ou~rry nomenclature currently employed by Biberson (re­ drawn after Biberson 1955). 5101 ABOERRAHMAN rhenian levels in the Cave of the Bears, through a more ~r C~ve Schneider Ou. unet eO developed ~fiddle Aeheulean (stage 2), represented in ~ /'- nino f~ve )(~ Id workingS~ the Littorina Cave, into later expressions (stages 3 and lepMnt c've 4) of Middle Aeheulean, represented in the S.T.I.C. "zelle C~'le 51" j ""'1 homtts Ou~r ry au orse C"ve quarry and the Sidi Abderrahman extension. all of T a ~ N&R C.~J; l~rit u~rry...!J· ittOfln" c;,ve which are of post·Tyrrhenian regressive age. A final Acheulean or Micoquian is also known from calcareous crust formations formed at the time of the ensuing Illrport Ou~tr:"""'------interpluvi-al (:::::: Tyrrhenian II transgression, or Eemian of the Netherlands), The Littorina Cave (Fig. 9), which has provided the ponion of human mandible (Arambourg and Biberson 1955). reveals a series of basal Tyrrhenian marine de­ <7. posits (Go- G,- G2), consisting of gravels, pebbles, and H"J 5~lclm Qu"rry sands that contain molluscan shells, derived mam­ ~K'.II a Godin I Qu"rry 11(1 i" uMry PJ malian remains. and Acheulean implements; sometimes there are also intrusive marine sandstone lenses. redis­ 9,--_...:..._-.:IP m Godin II O.JOfry31t'7'1 cBon" Qu~rry tributed by running waters as slope wash. A series of continental deposits (D o- D 1- D2), sandy and clayey FIG. 8. The Atlantic littoral of Morocco indicating the with pebbles, and the topmost brecciated, overlie these main quarries of paleoanthropological interest. with (in· marine deposits unconformably, an interval of erosion set) the Schneider qwuries at Sidi Ahdcrrahman (r~· separating the accumulation of the two series. The drawn after Biberscn 1955, 1956). fauna from these two series of beds is typically tropical 206 CURRENT ANTHROPOl.OGY African, and includes remains of E1. iolensis, Rh. simus, Howell: MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE HOMINIDS Eq. mauritanicus, H. amphibius, various antelopes (Hippotragus, Connochaetes, Alcelaphus) and gazelles Bourcart, Choubert, and Mar\ais 1949). Between the (Gazella atlantica, G. dorcas), several hyenas, a fox, wild Khebibat quarries and Chellah hill to the northeast, the dog, and ostrich; there is also wild boar (S. scrota) and lower part of this marine sandstone, with alternating wild ox (B. primigenius). pebbly molluscan (Littorina) beds, overlies a sub­ The human mandible was found in a sandstone lens merged basal conglomerate containing E1. d. meridio· (F = Do) at the base of the continental series of deposits. naZis. These appear to represent, just as at Sidi Abder­ The associated stone tools represent a Middle Acheulean rahman, marine formations of the Sicilian transgres­ (stage 2) assemblage, numbering 254 pieces (114 of sion. In the Khebibat quarry the surface of this sand­ which are waste). More than fifty per cent of the tools stone has been eroded, and, according to Neuville and were made with stone·on-stonc technique, the flake Ruhlman (1942; also Ruhlman 1945a,b), is overlain tools being struck from unprepared pebble cores. The unconformably by a shelly (P. haemastoma) marine con­ proto-Levallois technique, present in the earlier Tyr­ glomerate, above which is another consolidated cal­ rhenian deposits in the Cave of the Bears, is entirely careous sandstone, some eight to ten meters thick (Fig. absent in this Littorina Cave assemblage. The latter 10). The human remains were found in the middle comprises numerous hand axes (72), mostly pear-shaped portion (the exact level is unknown) of the upper Rabat and lanceolate with only rare ovates, rare cleavers (3), sandstone. This sandstone has yielded also a typically a considerable number of pebbles (34) worked into tropical African faunal assemblage, including Rh. chopping tools and crude bifaces, unifacial tools (13), simus, Eq. mauritanicus, fl. aocuta spelaea, fl. amphi­ biracially worked side-scrapers (2), rare hammerstones biu:s, B. primigenius, G. atlantica and Bubalus bosela­ (3), cores (3), and bifacially trimmed discs (10) (Biberson phus (Arambourg 1938; also 1952). 1956). It seems quite clear that the Rabat lower sandstone is The Littorina Cave human mandible and the asso­ of post-Sicilian (I) age. Sometimes this has been referred ci,lted Acheulean industry is thus clearly dated to the to as an horizon of "Milazzian" age; however, this ma­ termination of the Tyrrhenian (I) transgression, cor· rine horizon is distinct not even in the type locality. As responding in time to the very onset of the post­ at Sidi Abderrahman, this marine formation was ex­ Tyrrhenian regression and the Penultimate North Afri­ posed to weathering and became consolidated during can pluvial stage. This corresponds with the Drenthian the Romanian regression (::::::: Amirian pluvial). Le­ or the Netherlands and the Saale Glacial of northern cointre (1952, 1953) earlier stated that the human re­ Germany). mains were correspondingly of this same age, since they post-dated the Littorina conglomerate, and were earlier RABAT than the P. haemastorna conglomerate; he did not be­ In 1933 the Rabat sandstone, or "Great Dune," ex· lieve that a conglomerate with P. haemastoma occurred posed in the Khebibat (or I\1ifsud-Giudice) quarry on below the upper sandstone, except in places where there the sea front of Rabat, provided the first Middle Pleis­ was infilling, which he attributed to an Upper Pleisto­ tocene human remains ever found in northwest Africa. cene or Ouljian (d. Gigout 1957) transgression. How­ The specimen, perhaps a nearly complete human skull ever, such a shelly conglomerate is present, as Choubert originally, was exposed by blasting in the quarry, but (1955) has demonstrated, so that the "Great Dune" at was later reburied by the local workmen. Mar\ais (1934) Rabat is not wholly of the same age as that at Sidi Ab­ was eventually able to recover twenty-three fragments, derrahman. The upper portion of the sandstone repre­ aside from the original portion of mandible given him sents a Tyrrhenian I dune. The human remains and by the quarry manager. the mammalian fauna must be contemporary with the As at Sidi Abderrahman, the consolidated sandstone post-Tyrrhenian (I) regression, or, under the newer ter· of the "Great Dune" forms a prominent feature of the topography of the Rabat littoral (Bomcan 1943). Jaran­ off (1936) noted some years ago that this sandstone was complex, with two dunes being separated by a purely FIG. 10. Succession marine horizon. This conclusion was confinned by sub­ exposed in Ihe Khebi­ bat quarry, Rabat, sequent investigations (Choubert and Mar\ais 1947; A Morocco (redrawn after Neuville and Ruhl­ B mann 1942). C o

E F

Vol. 1 . No.3· May 1960 207 minology, with the Tensiftian pluvial (Biberson and of the small basin. Arambourg's (1954a) work now indi· Lecointre 1956). The human remains are, therefore, cates that there is no evidence to support Pomel's view broadly contemporaneous with those from the Littorina that the sands were carried up by artesian waters and Cave at Sidi Abderrahman. deposited around active springs. The mammalian faunal assemblage from the site is a ALGERIAN PLATEAU: TERNIFlNE very rich one, and is particularly important for de· The Algerian site of Ternifine (or Tir'enfin) is a large termining the relative geological age of the site. Many sand pit situated several hundred meters west of the of the bones are broken, especially those with large village of Palikao, twenty-two kilometers east of Mas­ medullary cavities, and it is likely that the activities of cara, department of Oran. Commercial working of a early man are to some extent responsible; cranial re­ large hill of sand opened the pit in 1872. Shortly there­ mains are distinctly rare, although a complete elephant after, it yielded the first of a considerable series of mam­ skull was found in 1954. The typical African savannah malian fossils (Pome! 1879), and subsequently yielded fauna includes very abundant hippopotamus (1-1. am­ also stone tools (Tommasini 1883; sec Balour 1955 for phibius), zebra (Eq. mauritanicus), hartebeest (Alcela­ an excellent summary of the earlier investigations at the phus), wildebeest (Connochaetes, Gorgon), gemsbok site). In 1886 and 1888, Pallary (Pomel and Pallary (Oryx), buffalo (Bubalus), sheep (Ovis), gazelle (Gazella 1888) carried out investigations in the upper levels and sp.), giraffe, camel (C. thomasi), elephant (El. at/anti­ recovered considerable fauna, much of it being de­ cus), rhinoceros (Rh. mauritanicus-simus), carnivores scribed in the paleontological memoirs by Pomel (1893­ (Felis sp., H. crocuta spelaea, C. anthus, and a sabre­ 9B). This work, restricted to the zone above water level, tooth, M. latidens), as well as a giant wart-hog (Afro­ exposed two main horizons, from two to three meters in choerus sp.), and a giant baboon (like Simopithecus). thickness, within each of which were several sandy hori· This fauna, considerably different from that of the zons, some sterile and others containing stone tools North African Villafranchian (d. Arambourg 1949), is (pebble tools, bifaces, cleavers, and flakes) and/or mam­ characterized by some elements absent from, and also malian fossils. lacks some elements present in, later Middle Pleistocene The true nature of the site was first revealed by Aram­ faunas (such as those at Rabat and Sidi Abderrahman) bourg (unpublished) in 1931; further work in 1954 and (Arambourg 1952). This would suggest an earlier Mid­ 1955, in the lower flooded levels, provided additional dle Pleistocene age, either before or very early in the fauna, stone implements, and the first human skeletal Tyrrhenian (I) stage. This conclusion is broadly con­ remains (Arambourg 1954b,c; Arambourg and Hoff­ firmed by the assemblage of stone tools in quartzite or stetter 1954). The site is a small lake basin filled during dolomite, recovered. from the Ternifine Sands. It com· the Middle Pleistocene with fossiliferous and imple­ prises choppers and chopping tools, rare polyhedral rnentiferous sands. During the existence of the lake, the spheroids, block-on-block flakes some retouched as plain of Eghris in which it is situated was some twelve scrapers and borers, and hand axes and cleavers. The meters higher than at present, 'which indicates that ex· hand axes are numerous; they are made of pebbles or tensive erosion and denudation took place during the fragments of pebbles, and are thick and often show later Middle and Upper Pleistocene. As in the present­ traces of cortex. Long or more pointed piriform shapes day neighboi-ing Lake Palikao, the waters are of artesian are uncommon, and most are roughly pear-shaped. origin, and the lower levels remain submerged (necessi· There are few cleavers, and they are made with block­ tating the use of pumps in the recent excavations). The on~block technique from unprepared cores or pebbles. uppermost levels of the profile (Fig. II) exposed at Ter­ This assemblage, as recently described by Balout and nifine are sandstone bands, hardened by surface ex­ Tixier (I957), is homogeneous and represents an early posure as the '.vaters of the ancient lake evaporated; Acheulean industry, like stages I and 2 (the "Clacto­ these deposits cap and preserve the 'softer, underlying, Abbevillian" of Neuville and Ruhlmann 1941) of the unconsolidated, siliceous clayey-sands. All the beds of ST.Le. site at Sidi Abderrahman (d. Balout 1955). sand are horizontally disposed, or reveal a very slight The latter, resting on the surface of the Sicilian con· concavity, and their margins can be defined at the edge glomerate, dates toward the end of the Romanian reo

FIG. 11. Schematic section through the Ternifine quarry, Algeria (redrawn after Arambourg I9S4a).

