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and Death at the Pe ş tera cu Oase

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HUMAN SERIES

Series Editors Russell L. Ciochon, The University of Iowa Bernard A. Wood, George Washington University

Editorial Advisory Board Leslie C. Aiello, Wenner-Gren Foundation Susan Ant ó n, New York University Anna K. Behrensmeyer, Smithsonian Institution Alison Brooks, George Washington University Steven Churchill, Duke University Fred Grine, State University of New York, Stony Brook Katerina Harvati, Univertit ä t T ü bingen Jean-Jacques Hublin, Max Planck Institute Thomas Plummer, Queens College, City University of New York Yoel Rak, Tel-Aviv University Kaye Reed, Christopher Ruff, John Hopkins School of , Washington University in St. Louis Carol Ward, University of Missouri

African , Climate Change, and Evolution Edited by Timothy G. Bromage and Friedemann Schrenk Meat-Eating and Edited by Craig B. Stanford and Henry T. Bunn The of afarensis William H. Kimbel, Yoel Rak, and Donald C. Johanson Evolution in Central : The People of Doln í V ĕ stonice and Pavlov Edited by Erik Trinkaus and Ji ří Svoboda Evolution of the Hominin Diet: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable Edited by Peter S. Ungar , , & in the Southwest Pacifi c Edited by Jonathan S. Friedlaender The Lithic Assemblages of Qafzeh Erella Hovers Life and Death at the Pe ş tera cu Oase: A Setting for Modern Human Emergence in Europe Edited by Erik Trinkaus, Silviu Constantin, and Jo ã o Zilh ã o

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Life and Death at the Pe ş tera cu Oase A Setting for Modern Human Emergence in Europe

Edited by Erik Trinkaus , Silviu Constantin, Jo ã o Zilh ã o

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Life and death at the Pestera cu Oase : a setting for modern human emergence in Europe / edited by Erik Trinkaus, Silviu Constantin, and João Zilhão. p. cm. — (Human evolution series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978–0–19–539822–9 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Prehistoric peoples—. 2. Cave dwellers—Romania. 3. Human evolution—Romania. 4. Human remains ()—Romania. 5. remains (Archaeology)—Romania. 6. Romania—Antiquities. I. Trinkaus, Erik. II. Constantin, Silviu. III. Zilhão, João. GN776.R8L54 2012 599.93’8—dc23 2012005790

ISBN: 978–0–19–539822–9

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

00_Trinkaus_Prelims.indd iv 8/31/2012 10:06:30 PM Contents

Contributors xi

I. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1 1. Introduction (Erik Trinkaus, Silviu Constantin, Jo ã o Zilh ã o) 3

2. Exploration and Documentation of the Peş tera cu Oase (Ş tefan Milota, Mircea Gherase, Laurenţ iu Sarcină , Ricardo Rodrigo, Oana Moldovan, Erik Trinkaus, Silviu Constantin, Jo ã o Zilh ã o) 5

3. Problems, Approaches and Fieldwork: 2004–2005 (Jo ã o Zilh ã o, Ş tefan Milota, Ricardo Rodrigo, Silviu Constantin, Erik Trinkaus ) 16

II. THE CAVE AND ITS CONTENTS 31 4. The of the Ponor-Plopa System in Its Regional Context (Silviu Constantin) 33

5. The Ponor-Plopa Cave System: Description, Sediments, and Genesis (Silviu Constantin, Cristian-Mihai Munteanu, Ş tefan Milota, Lauren ţ iu Sarcina, Mircea Gherase, Ricardo Rodrigo, Jo ã o Zilh ã o) 41

6. Uranium-Series Dating on from the Ponor-Plopa Cave System (Silviu Constantin, Stein-Erik Lauritzen) 56

7. Electron Spin Resonance Dating of Vertebrate Remains from the Peş tera cu Oase (Rainer Gr ü n, Tegan Kelly, Maxime Aubert) 73

8. of the Pe ş tera cu Oase Faunal Remains (Thomas Higham, Eva Maria Wild) 77

9. Rock Magnetic Data of Late Sediments from the Pe ş tera cu Oase and Their Paleoclimatic Signifi cance (Cristian Panaiotu, Silviu Constantin, Că t ă lin Petrea, Viorel Horoi, Cristina-Emilia Panaiotu) 86

10. The Distributions of Finds and Features (Jo ã o Zilh ã o, Ricardo Rodrigo, H é l è ne Rougier, Ş tefan Milota) 100

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III. THE CAVE BEARS 125 11. and at the Pe ş tera cu Oase: Population Structure and Size Variability (Martina Pacher, J é r ô me Quil è s) 127

12. Taphonomic Analysis of the Cave Bear Remains from the Peş tera cu Oase (Martina Pacher, J é r ô me Quil è s) 147

13. An Ancient DNA Perspective on the Cave Bears from the Pe ş tera cu Oase (Mathias Stiller, Michael Hofreiter) 159

IV. THE OTHER VERTEBRATES 165 14. , Wolves, and from the Pe ş tera cu Oase (Emil Ş tiuc ă , Alexandru Petculescu) 167

15. Small Remains from the Pe ş tera cu Oase (Alexandru Petculescu) 185

16. The Ungulates from the Pe ş tera cu Oase (Simon A. Parfi tt, Adrian M. Lister) 189

17. Taphonomic Considerations of the Non-Ursid Vertebrate Remains (Erik Trinkaus, Martina Pacher) 204

18. Stable Isotopes and Dietary Patterns of the Faunal from the Peş tera cu Oase (Erik Trinkaus, Michael P. Richards) 211

V. THE HUMAN REMAINS 227 19. Radiocarbon Dating of the Pe ş tera cu Oase Human Remains (Erik Trinkaus) 229

20. The Human from the Pe ştera cu Oase, Oase 1 (Erik Trinkaus, Hé l è ne Rougier) 234

21. The Human Cranium from the Peş tera cu Oase, Oase 2 (Hé l è ne Rougier, Erik Trinkaus) 257

22. Frontal Contours of the Oase 2 Cranium (Sheela Athreya, H é l è ne Rougier) 321

23. The Internal Cranial Morphology of Oase 2 (Marcia Ponce de Le ó n, Christoph P. E. Zollikofer) 332

24. The Dental and Alveolar Remains of Oase 1 and 2 (Erik Trinkaus, Shara E. Bailey, H é l è ne Rougier) 348

25. The Oase 1 Human Stable Isotopes (Michael P. Richards, Erik Trinkaus) 375

VI. DISCUSSION 383 26. The Paleoenvironmental Context of the Pe ş tera cu Oase (Silviu Constantin, Jo ã o Zilh ã o, Erik Trinkaus) 385