Eghris ",.PI:aZ;;in::J:jj~ -::r.:t~: ::ii]~;$§~~:~:g. ~~~_a:.."".::::,;-;;;;.. ~3.. ~"'":.~.:5..e.~.. ~.. _;::.~~-2- ~~~ ~:;--­ II. I _ ....~ --_ _- - .. ...,...... , - . -­ I I I Clay Consolidated sands I !Jr'l:I D -8m-+- water level I t: ~ Sand t~=-=-j Redistributed zone I 208 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY gression, as has been noted previously. Thus, on these Howell: MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE HOMINIDS grounds, the Ternifine human skeletal remains are the oldest known from Northwest Africa. theirs, except for the present writer's subdivision of a The temporal interrelationships of the Middle Pleis· two-fold Sicilian marine stage (d. Choubert 1956, 1957). tocene human remains from northwest Africa are shown in Table 3. Gigout and Gourinard (1956) have GENERAL CONCLUSIONS recently offered a correlation between the Moroccan At­ Human skeletal remains earlier than the Upper Pleis­ lantic and the Algerian J\1editerranean littorals. The tocene are but sparsely represented from widely scat­ correlation offered here is in general agreement with tered sites in Britain, westernmost Germany, and the Atlantic and Mediterranean littorals of northwest Af· rica. The scarcity of human fossils is due largely to a dearth of actual occupation sites and to the apparent TABLE 3. Provisional correlation of Middle Pleistocene stratigraphy of the l'vIoroccan littoral and the Algerian general absence of burial practices among these primi- litlOral, with correlative stages in the Netherlands ma­ rine succession.

NETHERLANDS ATLAN T I C MOROCCO A L G E R I A ,. CASABLANCA RABAT LITTORAL INLAND 0, z ~ 0 l' (Jj c e Sidi -Abd (J) .~ Clairfontaine ~ w q ': ] '" ~ Extension Consolidated 0: Lac Karar 0 c (!) ~ :r:- " 0 dune (Homo) 'w 0 Champlain l- tio: ~ E 0 " - 0 a.z .£ W " os! ~" '" f- ~- Z • 0: '" 0, W a I ""~ " "~ 0: • - 0: ! c0 >­ Do{·F) f­ ::::: Homo ~ T ·c 0 0 ~ 0 , c ·C .~ 0 g~:6 t .- , § Karstic coves 0-­ ~ ~ ~ -z ~ developed in Marine _ 0 Marine ~ ~ ~ q t; Great Dune " conglomerate ~ , conglomerate '" ~ c .. 0 z ~ o-d -Cl W :;" ~ §"ti "'~ W I ~ c -E 0 0 ~ 0: ~ 0] W 0: !" Eo<> >- ~ 2.9 .a f­ ~ 2~ '" ~ ] 5. + E •c ' 0 ·C 0 In E '" "

~ -c c .~ "0 ., .2 ." Great Dune z ., ~• ~• Ternifjne lake beds E 0 consolidated 0 0 « (Jj ".J ".J '"q t:J Z 0: -0: « Conglomerate ­ til a :J_ +55 to ... 60 meter shore line 0: --U liflOr/no Iiltor~o, Purpura lopilJus Z q (Jj « '" z q « "I­ :;; "0 0 0; 0: -0 (J)

z Zones of Sterksel­ « +80 to +IOOmeter shore line Budel - Woensel­ :J_ Trocho/ella 'm,hif"m;" A"Mhina T"uabcom, CYP';na i"and;'!, Mya'ron,a'a Weert U (Jj

Vol. 1 . No.3· May 1960 209 tive peoples. In the cases of the Mauer and Steinheim association with an archaic Middle Pleistocene fauna specimens, local geological factors, related to tectonics and an early Acheulean industry. On faunal grounds, and the meanderings of the Neckar River and its tribu­ these remains are pre-Tyrrhenian (I). They date tary the Murr, afforded favorable circumstances for the broadly from the same stage as the well-known fossils accumulation of skeletons of Middle Pleistocene ani­ of Java man (Homo erectus) from the Trinil beds. The mals, including a human skull. At Swanscombe, there earlier Javan hominids from the Djetis beds, H. mod­ is every indication of actual occupation sites of peoples jokertensis and "Megantht·opus)" are pretty clearly of the Acheulean, adjacent to the small tributary chan­ post-Villafranchian, but presumably still older than the nels of the sluggishly meandering Thames River. At 1'vIauer jaw. This conclusion is based on Hooijer's Ternifine, the situation is less clear, the human remains (1952,1957; Hooijer and Colbert 1951) recent analyses and other mammalian bones, as well as earliest Acheu­ of the faunal succession in Java, work of great impor­ lean implements, being found in fresh condition at the tance for correlation of the Pleistocene sequence estab­ base of a small depression once occupied by a mere or lished there. small lake. Primitive hunting-and-gathering peoples The two well-preserved, but damaged or incomplete, of the Acheulean presumably occupied the margins of skulls, from Steinheim and Swanscombe, are representa­ this body of water, and it may be that the occurrence of tive of European peoples of the latter part of the Great unrolled bones and tools in the floor of the basin is a Interglacial. In the latter case, the industrial association reflection of man's activities in discarding rubbish (also is broadly Middle Acheulean; the assemblage is con· the opinion of C. Arambourg, personal communica­ siderably advanced in comparison with that found in tion). Only at the Littorina Cave, and perhaps at Swans­ association with the Ternifine human remains. It is combe, is there evidence of a probable occupation site strange that no stone implements have ever turned up originally in situ, but in each case subsequently dis­ either at Steinheim or at Mauer. The Steinheim' and turbed. None of these occurrences is comparable to an Swanscombe specimens are broadly contemporaneous occupation site like Locality 1 at Choukoutien, or to ''lith the people of the renowned site of Choukoutien, the open-air habitation sites of eastern Africa repre­ Locality I, found in association with the Choukoutien­ sented by localities in Olduvai Gorge and at lsimila in ian chopper/chopping-tool industry (Movius 1944, Tanganyika, or at Olorgesailie and Kariandusi in 1949a).6 Kenya. Torre in Pietra, a littoral occupation site of peo­ Somewhat younger are the human remains from ples of the Acheulean that is situated west of Rome, has the Littorina Cave at Sidi Abderrahman and from the provided stone tools and fauna (largely horse) from an Rabat sandstone. Both are clearly dated to the early ancient land surface (A.C. Blanc, personal communica­ post-Tyrrhenian (I) regressive stage. They thus corre­ tion), but human skeletal remains are lacking, as they spond to the onset or early phase of the Penultimate are generally at the otherwise rich eastern African sites. Glaciation (Tensiftian Pluvial). All these human remains are of broadly Middle Pleis­ tocene age, but their relative datings are in fact spread over a considerable range of this span of time. The famous Mauer mandible is of the greatest antiq­ MORPHOLOGY OF THE SKELETAL REMAINS uity, and dates from an "interglacial" interval prior to the Elster Glaciation. This interval presumably cor­ EARLY MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE responds with the ameliorative phase between the Skeletal remains of pre- Great Interglacial peoples North Sea (Norwich) and the Lowestoft Glacial ad­ from Europe and Mediterranean Africa are restricted vances. It seems likely that this interval is represented to mandibles and the lower dentition; a single parietal in certain sections by the second regressive phase of the bone from Ternifine represents the only portion of Sicilian transgressive stage (sometimes termed "Milaz­ cranium known. The general lack of cranial remains zian"). Somewhat younger are the recently recovered complicates comparisons with the southeastern Asian human remains from the Ternifine sand pit, found in peoples from the Djetis and Trinil beds of Java, which, with the exception of the Sangiran B mandible frag­ ment (from the Djetis beds), are known nearly wholly TABLE 4. Some measurements of Middle Pleistocene hominid mandibles.

Sal/~'ran Chou~:ulitn Chou;;lu1itn A1auer T(T;~'U Ter;~nt T(r;~ne Af~~r. Monlmaurin ------~------~~-I------_SYc..m",pc..hc..y_si_al_h_l_. .11 __39 4_0 32_.5_ ~ _3_9 3_5_ ~~ __- (2_9_)_ Body ht. (behind M,) 31.1 33.2 25.4 34.3 35 34 38 34.5 (3l) -'------~---I------~~------Body thickness (behind ).11) 18.9 18.8 16.6 22 19 16 20 17 (16) -'----'---'------~--~------Ramus hl. 74 77 71 72 93 (70) ------11·------~--~------­ _R_a_m_u_s_b,_e_ad_l_h I -1-_4_0~..7- __3_9_.7__5_2 4_5_ ~ (4_5)_ Mandibular angle 9r 108° 105° 98° 111 ° 110° Total length 103 94 120 110 110 129 (116) --'------1------Bicondylar breadth 150 102 133 158 (137)

210 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY Howell; MIDD1.E Pl.EISTOCE."'l"E HOl\[(NIDS

but the superior and inferior pterygoid tubercles are not especially developed. As in all hominids, the anterior dentition is reduced relative to the posterior. However, this reduction largely affects the crowns of the teeth, and the roots of the canines and incisors arc still robust and long (Fig, 13). Consequently, as Weidenreich (1936, also 1934) has clearly shown, the symphysis is thick, the alveolar plane well·developed, the superior transverse torus is massive with a markecf genioglossal fossa below it, the alveolar and basal arches are scarcely separable (only a faint de­ pression corresponding to the anterior symphysial in­ curvature), and a bony chiri (mentum osseum) is alto­ gether absent (Fig. 14); the presence of a true mental trigone is difficult to confirm, but a low rounded pro­ tuberance marks the symphysial tuber. The digastric fossae, separated anteriorly by a rounded basal trigone, are broad and relatively short (rather than long and narrow as in the Choukoutien folk), and, although ex­ tensive anteriorly, are also directed backward onto the basal arch. The Mauer incisors show a basal lingual tubercle and slight marginal ridges. The canine, unfortunately

FIG. 12. Right la{eral and occlusal views of the Mauer much worn, is swollen buccally, and exhibits a basal mandible. (Photographs courtesy of B. Engels, lingual tubercle as well as a median, and marginal Geologisch-Palaeontologisches Institut, UniversiL3t Hei· lingual ridges. The molar series is not, as is sometimes delberg.) claimed, especially small, except in comparison with the massiveness of the mandible. The dimensions of these teeth fall fully within the range of variation of the Choukoutien Locality I people, as well as of most from crania. However, aside from the Sangiran B man· of the Middle Pleistocene peoples of 'northern Africa dible, the remains of the later Choukoutien Locality 1 (Table 5). people provide some materials for comparison. The NIauer mandible (Schoetensack 1908; Wust 1951) is still the earliest known human fossil from either Europe or Mediterranean Africa. In common with other early men, it is massive and robust (Table 4), the mental foramina are multiple (3 right, 2 left), the symphysial region is posteriorly inclined, and the alveolar arch is characteristically parabolic. However, it has certain unique features, including (I) the extraordinary breadth of the ramus, massive-rounded-off and low coronoid process, and related shallow sigmoid notch; Choukoutien G Mouer (2) the extreme depth of the prelacteal segment of the r body, related to the marked inferior extension of the FIG. 13. The symphysial region and emplacement of marginal torus and anterior marginal tubercle (result­ amerior teeth in the Mauer and Choukoutien Gl man­ ing in the formation of a cupid's-bow shaped submental dibles (redrawn after \Veidenreich J936). incisure); and (3) the relatively moderate size of the dentition compared to the massiveness of the mandible (Fig. 12). In these aspecLS of its morphology, the Mauer specimen is distinguished from broadly contempora­ neous peoples of southeastern Asia as well as from the some,,,hat younger northwest African Ternifine people. There are also some minor differences, compared to the Choukoutien mandibular morphology, in the archi­ tecture of the ramus: on the lateral surface the man­ dibular angle is scarcely evened and a true masseteric fossa is absent, both features being related to the pat­ SangiranB ChaukoutienG, Mauer Rabat Mantmaurin tern of development of the masticatory musculature; FIG. 14. Mid-sagittal sections through the symphysial the ectocondyloid crest (and lateral sub-condyloid region of some Middle Pleistocene hominid mandibles LUbercle) is absent; on the medial surface the attach­ (redrawn after Von Koenigswald 1940; "Veidenreich ment area for the internal pterygoid muscle is extensive, 1936; Vallois and Roche 1958).