27. Paleoanthropological Implications of the Pe ş tera cu Oase and Its Contents (Erik Trinkaus, Jo ã o Zilh ã o) 389

VII. REFERENCES 401 28. References 403

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Sheela Athreya Viorel Horoi Department of , 234 Anthropology D é partement des Sciences de la Terre et de l’Atmosph è re, Building, 4352 A&M University, College Station, Universit é de Qu é bec à Montr é al, Montr é al, Qu é bec TX 77843, USA H3C 3P8, ; and Institutul de Speologie “Emil Racovi ţă ,” str. Frumoasă 31, 010986 Bucharest, Maxime Aubert Romania Research School of Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra ACT 0200, Tegan Kelly Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National Shara E. Bailey University, Canberra ACT 0200, Australia Department Anthropology, New York University, 25 Waverly Place, New York NY 10003, USA Stein-Erik Lauritzen Department of Earth Sciences, Bergen University, Silviu Constantin Allegaten 41, N-5007, Bergen, Institutul de Speologie “Emil Racovi ţă ,” Department of Geospeleology and Paleontology, str. Frumoasă 31, Adrian M. Lister 010986 Bucharest, Romania Department of Palaeontology, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK Mircea Gherase Pro Acva Grup, Str. Surduc, Nr. 1 (Sc. A, Ap. 4), 300552 Ş tefan Milota Timi ş oara, Romania Pro Acva Grup, Str. Surduc, Nr. 1 (Sc. A, Ap. 4), 300552 Timi ş oara, Romania Rainer Gr ü n Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National Oana Moldovan University, Canberra ACT 0200, Australia Institutul de Speologie “Emil Racovi ţă,” Cluj Branch, Clinicilor 5, P.O. Box 58, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Thomas Higham Romania Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of , Dyson Perrins Cristian-Mihai Munteanu Building, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QY, UK Institutul de Speologie “Emil Racovi ţă ,” Calea 13 Septembrie, nr. 13, 050711 Bucharest, Romania Michael Hofreiter and Ecology, Department Martina Pacher of Biology, University of York, Wentworth Way, Institut f ü r Pal ä ontologie, Universit ä t Wien, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Wien, Austria

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Cristian Panaiotu Ricardo Rodrigo Bucharest University, Paleomagnetism Laboratory, Sociedade Torrejana de Espeleologia e Arqueologia, B ă lcescu 1, 010041 Bucharest, Romania Quinta da Lez í ria, 2350 Torres Novas, Portugal

Cristina-Emilia Panaiotu H é l è ne Rougier Bucharest University, Paleomagnetism Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, California State University B ă lcescu 1, 010041 Bucharest, Romania Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff St., Northridge, CA 91330, USA Simon A. Parfi tt Department of Palaeontology, Natural History Museum, Lauren ţ iu Sarcin ă Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK; and Institute Pro Acva Grup, Str. Surduc, Nr. 1 (Sc. A, Ap. 4), 300552 of Archaeology, University College London, 31–34 Timi ş oara, Romania Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, UK Mathias Stiller Alexandru Petculescu Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Institutul de Speologie “Emil Racovi ţă,” str. Frumoas ă 31, University of California Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, 010986 Bucharest, Romania Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA

C ă t ă lin Petrea Emil Ş tiuc ă Institutul de Speologie “Emil Racovi ţă ,” str. Frumoas ă 31, Institutul de Speologie “Emil Racovi ţă ,” str. Frumoas ă 31, 010986 Bucharest, Romania 010986 Bucharest, Romania

Marcia Ponce de Le ó n Erik Trinkaus Anthropologie, Y42 K 22, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Department of Anthropology, Washington University, Z ü rich, Switzerland Saint Louis MO 63130, USA

J é r ô me Quil è s Eva Wild Unit é Toulousaine d’Arch é ologie et d’Histoire (UMR Institut f ü r Isotopenforschung und Kernphysik der 5608), Maison de la Recherche, Universit é Toulouse Universit ä t Wien, VERA-Laboratorium, Waehringer Le Mirail, 5 all é es Antonio Machado, 31058 Toulouse Strasse 17, 1090 Wien, Austria c é dex 9, France Jo ã o Zilh ã o Universitat de /ICREA, Departament de Michael P. Richards Prehistò ria, Historia Antiga i Arqueologia, Facultat de Department of Anthropology, University of British Geografi a i Hist ò ria, Montalegre 6, 08001 Barcelona, Columbia, Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1Z1, Canada; and Department of Human Evolution, Max-Planck Christoph P.E. Zollikofer Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Anthropologie, Y42 K 22, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Platz 6, 04103, , Z ü rich, Switzerland

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P a r t O n e Introduction and Background

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2 Exploration and Documentation of the Pe ş tera cu Oase

Ş tefan Milota , Mircea Gherase, Lauren ţ iu Sarcin ă , Ricardo Rodrigo, Oana Moldovan, Erik Trinkaus, Silviu Constantin, and Jo ã o Zilh ã o

Introduction Romania began in 2001 the exploration and documenta- tion of the karst system known as the Peş tera Ponor-Plopa, Romania is a country dominated by one of the more near Anina in Caraş -Severin (Figure 2.1). important mountain chains in Europe, the Carpathian Mountains. They begin in the northwest, in southern Poland, , northern Hungary, and southwestern Documentation and Discovery Ukraine, continue southeastward toward the delta of the Danube, then arc strongly around Braş ov and extend The Pe ş tera Ponor-Plopa karstic system has long been westward parallel to the Danube, fading out north of the known, appearing on national maps listing among Iron Gates and on to the plains of Banat. The southern other regional landmarks, visited by tourists locally, and portion is sometimes referred to as the Transylvanian variably explored by amateur cavers through its numerous Alps, because it helps to enclose Transylvania within the openings on the karst plateau. Most of those surface open- arc of the Carpathians and separate it from the Danube ings provide only limited access to small portions of the river valley. These mountains form a continuous and cave system, primarily to preserved sections of the original important topographic of southeastern Europe, gallery system that ran immediately below the plateau but and in fact of Europe as a whole. are restricted in length by collapses and infi llings. However, Although geologically complex, the Carpathians con- it has long been apparent that the modern stream, which tain extensive deposits and, consequently, an enters the rock at the ponor on the northwestern side of the abundance of karst systems. These caves and cave systems hill and empties into the Mini ş River just outside of the have promoted the formation of one of the longest speleo- southeastern opening, might provide access to the various logical traditions in Europe and the oldest institute in the galleries within the cave system (Figure 2.2). world dedicated to caves and their contents (the Institutul With this in , the group, which became known de Speologie “Emil Racoviţă ,” fi rst established in Cluj, formally as the Pro Acva Grup of Timiş oara, began in 2001 1920) (Racovitza, 1926). Following the institute’s reorgani- the slow process of exploring and mapping the various zation in the 1950s, with its headquarters in Bucharest and cavities, galleries, dolines (sinkholes), and cave openings a branch in Cluj, the search, discovery, and exploration of that make up the karst system (Bî lg ăr, 2004). The Pro Acva new caves increased; soon it become apparent that insti- Grup originally consisted of Ştefan Milota and Laurenţ iu tute professionals alone could not ensure all tasks related Sarcină of Timi şoara and Adrian Bî lg ăr of Drobeta-Turnu to such a volume of speleological discoveries. Beginning Severin. In 2003 the group was joined by Mircea Gherase of with the a national network of speleological clubs Timiş oara and Adrian Danciu of Timiş oara and Minneapolis, developed, and they largely took on the responsibility of but later that Adrian Bî lg ă r decided to leave the group exploring, documenting and protecting karst systems. It is for personal reasons. The exploration and mapping process in this tradition that a group of cavers from southwestern continued slowly, given the diffi culties of access to the

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Life and Death at the Peştera cu Oase

Figure 2.1 Map of the Carpathians and adjacent portions of southeastern Europe, with the location of the Peş tera cu Oase (Oase).

Figure 2.2 The entrance into the Pe ş tera Plopa-Ponor from the Mini ş River, seen from the outside (left) and the inside (right).

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Exploration and Documentation of the Peştera cu Oase

interior of the cave system (involving rock climbing and Moving through the new passages, what became the subaquatic skills); by 2002 a reasonably complete scale map Galeria Culcuş urilor (Gallery of the Nests) and the Panta of the system was available, including both the horizontal Str ă moş ilor (Slope of the Ancestors), and avoiding to the plans of the various active and fossil galleries and the ver- extent possible walking on the ubiquitous skeletal remains tical relationships of those cavities. of large Pleistocene cave bear (Ursus spelaeus ), they entered It was in the context of this that, in February 2002, a chamber formed at the confl uence with the large original Milota, B î lg ăr and Sarcin ă entered the system through the gallery system just below the plateau. In this chamber (sub- southern river, wading ~200 m and then scuba diving ~30 sequently the Sala Mandibulei, or the Chamber of the m through a siphon, to arrive above water in the cave Mandible), lying in the middle of a pristine surface of cal- interior. They then climbed through what became known cite, they found a largely complete human mandible (Figure as Pu ţ ul (the Shaft) to a series of horizontal passages above 2.4). Although none of them had training in paleontology it. Milota noticed that there was fresh air coming through or comparative skeletal , they immediately recog- a small fi ssure; removing the clay and the cave bear nized it as human and as potentially of paleontological that had cluttered it, he opened a narrow passageway importance. Leaving the mandible undisturbed, they (later named Poarta, or the Gate) onto a set of galleries that explored further, into the upper galleries, the Galeria Lungă had remained closed, protected, and pristine since the (Long Gallery) to the north and the Galeria celor Trei Cranii end of the Pleistocene (Figure 2.3). (Gallery of the Three ) to the south and then exited.

Sala Galeria celor Galeria Lungaù Mandibulei Trei Cranii

Cofetaùria Panta Straùmos¸ilor 0m50 Put¸ul Sifonul Galeria Culcus¸urilor Galeria Poarta Gururilor Vestiarul Spring

Figure 2.3 Schematic overall plan of the Pe ş tera cu Oase cave system with names of the different areas.

Figure 2.4 The Oase 1 mandible on the surface of the Panta Stră mo ş ilor, as found in 2002.

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Life and Death at the Peştera cu Oase