Vol. J . No.3' May 1960 211 The crown of Pi is asymmetrical, consequently its The three Ternifine mandibles are all extremely ro­ transverse axis is obliquely oriented, with full and bust and massive (Table 4). No.3 (Fig. 15) is the largest, prominent buccal cusp, from the apex of which ridges its length and (bicondylar) breadth exceeding even that extend mesially and distally, and a small buccally. of the Mauer mandible. In all specimens. the borders situated lingual cusp; a median ridge extends between 01 the body are parallel; in No. I (Fig. 16), there is a the cusps, and the anterior and posterior foveae are prominent marginal torus (less d~veloped than in well developed; there is slight buccal swelling of the Mauer. however), with anterior and posterior marginal crown but no true cingulum. The crown of P2 is sym· tubercles. The marginal torus and anterior marginal metrically rounded, and the prominent buccal and tubercle of 1'\0. 3 are also prominent; the fonner is de­ small lingual cusps are joined by an enamel ridge; the limited by a well·defined inter-toral sulcus. This anterior, and particularly the posterior, foveae are well development of the torus accentuates a prominent defined. The molars, moderately taurodont, are longer circumflex·fonned submental incisure. As in, other early than wide, the third molar being reduced and the hominids, there is a tendency for multiple mental second molar the largest of the series, as is frequently loramina, two in No. I, and two (right) or three (Ielt) the case in other early hominids. A cingulum, or even in No.3; in No.2 the foramen is single; the foramina traces of it, is lacking. The cusp pattern is of the dryopi. are situated either below the second premolar (No.3) thecine sub·Y5 (M ,) or +5 (~1" M,) pattern, with a or between the premolars. In all specimens, the sym­ well-developed hypoconulid and prominent metaconid physis is thick and inclined posteriorly; its anterior face. and hypoconid; probably Ma, and certainly M" pos· in both No.2 and No.3, and as in the Choukoutien sessed a sixth cusp. In M} and M2 the hypoconid­ people, reveals the presence of a slight mental trigone, metaconid contact is evident, but in M3 the enlarged but no mentum osseum. The lingual symphysial surface entoconid is in contact with the protoconid. is strongly inclined backward. and the alveolar plane is Lack of additional human skeletal material from markedly developed (especially in No.2 and in No.3) this time level limits generalization, since it is impossi· and slightly concave. Only in No.3 is there develop. ble to control the range of variability within the popu­ ment of the superior transverse torus; but this structure lation of which the Mauer specimen is an isolated is much less pronounced than in the specimen from sample. Nevertheless, there are fundamental differ· 'Mauer, and approaches the reduced condition found ences, expressed in both the mandibular and dental in the Sangiran B specimen and "in those from Chou­ morphology, between the Mauer individual and such koutien Locality 1. In No.2 there is a slight genioglossal eastern Asian forms as the individual (B) from the fossa, at the base of which the foramen supra·spinosum Djetis beds at Sangiran (Von Koenigswald 1940; Wei· opens; in No.3 the fossa is more clearly delimited and denreich 1945) and the younger Choukoutien Locality deeper; below it the genial tubercles are united in a I population (Weidenreich 1936, 1937). A considerable salient submental spine. In the Choukoutien folk there period of genetic isolation was clearly required to pro· is no pit, but a "real mental spine" with upper tuber\les duce such divergences, if these respective peoples were for the genioglossi and fused lower tubercles for the commonly derived from a primitive hominid radiation, geniohyoid muscles (Weidenreich 1936). In No. I and such as might be represented by an unspecialized fOlm No.2, the digastric fossae are relatively short, but much of australopithecine. more extensive in No.3; in Nos. I and 3, these occupy The recent discovery of three human mandibles only the ventral face of the basal arch. but in No.2 there (Arambourg 1954c, I955a,b,c, 1956), other isolated is a tendency for expansion obliquely backward onto teeth, and a parietal bone (Arambourg 1955d) at Terni· the lingual lace 01 the body. fine ranks as an event of prime importance in human paleontology. The need for caution in arriving at far· reaching conclusions [rom isolated specimens is indi· cated by the morphological variability of these remains. TABLE 5. Dimensions of lower premolar and molar teeth in Middle Pleistocene hominids and in the austra­ lopithecines (Australopithecus and Parallthropus).

Sangiran Choutoulim Mauer Ternijine Ternifine Ternifine Sidi Afontmaurin SterkJonttin Swmlkrans B. Loe. 1 1. 2. 3. Abdar. Rabat , I , I -­ - --- P, b 11.7-11.8 10.6-12.9 - 8.9-10.8 9.0 - 9.0 11.2 10.0 9.6 10.0 - - I 9.0- 9.2 9.2-10.5 - 7.9- 9.8 8.1 7.3 8.5 9.0 8.0 9.0 9.0 - - -­--- P, b 11.6-11.7 12.0-17.0 11.0 8.0-11.1 9.2 - 10.0 10.5 10.0 - -- - I 9.8-10.1 10.3-12.5 9.2 8.5- 9.2 7.5 - 8.0 9.5 8.2 - -- - -­ --­-~- M, b 11.2-13.9 13.0-15.2 13.0 11.1-12.6 11.2 - 12.0 13.0 11.8 11.6 11.0 10.5 10.7 1 13.0-15.1 14.3-16.1 12.5 11.3-13.6 11.6 11.1 12.8 14.0 12.0 13.0 13.0 12.5 12.5 -­ --­-- M, b 13.2-15.3 13.9-16.2 13.2 11.4-12.9 12.0 - 13.7 13.7 12.1 11.4 11.3 11.0 11.0 1 14.3-16.8 15.0-17.4 13.0 11.9-12.9 12.7 12.9 13.0 14.2 12.0 14.4 12.5 12.0 12.5 -­ -­--- M, b 12.7-14.8 12.9-16.5 12.5 10.0-12.4 10.9 11.3 12.5 12.5 11.5 11.2 10.6 10.7 11.0 I 13.5-16.7 15.4-18.5 14.5 I 10.0-12.9 12.2 11.5 12.0 13.2 8.0 12.2 12.0 130 13.0

212 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY As is the case in the Choukoutien people, there is Howell: MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE HOMINIDS fairly marked variability in the form of the mandibular ramus. In No.2 (Fig. J7) the ramus is relatively broad, similar to that of the Choukoutien folk. This morphoI· but low, with short truncated coronoid and shallow ogy is also present, in a more primitive condition, in the mandibular (sigmoid) notch. However, in No.3 the Villafranchian hominid, Australopilhecus, as Robinson ramus is not only broad, nearly attaining the dimen­ (1956) has so clearly shown. sions of the Mauer specimen, but extremely high and The crown of P2 is symmetrically shaped, and rec­ more posteriorly inclined; the coronoid process is extra­ tangular, or sub·rectangular, with rounded buccal ordinarily prominent and massive, exceeding the con­ margin. In o. 2, in which this tooth is least worn, there dyle in height, with an attendant narrow and deep are numerous wrinkles on the occlusal surface. This is sigmoid notch. All these features are reminiscent of a double-rooted tooth, at least in the TO. 3 individual. the smaller G 1 specimen from Locality I at Chou­ The buccal cusp is very large, wi th a well-defined koutien. The mandibular angle (111°) is truncated in prominent mesial ridge passing inward from its apex. No.3, as it is in i\Iauer, with a very thick margin that is The lingual cusp, of considerable size in specimens TOS. slightly everted in its lower portion but twisted inward I and 2 especially, is situated opposite the buccal cusp in its upper half; this also corresponds rather closely to on the mesial half of the crown. The anterior fovea is the morphology of the Choukoutien G, specimen. The evident, but the posterior fovea is particularly promi­ masseter and internal pterygoid insertion areas are nent and large; a low triangular ridge extends bucco­ especially salient, the ectocondyloid crest is pro­ lingually between these cusps, and separates the foveae. nounced, and a thick ridge is developed throughout the The anterior-and posterior walls bounding these foveae vertical extent of the thickened anterior margin of the are in general well developed. The talonid is relatively coronoid; in No.2, on the other hand, these features arc large, especially in Nos. 2 and 3 in which a cusp is either absent or'much attenuated. nearly fonned on the disto-lingual margin (a condition In all three specimens, the dental arch is parabolic, found in some modern human populations). Mesial and being most rounded in No.2; bUl, in No.3, the pre­ distal oblique cingular ridges are clearly evident on lactcal portion projects farther anteriorly due to the the buccal faces of the teeth. This basic crown pattern, robust canine-incisor series (Fig. 18). The form of the present in the australopithecines (Robinson 1956), is arch in the Ternifine specimens approximates closely also common in the eastern Asian hominids from Java to that of the Choukoutien people; however, among (Sangiran B mandible) and Choukomien (however, in the former the arch is more posterioriy divergent, re­ the latter the crown of P2 is rather more rounded, and flecting some differences in the form of the palate and approaches marc closely the shape found in the man­ the structure of the facial skeleton. The Mauer arch is dible from Mauer). smaller, especially its prelacteal portion, which is also The lower molars of the Ternifine mandibles are in morc gently and symmetrically curved. general large, although there is a fair range of variabil­ The teeth of the Ternifine peoples are relatively ity in the three specimens (Table 4). The second molar macrodont, as in the case of most other early Middle is the largest in thc molar series, and reduction of M3 is PleistOcene hominids (Table 5). It is interesting to note evident in all three individuals. This condition is also that the extremely robust No.3 mandible has, in gen­ characteristic of the Choukoutien population, but the eral, smaller tceth than the other two specimens, espe­ earlier Sangiran mandible from the Djetis beds lacks cially No.2, which has the largest teeth, but a more such reduction, and this tooth is the largest of the series. gracile mandiblc. The incisors are unknown, except for In TO. 2, all the molars are longer than wide; but, this a very worn right lateral in No.3, which is small­ feature is not general, since 1\12 and M 1 of specimen crowned; however, the dimensions of the sockets for No. I, and:M2 and Ms of spccimen No.3, are wider than these teeth indicate that there was some tendency for long (Table 4). This same variability is evident, how­ root reduction\ The canines, a very worn example of ever, in the Choukoutien people, and in the older reo which is preserved in No.3. werc cvidently large­ mains from the Djetis beds. The Ternifine lower molars crowned with robust and deep roots, as in the Chou· exhibit a dryopithecine Y5 or +5 cusp pattcrn, with koutien folk. predominance of the metaconid and a characteristic The premolars are large, both absolutely and relative metaconid-hypoconid contact. However, the cusp pat· to the size of the molars. In Nos. I and 2, the crown of tern of the molars is rather variable and perhaps in the PI shows a large compressed main cusp on the buccal process of change; for example, in individual No.2, the margin, from the apex of which ridges extend mesially last two molars are considerably squared·off, and the and distally; a smaller lingual cusp is situated somewhat hypoconulid somewhat reduced in size, indicative of distally on the lingual margin. Both anterior and pos· the modificalion antecedent to the +4 pattern. A sixth ~12 terior foveae are well developed. The crown is asym­ cusp occurs in and 1\13 of individual No.2, and per· mctrical, there being poor developmcnt of the mesio­ haps in Yfs of individual 0.3. Extensive crenulations lingual margin, so that the transverse axis through the of the occlusal surface, so well known in the Chou­ cusps passes obliquely to the plane of the mesio-distal koutien LOca!ilY I folk, were probably characteristic axis. On the mesial and distal edges of [he crown, there Uudging from the least worn P:? and molars of indi­ are well-defined oblique cingular ridges. The samc basic vidual No.2). Traces of a cingulum on the swollen structure is evident in the more worn right PI of speci· buccal surfaces of the molars are evident in the No.2 mcn NO.3. The root system is semi·bifid, with separate specimen, and also on M 1 and M2 of the No.3 specimen. pulp chambers. In general, the crown and root structure Nearly all these features are characteristic of the Mid­ of lhis toOlh in the Ternifine remains is remarkably dle Pleistocene peoples of eastern Asia.

Vol. 1 . No. J. May 1960 213 .... ~'.~ ,~:",. ,<:'_ r .... o , '-----lcm.

FIG. 16. Right lateral and occlusal views of the Ternifine 1 mandible. (Photographs courtesy of C. Arambourg.)

FIG. 15. Right lateral (slightly oblique) and occlusal views of the Ternifine 3 mandible. (Photographs courtesy of C. Arambourg.)

o , '-..-Jcm.

FIG. 17. Left lateral and occlusal views of the Ternifine 2 mandible. (Photographs cour· tesy of C. Arambourg.)

FIG. 20. Right lateral and frontal views of the Steinheim cranium (afler Bcrckhemcr 1934; Weinert 1936).