After their discovery, they contacted the Institutul de perhaps a date between 20,000 and 25,000 Speologie “Emil Racoviţă” through the diver Gè za Rajka, (BP). On October 14, 2002, he received the result from Tom who in turn talked with Oana Moldovan, at that time the Higham at ORAU: > 35,200 14 C BP. It was immediately head of the Cluj-Napoca Branch, requesting advice and evident that this made the Oase 1 mandible the oldest collaboration on what they recognized as an important directly dated modern human in Europe. At that time, in site. Being a cave biologist and not a paleontologist or 2003, there were suggestions that the Mladeč remains anthropologist, Moldovan searched for specialists who from Moravia might be as old, but these were uncon- might be able to provide advice and found, among others, fi rmed; the Mladeč remains were later (Wild et al., 2005) the name of Erik Trinkaus. On March 25, 2002, she sent an shown to be ~31,000 14C BP. The purportedly similarly old introductory e-mail to some of the specialists, stating: modern human specimens from Velika Peć ina in “Can you please help me with some advice. I know that and Hahnö fersand in Germany had been shown in 1999 we should not touch or move the objects, but probably we and 2001 to be in age (Smith et al., 1999; can do some preliminary measurements and more pho- Terberger et al., 2001). tos.” She had not yet been in the cave at that point. The initial radiocarbon dating of the Oase 1 mandible The other people contacted either did not reply or also produced C and N stable isotope values, including a suggested that the cave and the human mandible were high δ 15 N of 13.3 ‰. As noted at the time by Higham, it “is of little interest. Trinkaus, always interested in new fi nds indicative of quite a high level of meat protein sourced by despite knowing little of Romania at the time and being this individual.” familiar only generally with the Romanian human fos- The following spring Trinkaus presented the mandi- sils from Pe ştera Bordul Mare (Ohaba-Ponor) and Peş tera ble at the Society annual meetings, Cioclovina Uscată , replied that they should simply doc- emphasizing its mosaic of modern human features (, ument it as much as possible and, as they already knew, gracile corpus), archaic aspects (wide ramus and large disturb the context as little as possible. A few days later molars), and possible aspect (mandibular the cavers and Moldovan reentered the cave, further foramen bridging) (Trinkaus et al., 2003a). Yet at that time documented the remains photographically, and removed only the minimum age of ~35,000 14 C BP was available. It the mandible to Cluj-Napoca. The photograph of the received brief mention in the scientifi c literature (, mandible in situ (Figure 2.4) was sent to Trinkaus, who 2003) but generated little further interest. principally noted the wide ramus and an apparent simi- Since it was recognized in late 2002 that an infi nite larity to the Middle Pleistocene Arago 2 and Mauer date was unsatisfactory, a second sample of the ; the chin was not readily evident in the mandible was sent to the Centre for Isotope Research at photograph. the University of Groningen after consultation between In the meantime, Trinkaus and Moldovan corre- Moldovan and Trinkaus. The result, which did not arrive sponded, and they agreed to meet in Budapest in May until June 2003, was a fi nite age of ~34,30014 C BP; when 2002, where Trinkaus had already made plans to visit the the Groningen raw data were subsequently placed in Natural History Museum. Moldovan took the overnight combination with the Oxford data, they provided a direct bus from Cluj and presented the mandible to Trinkaus in date of ~34,950, +990, –890 14 C BP for the Oase 1 mandible the presence of two skeletal biologists, Ildiko Pap of (Chapter 19). Budapest and Maria Teschler-Nicola of Vienna. The man- In the meantime, it was apparent to all involved in dible clearly was that of a modern human, given its chin Timi ş oara, Cluj-Napoca, and St. Louis that the cave, its and modest overall , but all agreed that in size, contents, and the human mandible were very important. proportions, and details of shape it did not resemble As news on this discovery was likely to spread fast, at Holocene human mandibles from central and eastern least in the speleological community, the post-siphon sec- Europe. It warranted further consideration. Given that it tor of the cave system was given the name of Peş tera cu was, at that point, little more than an undated modern Oase. Literally meaning “the Cave with Bones,” this human mandible from the surface of a cave, of which rather mundane name was specifi cally chosen to ensure there are hundreds from caves in Romania, Trinkaus took some degree of camoufl age within the many other “caves the mandible with the intention of getting a direct radio- with bones” in Romania. At the same time, total discre- carbon date on it. tion was kept on the whereabouts of the cave. Further on, After returning , Trinkaus removed a corner of the issue was how to organize the future scientifi c work. the basal margin, adjacent to the break on the right ramus, Appropriate specialists were available, both within and sent the sample to the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Romania and elsewhere, but few had both the paleonto- Unit (ORAU) for AMS dating. Having noted some details logical or anthropological skills and the ability to safely that resembled mandibles and the limestone enter the cave. The speleological and aquatic access, which feel of the bone when sawed for sampling, he expected had protected the cave for so long, presented serious

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logistical problems. For security reasons (illegal interna- Rodrigo, an underwater archeologist then at the Instituto tional trade in cave bear skulls is rampant in Romania), Portugu ês de Arqueologia and experienced caver and opening the cave was unthinkable and probably unfeasi- speleodiver. Trinkaus and Rodrigo met, discussed the ble from a fi nancial and engineering point of view. It was cave and agreed to pursue the project along with also impossible to get adequate funding without a team of Moldovan and the Pro Acva Grup. recognized specialists. The following summer, with modest funding through Washington University, Trinkaus fl ew to Timiş oara, and Rodrigo drove for three days from Lisbon with a carload Mapping and the Oase 2 Cranium of diving and equipment, including an air com- pressor for the scuba tanks. They met up with Moldovan, Subsequent to the direct date on the Oase 1 mandible, Milota, and Gherase (plus Olena Moldovan, Oana Trinkaus and Moldovan tried to put together an appropri- Moldovan’s daughter) in Timiş oara and camped out for a ate team and obtain research funding for the further week near the Pe ş tera Plopa-Ponor. While Trinkaus and exploration of the cave; they failed. However, in February the two Moldovans kept camp and enjoyed the country- 2003, Trinkaus was in Lisbon for the publication of the side, Milota, Gherase, and Rodrigo produced the fi rst monograph on the early modern human skeleton from map of the Peş tera cu Oase, entering the cave late morn- the , coedited with colleague and ing and returning to camp long after sunset. archeologist, Joã o Zilh ã o (Zilhã o and Trinkaus, The last day, as the mapping was being fi nished in 2002a). While there, he gave an informal talk at the what became the Panta Stră mo ş ilor, Milota placed his hand Instituto Portugu ês de Arqueologia on the Pe ş tera cu on a bone while measuring the passageway and lifted up a Oase and the human mandible. Zilhã o, a caver since his complete human facial skeleton. After recovering from the adolescence, commented that one “needed to be insane to shock and photographing each other with the face (Figure dive in caves” but suggested that we contact Ricardo 2.5), they mapped in the face, a temporal bone, portions of

Figure 2.5 Ş tefan Milota holding the Oase 2 face in the Panta Stră mo ş ilor immediately after it was found during mapping of the cave in 2003.

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the parietal bones, and several other pieces that appeared extensively worked as a fi eld geologist in the karst to be human. Finally, they exited the cave. areas from southwestern Romania and was specialized Meanwhile, back at the camp, Moldovan had grown in paleoclimatic analysis and the uranium-series impatient for the cavers and decided that opening a bottle (U-series) dating of speleothems. However, except for of wine would bring them—it did. But as they emerged free-diving several short sumps, he too was not a qual- from the valley of the Mini ş and approached the camp, ifi ed diver. Rodrigo in particular looked sad and explained that exit- Because the Oase 2 face and other bones were yet ing through the siphon they had soaked the map notes another surface find in a cave, and despite the good and all was ruined. To prove this, they opened a water- morphological match between the Oase 2 face and proof container and, there, wrapped in a dirty T-shirt, was and the dimensions of the Oase 1 mandible, the Oase 2 face. Trinkaus was shocked but pleased. The it too needed to be directly dated. Consequently, mapping notes were fi ne. And the next morning, Rodrigo Trinkaus carefully removed a piece of the internal table called Zilhã o, caught him in Madrid consulting for the of the left and sent it to Groningen for Spanish Ministry of , and said in Portuguese what AMS radiocarbon dating; there was insufficient colla- translates roughly as, “Joã o, we found a face. You are gen preserved. After consultation with Moldovan, learning to dive!” Trinkaus then sent a couple of loose fragments that would have attached to the posterior parietal bones to Groningen. Given the chalky appearance of the bone, Publishing, Dating, and Issues: 2003 to 2004 Groningen only mildly pretreated the bone to decon- taminate it, using a 2% HCl solution rather than the After the fi eld season of 2003 and the discovery of the usual 4% solution, and obtained a result of 28,980 +180, additional human remains, Trinkaus completed the fi rst −170 14 C BP (Chapter 19). The date is almost certainly report on the Oase 1 mandible, published on September too young, but it was sufficient to establish that the 22, 2003, in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Oase 2 face was indeed early and probably about the Sciences USA (Trinkaus et al., 2003b). A brief report on same age as Oase 1. the cranial remains found that summer appeared shortly A sample from a bear metapodial associated with thereafter in the Journal of Human Evolution (Trinkaus et the Oase 2 cranium was also sent to Michael Richards al., 2003c). Together they made international news, with (then at the University of Bradford) for exploratory news stories spanning the globe. At the time, it was rec- isotopic analysis. When he had the results (δ13 C: ognized that the mandible and the face represented dif- −21.3 ‰ and δ 15 N: 8.5‰ ), he queried whether the bone ferent individuals, given particularly the fully mature derived from a brown or a cave bear; the clear omni- young adult age of the mandible and the adolescent age vore signal of the δ 15 N value contrasted with the then of the face based on its unerupted third molars and prevailing view that cave bears were strictly vegetar- unfused sphenooccipital synchondrosis. However, ian. This surprising result led to the further sampling Trinkaus was unable to get a good fi t between the tem- and isotopic analysis of the Oase cave bears and to the poral bone and either the facial skeleton (across the availability of the bear remains for ancient DNA sphenotemporal suture) or the parietal bones (across (aDNA) analysis by Richards’ subsequent colleague at the parietomastoid suture). It was therefore concluded the Max Planck Institute in Leipzig, Mathias Stiller. that three individuals were present; only subsequently At about the same time, the splash made by the was it shown, by Hé l ène Rougier with the additional publication of the fi rst papers had triggered an unex- pieces found in 2004, that the temporal bone indeed pected reaction from Romanian archaeologists. First, came from the same individual as the facial skeleton the side effect of naming the new cave sector as Peş tera and that the lack of a good fi t resulted in part from the cu Oase misled some to believe that excavations had absence of a sutural bone along the parietomastoid been performed illegally in another cave, one already suture. classifi ed as an archeological site. Second, at the time, In early fall 2003, Moldovan contacted Silviu there was a hope that such a site was likely to include Constantin, a geologist and experienced speleologist archeological material, and there was a clear irritation working at the “Emil Racoviţă” Institute’s headquarters from local archeologists who felt left out. As in many in Bucharest. As the editor of Theoretical and Applied other cases in the history of anthropology and paleon- Karstology, Constantin asked Moldovan for a rapid tology, a war was about to start, with serious accusa- communication article on the Oase discoveries; this tions including those of illegal excavations and illegal was soon published (Moldovan et al., 2003). Moldovan fossil export of the Oase 1 mandible (which by that time also asked Constantin if he would be interested in join- was already back in Cluj). The pressure of these accusa- ing the research team. Constantin already had tions was directed at Moldovan as the Romanian

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Exploration and Documentation of the Peştera cu Oase

scientist-in-charge; fi nally, after several embarrassing Instituto Portugu ê s de Arqueologia, and Washington meetings, the charges were dropped. University. Permission was obtained through the Romanian authorities with the help of the archeologists Gheorghe Lazarovici and Ion B ă ltean. Systematic Fieldwork: July 2004 Once the funding was obtained and the fi eldwork was planned, Milota, Gherase, and Sarcinƾ purchased a The published dates for Oase 1 and the discovery of Oase vehicle (a used Mercedes-Benz diesel van—a box on a 2 were suffi cient to initiate a serious scientifi c endeavor at truck frame that served exceptionally ) and began the the Peş tera cu Oase. During fall 2003, Moldovan in Cluj- serious work of outfi tting the cave. A steel door had been Napoca, Milota in Timi ş oara, Zilh ã o and Rodrigo in fi tted to the Poarta by them during fall 2003, but fi eld- Lisbon, and Trinkaus in St. Louis organized a team, lined work required making the access as easy and as safe as up a variety of specialists (many of whom never intended possible without opening up the cave to clandestine visi- to be at the cave), wrote grant proposals, and planned a tors. This involved putting ladders up through the Puţ ul month’s fi eldwork in July for each of 2004 and 2005. and other short vertical rises, rigging all of the slopes and Zilh ão and Trinkaus, along with Milota, Gherase and the siphon with traverse lines, and attempting to get elec- Sarcin ƾ , visited Cluj-Napoca in March 2004 to get tricity and telephone by wire into the cave. The last two acquainted, meet the Romanian press (Figure 2.6), visit elements never worked properly, and during 2004 light the site, and further the organization. The project was inside was principally through headlamps. In 2005, - funded in late spring by the National Science Foundation, tery-operated fl uorescent lamps provided the much the Wenner-Gren Foundation, the Leakey Foundation, the needed light for the excavation area, but the other areas

Figure 2.6 The July 24, 2004, front page of the Sud Vestul , with the headline that sapiens was born in the Banat Mountains, based on two bones discovered in the valley of the Mini ş and dated to 35,000 ago.