214 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY Howell: MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE nOMINlDs

Flc. 18. Outlines of the mandib· ular arches of some Middle Pleis­ tocene hominid mandibles (re· drawn after 'Weidenreich 1936; Arambourg 1955b).

Choukoutien G, Choukoutien H,

Mouer Ternifine I We", Ternifine 3

, CKT No. 11 CKT No. 12 Swanscombe

./ : ( -V~ fop St" Java No.1 Java No.2 TerniFine

, , Sts.1511 Sts.5 FIG. 19. Pallerns of ramification of middle meningeal 1938; Arambourg 1955d; Le Gras Clark 1938). Key to vessels in an australopithecine (Australopithecus) and in abbreviations: s = stem; fp = franta-parietal; b = breg­ some Middle Pleistocene hominids (redrawn after matic; a = obelionic; st = superior temporal; it = in­ Broom, Robinson, and Schepers 1950; Weidenreich ferior temporal.

Vol. 1 . No.3· May 1960 215 A single right parietal (Arambourg 1955d) constitutes the only part of the vauIe of the Ternifine peoples GREAT INTERGLACIAL found thus far. It represents a relatively young indi­ Europe has provided two human skulls in deposits of vidual, the slitures being still open and the thickness of Great Interglacial age, [rom Swanscombe and from the bone corresponding approximately to that of a Steinheim. The Steinheim specimen (Fig. 20) is of par­ modern adult. The parietal curvature suggests a rela­ ticular importance, since not only is the cranium largely tively low-vaulted skull, with the greatest transverse complete, but the facial skeleton is preserved as well as diameter situated below the squamous (temporo­ a premolar and six molars of the upper dentition. The parietal) suture. The superior temporal line is quite right side of the Steinheim specimen is perfectly pre· well delineated, especially for a non-adult individual. served, although Weinert (1936) wrongly emphasized The well-preserved endocranial surface reveals a dis­ the distortion of this side, and permits accurate recon­ tincl and prominent Sylvian crest, extending upward struction of the whole skull (d. Berckhemer 1937). The from the amero-inferior angle. The postero·inferior left side is badly damaged in the fronto-sphenoidal angle is thickened (II mm.) into a prominent angular region. and the left side of the face is broken away ex­ LOrus. Both these features are typical and well de· cept for the portion of frontal with the supraorbital veloped in the eastern Asian hominids (\,Veidenreich torus, as is the whole anterior segment of the maxilla. 1943, 1947a). The pattern of the middle meningeal The anterior and middle ponions of the base are ex­ vessels (Fig. J9) reveals an initial bifurcation before cellently preserved, but the base of the occipital is penetration into the parietal region. The anterior broken away. A detailed description of this specimen branch crosses the area of the Sylvian crest and ramifies has never appeared. although preliminary notes were into anterior (bregmatic) and median (obelionic) published by Berckhemer (J933b, 1934, 1937, 1938); branches; the posterior (lower temporal) branch, com­ and, a more lengthy discussion and reconstruction were parable in size to the anterior, extends over the postero­ attempted by Weinert (1936) from a

216 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY hypocone most affected. The crowns of the first and Howell: MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE H01>UNIDS second molars are asymmetrically square, the mesial margin sloping backward lingually, and the distal slop­ level, as in the eastern Asian peoples. Thus, in posterior ing the same direction due to the prominent develop. view, the vault has a quadratic fonn with rounded ment of the large hypocone. The buccal cusps (paracone margins. The frontal bone, with marked postorbital and metacone) are large, and the protocone is relatively constriction, is long and low, but exhibits (as does that reduced. These teeth are moderately (M') to markedly of the Choukoutien folk) a distinct frontal tuber some (1\,(1, M3) taurodont; and, i\ifl and M2 also show quite 50 mm. above the supraorbital margin. The curvature well-developed prismatic root fonnation (d. Berck­ of the parietal is broken by a faint prelambdoid depres­ hemer 1937). sion. The temporal lines are only barely delimited. The The Steinheim cranial vault is long and narrow and temporal squama is expanded and .curved superiorly, a fairly low (highest point near bregma), and, in general, condition similarly present in Swanscombe; the relatively small (Table 6). The cranial capacity has been sphenoid is in articulation with the parietal (over a variously estimated, the figure of 1070 cc. offered by distance of c. 9 rom.). The mastoid process is rela­ \Veinert (1936) being cited most frequently. However, tively small, with an open, moderately shallow mastoid this figure is almost surely LOO low, and it is much more incisure posterior to it. The external auditory meatus is likely that the actual value approaches 1150-1175 cc. vertically elliptic in shape, with a well-developed, ver­ The cranial bones are only moderately thick, consider­ tically oriented anterior portion, separated from the ably less so than any of the earlier or broadly contempo­ glenoid cavity by a prominent thick postglenoid ridge, raneous eastern Asian peoples; the thickness approaches, and a smaller but thick posterior portion; these are but does not always ~ttain, that of some portions of the. separated by a small, lateral vaginal ridge. The occipital Swanscombe specimen. The difference between the bone is well.rounded, rather than angulated as in the outer and inner cranial dimensions is nonetheless con­ eastern Asian Middle Pleistocene peoples, and lacks siderable. In contrast with the eastern Asian folk, it is the massive occipital torus formation so characteristic due not to the development of massive cranial super· structures. but to an extraordinarily large fromal sinus (a formation that is extremely small in the Choukoutien group)_ The greatest vault breadth is situated rather FIG. 21. Occipital torus sLrUcLUre in the cast Asian high, at the inferior margin of the parietal, as it is in hominid [rom Choukoutien and in the wcst European the Swanscombe specimen, rather than at the auricular hominids {rom Swanscombe and Steinheim (after Wei­ denreich 1940). Key to abbreviations: ds =supratoral fossa; Is =superior nuchal line; po ::; external occipital proLUberance; t = occipital torus.

CKT 11 CKT 12

Steinheim Swanscombe Vol. 1 . No. ). May 1960 217 of the latter (Weidenreich 1940, 1943). The occipital angular torus such as in the Asian peoples. The torus is torus (Fig. 21) is low, and extends laterally as far as the tripartite in structure, with more salient lateral seg· asterionic region, bUl there is no development of the menu and a wide, flattened medial ponion; superiorly,

TABLE 6-A

Prl- 4--•••••------_._-••• Cleat Interglacial --_ ..._..-- ... -.....------.-+ Post·

Choukoulrerl llffar/in's Calvarial Java Choukou- Choukou- Choukou- I Swans- Sauopaston range Stemluim' Nos. I Measurements 2 tien 10 tien 11 12 combe 7. tien (70, 71, 72) I 1(2) 1\1aximum length (g-ap) 176.5 199 192 195.5 192-199 185 - (181-2) Id ="lasion-opisU1ocranion length - 194 185 192 185-194 177 - 182 (n-op) - 3 Glabella-lambda length (g-I) 159? 186 169 174 169-186 172-4 - (155-73) - .­ 3a Nasion-lambda length (n-I) - 184 166 175 166-184 167-9 (161-76) 4 Inner skull length 148 173 167 168 167-173 156 - - - Difference between 1(2) and 4 28.5 26 25 27.5 25- 27.5 29 - - ~ ---- 5(1) Nasion.opisthion length (n·o) 134' - 145 147 145-147 (135-40) - 135 8 Maximum (parietal) breadth 131 1381 135 139/ 135-139 132-3 (142) 142 (eu·eu) 9 Least frontal breadth (ft·ft) 79 89 84 91 84- 91 102 - 101 9(1) Post-orbital breadth 83' 981 93 95 93- 98 102 - 102 10 Greatest frontal breadth (co·co) 102? 1101 106 108 106-110 118-9 - 116 11 Biauricular breadth (au·au) 129/ 147 143 151 143-151 116 - 125 12 Biastcrionic breadth (ast-ast) 120 1111 113 115 I I 1-115 106-8 123.51 (117) 13 Bimastoid breadth (ms-ms) 102 - 103/ - - 93.4 - 102 17 Basi-bregmatic height (ba·b) lOS? - rest. - - (110) 125? 109 20 Auriculo·bregmatic height 89 106 94 101.5 94-106 98 - 101 (po-b) 1­ - Opisthocranion height above 37 - 53 41 41-53 , 50 - - n-o (proj.) - Inion height above n·o (proj.) 37 - 53 41 41-53 29 - - - Distance between internal & 25 38 34 35 34-38 - 15 - external inion

24 Auriculo.bregmatic arc (po~po 262 310 280 280 280-310 300 - 282 (b» 25 Median sagittal arc (n-'o) 3021 - 332 337 332-337 341-2 - 3381 26 Nasion.bregma arc (n~b) 107? 129 122 124 122-129 120 - (110)1

27 Bregma·lambda arc (b~J) 94 113 92 102.5 92-113 107-9 1I 5.51 (121 ) 28 Lambda-opisthion arc 0-'0) 101? - 118 118 - (113-4) 116 (107) 29 Nasion·bregma chord (n-b) 901 115 106 113 106-115 (98-100) - 105.5 30 Bregma-lambda chord (b-I) 91 106 86 91 86-106 (96-9) 107.51 112 31 Lambda·opislhion chord (1·0) 75 - 86 86 - (88-9) 94 87 32(1) Frontal inclination angle I - 46.5" 42° 44° 42°-46.5° 47° - 52° (b-n L n-op) 33(lb) Occipital inclination angle II 62.5 68° 57° 61° 5r-68° 76° - - (I-op Lop-g) 33(4) Occipital curvature angle 103° 104°? 105° 98° 98°-105° 112° - 102°-09° (I-op LOp-D) Cranial capacity- (in ce) 775 1225 1015 1030 11015-1225 (1150-75) (1325) 1175

~18 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY a fine suprataraI sulcus differentiates it from the oc­ Howell: MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE HO~.nNIDS cipital squama; inferiorly, the superior nuchal line is fully evident. This structure, marking the level of inion, heim skull. This was demonstrated some years ago by is about 18 mm. below the position of maximum cranial Morant (1938: 97), who noted that "as far as can be length (opisthocranion); in the eastern Asian peoples of seen, the Swanscombe and Steinheim skulls were quite the Middle Pleistocene, these points coincide. The similar, and it is not unlikely that they represent the supramastoid crest, unconnected with the torus, is only same Acheulian group." Thus, the real significance of moderately ·developed, and tenninates abruptly at the the Swanscombe cranium, aside from its well~dated con­ squamosal suture; a faintly depressed area above it text and the extremely important association with an presumably represents a supramastoid sulcus. Achulean industry, is its confinnation of the fact that The Steinheim skull, although small and exhibiting this popUlation was relatively widespread in Europe a number of related primitive features, differs markedly during the Great Interglacial, and that it differed con­ from the crania of eastern Asian peoples of the Middle siderably from broadly contemporaneous human popu­ Pleistocene. These differences .are' fundamental rather lations in eastern Asia. than trivial, and include the form, thickness, and curva­ The Swanscombe parieto-occipital bones are slightly ture of vault bones, structure of the cranial base (cE. larger, and in places rather thicker (Table 6), than their Kramp 1986), and the development of special cranial counterparts in the Steinheim specimen; however, the superstructures. The preserved portions of the Swans­ differences are no more than might be expected lvithin combe cranium (Fig. 22), representing a fairly young a single variable population and in individuals of dif­ adult individual, bear a very close and detailed re­ ferent sex, the fonn and cranial architecture being the semblance to the corresponding portions of the Stein- same (Fig. 23). Various estimates, made according to different methods, are available for the cranial capacity of this specimen (c£. Morant 1938; Breitinger 1955); the most reasonable and likely figure is 1250-1300 co., but, since the remains are incomplete. it is impossible to TABLE 6-A, 6-B. Some dimensiom of the Steinheim be precise. and Swanscombe crania with comparative figures for some east Asian Middle Pleistocene hominids.