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Life and Death at the Peştera cu Oase

were still lit principally by headlamps. The abundant light the diving tanks—routine. Updated and completed div- in photographs was furnished by special photographic ing equipment had been acquired from various places, speed lights, and it never represented the normal condi- assuring the ability of all entering the cave to do so safely tion in the otherwise totally black cave interior. and effi ciently. Yet excavating slowly for hours in a cave, During July 2004, the excavations in the cave were with the temperature ~10°–12°C and the relative humid- directed principally by Zilh ã o, the archeologist with the ity approaching 100%, required adjustments of most experience in cave excavation, but done in active and additional purchases as the fi eldwork progressed. consultation with Moldovan, Milota and Trinkaus. The The electrical wire into the cave turned out to be simply excavation crew, in the cave, consisted principally of too long, with too much accumulated electrical resistance, Zilh ã o, Milota, Moldovan, Rodrigo, and Hé l è ne Rougier, to provide adequate power from the generator outside; a French human paleontologist with diving and excava- this meant adjusting caving lights to permit work within tion experience from the Université Bordeaux 1 but then the galleries. working at the Institut royal des Sciences naturelles de And there are always little things that are unantici- Belgique in Brussels. Gherase provided assistance and pated. How does one get large bear bones and very fragile photography. The crew was joined by Adrian Danciu, a bear skulls out of the cave, through narrows, shafts, and professional television cameraman and member of the siphons, without damage (put a plastic clothes hamper in Pro Acva Grup, who videotaped much of the work inside a backpack)? How does one keep the constant dripping and outside the cave. Trinkaus, variably joined by indi- from the cave ceiling from soaking one’s clothing (tie viduals not in the cave on a given day, ran the lab at the plastic bags to the ends of and wear a trash bag Hotel Steier, the residence and lab for the expedition in a on one’s back)? How does one keep people from inadvert- suburb of Anina, Steierdorf. The crew was joined for part ently walking on the bears’ nests (run construction barrier of the time by Vlad Codrea, a mammalian paleontologist tape along the designated paths)? How does one remove from Cluj-Napoca who screened the sediments for teeth two of the most complete cave bear scapulae known and micromammals, and by Sarcinƾ when he could take (wrap them in plastic fi lm and self-hardening spray time from work to join the fi eldwork. foam)? Each required unanticipated solutions and For part of the time, Constantin joined the team, but materials. since he was not a certifi ed diver at that time he was not Some of the needed supplies could be acquired in allowed to dive the siphon. At that point, the Romanian Anina, but everything beyond basic groceries and a few cavers still had in mind the recent troubles and accusa- material supplies had to be purchased either in Reş i ţ a 45 tions and decided to do everything by the book. To avoid minutes away or in Timiş oara 2.5 hours away. Not hav- any legal hassle in case of an accident, Constantin would ing done systematic excavation before, Moldovan and have to get himself at least a scuba-diving license. As a the Pro Acva Grup members did the best they could with result, in 2004 he carried out a general geological survey information supplied ahead of time by Zilhã o and oth- of the area, collected speleotherm samples for U-series ers, but there were multiple trips “into town” before a datings from the lower level of the cave, and instructed system was established and the excavations proceeded Milota on how to collect useful from the Oase smoothly. Nonetheless, by the end of the 2004 season, an sector. To further the archeological exploration of the abundance of cave bear bones, scattered other mamma- region and to try to locate a site where the Oase lian bones, sediment, and samples had been might have camped, Ion B ăltean of Alba Iulia and Adela mapped in, excavated, and transported down the Galeria Cinc ă of Timi ş oara, with the help of Sorin Petrescu of Culcu ş urilor, through the Poarta, down the ladders in Caransebeş , began the test excavation of a small cave the Puţ ul, out through the siphon, out to the Miniş , up to entrance at the north end of the limestone massif, Peş tera the forest service road to the van, along the rutted forest La Hoţ u (formerly Pe ş tera Ho ţ ilor, or the Cave of the service road to the main road, and then to the Hotel Thieves), to see whether contemporaneous Upper Steier and into the lab. Paleolithic archeological deposits might be preserved. The principal achievement of the 2004 season was the This crew was joined for periods of time by friends and recovery, in the area around the original 2003 discovery of cavers (see Preface), who camped near the cave opening the Oase 2 face, of nine pieces of the Oase 2 cranial vault. to watch over the equipment and, for those who caved, All but one of these were found and identifi ed in the cave help with the work inside. during excavation. The last was discovered in the lab by The 2004 fi eld season faced a series of logistical, pale- Trinkaus as he cleaned the dirt out of the nasal cavity of ontological, and geological issues that took most of the an elderly female cave bear cranium; along with frag- season to work out. An air compressor had been pur- ments of turbinates, a piece of the fell out, chased and imported from Austria during winter 2004, having been washed up into the cavity presumably once which made one essential element—adequate fi lling of the ursid cranium had come to rest in the Panta Stră mo ş ilor.

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And fi nally, on the last day, when the crew was trying to student in paleontology and geology at the Institutul de document photographically the passage between the Speologie “Emil Racovi ţă” in Bucharest. Panta Stră mo şilor and the spot in the Sala Mandibulei Together Quil è s and Petrea began the process of sort- where Oase 1 had been found, Milota positioned himself ing and identifying the bear and other mammalian bones with lights, fl at on the fl oor, in that spot. While waiting for and collecting comparative data, while Rougier cleaned, Gherase to take the shot, he scouted around for anything sorted, and assembled pieces of Oase 2. Since sections of of interest; he found it. Lying within a meter of the origi- the vault, particularly of the anterior parietal bones and nal location of the Oase 1 mandible was the missing piece the , were still missing and there was a good of the posterior right ramus, which subsequently fi t per- chance they would be found the next year, she assembled fectly onto the mandible (except for the gap where the the cranium into three large sections but left them apart. dating sample had been taken). He had been looking at a Most importantly, she was able to show that the 2003 tem- cast of the mandible for a year and knew immediately poral bone did indeed fi t onto the rest of Oase 2, confi rm- where that piece would fi t. ing that only two human individuals were known from Just as importantly, the last day in the fi eld was suc- the cave. As a result, she was able to provide the fi rst over- cessful in locating on the surface of the plateau the now all assessment of the proportions of the cranium. What collapsed or sediment-fi lled Pleistocene entrances used emerged was a curious combination of a large face, a long by the bears, wolves, and other carnivores whose remains and fl at forehead, a high and rounded rear vault, but a were ubiquitous in the Oase galleries. This task was car- remarkably smooth occipital bone. The work also high- ried out with a SLOTER device, a transmitter/receiver lighted the contrast between the big face, which had pre- system using very low-frequency electromagnetic wave viously been interpreted as male, and the temporal bone lengths that had been proven successful, under similar with a small mastoid process, previously deemed to be conditions, in the Almonda karstic system of Portugal female. (Carvalho and Veiga, 1989; Zilh ã o et al., 1991, 1993).

Continued Fieldwork: July 2005 Putting Together the Pieces: 2004 The winter and spring of 2005 were a time to start rethink- At the end of the 2004 season, the cleaned bones and sedi- ing the approach to the Pe ştera cu Oase. Funding was ment samples were boxed and readied to be taken for available for a second month-long fi eld season, planned temporary storage at the Institutul de Speologie “Emil for July 2005. The Oase 2 cranium was suffi ciently com- Racovi ţă” in Cluj-Napoca. The bones, with occasional plete to be presented, which was done by Trinkaus at the help from Zilh ã o and others, were washed, air-dried, PaleoAnthropology Society meetings that spring. A series sorted, inventoried, labeled, and packed by Trinkaus. of radiocarbon dates was coming in on the bears and the The rear building of the Hotel Steier had become the other , indicating that most of the fauna in the cave equipment storage area and the “lab.” However, the lack was older than the human remains although at least one of sediment traps in the plumbing meant that all bones, ibex was considerably younger but still from tooth germs to complete bear femora, were washed in age. in a bucket, set out in plastic trays to air dry, and then There was also some shifting of the people involved. labeled, inventoried, and sorted. Cave bear vertebrae, Moldovan in particular, but also Codrea, had decided not to once wet from the cave and then washed, never dried be part of the 2005 fi eldwork, although Moldovan remained properly. And of course, the last two days in the fi eld it supportive of the project at a distance. The Romanian aca- rained. demic side of the project was taken over by Constantin, Given that the bones were in Cluj-Napoca by the end resulting in a codirection of the project by Constantin, of the summer, driven there by Gherase and Milota, it was Zilhã o, and Trinkaus with substantial input from Milota. desirable to start the work on the bears, and, naturally, we Constantin was joined by Viorel Horoi, a geologist and sedi- wanted to see what the newly found pieces of human cra- mentologist from the Institutul de Speologie “Emil Racoviţă” nium would do to Oase 2. Trinkaus had to teach during in Bucharest. With Horoi came Petrea, to both help with the the fall, so it was agreed that Rougier would return to sedimentological sample collection in the cave (and eventu- Romania during the fall and work on the human bones. ally do the sedimentological work at the Bucharest She was joined by a young bear specialist, Jé r ô me Quil è s University) and assist with the bear nest mapping and bone from the Universit é de Toulouse II-Le Mirail, France, who sorting. They were joined by Andrei Sofi caru, a human skel- had not yet been in the fi eld but would dive in the cave etal biologist from the Institutul de Antropologie “Fr. J. the following summer to document bear nests and other Rainer” in Bucharest and Iuliana Constandache, then an bone distributions. Quilè s was aided by Că t ălin Petrea, a archeology student from Iaş i.

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This shifting of people resulted in two groups, one in (squares N to O or P), from the bottom of the bone bed the cave and one at the hotel. The team in the cave con- (row 32) to its upslope passage into the Sala Mandibulei sisted principally of Zilhã o, Milota, Rougier, and Rodrigo (row 37), and from the Surface into Level 2. In 2004 rows excavating in the bone bed of the Panta Stră mo ş ilor. They 32–33 and 34 (in part) had been excavated (see Figure were joined by Gherase, Danciu, and Sarcinƾ , who pro- 3.11), so in 2005 work started with the completion of the vided photodocumentation, schlepped buckets and bags excavation of row 34 and continued up to row 37. The of sediment, removed rocks, and helped screen the sedi- second goal was to map in the dozen cave bear nests, ment, now being done in the river inside the cave, before mostly below the Panta Str ă mo ş ilor in the Galeria the exit through the siphon. The second group was varia- Culcu ş urilor but also in the upper galleries. The mapping bly aided in this by Milota. During much of the same time, of the bear nests was combined with a systematic survey Horoi and Petrea collected sediment samples from the of surface fossil remains in the upper galleries (the Galeria Panta Stră mo ş ilor but especially from the Puţ ul, where Lung ă and the Galeria celor Trei Cranii), where it had they dug a vertical sampling trench through a long sedi- been decided from the beginning to only map and survey ment sequence apparently going back into the Middle and not excavate. Pleistocene. They were joined briefl y at times by Constantin The third task was to establish a radiometric chrono- (who had received his diving license in the meantime) to logical framework for the accumulations (paleontological collect stalagmites for Uranium-series dating and look for and geological) within the cave. This program built on the speleogenesis clues in the morphology of the passages and radiocarbon analyses of the human in 2003 and of by Quil ès, who along with Petrea, mapped in the bear the faunal remains in 2004. Additional bones and teeth nests and bone distributions in the upper galleries. were collected from the Surface and Levels 1 and 2 of the Back at the hotel, in the sunlight, Trinkaus, Sofi caru, Panta Stră mo ş ilor. A dozen bear crania or mandibles, all and Constandache washed, sorted, and processed the fragmentary or disturbed, were taken from surface loca- bones coming out of the cave. The fl ow of bones in 2004 tions, and they were sampled for teeth and bone to be had been slow, because it took time to get organized dur- dated through radiocarbon, electron spin resonance (ESR), ing that fi eld season. In 2005, however, the process was and U-series dating as well as to be used for stable isotope known, Rodrigo had brought bright, battery-operated analysis. Another series of stalagmites were collected from fl uorescent lights from Portugal, the supplies were in the surface of the upper galleries, the surface of the Panta place, and the work proceeded rapidly. A functional typol- Stră mo ş ilor and within the Panta Str ămo ş ilor deposits, all ogy of toilet paper had also emerged, so that the supply of them to assess the beginnings and the ends of the vari- shoppers (namely, Trinkaus with help from Constandache) ous depositional events. could buy what held up best for wrapping the bones in In good cheer, and with serious effort, these fi eld tasks the damp of the cave. It was all that the bone team could were largely accomplished. At the end of July, all returned do to keep up with the supply, even with help from vari- home to rest, recuperate, and sort out what came next. ous cave team members provided during their well- earned days of rest in the sunlight. The process at the hotel started before breakfast with the setting out of trays Putting Together the Pieces: 2005 to 2008 of bones to dry, and it ended after sunset with the unpack- ing and arranging of the day’s packs and diving contain- As planned, the July 2005 season was the second and last ers’ supply of bones, teeth, and screened sediment to be month-long period of fi eldwork. Although occasional vis- sorted. Quil è s, meanwhile, sorted through the bones, ver- its to the cave were made in the following years to collect ifying identifi cations and collecting data on the bears. additional samples and monitor the security of the Poarta, Because of the physically and psychologically demand- which remained in place to protect the Oase galleries ing conditions of the work, a general rule was followed beyond from unnecessary disturbance, enough informa- throughout the project that the inside team would rest after tion had been obtained to consider that the project’s goals three days; the one time that the rule was broken because had all been achieved: pending results from different bad weather prevented access to the site by road and catch- strands of analytical work to be carried out in the labora- ing up was required, everybody made little stupid mistakes tory to fi ll in the details, we had obtained a pretty good on the fourth consecutive day of work, confi rming the picture of the depositional context of the human fossils. goodness of the rule. Counting neither the preparation work carried out The goals of the 2005 season were simple and clearly by the Pro Acva Grup ahead of the actual start of the formulated in light of both the original assessment of the fi eld seasons nor the hours of daily preparation and cave and the results of the work in 2004. The fi rst goal was maintenance of the diving and caving equipment, nor to conclude the excavation of the Panta Stră mo ş ilor from the time driving to and from the site, the “inside team” the longitudinal middle to the left wall (looking upslope) spent a total of 282 hours (~1500 person-hours) in the