TABLE 6-B

Great Interglacial Last Inlaglacwl

Marlin's Facial Sktlctoll Choukoutltrl Saccopastore Saccopastore Slullluim ,Aros. M tQsuremenls (recollSt.) 1. 2. 5 Basilar length (n-ba) 105.5 (96-100) 101.5 114 40 Superior facial length (ba-pr) 114 (108-10) (114) 117 48 Superior facial height (n-pr) 77 (74-75) (86) 87 43 Superior facial breadth (above fmt-fmt) 121 117 118 120 43(1) Inner biorbital breadth (fmo-fruo) III - 112 118 44 Biorbital breadth (ek-ek) 111 106 103 116 45 Bizygomatic breadth (zy~zy) 148 (132) - 140 46 Maxillary breadth (zm~zm) 981 (98-100) - 112

48(1) Alveolar height (ns~pr) 25 (21-4) 25.5 27 50 Anterior interorbital breadth (mf~mf) 25 - 22 25-6 51 Orbital breadth (mf) 44 41 46-47 49 52 Orbital height 36 30 (39) 38-9 54 Nasal bread th 30 (30) 31 34

55 Nasal height (n~ns) 52.5 (32) 59 59-60 60 Maxillo-alveolar length (pr-alv.) 64 59 (60) 63 61 Maxillo~alveolar breadth (ekm~ekrn) 71 68 70 72 62 Palatal length (ol-sta) 52 - 53 57 63 Palatal bread th (between second molars) 39 - 40 41 72(5) Upper facial triangle (nasion L) 72' 74' 75' 70' 72(5) Upper facial triangle (prosthion L.) 68' 65' 60' 66' 72(5) Upper facial triangle (basion L) 40' 42' 46' 44'

Vol. 1 . No.3' May 1960 219 o , l-...J cm. FIG. 22. Left lateral and occipital views of the Swans­ co~?e cranium. (Photographs courtesy of K. P. Oakley, T?e parietals are relatively thick, except for the BntlSh Museum, Natural History.) o~ehoOic and lamb?oid regions, and are slightly curved WIth a prelambdOld depression; the length is rather ~rea small in proportion to the breadth. The slightly curved modera.tely large of origin for the temporal muscle. squamous margin is thickened, not sharp.edged, and There IS no Sylvlan crest development, in contrast to the sphenoidal angle only roughly rounded and bent the massiveness of this structure in the eastern Asian peo~les medially: Keith (1938/39) suggested a franta-temporal f.rom Java and Choukoutien. The pattern of artIculatIOn here, whereas Marston (1937) and Morant ramification of the middle meningeal vessels (Le Gros (1938) thought an epipteric bone may have been pres­ Clark 1938) reveals a primary bifurcation, in the middle cramal [ossa, of lambdoid and bregmatic branches; in ent, but the exact morphology is difficult to determine since the remains are incomplete. The transverse curva· the upper parietal area, a branch is given off extending ture of the parietal is of the form seen in the 5teinheim toward l.he obelionic region (Fig. 15). This pattern, cor­ specimen, and the lateral expansion of the vault re­ respondmg ta the type-IV category of G. Ruggeri, is extremely rare in anatomically modern peoples, and veals the same rounded quadratic shape when viewed also differs from the primitive hominid pattern of the from behind. As in the case of Steinheim, the anterior Choukoutien (Weidenreich 1938) and Ternifine (Aram­ I:arietaI. breadth is reduced. The superior temporal hnes, sauated below the parietal tuber, indicate a bourg 1955d) populations. The biasterionic breadth of this specimen is consider­ able, and the maximum breadth was estimated by Morant to be even greater and situated markedly low B Swanscombe B Sieinheim--£==1==::::: Swanscombe Choukoutien III

, ,,

. , , Io-'e.... .,-".

Ftc. 23. Mid-sagittal sections of the Steinheim and FIG. 24. Mid-sagittal sections of the Swanscombe and Swanscombe parieto·occipital bones. Choukoutien Locality 1 (No. III) parieto-occipital bones.

220 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY on the skull. The expanded curvature of the Swans­ Howell; MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE HOMINIDS combe occipital resembles closely that of the Steinheim individual and contrasts markedly with the eastern (Fig. 25) should be attributed to a population like that Asian hominids (Fig. '24). The occipital torus is present represented by the Steinheim and Swanscombe crania. only as a transverse, slightly curved ridge, with the lat­ Except for a slight difference in size, it fits closely the eral portions more salient than the reduced and flat­ Steinheim skull, as Vallois (1955,1956, 1958).has noted tened central segment; a true external occipital pro­ in his preliminary descriptions of the specimen. This tuberance is absent, just as in the Steinheim specimen. specimen, discovered in 1949, was recovered from the The torus, slightly projecting above the depressed nu­ Montmaurin caves, situated in the limestone cliffs chal plane with well-developed sites of nuchal muscle bordering IYfontmaurin, thirteen kilometers northwest attachment, is somewhat less demarcated from the oc­ cipital plane than is the case in the Steinheim specimen (Fig. 16); a triangularly shaped, widened depression in the mid-line represents the supratoral fossa. Such minor differences are either individual variation and/or sexu­ ally determined. The mastoid angle is entirely flat with no trace of a connection with the occipital torus, al· though there is some thickening of this area. The cere­ bellar fossae are small in comparison with the cerebral fossae, and the internal occipital protuberance is situ­ ated considerably below (15 mm.) the level of the oc­ cipital torus. The sphenoidal sinus was quite extensive, judging from its marked expansion into the basi­ occipital, especially since the individual was still youth­ ful. Certain authors (see below) have concluded that the Swanscombe cranium offers proof of tile Great Inter­ glacial age of anatomically modern man. However, it is difficult to understand this conclusion in view of the close similarity in cranial form and architecture be­ tween the Steinheim and Swanscombe specimens, a similarity that Morant called attention to, but failed to stress, in his original description of the Swanscombe cranium. This conclusion is of course meaningful if both individuals are referred to H. sapiens. However, Roginskii (1948) has emphasized that a number of the cranial proportions of the Swanscombe specimen are FIG. 25. Left lateral and occlusal views of the Mont­ duplicated among some, especially early, Neanderthals maurin mandible (after Vallois 1958). and, correspondingly, differ from those of morphologi­ cally modern human groups. Stewart (1959) has,recently noted the same similarity in the inferior projection of of Saint-Gaudens (Haute-Garonne). It was found in the the, mas to-occipital process, suggesting a small mastoid, lower portion of a collapsed vertical shaft (tenned La and resembling the Neanderthal rather than the Niche), the filling of which was unstratified, but con­ anatomically modern conditions. Sergi (1953) and tained a so-called warm fauna (mostly red deer; no rein­ Breitinger (1952, 1955) have re;lched essentially the deer), and a pre-Mousterian type of flake assemblage. same conclusion. Breitinger, in a careful study of the Its age, based on the fauna and on geological studies by proportions and interrelationships of cranial elements Bonifay, is either late in the Great Interglacial or of the Swanscombe skull, has demonstrated that an within an interstadial phase of the subsequent anatomically modern frontal and facial region is in fact (Saale = Riss) glaciation. The adjoining Coupe-Corge highly improbable for that individuaL The preserved cave (Baylac et al. 1950), with Micoquian and Upper portions of the Swanscombe specimen indicate that this Paleolithic occupation horizons, shows cold maxima individual closely resembles in its cranial morphology interpreted as end-Riss and early Wunn (Bonifay 1957), the individual from Steinheim, and that both represent and the filling of La Niche occurred evidently during an the same hominid variety. However,' in a number of earlier, warmer stage. The several Montmaurin sites features, including (1) the shortness and flatness of the have been known for many years. Boule (1902) and, parietal, (2) the length and curvature of the occipital later, Saint-Perier (1902) presented lists of an interest­ squama and the relative shortness and flatness of the ing warm fauna (Rh. mercki~ Eq. caballus~ S. scrota, occipital region and length of the foramen magnum, Bas d. primigenius, C. elaphus, C. capreolus, and vari­ (3) the marked biasterionic breadth and reduced an­ ous carnivores including the sabretooth, M. latidens) terior diameter of the parietal, and (4) the moderate collected, first from work by E. Cartailhac, from rem· cranial height, both specimens deviate from the ana­ nants of breccia adhering to cave walls. tomically modern morphological pattern and, instead, The body of the Montmaurin mandible is very ro­ are allied with early Neanderthal peoples. bust, in this respect resembling the Mauer specimen. It seems very likely that the Montmaurin mandible However, the borders are essentially parallel, and the

Vol. 1 . No.3' May 1960 221 lower border is broad wfth well-defined posterior mar· slight longitudinal depression on -the distal face (a con· ginal tubercle. The digastric fossae are extremely well dition found in those Choukoutien folk in which the developed, extending along the lower border to the root is not bifid). There is no true cingulum, al~ho.ugh level of the first molar. The buccal surface is swollen traces of vertical cingular folds occur on the distal and behind the double mental foramen. The lingual surface mesial borders, and the buccal face of the crown is is raised below the roylo-hyoid line; a sub-lingual fossa rather swollen. The crOlvn shape is asymmetrical, with is not present. The anterior symphysial face is retreat­ the bucco-lingual axis oblique to the mesio-distal axis; ing, lacking any trace of a bony chin; the posterior face thus, the larger buccal cusp forms the whole buccal is marked by a very oblique planum, below which is a wall, whereas the smaller lingual cusp is displaced marked torus situated above the widely depressed zone slightly distally. The anterior fovea is small, while the in which an oblong crest represents the genial tubercles posterior fovea is quite large. In all these features, the (Fig. 12). The rami are not particularly broad, con­ morphology of this tooth resembles closely that of the siderab.ly less so than Mauer, and the mandibular angles Ternifine people. describe a regularly rounded, weakly angulated curve. The molars, the crowns of which are quite heavily There are low, but marked crests on both faces of the worn, are large; as in Ternifine, M2 is the largest of the ramus, a marked triangular torus, continuous with the molar series. The crown of M] is subrectangular, with alveolar ridge on the lingual face, and an oblique torus a Y5 cusp pattern, the large metaconid being in contact on the buccal face. The large condyles, markedly long with the hypoconid. An anterior fovea is faintly evident and broad with oval articular su.rfaces, project notably between the protoconid and metaconid. M2 is some­ outward as in the Mauer mandible. The sigmoid notch, 'what more elongated-rather elliptical-with a similar on the other hand, is more pronounced than in the lat­ cusp pattern, except that there is a closer approach to ter specimen. The alveolar arch is parabolic in shape and markedly divergent. The incisor, canine, and premolar teeth are missing from the specimen, but the full permanent molar series is present. The root of the canine was long and the premolar root single, judging from the sockets. The molars are large, Me being the largest tooth and M2 slightly smaller than M 1 . In all the molars the bucco· o , lingual dimension is smaller than the mesio-distal L-.Jcm. dimension. There is no trace of a cingulum, but the molar crowns are s\'wllen on the buccal surface. The cusps present a dryopithecine pattern, with a hypo­ conulid and also with a tuberculum sextum. The crown is considerably wrinkled on the least worn M3 . The molar pulp cavities show a moderate degree of tauro­ FIG. 26. Lateral and occlusal views of the Littorina dontism, as do those of most other Middle Pleistocene Cave mandible fragments (after Arambourg and Biber­ hominids. son 1956).

LATER MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE Human skeletal remains from the Penultimate the +5 shape, and a sixth cusp is present buccally be· Glacial/Pluvial stage are extremely rare. At present, tween the entoconid and hypoconulid. Ms. smallest of only incomplete lower and upper jaws, with portions of the series, reveals a Y5 pattern, probably with an addi­ the mandibular and maxillary dentition, are known tional sixth cusp; the unworn portion of its occlusal sur­ from Littorina Cave (Sidi Abderrahman) and from the face is covered by secondary wrinkles. Rabat sandstone.1 The Liuorina Cave specimen (Aram­ The Rabat mandible is robust and broad, with a bourg and Biberson 1956) comprises a portion of the moderately low body. The mental foramina are double, right mandibular body with three molars, and a part as in Ternifine and other Middle Pleistocene peoples. of the left post·symphysial region with P1 and the alveoli The relatively large digastric fossae are restricted to of the canine and lateral incisor. The Rabat remains the ventral surface of the body. The symphysis is re­ (Vallois 1945, 1946; d. also Briggs 1948, 1955), repre­ treating. and on its lingual surface there is a moderate senting an adolescent individual, include the lower part superior transverse torus; below the torus is a broad of a right maxilla (with incisors, canine, premolars, and fossa, representing the site of the upper genial tubercles, first two molars), the anterior half of a mandible (with whereas the lower genial tubercles are fused below as a full dentition except for the unerupted Ms), and median ridge. The incisors and canines are not ar­ twenty-one small fragments of the cranial vault (which ranged in an are, but are more transversely positioned. are impossible to reconstruct). The canines are incisiform. The lingual cusp of P1 is The body of the Littorina Cave mandible (Fig. 26) is relatively well developed, and the crown exhibits the robust, with the ventral and alveolar borders parallel. characteristic asymmetry noted in the Ternifine and the The ventral border, although rounded and thick, lacks Choukoutien peoples. P2 is double-rooted with a well­ a marginal torus; the alveolar border is also smooth and developed talonid, as in the Ternifine folk. The molars devoid of any torus development, including the lateral are large, show traces of a buccal cingulum, and exhibit prominence of the buccal side, which is weakly ex­ considerable taurodontism. The cusp pattern of M 1 is pressed. The heavily worn P, is single-rooted, with a of the Y5 variety, with the large metaconid in contact

222 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY with lhe hypoconid. ]n M2, which is larger than M I , Howell: MIDDl.E PLEISTOCENE HOMINlOS there is a +5 pattern and an additional sixth cusp. The Rabat maxillary fragment exhibits consider­ human fossil from the earlier Middle Pleistocene range able prognathism, lacks a mid-facial depression (canine of time, the Mauer mandible, is sufficiently different to fossa formation), and the palate is relatively large. The be regarded tentatively as very likely specifically distinct upper incisors show considerable development of from the eastern Asian lineage. The European evidence marginal ridges, producing a shovel-shaped crown, and is admittedly tenuous, since human crania are lacking, have pronounced marginal tubercles. The canine is but if the den tal and mandibular morphology is indica· large, projects slightly past the occlusal plane, and tive (as it is in the Asian populations), then this con· has a large cingulum on the buccal face and a marked clusion is warranted. The Ternifine people. however, median crest on the crown. pi is double·rooted and p2 in the morphology of their teeth and jaws, bear a (per­ single-rooted, the crown patterns of each resembling haps unexpected) dose resemblance to the eastern Asian homologous teeth of the Choukoutien folk. As in the populations. Any slight differences are of probably no lower dentition, M2 is larger than MI, and a well­ more than subspecific significance, and are not wholly marked cingulum is present, as is basal swelling of the unexpected between specifically similar, but widely crown. There is a well-developed hypocone, and acces­ separated, natural populations. sory cuspules obscure the basic crown pattern; on MI (2) No human skeletal remains are known from the the normal transverse ridge (paracone-protocone) is Great Interglacial stage in northern Africa, but the absent, and on M2 the oblique ridge (metacone­ slightly younger remains from the Liuorina Cave and protocone) is similarly lacking. Both these and other Rabat appear to testify to the persistence of populations features are typical of the Choukoutien Locality I popu­ like Ternifine into the earlier phases of the Penultimate lation. Glacial/Pluvial. This is paralleled in eastern Asia by In so far as preserved, the Littorina Cave mandible the continuation of the "pithecanthropine" lineage and dentition bear a marked resemblance to those of represented by the people of Choukoutien Locality I. the Ternifine people. :Moreover, as Arambourg (in In Europe "pithecanthropine" peoples are absent Arambourg and Biberson 1956) has pointed out, there also from the Great Interglacial range. The Steinheim are specific dental characteristics (the dryopithecine and Swanscombe crania, exhibiting a number of in­ cusp pattern, traces of sixth cusp, predominance of cipiently anatomically modern features, establish the protoconid over metaconid, trace of a cingulum on fact that at that time human popUlations of the area molars and premolars, and shape and pattern of the differed markedly in cranial morphology from con­ crown of 1\) which indicate affin~ties wich the Middle temporaneous peoples of eastern Asia (and presumably Pleistocene peoples of eastern Asia. There are also cer­ of northwestern Africa). The evidence would suggest tain differences (such as narrower molars, more elliptical that twO distinctive hominid lineages were differenti­ M2, and greater reduction of M~) which must indicate ated within the Middle Pleistocene, one represented by geographical variation. The resemblance of the Rabat eastern Asian and northwest African populations, and morphology to that of both the Choukoutien people the other by European populations. and also various Neanderthals of Europe has been noted These lineages correspond closely to the "vertical" by Vallois (1945); however, he doubted whether this lines of evolutionary development to which Le Gros individual represented a member of a specifically Clark (1955) has attributed generic status: Pithe­ Neanderthal group. In fact, as indicated above, the canthropusand Homo, respectively. He states that memo Rabat remains are of the same Middle Pleistocene group bers of the former "comprise a group whose morpholog­ as the Liuorina Cave specimen, and both are closely ical characters are held by most anthropologists to be allied with the earlier Ternifine population. sufficiently consistent and distinctive to justify their generic separation from Homo" (p. 105); and, further, SOME PHYLOGENETIC IMPLICATIONS that "the cranial and dental differences (as well as the In spite of incomplete preservation and the limited even more significant contrast in cranial capacity) ap~ number of specimens, sufficient is known of the Middle pear to be as well marked as those which are commonly Pleistocene peoples of northwest Africa and western accepted as justifying a generic distinction between Europe to permit some assessment o[ their relationships gorilla and chimpanzee" (p. 106). The writer doubts with other broadly contemporaneous peoples else­ that "most anthropologists" (human paleontologists) where. Several important conclusions emerge from a have ever expressed an opinion on this matter, other consideration of human populations from twO major than merely accepting the existing tenns of reference blocks or the Middle Pleistocene: (I) the pre- Great without examining the full taxonomic implications of Interglacial range (early Middle Pleistocene) and (2) the the terminology. Moreover, although no clear-cut defi­ Great Interglacial and subsequent early phase of the nition of a genus is possible, as it is in the case of species Penultimate Glacial range (later Middle Pleistocene). and species·groups (d. Cain 1956), it is generally recog­ (1) In Europe there is no trace of the so-called "pithe­ nized that genera testify to the achievement of special canthropine" peoples so characteristic of the whole of adaptive plateaus (in S. "'right's sense), characterized the Middle Pleistocene of eastern Asia. In the latter by well-established behavior patterns and morphologi­ area, a series of populations has been recognized from cal adjustments t,award definite habitats, specifiable in the basal (Djetis beds) and earlier (Trinil beds) Middle nature as well-delineated ecological zon~s. It is ques­ Pleistocene and extending into a stage that probably tionable whether such far-reaching distinctions are corresponds broadly with the European Great Inter­ recognizable within the known hominids of the Middle glacial (Choukoutien Locality I). The only European and Upper Pleistocene.

Vol. 1 . No.3· May 1960 223 The writer's own proclivity, and broadly in agree. far easterly and 'southerly regions of Asia, the earlier ment with Mayr (1950) (except in the case of Pre-Chelles·Acheul tradition was maintained, as the A ustralopithectls~ which he has granted specific status chopperJchopping-tool tradition, with only slight modi· within the genus Homo, but which is more likely gen­ fication into the Upper Pleistocene (d. Movius 1949a). erically distinct). is to reduce these to paleospecies repre­ The continued existence of this industrial complex. un· senting phyletic lineages. The paleospecies, discussed by doubtedly derived [rom d,e early African "pebble·tool" Cain (1956: 103; also 1954), represents "a time series of tradition the Villafranchian age of which is wen estab­ populations known (or believed) to be connected suc­ lished, is a striking instance of human conservatism, un· cessively by descent, reproductively separate from all doubtedly caused in large part by isolation from west· other forms co-existing during the same period. and ern Asia, Europe, and Africa. Only in certain portions sufficiently homogeneous on comparative criteria to be of India is there any real evidence of overlap between included under a single specific name." Simpson (1951: these traditions and their industrial expressions. 289) has pointed out that "a phyletic lineage (ancestral. The cranial morphology of the human populations of descendant sequence o[ interbreeding populations) the Great Interglacial of Europe suggests a distinctive evolving independently of others, with its own separate new lineage, markedly different from that of eastern and unitary evolutionary role and tendencies, is a basic Asia and northern Africa, and whose origins are still unit in evolution"; and that "the genetical definition entirely unknown. Some workers. notably Vallois (1949, [of a species] tends to equate the species with such an 1952), Heberer (1950, 1951), and also Kalin (1952), have evolutionary unit." The morphological evidence does attempted to show a primary bifurcation into distinct not appear to warrant recognition of separate genera; "neanderthal" and "sapiens" lines within the European certainly there is complete overlap in range of variation hominid populations at this early date. This implies in cranial capacity, a character to which Le Gros Clark subsequent coexistence of these lineages in Europe until has attached considerable importance. Nor, taking into extinction of the terminal classic Neanderthal popula· consideration Simpson's (1954: 32-33) remarks on mam­ tion by the middle phase of the Last Glacial stage (d. malian generic origin rates (c. five to seven million Howell 1957). The essential similarity in morphology of years as an approximation), has there been sufficient the only nvo European crania of Great Interglacial age. time (or generic differentiation, even allowing for an those of Swanscombe and Steinheim, fails to confirm extraordinarily rapid evolutionary rate. The original this interpretation. In general, and as Le Gros Clark dispersal and subsequent evolution of hominids from a (1955) has also recognized, the over-all morphological primitive australopithecine group, probably not unlike pattern of such early European peoples closely ap· Australopithecus, most likely occurrerl within a single proaches, in certain' aspects, that of the anatomically genus (Homo). The earliest phases within the forma· modern species H. sapiens (so much so, in fact. that Le tion of that genus are difficult to define, owing to the Gros Clark refers the remains to that species). ""hether incomplete record. Oakley's (1951) emphasis upon tool this taxonomy is fully. justifiable or not, the European manufacture and its use as a criterion may prove to be populations of the Great Interglacial provide an ideal correct, although at least some australopithecines were ancestral stage for the subsequent varieties of Upper tool-makers. Pleistocene Neanderthal peoples and the incipiently The eastern Asian hominids provide a classic ex­ and fully anatomically modern peoples who were subse­ ample of phyletic evolution within a paleospecies (H. quently to replace the last "Neanderthals" during the erectus). The detailed morphological patterns have interstadial between the Early and :Main phases of the been analyzed by Weidenreich (1941,1943,1946, 1947b). Last Glacial. This later evolutionary history of the There is evidence of development within the lineage lineage has been discussed in some detail recently by the during the early Middle (Djetis and Trinil varieties) present author (Howell 1957; also 1951, 1952) and by and the later Middle (Choukoutien variety) Pleistocene Breitinger (1957). and probably into the earlier Upper (:\Tgandong vari· The origins of these lineages are still largely a matter ety) Pleistocene. The fossil record is inconclusive as to for future research. The fossil record leaves little doubt the subsequent history of the group. but it is not un­ that the initial, basic hominid manifestation, represent· likely that the lineage became extinct prior to, or when, ing new adaptations toward a bipedal ground-dwelling anatomically modern australoid peoples expanded way of life in a new unexploited environment, was es­ throughout the Southeast Asian area during the later sentially African (cf. Bartholomew and Birdsell 1953). phases of the Upper Pleistocene. All the evidence avail­ Its primary fonnative phases are unknown, due to the able tends to confirm Movius' (1949a: 411) conclusion inadequacy of the ~lOminid fossil record, but may very that "it seems very unlikely that this vast area could well have been linked with the terminal Miocene and ever have played a vital and dynamic role in early hu· earlier Pliocene desiccation during the Kalahari Stage man evolution, although very primitive forms of Early which markedly affected the extent of the semi·arid l\Ian apparently persisted there long after types at a central African bushy and "lOoded grassland. The Villa­ comparable stage of physical evolution had become franchian australopithecines, already adapted to the up­ extinct elsewhere." right posture and fully bipedal locomotion, and long It is a matter of considerable interest that in north· since differentiated into two distinct (probably sub­ western Africa, where SUdl persistence apparently also generic) lineages. testify to the nature of this primary occurred, cultural (== industrial) transformations did adaptive radiation (Howell 1959). take place, as evidenced by the widespread adoption in This radiation gave rise to primitive tool-making the earlier Middle Pleistocene of the Chelles-Acheul hominids whose dispersal by the earlier Middle Pleisto­ hand·ax/cleaver and associated flake traditions. ln the cene probably extended throughout the tropical and