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cave over the two seasons. Nearly half of this time was the end of the summer fi eld season, to continue with their spent getting in (one hour, on average, depending on the inventory and analysis. Rougier and Trinkaus went to number of people involved each day) and getting out complete the assembly and study of the human remains. (which took much longer, three hours on average each Quil ès and Petrea went to sort and complete the study of day, because of the added luggage—bones to transport the cave bear remains. In addition, Alex Petculescu and outside, sediments to sieve in the river, rocks and exca- Emil Ş tiuc ă came from Bucharest to take the micromam- vation debris to store in out-of-the-way parts of the mal and small carnivore remains to Bucharest for study, system). and Trinkaus collected measurements and photos of the Risk for those involved existed at almost every step herbivore remains for analysis by others. They were joined of the process: wading through the underground river by Milota and Gherase, to take photos and generally help between the spring and the siphon (where the team was out. caught coming out of the cave one evening during the Subsequently, a complete cranium on the surface of 2005 season by a fl ash fl ood through the cave from a thun- the Galeria Lungă , originally thought to be cave lion, derstorm); diving through the 8°C cold water (where, for- turned out to be a hyena and was removed from the cave tunately, only minor accidents occurred, such as loss of for analysis in October 2007. All of the Peş tera cu Oase lighting due to head bumping against the narrow walls of bones, human, bear, and otherwise, were taken in May the submerged passage); negotiating the muddy steps of 2008 to the Institutul de Speologie “Emil Racovi ţă” in the 20 meter vertical ladder up the Puţ ul, which were Bucharest for permanent curation. Quilè s, for personal especially dangerous while returning at the end of the reasons, could not continue with the project, and the anal- day; climbing down with the added weight of a ~40 kg ysis of the cave bear remains was taken over by Martina “banana” (cavers’ backpack) full of bones or sediment on Pacher of the Universit ä t Wien, Austria. The analysis of everyone’s back (from which we managed to get away aspects of the remains continued, in Bucharest, by various with only a couple of bad falls and ensuing back pain, but team members through 2008. However, since the end of nothing broken). Ironically, the only nontrivial injury of 2005, most of the work has been the long, slow process of the three years of work in the cave (a crushed fi ngernail) analyzing samples in laboratories, putting the Oase data was sustained by Milota, one of the most experienced in context, and writing up material for publication. cavers of the whole project. A series of papers have appeared in the meantime Add to this the diffi cult excavation conditions in the that either are directly on the Peş tera cu Oase and its Panta Str ă mo şilor (poor lighting, constrained space, 100% contents (e.g., Trinkaus et al., 2005, 2006a, 2009; Petrea et humidity, 12°C air temperature, constant dripping), and al., 2006; Quilè s et al., 2006; Rougier et al., 2007; Trinkaus the vastness of the Sala Mandibulei, pursuing fi eldwork and Zilh ão, 2007; Zilh ão et al., 2007; Richards et al., 2008a; beyond the second fi eld season in the hope of finding Rougier, 2008) or have extensively employed the data additional human remains not only meant tempting luck from the Peş tera cu Oase and its contents to address spe- beyond good reason but also implied an unreasonable cifi c topics in the Late Pleistocene (e.g., Crevecoeur and challenge to the law of diminishing returns—essentially, Trinkaus, 2004; Trinkaus, 2005b, 2007, 2010, 2011; Zilhã o, not very different from trying to fi nd a needle in a hay- 2006a, 2011; Pacher and Stuart, 2009; Crevecoeur et al., stack. Moreover, as all excavation is destruction (albeit 2009; Richards and Trinkaus, 2009; Bailey et al., 2009; controlled), and because, despite all the care, it was impos- Stiller, 2009; Stiller et al., 2010; Shang and Trinkaus, 2010; sible to avoid some level of unintended degradation of Dobo ş et al., 2010; Meiri, 2010; Diedrich, 2011). The human the bone-littered surfaces that had to be traversed to remains, both in terms of their morphology and their age, access the different excavation and sampling localities, have become increasingly integrated into Late Pleistocene continued work at Oase would have involved, all things human paleontology and the “origins of modern humans” considered, unjustifi ed further damage to the pristine debate. Aspects of the paleobiology, age, aDNA, and sta- underground landscape discovered in 2002. For these rea- ble isotopes of the cave bears, the best dated large sample sons, the team unanimously agreed to put a “completed” from southeastern Europe, have appeared. It is expected stamp on the excavation part of the project at the end of that more such specialist analyses and integration of the the July 2005 season. remains into the greater Quaternary record will emerge, After the dust (or cave earth) had settled on this deci- but the recent efforts have focused on pulling together sion, four team members returned to Cluj-Napoca in the totality of the research on the Peş tera cu Oase, putting December 2005, where the 2005 fi nds had been taken at new life in these old bones.

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Part Seven References

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