224 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY subtropical zones of Africa and Asia. This initial, pri­ Howell: MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE HOMINIDS mary human (Homo) dispersal probably occurred dur­ ing the later Villafranchian stage, [or the earliest South­ Mauer mandible and sporadic as~emblages of an Abbe­ east Asian hominids associated with them, the Djetis villian industry, seems to be of peoples different from fauna in Java, show considerable differentiation from those representing the primary dispersal. It is (diffi­ the presumably ancestral australopithecine group. From dently) suggested that new technical refinements and the occurrence early in the Middle Pleistocene of both additions to human tool-making capabilities, induding human skeletal remains and stone tools, it is clear that the establishment of the Chelles-Acheul tradition, but this dispersal was unaffected and unretarded in most probably also others which are unknown due to incom­ areas by the major isolating factors of characteristically pleteness of the record, re-enforced the effectiveness of Pleistocene glacial climate and related vegetation zones such a dispersal into a previously unoccupied zone. The resultant [rom the first major conLinental stage of glaci­ source of this expansion is still unknown; the central­ ation (Elster = Cracovian = Oka). eastern African region is a reasonable probability.8 At The archaeological record would suggest that this any rate, and most important, there is no evidence at initial dispersal was essentially African, both north and present to indicate an eastern Asian center. It is neces­ south of the Sahara, and eventually southern Asian. sary to emphasize that the extent of this initial occupa­ Evidence is lacking from the intervening western Asian tion of Europe by man must have been relatively slight, zone, but distribution was presumably broadly continu­ at least judging from the relative paucity of early ous, at least originally, across· the Mediterranean Chelles-Acheul assemblages compared with s~b-Saharan African·southwest Asian-Indian semi-arid grasslands, Africa. However, for the subsequent Great Interglacial and into the then peninsular Sunda Shelf. The com­ stage, there is every indication of broadened and in· parative morphology of the Tern ifine and eastern Asian tensified occupation in the course of the Acheulean and, representatives of H. erectus, populations at the most in some regions, other non-hand·ax industries (Clac­ western and eastern extremes of the range, tends to tonian). confirm their relationships and common origin from It is at this later time that Europe reveals clear evi­ this primary dispersal. dence of a lineage distinct from that of H. erectus. How· It would appear, although the evidence is admittedly ever, the origins of this lineage are still unknown, and incomplete, that continental Europe was not penetrated there is a real problem as to relationships with the first by this primary dispersal. There are no traces of Middle Pleistocene populations of Europe, fossil reo hominids, either skeletal remains Or stone tools, in the mains of which are represented only by the Mauer man­ European Villafranchian. Such evidence does not ap­ dible. It is impossible to arrive at any solution to the pear until well along in the earlier Middle PleistOcene. problem until either mandibles of the Steinheim­ The circumstances whereby Europe was not populated S\vanscombe people. or a cranium of the Mauer people. earlier by man are still difficult to ascertain. It is likely can be discovered. The :r..[ontmaurin mandible is of that the high sea levels of the earlier (Calabrian) and some interest in this regard since its morphology is in later (Sicilian I) Lower Pleistocene may have been a some respects like that of the Mauer mandible, in other major factor which inhibited dispersal. The fv[editer­ respects like that of early Neanderthal peoples. Tenta­ ranean was greatly-enlarged, and the otherwise narrow tively, the most economical hypothesis is that Mauer water-gaps (or potential land bridges during later re­ was merely an early representative of the same lineage_ gressive phases of glaciation) in the western (Gibraltar) The major climatic amelioration which brought on the and northeastern (Bosporus, Dardanelles) reaches of the Great Interglacial undoubtedly permitted a major ex­ basin were submerged. It is tentatively suggested here pansion of populations of gathering and hunting pea' that the primary dispersal did not pass 35°-40° N, the pIes into previously restricted or unavailable biotOpes; barriers being formed in the westerly zone by (a) the but, the extent to which this represented only intra­ Mediterranean basin, and (b) the Taurus-Zagros moun­ continental expansion and shiftings, as opposed to more tain chains; in the easterly zone, the northern limit pre· extensive movements of extra-European peoples, is im­ sumably did not exceed, or in places attain, 30° N, the possible to ascertain from existing evidence. barriers being formed by the great Hindu-Kush­ There has been a tendency a~ong certain workers to Karakorum-Himalayan arc. However, in the latter deny speciation within the Pleistocene evolution of the regions there is clear evidence of the presence of man at hominids. This was the opinion of Weidenreich (1943, the end of the earlier Middle Pleistocene (at Locality 1946), and it was accepted and expanded upon by 13, Choukoutien) and more complete ·evidence later Dobzhansky (1944: 261·62), who stated that "all the from the Great Interglacial (Locality 1), both proving phylogenetic transformations within the Hominidae distribution as far as 40° N. were always taking place within a single genetic system, A variety of evidence indicates hominid penetration a species consisting of geographically, but not reproduc­ north of latitude 40°, into the temperate European tively, isolated races." The same point has been made continent, only well along in the earlier Middle Pleisto· by Mayr (1950: 112), who concluded that "all the avail­ cene. This northward expansion in hominid distribu­ able evidence can be interpreted as indicating that in tion coincides in time approximately with the maxi­ spite of much geographical variation, never more than mum lowering of sea levels during the Romanian re­ one species of m~n existed on the earth at anyone gression (d. Fig. I), coincident with the first major time." The genetical definition of species. as "actually Scandinavian glaciation, which extended into southern or potentially interbreeding natural populations which Britain and central Europe as far as latitudes 51 °-52°. are reproductively isolated from other such groups" Such evidence as there is [rom that time, including the (Mayr 1949: 371), cannOt be directly applied to pale­ Vol. 1 . No.3' May 1960 225 ontological species, but, as Simpson (1951: 286) has served as a buffering agent. Factors of isolation, about noted, "actual or potential interbreeding is continuity which very considerable is known for the Upper Pleisto· and reproductive isol~tion is discontinuity." Thus, such cene, must have played a very considerable role in the taxonomy is arbitrary. in Simpson's terms, since the distribution of such early peoples, whose cultural ca­ hominid fossil record of the Middle PleisLOcene reveals pacities and capabilities for adaptation to varied Mid· morphological discontinuities, and the forms "are die Pleistocene biotopes were relatively restricted. The placed in a single group although essential discontinu· hominid fossil record indicates how extensive such iso­ ity is indicated." Moreover, this general point of view lation must have been within the Middle Pleistocene, It fails to take into consideration the extent of various is essential that in the study of human evolutionary isolating mechanisms operative on Pleistocene human problems in the future, paleoanthropologists take into populations. in the same manner as on other mammals. account more fully the whole matter of distributions allhough human cultural capabilities undoubtedly and environmental adaptations.

variable in facies, and often not pre­ sernblage is a faunal unity and covers a Notes served-and the practically continuous relatively short span of time. This fauna Middle or Estuarine Bed (= Forest Bed (= lower series of Adam) is character. 1. The writer is deeply grateful to a sensu strictu). The fauna is clearly ized by EI. meridionalis-trogontherii number of colleagues whose co­ mixed (d. Zeuner 1937). Many of the (straight-tusked elephant is known from operation has made this paper possible. fauna collections were made years ago, the gravelly sands mat unconformably Dr. K. P. Oakley (British Museum, Nat­ and it is no simple matter to unravel overlie the Iignitiferous level), B. pris· ural History, London) made available the particular provenance of the speci· CUS, rare deer (C. elaphus, C. capreolus), the Swanscombe cranial remains. He mens, since different "Forest Bed" lo­ Rh. etruscus, H. amphibius, and T. also accompanied the author on a visit calities preserve different portions of cuvieri; also known are recent beaver, to the Barnfield pit at Swanscombe. the Forest Bed and hence different (C. fiber), very rare moose (A. latifrons), Prof. C. Arambourg (Museum National faunas (cf. Azzaroli 1951, 1953). There giant fallow deer (Megaceros verticor­ d'Ylistoire Naturelle, Paris) made avail­ is pretty clearly both a later Villafran­ nis), C. neschersensis, U. deningeri able me Ternifine and Sidi Abder­ chian fauna, probably derived (rom the (= arctos), Desmana, and Emys, but mhman human remains. Prof. H. V. shelly Wcybourne Crag (and .basal meir position in me profile is uncertain. Vallois (lnstitut de Paleontologie Hu­ Freshw'ater Bed), and a Middle Pleisto· 4. The Siissenborn assemblage (Soer. maine, Paris) permitted the author to cene assemblage, probably derived from gel 1926, 1936, 1939b, 1941; also Wust examine the human remains from the Upper Freshwatcr Bed, which 1900) is found in gravels suggesting at Rabat and Montmaurin. Prof. '1\'_ closely resembled the later Great Inter­ least incipient periglacial conditions in Gieseler (Universitat Tiibingen, Tii· glacial assemblages of early Drenmian Thuringia, and is basically a COOl-steppe bingen) permitted the author.to exam­ age, such as Swanscombe. However, the fauna (Soergel 1924, I939a). This fauna ine the Stcinheim skull. Dr. K. D. Adam fauna of the Forest Bed sensu strictu is (Kalke 1954) is characterized by abun­ (Naturhistorisches Museum, Stuttgart) of intennediate age, comparable with dant steppe elephant (EI. trogontherii), accompanied the author on a visit to the the so·called "preglacial" St. Prestian horse (mostly Eq. sussenbornensis, 24%; pits at Steinheim, and has also discussed fauna. In ,'iew of the geological evi­ also, Eq. aD. hemionus), grassland­ with the author certain problems of dence, it is difficult to agree with Az­ loving bison (B. priscus, ]7%), a variety Pleistocene faunas, their interprctation zaraH's (1953) conclusion that the two of deer and elk including large-antlered and correlation. Similarly, certain prob­ later (post-Villafranchian) faunas arc forms (MegacerosJ 20%; Alces, 5%) as lems of the Pleistocene paleoanthropol­ both of Great Interglacial age. well as roe (C. capreolus, 7%) and red ogy of Morocco have been discussed 3. The Jockgrim fauna, studied first deer (C. elaphus, 5%), fairly numerous with my colleague P. Biberson (Musee by Freudenberg (1909,1911) and later rhino (Rh. etruscus, 9%), some beaver de I'Homme, Paris). The Mauer man­ in greater detail by Soergel (1925; also (both T. CtLvieri and C. fiber, 4%), and dible was studied at the Geologisch­ 1912, 1923), is derived from a series of rare wild boar (S. sero/a, 1%); both Palaeontologisches Institut, Universitiit clay horizons (underlain and overlain tundra reindeer (Rangifer articus, 4-5 Heidelberg, in 1956, and the author is by gravels and sands) exposed in pits in individuals) and musk·ox (Ovibos grKarlsruhe. The sec­ present, but in very low frequency, as Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthro· tion studied in detail by Schwegeler are various large (Epimachairodus, H. pological Research, Inc. (New York), for (1935; also Thiirach 1899) reveals seven crocuta and H. brevirostris, Canis mos­ grams-in-aid which made possible a clayey loam levels, totaling some four to bachensis, U. arctos deningerl) and study tour in sub-5aharan Africa in six meters in thickness, and broken in small (Mustela, Lutra, Meles) carni. 1954, and another in Europe in me the middle by an erosional disconform­ vores and other small mammals (indud­ Summer of 1956. In Africa, Dr. J. T. ity. It is capped by the eroded remnant ing- Spermophilus). Robinson (Transvaal Museum, Pre­ of a lignite horizon with deciduous The main (II) Mosbach fauna toria) and Prof. R. A. Dan (Medical forest pollen (frequent oak, hazel, (Schroeder 1898; Soergel 1923) is very School, University of the Witwaters­ spruce, and alder; infrequent fir and similar in composition, but contains (c. rand, Johannesburg) generously made pine; rare maple, linden, willow, and 10%) both straight-tusked (EI. antiquus) available for study all the australopi· larch; notable is the presence 'Of hem· and much more frequent (c. 90%) thecine skeletal material. lock and the Asian wing·nut Pteryo­ steppe (El. trogontherii) elephants 2. The Cromer Forest Bed, overlying carya). Kuss (1955) has recently shown (Soergel 1916, also 1912; Schmidtgen the ''''eyboume Crag (in places), is a that the mammalian fossils are found 1927), frequent horse (Eq. mosbachen­ complex three-fold fonnation, com­ throughout the clay horizons in three sis), rhinoceros (Rh. etruscus, Rh. posed of Lower and Upper Freshwater different pits; in contrast to Schwegeler, merckii) (Schroeder 1903), and several Beds-both of which are discontinuous, Soerge!, and Adam, he believes the as­ additional large and small carnivores

226 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOCY (Von Reichenau 1906, 1910); there are Howell: MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE HOMINID$ also small mammals, including water voles (A. mosbachensis, A. greeni) and mice (Micro/us, Pi/ymys) (Heller 1933; 6. In several recent, very stimulating complete body of a mandible with most also Schmidtgen 1911). papers, Kurten (1956, 1957a, b) has of the left, and bilS of the right. ramus. A slightly worn, sub-ovate hand ax, drawn attention to the eCOlogical re­ and full dentition, dates from the early typologically perhaps Middle Acheul· placement in the Pleistocene of the Upper Pleistocene. It does not particu­ ean, has been found at Mosbach in the giant hyena (H. brevirostris) by the larly resemble the earlier Sidi Abder. floor of the Bogger pit (Kutsch 1953). spotted hyena (Crocula crocuta). This rahman or Rabat specimens, although This is very likely derived from a rem­ replacement is well·recorded at Chou· there are some very general similarities. nant of an interglacial deposit yielding koutien Locality I (Pei 1934), where but seems more likely to represent a El. trogontherii-primigenius, inter­ only the former species (H. b. sinensis) member of a North African early Nean­ bedded between the earlier Mosbach is present.in the lower sandy brecciated derthal group. gravels and the overlying Last Glacial horizons (Zone II), and only the laner 8. Aside from the Villafranchian aus­ loess complex. Hence the hand ax is species (C. c. ultima) is present in the tralopithecines, the Lower and Middle presumably of Great Interglacial (Hox­ upper ashy. travertine horizons (Zone Pleistocene of sub-Saharan Africa has nian) age. 1)_ It is also instanced, though less still to provide hominid skeletal reo 5. The Abbevillian industry, often clearly, at Siissenborn. where both H. b. mains of much use in solving the prob. regarded as of "First Interglacial" age brevirostris and G. c. spelaea are reo lems discussed here. However, it is (d. Zeuner 1952), might be considered corded. and in a number of faunal as­ necessary to mention briefly two occur. to antedate the ,Mauer mandible. This semblages referred to the Forest Bed rences that are suggestive and have a is, in fact, not the case, as an examina­ series, and hence of presumed Cro­ bearing on these problems: tion of the most typical occurrence of merian interglacial age. Kurten, on (a) The breccias bearing australo· this industry, in the Somme River val­ carefully reasoned evidence, regards the pithecines at Swankrans, of either later ley at the Porte du Bois, near Abbeville replacement as having been roughly Villafranchian (Howell 1955) or early (Commont 1910; Breuil 1939), will indi­ simultaneous in western Europe, east­ Middle Pleistocene (Oakley 1954) age, cate. The Abbevillian assemblage, ern Asia, and southern Africa, and thus provide clear-cut, though fragmentary, found in association with a typical dates a number of such sites, like Chou­ evidence of co-existence of two distinct early Middle Pleistocene fauna (which koutien Locality 1, KromdraaL Swart­ hominids: one a large australopithecine includes £1. meridionalis-trogontherii. krans (where G. c. ultra occurs), to the (Paranthropus), and another (termed Rh. elrusClls, Rh. merckii, Hippopota. Cromerian stage. The question of "Telanthropus") which is certainly dif­ mus sp., S. sCTota, Equus sp .• C. elaphus, "whether this European replacement ferent. The lauer, represented by the C. ca!Jreolus, B. priscus, Hyaena sp., M. can be correlated with the East Asian" type mandible with six molars and a tatidens, Ursus sp., T. cuvieri, etc.). has seems to him justified since "it seems first premolar (Sk 15 =No. I) (Broom been found in a whitish marl with that the species evolved in India from and Robinson 1949, 1952), another sandy horizons at the base of the High C. sivalensis [recorded with H. b. neg­ fragment of mandible with the first two (40 meters) Terrace, underlain by an tecta in the Pinjor zone of the Upper molars (Sk 45 = No. II) (Broom and ancient gravel capped by marly and Siwaliks] and spread from there... :' Robinson 1950, 1952), and a fragment shelly sand. This marl, deposited under It is necessary, however, to point out of maxilla including some heavily worn conditions of deep-water sedimentation, that Siissenborn is later early Middle or broken premolars (Sk 80 =No. III) was deeply channeled during a subse­ Pleistocene (= end-Mindel of the AI· (Robinson 1953). is still too poorly quent phase of low sea level. The chan­ pine succession) in age, and the replace­ known to detennine its exact arrll1ities. nels were later filled with graveLs and ment in Europe is at least post­ From a careful study of the original sands (containing Acheulean), aggraded Cromerian (sensu strictu). Neither at specimens, as well as from the pub­ during a time of marine transgression Mauer nor at Mosbach is Gronda in lished descriptions (esp. Broom and corresponding to the Tyrrhenian I evidence, although H. perrieri is char­ Robinson 1952; Robinson 1953: 477), stage of the Great Interglacial. The ero­ acteristic. Moreover, there is a real it is dear that Robinson is com­ sion of the channels must have occurred question as to whether the Norfolk pletely justified in his statement that during the later phase of the Romanian faunal localities, referred to as con­ these remains differ "in so many reo regression, and thus at a time corre­ temporaneous with the Cromer Forest spects from those of P. crassidens, witr­ sponding to the maximum extension of Bed. arc indeed contemporaneous; the out any intermediate specimens. that the Elster Glaciation. The underlying present writer believes them to be later these fonns could not have been memo marl, and the Abbevillian, is thus quite (Mindel) in age. It is of course alto­ bers of the same popUlation even clearly of pre·Elster date, and very prob­ gether possible, on other grounds, that though they lived simultaneously in the ably has a relative age corresponding the Swartkrans·Kromdraai localities are same area:' There are no specific de· broadly with the Mauer Sands. The of Cromerian age, but one would still tailed resemblances of these specimens Plateau Gravels and main High Terrace wish for a better understanding of the with the eastern Asian hominids of the of lhe Somme have long been thought Villafranchian and, especially, Pliocene H. erectus group; however, some fea· to be devoid of humanly.flaked stone hyaenids of Africa before excl.uding tures of the dentition as well as of man· artifacts. However. some traces of hu­ them from Crocuta CTocuta ancestry. dibular morphology are not unlike man occupation are recorded (by F. 7. Since this was written, Vallois and those found in the Mauer individual. Bordes and H. Breuil. unpublished) Roche (1958) have announced the dis­ While it is possible to state (negatively) from the c. 50-55 meters lower High covery of human remains from Contre· that the fonner is the case, it is not Terrace. f\!ost recently Agache and bandiers Cave at Temara. a few kilo­ possible, due to the fragmentary pre­ Bourdier (1959) have reported Aint meters southwest of Rabat. The cave is servation and general lack of material, flakes. some trimmed and retouched as cut into a cliff of Ouljian age, and the to be more positive about either the implements, and having a porcellanized remains were found in remnants of morphology of this form or it~ phylo­ appearance (due to fire?), from gravels breccia adhering to the walls, all that genetic affinities. Nevertheless. merely of the upper High Terrace (+ 60-65 remains of the first infilling of the cave. its discovery and the proof of co· meters) a{ f\lomieres (near Amiens). The specimen, consisting of a nearly existence with the most recent australo·

Vol. 1 . No.3· May 1960 227 pithecine (Paranthropus) is of great im­ ---. 1955a. A recent discovery in human Jahreshefte der Verein fur vaterliindische portance in further understanding of paleontology: Atlanthropus of Ternifine Nalurkunde in Wurttemberg 83:75-76. (Algeria). A merican Journal of Physical ---. 1927b. DuUelus murrensis n. sp. the dispersal of the genus Homo and o( Anthropology, n.s., 13:191-202. Jahreshefte der Verein filr vaterliindische the relationships of the latter to Awtra­---. 1955b. Une decouverte recente en NalUrkunde in Wilruemberg 83: 146-58. lopithecus and the species of the lalter paleontologie humaine, l'Atlanthropus --. 1928a. Ein Buffelfund a. d. dUu· radiation. de Temifine (Algerie). Quaternaria 2:5­vialcn SchOllen von Steinheim a. d. 13. MUTT. Paliiontologische Zeitschrift 10: (b) The only human remains from 1955c. Une nouvelle mandihule 64-£7. sub-Saharan Africa of earlier Middle "d'Atla7l1hropus" au gisement de Terni­ 1928b. Fund eines Riesenhirsch· Pleistocene age are two deciduous teeth line. Comptes Rendus des Seances de schadels mit vollst. erhalt. Geweih. Aus from a Chellean stage-I living site (BK l'Academie des Sciences, Paris, 241:895­der J-leimal 41: 140-45. 97. ---. 1929. Bericht liber die Tagullg der II) in Bed II at Olduvai Gorge in north­ ---. 1955d. Le parietal de "I'Atlanthro­PaHiont.-Gesellschaft in Stuttgart ur'ld ern Tanganyika. One ,specimen, a left pus maurita7licus." Comptes Rendus des Ttibingen. Exkursion nach Steinheim lower milk canine. is very heavily worn Seances de l'Academie des Sciences, a. d. MUTT. Paliiontologische Zeitschn'ft and provides little useful information. Paris, 241: 980-82. . 2,188-89. ---. 1956. Une III""" mandibuIe d' --. 1930. 'Der Waldelefant' von Stein· The other. which may be an upper "Atlanthropus" decouverte ~ Temifine. heim a. d. Mun. Aus der Heimat 43:331­ deciduous molar, but is identified by QualCTtlaria 3: 1-4. 37. Leakey (1958) as a Ieh mi, is well pre· ARAMBOURG, C., and P. BIBERSON. 1955. De­ --. 1933a. Die Wirbeltierfunde aus served and more useful for comparative couverte des vestiges humains acheuleens Schottern von Steinheim a. d. Mun. dans la carrihe de Sidi Abd·er-rahmann, jahresberichte und Mitteilungen der purposes. This scarcely worn sp-ecimen pres Casablanca. Comptes Rendus des oberrheinischer geologischer Verein, nL, is extremely large·crowned (length 15 Seances de l'Acadbnie des Scie1lces, Paris, 22:89-103. mm.; breadth (1 mm.) and exceeds in 240, 1661-63. ---. 1933b. Ein Urmenschenschadel aus size its homologue in australopithe. ---. 1956, The fossil 'human remains dero diluvialeo Schotten von Steinheim from the palaeolithic site of Sidi Abder· cines. There are six main cusps, three a. d. Murr. Anthropologischer Anzeiger rahman. American Journal Of Physical 10:318-21. buccal and three lingual, with a large Anthropology, n.s., 14:467"':89. ---. 1934. Der Steinheimer Urmensch accessory cusp and traces of cingulum. ARAMUOURG, C., and R. HOI'FSrE:rrER.. 1954. und die Tierwelt seines Lebensgebietes. The paltern is somewhat unique, but Decouverte en Afrique du Nord de restes Aus der Heimat 47:101-15. humains du Paleolithic inferieur. ---. 1937. Bemerkungen H. WeinerLS there are general points of resemblance zu Comptes Rendus des Seances de l'Aca­Abhandlung "Der Urmenschenschadel both with australopithecines and with demie des Sciences, Paris, 239:72-74. von Steinheim." Verhandlungen der the Choukoutien hominid (H. erectUJ'). AZZAROLl, A. 1951. The geological age of Gesellschaft fur Physische Anthropologie the Cromer Forest Bed. Proceedings or 2:49-58. the Prehistoric Society, n.5., 17:168-70. ---. 1938. Vorweisung des Steinheimer· ---. 1953. The deer 0/ the WeybouT7l Schadels in Original. Verhandlungen der Crag and Cromer Forest Bed of Norfolk. 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232 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY