The Temple of Astarte “Aglaia” at Motya and Its Cultural Significance in the Mediterranean Realm

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The Temple of Astarte "Aglaia" at Motya and Its Cultural Signiﬁcance in the Mediterranean Realm

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Lorenzo Nigro

The Temple of Astarte “Aglaia” at Motya and Its Cultural Significance in the Mediterranean Realm

Abstract: Recent excavations at Motya by the Sapienza University of Rome and the Sicil- ian Superintendence of Trapani have expanded our information on the Phoenician goddess Astarte, her sacred places, and her role in the Phoenician expansion to the West during the first half of the first millennium BCE. Two previously unknown religious buildings dedicated to this deity have been discovered and excavated in the last decade. The present article discusses the oldest temple dedicated to the goddess, located in the Sacred Area of the Kothon in southwestern quadrant of the island (Zone C). The indigenous population worshipped a major goddess at the time of Phoenician arrival, so that the cult of Astarte was easily assimilated and transformed into a shared religious complex. Here, the finds that connect Astarte of Motya with her Mediterranean parallels are surveyed. These in sum, demonstrate the centrality of religious ideology in Levantine expansion to the West as a means for constructing an inclusive West Phoenician cultural identity.

Keywords: Astarte, Motya, Kothon, Phoenicia, Baal, Eryx

The Temple of Astarte in the Sacred Area of the Kothon

he temple of Astarte was erected about eighty meters inland in the Tsouthern area of the natural pond, later transformed into a sacred pool, traditionally known as “kothon.” 1 The whole area was characterized by the presence of rushing freshwater due to the outcropping of the phreatic aquifer from the clayish-marl bedrock. Spilling of freshwater attracted the Phoenician settlers, who distinguished the site as a sacred place and erected two temples there, one dedicated to Baal—Shrine C14, later transformed into Temple C5, C1, C2 (Nigro 2011; Nigro and Spagnoli 2017, 8–9, 49–53)—near to the main spring (called “spring of the temple”) and with a sacred well inside; and another devoted to Astarte, located twenty meters further north of the former (fig. 1).

1. For the architectural structure, stratigraphy, chronology, and function of this pool, see Nigro 2014. 101 102 Lorenzo Nigro Figure 1. General view of the Area of the Kothon with the temple of Baal and temple of Astarte enclosed by the Circular Temenos, from the northeast. the from Temenos, Circular the by enclosed Astarte of temple and Baal of temple the with Kothon the of Area the of view General 1. Figure The Temple of Astarte “Aglaia” at Motya 103

Figure 2. View of Shrine C12 in Area C North of Phases 8–7 cut through by Phase 5–4 Circular Temenos (Motya IVB, 750–550 BCE), from the northwest.

The stratigraphy and construction sequence allowed us to distinguish at least three superimposed buildings: Shrine C12 in Zone C Phases 9–7 (Motya IV–V, 800–550 BCE), which ended in an extensive destruction layer (Phase 6, around 550 BCE); Temple C6 in Phase 5 (Motya VI, 550–470 BCE); and Temple C4 in Phase 4 (Motya VII, 470–397/6 BCE), which saw the final destruction of the city by the tyrant of Syracuse, Dionysius I, the Elder. The existence of an earlier temple beneath Shrine C12 (to be attributed to Phase 10; Motya IIIB, ca. 1100–900 BCE) is indicated by several traces; its structures and floors, however, have not yet been reached (Nigro 2018, 258, n. 20).

Shrine C12 (Phases 8–7, Motya IVB-V, 750–550 BCE)

The earliest building (Shrine C12) was oriented north-northeast–south-south west, and was erected on a layer of sandy soil, pottery fragments, and ash.2 It originally consisted of a rectangular room (6.46 × 3.29 m) encircled by walls 0.52 m wide (fig. 2), made of riverbed stones (basically quartzite and limestone chops), with a superstructure made of light-brown bricks. The north wall M.4375b

2. Two soundings were sunk down to the earliest layers in squares CoVIII12 and CpVIII13. It seems possible that this layer resulted from the leveling of a preexisting structure. 104 Lorenzo Nigro

Figure 3. Schematic plan of Shrine C12 (Phase 8, 750–675 BCE). incorporated a square cornerstone. The west wall M.2749b was partially overrun by later wall M.1743 of Phase 5, while the south wall M.2765b was partially concealed by its successor (fig. 3). Unfortunately, there was no evidence for roofing remains. The main entrance was on one long side of the building, near the northeast corner, looking east (fig. 4). It consisted of two flanking slabs serving as threshold, 0.25 The Temple of Astarte “Aglaia” at Motya 105

Figure 4. View of the Temple of Astarte with the entrance to Shrine C12 on the left, from the east.

m high and 1.57 m wide, framed by two big stones laid as headers into the wall and jutting 0.3 m out from it. This may suggest that a couple of pillars flanked the passage (Nigro 2015, 237). The focus of the cult was a rectangular podium/altar joined to the western wall of the room. It measured 1.04 × 0.52 m and was made by two superimposed courses of grayish mud bricks. The devotee entering the shrine therefore had to turn left (southwards) to see the altar and to orient himself towards the cella. Two low benches (0.26 × 2.08 m), also made of lined mud bricks and coated with a yellowish clay plaster, ran along both long sides of the cella. The floor of the temple was made of crushed and pressed lime layers with a thin clay coating. It was preserved only in the northern (L.5046b) and southern (L.5048b) halves of the cella, as the latter was cut through in the middle by 106 Lorenzo Nigro

the round boundary wall of the sixth century BCE sacred area, the “Circular Temenos” (Nigro 2015, 234–35, 237, fig. 13). In the stratum just on the floor, a brown ashy soil with marl grits, a bronze crescent-like earring, and a miniature pine cone were found (fig. 5). Due to their small dimensions, these finds have tentatively been interpreted as ornaments or attributes of a bronze cult statuette (Nigro and Spagnoli 2017, 54), which one may reconstruct similar to the renowned Astarte of Carambolo (Navarro 2016). A handmade globular pot, a shape also labeled “inkbottle,” though actually made in the shape of a pomegranate (fig. 6), was found against the northern side of the western bench (Nigro and Spagnoli 2017, 55). Apparently, this vase was expressly produced for cult use only. Its content was examined through gas chromatography which revealed that it contained an organic ointment or perfume, perhaps to be poured in front of the cult simulacrum of the goddess. In Phase 7 (Motya V, 675–550 BCE) the cella was refurbished with new floorings (L.5046a, and L.5048a) and fitted with a second door (L.2798, 0.6 m wide), opened near the southwest corner just aside altar M.5050 (fig. 7) and pointing towards the open yard flanking the temple and connected with the pond and Temple C5. This Shrine C12 suffered a destruction at the end of Phase 7, and was then razed to an average height of 0.4 m towards the middle of the sixth century BCE (Phase 6, ca. 550 BCE). The floors inside it were badly damaged by later construction, as the building was buried under the foundation of a new temple (§ 1.2.) at the beginning of Phase 5 (Motya VIA, 550–520 BCE).

Temple C6 (Phase 5, Motya VI, 550–470 BCE)

Phase 5 marked a major reconstruction of the whole Sacred Area of the Kothon, which became the main cult complex in the reconstructed city of Motya. The area of the springs, the temples, and connected cult installations, as well as the intentionally buried remains of the earliest settlement of Motya IV, were encircled by the newly erected Circular Temenos, a boundary wall with a foundation width 0.7–1.5 m and a preserved maximum height of 1.5 m (south) with a diameter of 118 m and a centre coinciding with that of the rectangular pool excavated at the middle of the area to collect freshwaters, the so-called Kothon (Nigro 2014). The two main temples within the religious compound, the Temple of Baal (C1), and the Temple of Astarte (C6), were both reconstructed with new monumentalizing architecture. The Temple of Astarte (C6) was completely rebuilt some 3 m to the south of its original position in order to include it within the “Circular Temenos” (fig. 8). Moreover, it was reoriented to the south, with the entrance looking the spring of the Temple and the rear side pointing towards the mountain of Eryx, The Temple of Astarte “Aglaia” at Motya 107

Figure 5. Bronze crescent-like earring and miniature pine cone found in Shrine C12, possibly belonged to a cult statuette.

Figure 6. Handmade globular unguentarium/“inkbottle” shaped as a pomegranate, found against the western bench of Shrine C12. 108 Lorenzo Nigro

Figure 7. Schematic plan of Shrine C12 (Phase 7, 675–550 BCE).

the Elymian-Punic city ‘“upon which Astarte rules” (Ap. Rhod. 4.917) located 22 Km NNE of the island. On this rocky summit of the mount of Eryx (Monte San Giuliano) stood one of the most renowned temples of Astarte/Aphrodite in the Mediterranean, dominating the surrounding landscape. There, the sacred The Temple of Astarte “Aglaia” at Motya 109

Figure 8. General view of Temple C6 and Circular Temenos of Phase 5 (Motya VI, 550– 470 BCE), from southwest.

prostitution or hierodulia3 was practiced, as in some of the largest sanctuaries of such a goddess in Mediterranean: at Kition in Cyprus, Sicca in North-Africa, 4 Byblos in the motherland, at Ras al-Wardija in Gozo (Malta), and at Pyrgi in Etruria. The new building exhibited an in antis plan, with a front porch (L.4388), 3.38 m (6.5 cubits) and 2.34 m (4.5 cubits) deep, flanked by two protruding walls (M.1743, M.2747); the roof was supported by a couple of wooden columns set upon large roughly squared blocks (M.4399) sunk into the ground. A central entrance (L.2765), 1.30 m wide, marked by a threshold paved with slabs, opened into a broad-roomed cella (L.2750) of 3.38 m (6.5 cubits) × 1.82 m. The entrance was aligned with a raised niche, showing the same width (1.3 m). It was marked by a 0.5 m wide step and had an internal larger width of 1.54 m (fig. 9). The rear of the temple consisted of a double wall; the inner wall M.2013, 0.52 m wide, was interrupted by the opening of the niche, while an external structure M.2009, only 0.26 m wide, added to the latter, abutted off from the wall line to the north in correspondence of the niche (M.2029), thus allowing to understand from outside where the statue of the goddess (simulacrum) was located. This central protruding offset of the wall (M.2029) was made of small regular blocks of local sandstone (“calcarenite”).

3. Strabo 6.2.5; Diod. Sic. 4.83. Ribichini 2004. 4. This practice occurred only in the circumstance of the feast of Adonis (D’Aleo 2011, 185). 110 Lorenzo Nigro

Figure 9. Schematic plan of Temple C6 (Phase 5, 550–470 BCE).

The floor of cella L.2750 was carefully paved by crushed lime mixed with local clayish marl, while sand, ash, rare pottery sherds, and small limestone grits were found in the floor revetment of the cella. Beneath the rear wall adjoining the temple animal bones were found, perhaps as parts of a foundation deposit.

Temple C4 (Phase 4, Motya VII, 470–397/6 BCE)

In ca. 470 BCE, the Sacred Area of the Kothon was destroyed. This provided the opportunity for rebuilding, which again involved the main cult buildings and the temenos itself. The Temple of Baal (C1) was further enlarged by adding the East Wing to it, to serve as monumental entrance to the “Circular Temenos” (Nigro 2012, 330) and the whole Sacred Area (fig. 10). The temenos was rebuilt, and the interruption originally left in correspondence of Temple C6 was blocked by The Temple of Astarte “Aglaia” at Motya 111

Figure 10. General view of the sacred Area of the Kothon with the East Wing of the temple of Baal (C1) on the left and Circular Temenos in the background.

a closure wall (M.1749). The construction of such a structure made it necessary to modify the Temple of Astarte (Temple C4; fig. 11). The cella (L.2000) was reduced in its width by means of a partition wall added to the east (M.1719), partly incorporating the rear wall and its offset, leaving a thin blind room (L.4386) between it and M.2747. The niche was also restricted on its eastern side to the overall width of 0.9 m. Moreover, the Temenos closure wall M.1749 was connected with wall M.2013 by an elongated stone boulder, stretching between the wall core, the corner stone of niche L.2007, and transversal wall M.1719. Near the joint between these structures and the elongated boulder a foundation deposit was uncovered, consisting of a square hole lined by stones, where a pierced lamp5 had been laid out (fig. 12). At the opposite, western side of the temple, where it intersected the Temenos, a circular votive pit (with a diameter of 1 m and a depth of 0.2 m) was dug and filled in with ashy soil deriving from some ritual activity. In the center of the pit a bronze coin6 was deposited (fig. 13) with a foot of an Attic Black Ware cup intentionally broken in half, incised in the central medallion with a cross and a Greek inscription bearing the epithet of the goddess: AGL[AIA] (fig. 14).

5. MC.14.4394/1. 6. Unfortunately the organic components of the pit filling had badly corroded the coin’s sur- faces, so that it was impossible to recognize it as a Motyan ounce. 112 Lorenzo Nigro

Figure 11. Schematic plan of Temple C4 (Phase 5, Motya VII, 470–397/6 BCE) with the lamp deposit D.4394 at the joint with the Circular Temenos.

The porch was transformed, leaving a single column in the middle, and reducing the width of the central entrance. A votive pit (F.2767) was excavated in front of the entrance door (L.2765), in which animal offerings and small pottery vessels were buried and which was covered by a large limestone block. The cella was reoriented by creating a cult focus on its western side (M.1743a), which was rebuilt using local sandstone slabs set upright. A red quartzite slab was embedded in the floor against this wall, providing a new focal point for the cult, while a small drain lined by small stones was set in the northwest corner to evacuate libations. The reduction of the cella within the temple was compensated bythe space outside it in the forecourt, which also served cult functions. Besides the temple, some votive deposits were dug, and a series of offerings with stone markers were set along the inner face of the Temenos (fig. 15). At least three of these installations can be mentioned to illustrate the kinds of deposits displaced along the Temenos near the Temple of Astarte. Illustrating The Temple of Astarte “Aglaia” at Motya 113

Figure 12. View of the pierced lamp found in the deposit (D.4394) at the northeastern corner of Temple C4, from the southwest. them counterclockwise, the first is a small deposit including an elongated dark granite pebble, used as marker, with which a broken double-spouted lamp, an astragalus, and an engraved scarab were associated (fig. 16). The scarab was engraved with a popular motif in the seventh–fifth centuries BCE: that of a young lioness or a panther (marked by light rosettes) attacking a bull on its back. This motif is Near Eastern, disseminated through Neo-Assyrian and

Achaemenid art to fifth century BCE Sicily. In a monumentalized manifestation of the motif, it appears as a major sculpture placed on top of the double arched North Gate of the city, rebuilt at the beginning of the fifth century BCE (Mertens-Horn 1993; Nigro 2010, 167–68). Nevertheless, it seems noteworthy in the context of the sacred area of the Kothon, that the panther or lion is the sacred animal of Astarte (Cornelius 2004, 30; 2014, 95; Smith 2014, 70), while 114 Lorenzo Nigro

Figure 13. View of deposit D.4382 on the western side of Temple C4, from the south.

Figure 14. Broken foot of the Attic Black Ware cup incised with a cross and a Greek inscription bearing the epithet of the goddess Astarte. AGL[AIA]. The Temple of Astarte “Aglaia” at Motya 115

Figure 15. General view of the deposits found on the western side of Temple C4, from the southwest.

Figure 16. View from the southeast of the deposit along the Circular Temenos, characterized by the presence of an elongated dark-granite pebble (a marker) where a scarab engraved with a lioness attacking a bull was found. 116 Lorenzo Nigro

Figure 17. View of deposit D.4310 where the pelvis of a young girl, aged twelve to fourteen, was buried with the teeth of a child two years old; from the east. the bull is that of Baal, the two companion deities to whom this region of Motya was dedicated (Nigro and Spagnoli 2012, 50; Spagnoli 2013, 157–58). The second deposit was indicated by a smooth quadratic stone set upon a shallow pit, where the pelvis of a young girl, aged twelve to fourteen, was buried with the teeth of a child (two years old) on some pottery fragments (fig. 17). The meaning of this burial of selected human parts seems unfathomable and might be connected to the discovery of selected human teeth found strewn along the circular wall. These are among the few human remains retrieved at Motya outside the necropolises, the Tophet, and the burial places on the northern side of the island (Ciasca 1978, 242; 1990, 10; Spagnoli 2007–2008, 326–27, 337). The third deposit (D.4362) consists of a 2 m wide and 0.3 m deep shallow pit where a group of discarded items belonged to the temple and possibly used in cult performances were buried after having been destroyed by breaking The Temple of Astarte “Aglaia” at Motya 117

Figure 18. Particular view of deposit D.4362 before the excavations, from the east. them in half (fig. 18). These items were a bronze cymbal, a goat metacarpal worked as to serve as flute, a mold for bread, an unbaked impasto idol figurine, a truncated pyramid loom weight, a painted juglet (figs. 19–21), and several Black Ware and Attic Red Figured Ware bowls, cups, and skyphoi pedestals carefully cut and pierced as to be use for pouring libations (Spagnoli 2014, 113, figs. 1–2; Nigro 2015, 239–40, fig. 15). The pit also included ashes, charcoal, and clay lumps, and was closed by a layer of pottery fragments (mainly amphorae bodies) among which a turtle shell was found bearing a Punic inscription on five lines, unfortunately badly eroded (fig. 22). Only the wordrbt was readable on the fifth line, an epithet that in Motya was inscribed on a stela, which Amadasi Guzzo read “l rbt ‘štrt,”“to the Lady Astarte” (Amadasi Guzzo 1981, 9, pl. I; Nigro 2010, 163; 2015, fig. 17). This would suggest that the turtle shell also bore the name of the great Phoenician Goddess.7

7. For a general discussion on the role of the turtle in the cult of Astarte, see Nigro and Spagnoli 2012, 57; Spagnoli 2013, 158. 118 Lorenzo Nigro

Figure 19. The bronze cymbal, a bronze coin, a bronze foil, a goat metacarpal worked to serve as a flute, a truncated pyramid loom weight, found in deposit D.4362.

Figure 21. The painted juglet found in deposit D.4362. The Temple of Astarte “Aglaia” at Motya 119

Figure 20. A mold for bread, and an unbaked impasto idol figurine found in deposit D.4362. 120 Lorenzo Nigro

Figure 22. Turtle shell with a Punic inscription bearing the word rbt, readable as “l rbt ‘štrt”: “to the Lady Astarte.”

“Shining” Astarte in the Mediterranean Realm

The discovery of Shrine C12 and the presence of this early cult place devoted to Astarte, together with the Temple of Baal, in the earliest settlement stages at Phoenician Motya during the eighth century BCE is a cogent remark of the role this goddess played not only in the religious tradition of the homeland, - as major Phoenician female hypostasis descending from third and second millennia BCE West Semitic Ishtar (Tsukimoto 2014, 23), but also in Phoenician expansion to the West (Bonnet 1996, 19, 147–50). At Motya, the cult of Astarte might be connected with the significant Cypriot component taking part in the earliest community of “colonists” (Nigro and Spagnoli 2017, 99–100), as several clues suggest, for example, architectural elements in the Sacred Area of Baal and Astarte and ceramic finds. Nonetheless, such a goddess had a very strong tradition in the homeland, both at Sidon (Doumet-Serhal 2013) and Byblos, two cities that might have been involved in the foundation of Motya (Nigro and Spagnoli 2017, 112–13). As pointed out by several scholars, Astarte functioned as a passe-partout for Phoenicians with respect to central and west Mediterranean populations with which they were in touch (Mederos Martin 2011, 188–90; Nigro and Spagnoli 2012, 32; Spagnoli 2013 160, nn. 59–60). The erection of the temple in the southern region of the island thus achieves a significance also in light of the presence of a major temple of the goddess in the nearby Elymian city of Eryx, a center that Greek mythology reconnects to Motya through the myth The Temple of Astarte “Aglaia” at Motya 121 of Butes, a Sicilian cattle herder transformed into an Attic Argonaut who fell in love with the Sirens, and was saved by Aphrodite, “the Goddess who rules upon Eryx.”8 Aphrodite eventually coupled with him, and their son, Eryx, founded the homonymous city, while Butes founded nearby Lylibaeum.9 It seems possible that the indigenous population of the western tip of Sicily (later the Elymians) worshipped a major goddess at the time of Phoenician arrival, so that the cult of Astarte was easily assimilated and transformed into a shared religious complex (Nigro 2015, 241; Nigro and Spagnoli 2017, 113). Offerings in temples (especially deer antlers) and other rituals (burning of animal parts; breaking of unbaked idols) recall local prehistoric traditions that had relevant counterparts also in the Levant. Astarte of Motya, as revealed by the Sapienza University excavations in the area of the Kothon, on the one hand conveyed an astral meaning, as is suggested by the (later) Greek epithet “AGLAIA,” and by the reorientation of Temple C6–C4 to the south, which recall her planet, Venus, the “morning star”—something that will survive until the Reinassance and beyond as manifested in the golden star depicted by Italian painters on the mantle of the Virgin Mary, which is not so different from the cuneiform divine determinative of Sumerian Inanna (Tsukimoto 2014, 30, n. 38, fig. 34). On the other hand, the same Greek epithet means “pure” and hints at the cult of flowing fresh waters (the temple is 20 m away from the two main springs of the Kothon), showing Astarte’s aspects of fertility, life, and rebirth, characteristics that link this deity to many Mediterranean female goddesses connected with agriculture and reproduction (Spagnoli 2016, 8 n. 60). Her redeeming power extended to the netherworld, into which she descended to save Adonis/ Baal and restore him to life by playing the flute, tambourine, and cymbals. In this light, the retrieval of two intentionally obliterated old-fashioned musical instruments of the kind found in votive pit D.4362 seems meaningful. Human remains found buried near the Temple may, conversely, allude to another major aspect of Astarte, as warrior goddess—eloquently signified by a fifth-century mold for terracottas and arulae found in the Sanctuary of the Holy Waters, on the opposite side of the Circular Temenos, showing a sphinx slaughtering a crouching naked young man (fig. 23; Nigro 2016, 44–45). Finally, the maritime supremacy of the goddess, well known from dedications and offerings in Phoenicia at Byblos and Sidon (Bonnet 1996, 31; Angiolillo and Sirigu 2009 n. 36), is suggested at Motya by the anchor stone found embedded into the “Circular Temenos” some meters west of the

8. Ap. Rhod. IV, 917. Butes is, according some traditions (Etymologicum Magnum), including the Iliad, a son of Poseidon (the Greek god corresponding to Baal, worshipped in the same area at Motya; see Guizzi 2012). 9. For a detailed and informed discussion of the myth, see D’Aleo 2011. 122 Lorenzo Nigro

Figure 23. Mold for terracottas and arulae found in the Sanctuary of the Holy Waters showing a sphinx slaughtering a crouching naked young man.

Figure 24. Anchor stone M.4379 embedded into the lower course of the Circular Teme- nos wall M.2703, from the northeast. temple (fig. 24). It belongs to a second-millennium typology known from

Byblos10 and Ugarit. Astarte was the deity of seafarers and navigators, in this manifestation identified with Greek Aphrodite and Roman Venus, whose main

10. Frost 1973. On comparisons in Italy, see Bagnasco Gianni 2015; Fiorini 2015. The Temple of Astarte “Aglaia” at Motya 123 sanctuaries were Paphos on Cyprus, Tas Silg on Malta, and Eryx on Sicily, all hosting sacred hierodulia, as at Byblos in the motherland, where she was syncretized with Egyptian Hathor (Karageorghis 1977, 161; Sophocleous 1985, 124; Mederos Martin 2011, 199; Bloch-Smith 2014, 193–94). All these red threads form a series of overlaid and intermingled relationships that connect Astarte of Motya with her Mediterranean parallels, showing again the centrality of religious ideology in Levantine expansion to the West as a means for constructing an inclusive West Phoenician cultural identity.

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his volume brings together scholars in religion, archaeology, philology, and history to explore case studies and theoretical models of converging Sandra Blakely religions. The twenty-four essays presented, which derive from Hittite, TCilician, Lydian, Phoenician, Greek, and Roman cultural settings, focus on and Billie Jean Collins (eds.) encounters at the boundaries of cultures, landscapes, chronologies, social class and status, the imaginary, and the materially operative. Broad patterns ultimately emerge that reach across these boundaries, and suggest the state of the question on the study of convergence, and the potential fruitfulness for comparative and interdisciplinary studies as models continue to evolve. Religious Convergence Religious Convergence in the Ancient Mediterranean in the Ancient Mediterranean

Sandra Blakely is an associate professor in the Department of Classics at Emory University. She currently serves as president of the Society for Ancient Mediterranean Religions.

Billie Jean Collins is an adjunct lecturer in the Middle Eastern and South Asian Studies Department at Emory University and director of Lockwood Press.

LOCKWOOD PRESS www.lockwoodpress.com

LOCKWOOD PRESS Religious Convergence in the Ancient Mediterranean Studies in Ancient Mediterranean Religions

Sandra Blakely, Series Editor

Number Two Religious Convergence in the Ancient Mediterranean Religious Convergence in the Ancient Mediterranean

Edited by

Sandra Blakely and Billie Jean Collins

LOCKWOOD PRESS 2019 Religious Convergence in the Ancient Mediterranean

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by means of any information storage or retrieval system, except as may be expressly permitted by the 1976 Copyright Act or in writing from the publisher. Requests for permission should be addressed in writing to Lockwood Press, PO Box 133289, Atlanta, GA 30333 USA.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019940459

ISBN: 978-1-948488-16-7

Cover design by Susanne Wilhelm.

Cover image: Sapienza University of Rome - Missione archeologica a Mozia. Photograph by Mario Ottiveggio.

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper. Dedicated to the memory of Sebastiano Tusa (1952–2019), a brilliant scholar and a generous friend

Sebastiano (center right) with his wife, Valeria Li Vigni (center left), and the editors of this volume, Sandra Blakely (left) and Billie Jean Collins (right). Photograph by Jeffrey Brodd.

Contents

Abbreviations xi Contributors xxi Introduction, Sandra Blakely 1

Section 1. Site

1 Guardian Goddess of the Surf-Beaten Shore: The Influence of Mariners on Sanctuaries of Aphrodite in Magna Graecia Amelia R. Brown and Rebecca Smith 19 2 Lilibeo e i suoi culti: Nuovi esempi dalla ricerca archeologica Rossella Giglio 43 3 Large Temples as Cultural Banners in Western Sicily Margaret M. Miles 59 4 Close Encounters on Sicily: Molech, Meilichios, and Religious Convergence at Selinus Sarah Morris 77 5 The Temple of starteA “Aglaia” at Motya and Its Cultural Significance in the Mediterranean Realm Lorenzo Nigro 101 6 Venere del Mare: Testimonianze del culto nel trapanese Francesca Oliveri 127

Section 2. Text

7 Hittite Prayers and Their Mesopotamian Models Elisabeth Rieken 149 8 Mythological Passages in Hittite Rituals Susanne Görke 163

vii viii Contents

9 Religious Convergence in Hittite Anatolia: The Case of Kizzuwatna Amir Gilan 173 10 The Arzawa Rituals and Religious Production in Hattusa Billie Jean Collins 191 11 Survival of “Popular” Mythology: From Hittite Mountain Man to Phrygian Mountain Mother Mary R. Bachvarova 203 12 Native Religious Traditions from a Lydian Perspective Annick Payne 231

Section 3. Object

13 Funerary Practices and Rituals on Sicily from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age (Sixth through Second Millennia BCE) †Sebastiano Tusa 251 14 The Convergence of Guardian Statues in the Ancient World: Top-Down or Bottom-Up? Christopher Athanasious Faraone 269 15 Across Traditions and beyond Boundaries: The Masks of Carthage Adriano Orsingher 295 16 Greek Coins, Punic People: An Iconographic Analysis of the Punic Coinage of Sicily José Miguel Puebla Morón 313 17 Ritual Practices, Food Offerings, and Animal Sacrifices: Votive Deposits in the Temple of The Kothon (Motya) Federica Spagnoli 329 18 Romantic Receptions, or, The Aeginetan Sculptures’ Long March to Munich Louis A. Ruprecht Jr. 359

Section 4. Action

19 From Zalpuwa to Brauron: Hittite-Greek Religious Convergence on the Black Sea Ian Rutherford 391 20 The Politics of Ritual Performance at Assyrian-Period Sam’al: Local and Imperial Identity in the Katumuwa Mortuary Stele from Zincirli Virginia R. Herrmann 411 Contents ix

21 The Tonaia and Samian Identity Aaron Beck-Schachter 437 22 Sparta and Persia: Rituals for Invading the Land of the Gods of Others Irene Polinskaya 455 23 Using Your Head: Reading a “Local Style” Adapted for Foreign Ritual Kevin Dicus 501 24 Roman Empire and Roman Emperor: Animal Sacrifice as an Instrument of Religious Convergence J. B. Rives 523 Subject Index 541 Ancient Sources Index 553

Abbreviations

General

BCE before the Common Era ex(x). example(s) fr. fragment LH Late Helladic pers. comm. personal communication p(p). page(s) pr. praefatio ps. pseudo trans. translation translit. transliteration

Bibliographical Abbreviations

AA Archäologischer Anzeiger AAEA Anejos de Archivo español de arqueología ACS American Classical Studies ÄgAbh Agyptologische Abhandlungen Agora I Agora Inscription Agora XIX Gerald V. Lalonde, Merle K. Langdon, and Michael B. Walbank. Inscriptions: Horoi, Poletai Records, and Leases of Public Lands. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1991. AhT Ahhiyawa text, according to the numbering in Gary M. Beckman, Trevor Bryce, and Eric H. Cline, The Ahhiyawa Texts. WAW 28. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2011. AJA American Journal of Archaeology AJAH American Journal of Ancient History AntCl L’Antiquité classique AntK Antike Kunst AntOr Antiguo Oriente AOAT Alter Orient und Altes Testament AoF Altorientalische Forschungen ARC Archaeological Review from Cambridge xi xii Abbreviations

ArchCl Archeologia Classica ARW Archiv für Religionswissenschaft AnSt Anatolian Studies AS Assyriological Studies ASAE Annales du Service des Antiquities d’Égypte ATSAT Arbeiten zu Text und Sprache im Alten Testament AuOr Aula Orientalis AuOrSup Supplements to Aula Orientalis AVO Altertumskunde des Vorderen Orients BAAL Bulletin d’archéologie et d’architecture libannaise BAB Bulletin de la Classe des Lettres de l’Académie royale de Bel- gique BaF Baghdader Forschungen BAR-IS British Archaeological Reports, International Series BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research BCSMS Bulletin of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies BCTH Bulletin archéologique du Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques BdA Bollettino d’arte BibAr Bibliotheca archaeologica BibHelRom Bibliotheca Helvetica Romana BICS Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies of the University of London BICSSup Supplements of the Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies of the University of London BJ Bonner Jahrbucher BM British Museum BM Simone Michel. Die magischen Gemmen im Britischen Mu- seum. 2 vols. London: British Museum Press, 2001. BMMA Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art BMS L. W. King. Babylonian Magic and Sorcery. London, 1896. BNJ Ian Worthington, ed. Brill’s New Jacoby. Leiden: Brill, 2006–. Bo inventory numbers of the Boghazköy tablets BPI Bullettino di Paleontologia Italiana BSA British School at Athens Studies BSFE Bulletin de la Société française d’égyptologie CAJ Cambridge Archaeological Journal CANES Edith Porada. Corpus of Ancient Near Eastern Seals in North American Collections: The Pierpont Morgan Collec- tion. Washington, DC: New York Pantheon Books, 1948. CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly CCJ Cambridge Classical Journal CdÉ Chronique d’Égypte Abbreviations xiii

CDOG Colloquien der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft CEFR Collection de l‘École française de Rome CHANE Culture and History of the Ancient Near East CIG August Boeckh, et al., Corpus inscriptionum graecarum. Berlin, 1828–1877. CIL Wilhelm Henzen et al. Corpus inscriptionum latinarum. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1863–. CIPOA Cahiers de l’Institut du Proche-Orient Ancien du Collège de France ClAnt Classical Antiquity ClQ Classical Quarterly CMAO Contributi e Materiali di Archeologia Orientale COS Context of Scripture. Edited by William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1997–2002. CPA Cuadernos de Prehistoria y Arqueología CRINT Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum CSF Collezione di studi fenici CT Simon Hornblower, A Commentary on Thucydides. 3 vols. Oxford: Clarendon. Volume 1: Books 1–3 (1991); volume 2: Books 4–5.24 (1996); volume 3: Books 5.26–8.109 (2008) CTH Emmanuel Laroche. Catalogue des textes hittites. Paris: Klincksieck, 1971 (with supplements in RHA 30 [1972]: 94–133 and RHA 33 [1973]: 68–71; now extensively expanded and revised in the online Catalog der Texte der Hethiter of the Hethitologie-Portal Mainz: S. Košak and G. G. W. Müller, hethiter.net/: Catalog [2015-08-04], http:// www.hethport.uni-wuerzburg.de/CTH/) D&D Armand Delatteand Philippe Derchain. Les intailles mag- iques gréco-égyptiennes de la Bibliothèque Nationale. Paris: Bibliothèque Nationale, 1964. DHA Dialogues d’histoire ancienne DMG Simone Michel. Die magischen Gemmen: Eine Studie zu Zauberformeln und magischen Bildern auf geschnittenen Steinen der Antike und Neuzeit. PhD diss., Geissen, 2004. EGF Malcolm Davies, Epicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Göttin- gen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1988. EM Epigraphiko Mouseio (Epigraphical Museum) ETCSL Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, http:// etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/ FGrHist Felix Jacoby. Fragmente der griechischen Historiker. Berlin: Weidmann, 1923–. FOLD&R Fasti Online Documents & Research xiv Abbreviations

Gaisford Thomas Gaisford. Etymologicum Magnum. Oxford: Ox- ford University Press, 1848. Repr. Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1967. GHI Marcus Niebuhr Tod. A Selection of Greek Historical In- scriptions. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1933, 1947. GMA Roy Kotansky. Greek Magical Amulets: The Inscribed Gold, Silver, Copper, and Bronze Lamellae. Part 1: Published Texts of Known Provenance. Papyrologica Coloniensia 22.1. Op- laden: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1994. GMPT Hans Dieter Betz. Greek Magical Papyri in Translation: In- cluding the Demotic Spells. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986. GrazBeitr Grazer Beiträge GRBS Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies HED Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. Trends in Linguistics. Documentation. Berlin: de Gruyter; Am- sterdam: Mouton, 1984– (volumes are referred to by the letter[s] covered in each) HEG Johannes Tischler. Hethitisches etymologisches Glossar. Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Univer- sität Innsbruck. 1977–. Heim Ricardus Heim. Incantamenta Magica Graeca-Latina. Jahr bücher für classische Philologie Supplements 10. Leipzig: Teubner, 1893. Hesperia Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens HesperiaSup Supplements to Hesperia Heth. Hethitica HFA Hamburger Forschungen zur Archäologie HO Handbuch der Orientalistik HS Historische Sprachforschung HSAO Heidelberger Studien zum alten Orient HSCP Harvard Studies in Classical Philology HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs HW2 Johannes Friedrich and Annelies Kammenhuber, Hethi- tisches Wörterbuch, Zweite, völlig neubearbeitete Auflage auf der Grundlage der edierten hethitischen Texte. Heidel- berg: Winter, 1975–. IBoT İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzelerinde bulunan Boğazköy Tabletleri(ndenseçme metinler). Istanbul: Maarif Matbaası, 1944, 1947, 1954; Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1988. IC Margherita Guarducci, ed. Inscriptiones Creticae. 4 vols. Rome: La Libreria dello Stato, 1935–50. Abbreviations xv

IEJ Israel Exploration Journal IG Max Fraenkel. Inscriptiones Graecae. Berlin, 1873– IG I3 Inscriptiones Graecae I: Inscriptiones Atticae Euclidis anno anteriores. 3rd ed. Berlin, 1981, 1994. Fasc. 1: Decreta et tabulae magistratuum. Edited by David Lewis. Fasc. 2: Dedicationes. Catalogi. Termini. Tituli sepulcrales. Varia. Tituli Attici extra Atticam reperti. Addenda. Edited by Da- vid Lewis and Lilian Jeffery. IG IV2 Inscriptiones Graecae IV: Inscriptiones Argolidis. 2nd ed. Berlin, 1929. Fasc. 1: Inscriptiones Epidauri. Edited by Friedrich Hiller von Gaertringen. IG IX, 1² Inscriptiones Graecae IX,1. 2nd ed. Edited by Günther Klaffenbach. Berlin, 1932–1968. Fasc. 1: Inscriptiones Ae- toliae, 1932. Fasc. 2: Inscriptiones Acarnaniae, 1957. Fasc. 3: Inscriptiones Locridis occidentalis, 1968. IG XII, 6 Inscriptiones Graecae. Inscriptiones Chii et Sami cum Co- rassiis Icariaque. 2 parts. Berlin. 2000, 2003. IG XII, 9 Inscriptiones Graecae. Inscriptiones Euboeae insulae. Edited by Erich Ziebarth. Berlin, 1915. IGR René Cagnat. Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas Perti- nentes. Paris: Leroux, 1911. ILLRP Inscriptiones Latinae Liberae Rei Publicae ILS Hermann Dessau, ed. Inscriptiones latinae selectae. Berlin: Weidmann, 1892–1916. IM Iraq Museum I.Magnesia Otto ern. K Die Inschriften von Magnesia am Maeander. Berlin: Spemann, 1900. I.Milet Peter Herrmann, Wolfgang Günther, and Norbert Ehr hardt. Inschriften von Milet. Milet 6. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1997–2006. IMSA Israel Museum Studies in Archaeology IOSPE3 V. Latyshev. Inscriptiones antiquae orae septentrionalis Ponti Euxini Graecae et Latinae, 1885. Digital edition: An- cient Inscriptions of the Northern Black Sea, http://iospe. kcl.ac.uk/index.html. Edited by Askold Ivantchik and Irene Polinskaya. JAH Journal of Ancient History JANER Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society JAR Journal of Anthropological Research JARCE Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt JBL Journal of Biblical Literature JDAI Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts xvi Abbreviations

JEMAHS Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies JEOL Jaarbericht Ex Oriente Lux JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies JMA Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies JRA Journal of Roman Archaeology JRAS Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society JRS Journal of Roman Studies JSKBW Jahrbuch der staatlichen Kunstsammlungen in Baden- Wurttemberg KBo Keilschrifttexten aus Boghazköi. Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1916– 1923; Berlin: Gebr. Mann, 1954–. KernosSup Supplements to Kernos KhT Konkordanz der hethitischen Texten, http://www.hethport. uni-wuerzburg.de/hetkonk/ KST Kohlhammer Studienbücher Theologie KUB Keilschrifturkundenaus Boghazköi. Berlin: Akadamie-Ver- lag, 1921– LAS Leipziger altorientalische Studien LCL Loeb Classical Library LHBOTS The Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies LIMC John Boardman, Lexicon iconographicum mythologiae classicae. Zurich: Artemis, 1981–2009. LSJ Henry G. Liddell, Robert Scott, Henry S. Jones.Greek-Eng- lish Lexicon. 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1940. LW Roberto Gusmani, Lydisches Wörterbuch: Mit gramma tischer Skizze und Inschriftensammlung. Heidelberg: Win- ter, 1964. Ergänzungsband 1 (1980); 2 (1982); 3 (1986) MAAR Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome Marc.Gr. Marciana Graeca AM Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung MEFR Mélanges de l’École Française de Rome MEFRA Mélanges de l’École Française de Rome. Antiquité MGR Miscellanea Greca e Romana MGR Monumenta Graeca et Romana MH Museum Helveticum MM Madrider Mitteilungen MnemosyneSup Supplements to Mnemosyne MonAnt Monumenti antichi MSF Joseph Naveh and Shaul Shaked. Magic Spells and For- mulae: Aramaic Incantations of Late Antiquity. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1993. Abbreviations xvii

MSS Münchner Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft NEA Near Eastern Archaeology NSc Notizie degli scavi di antichità OA Oriens Antiquus OBO Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis OIMP Oriental Institute Museum Publication OIS Oriental Institute Seminars OJA Oxford Journal of Archaeology OLA Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta OpAth Opuscula Atheniensia ORA Orientalische Religionen in der Antike Or Orientalia NS PBSR Papers of the British School at Rome PGM Karl Preisendanz and Albert Henrichs. Papyri Graecae Magicae: Die Griechischen Zauberpapyri. 2nd rev. ed. 2 vols. Stuttgart: Teubner, 1973–1974. PIHANS Publications de l’Institut historique-archeologique neer- landais de Stamboul PIR Paul von Rohden, Elimar Klebs, and Hermann Dessau, eds. Prosopographia Imperii Romani, I. Berlin, 1897. PLF Edgar Lobel and Denys L. Page. Poetarum Lesbiorum fragmenta. Oxford: Clarendon, 1955. PMG Denys Lionel Page. Poetae Melici Graeci. Oxford: Claren- don, 1962. PMGF Poetarum Melicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Edited by Malcolm Davies. Oxford: Clarendon, 1991. PP La parola del passato QAFP Quaderni di archeologia fenicio-punica QStSup Qatna Studien Supplementa QVO Quaderni di Vicino Oriente RANT Res Antiquae RDAC Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus REG Revue des études grecques RendLinc Rendiconti lincei. Scienze morali, storiche e filologiche Revue Archéologique RendPontAcc Rendiconti della Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeolo- gia RGRW Religions in the Graeco-Roman World RGTC Répertoire Géographique des Textes Cunéiformes RHA Revue hittite et asianique RHR Revue de l’histoire des religions RlA Reallexikon der Assyriologie. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1928–. RivIstArch Rivista dell’Istituto nazionale d’archeologia e storia dell’arte xviii Abbreviations

RM Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Rö- mische Abteilung RlA Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäo- logie RRC M. H. Crawford. Roman Republican Coinage. London: Cambridge University Press, 1974. RSF Rivista di Studi Fenici RSFSup Supplements to Rivista di Studi Fenici RSP Rivista di Scienze Preistoriche RStPomp Rivista di studi pompeiani RHR La revue d’histoire des religions RINAP Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period SAOC Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilizations SBA Saarbrücker Beiträge zur Altertumskunde SEC Semitica et Classica SEG Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum, 1923–. SGD D. R. Jordan, “A Survey of Greek Defixiones Not Included in the Special Corpora.” GRBS 26 (1985) 151–97. SGG Attilio Mastrocinque, ed. Sylloge gemmarum gnosticarum. 2 vols. Bollettino di Numismatica Monografia 8.2.1, 2. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Libreria dello Stato, 2003, 2008. SGRR Studies in Greek and Roman Religion SicArch Sicilia Archeologica SM Robert W. Daniel and Franco Maltomini. Supplementum Magicum. 2 vols., Papyrologica Coloniensia 16.1, 2. Op- laden: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1990, 1992. SMA Campbell Bonner, Studies in Magical Amulets Chiefly Graeco-Egyptian. University of Michigan Studies, Human- istic Series 4. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1950. SMA Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology SMEA Studi micenei ed egeo-anatolici SNG Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum SSR Studi Storico-Religiosi StBoT Studien zu den Boğazköy Texten StEtr Studi Etruschi StMed Studia Mediterranea StMon Studi e Monumenti StOr Studia Orientalia StudAs Studia Asiana T testimonium TAM Ernst Kalinka. Tituli Asiae Minoris. I: Tituli Lyciae lingua Lycia conscripti, Vienna: Hoelder, 1901. TCS Texts from Cuneiform Sources Abbreviations xix

THeth Texte der Hethiter TL Ernst Kalinka. Tituli Lyciae lingua Lycia conscripti. Tituli Asiae Minoris 1. Vienna, 1901. TrGF Bruno Snell, Richard Kannicht, and Stefan Radt, eds. Trag- icorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 6 vols. Göttingen: Vanden- hoeck & Ruprecht, 1971–2004 UF Ugarit-Forschungen VBoT Albrecht Götze. Verstreute Boghazköi-Texte. Marburg: Selbst-verlag des Herausgebers, 1930. VO Vicino Oriente VS NF 12 Keilschrifttexte aus Boghazköy im Vorderasiatischen Muse- um. Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmäler der Staatlichen Mu- seen zu Berlin, Neue Folge, Band 12, ed. Liane Rost. Mainz: von Zabern, 1997. WAW Writings from the Ancient World WJA Würzburger Jahrbücher für die Altertumswissenschaft WSA Würzburger Studien zur Altertumswissenschaft WO Welt des Orients YCS Yale Classical Studies YES Yale Egyptological Studies YHSS Yassıhöyük Stratigraphic Sequence ZA Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäolo- gie ZPE Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik

Ancient Sources Abbreviations

Ael. Nat. an. Aelian, De natura animalium Ael. Var. hist. Aelian, Varia historia ps.-Aeschin. Ep. pseudo-Aeschinus, Epistulae Aesch. PV Aeschylus, Prometheus Vinctus Aesch. Sept. Aeschylus, Septem contra Thebas Aesch. Supp. Aeschylus, Supplices Anac. Anacreon Anth. Pal. Anthologia Palatina App. Bell. civ. Appian, Bella civilia Apollod. Bibl. Apollodorus, Bibliotheca Ap. Rhod. Argon. Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica Ar. Ach. Aristophanes, Acharnenses Ar. Lys. Aristophanes, Lysistrata Ar. Nub. Aristophanes, Clouds Ar. Pax Aristophanes, Pax Ar. Plut. Aristophanes, Plutus Arist. Ath. pol. Aristotle, Constitution of Athens Arist. Pol. Aristotle, Politica xx Abbreviations

Arn. Adv. Nat. Arnobius, Adversus nationes Ath. Athenaeus Ath. pol. see Arist. Ath. pol. August. Civ. Augustine, De civitate Dei Bacchyl. Bacchylides Callim. Aet. Callimachus, Aetia Callim. Dieg. Callimachus, Diegesis Cic. Verr. Cicero, In Verrum Caes. BG Caesar, Bellum Gallicum Clem. Al. Protrep. Clemens Alexandrinus, Protrepticus Clem. Al. Strom. Clemens Alexandrinus, Stromateis Ctes. Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon Dem. Demosthenes Diod. Sic. Diodorus Siculus ps.-Diog. Laer. pseudo-Diogenes Laertius Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Antiquitates Ro- manae Ep. Epistle Etym. Magn. Etymologicum Magnum Eur. Bacch. Euripides, Bacchae Eur. Iph. taur. Euripides, Iphigenia Taurica Eur. Med. Euripides, Medea Eur. Tro. Euripides, Troades Euthyphr. Plato, Euthyphro Hdt. Herodotus Hes. Cat. Hesiod, Catalogus mulierum Hes. Theog. Hesiod, Theogony Hesych. Hesychius Hyg. Fab. Hyginus, Fabulae Hymn. Hom. Dion. Homeric Hymn to Dionysos Joseph. B.J. Josephus, Bellum Judaicum Juv. Sat. Juvenal, Satirae Lactant. Div. inst. Lactantius, Divinae institutiones Lyd. Mens. Lydus, De mensibus Mart. Epigr. Martial, Epigrams Nic. Dam. Nicolaus Damascenus Nonnus, Dion. Nonnus, Dionysiaca Ov. Fast. Ovid, Fasti Ov. Met. Ovid, Metamorphoses Paus. Pausanius P.Dura papyrus Feriale Duranum Philo Leg. Philo, Legum allegoriae Philostr. Imag. Philostratus, Imagines Pind. Ol. Pindar, Olympian Odes Abbreviations xxi

Plato Com. Plato, Comicus Plato, Euthyphr. Plato, Euthyphro Plato, Hipparch. Plato, Hipparchus Plato Phd. Plato, Phaedo Plato, Resp. Plato, Respublica Plato, Symp. Plato, Symposium Pliny, HN Pliny the Elder, Naturalis historia Plut. Arist. Plutarch, Aristides Plut. Mor. Plutarch, Moralia Plut. Sull. Plutarch, Sulla Plut. Them. Plutarch, Themistocles Plut. Thes. Plutarch, Theseus Polyaen. Strat. Polyaenus, Strategemata Polyb. Polybius Porph. Abst. Porphyry, De abstinentia Soph. Phil. Sophocles, Philoctetes Soph. Trach. Sophocles, Trachiniae Stat. Silv. Statius, Silvae Steph. Byz. Stephanus Byzantius Tac. Ann. Tacitus, Annals Tac. Hist. Tacitus, Historiae Theocr. Id. Theocritus, Idylls Theog. Hesiod, Theogony Thuc. Thucydides Vell. Pat. Velleius Paterculus Vitr. De arch. Vitruvius, De architectura Xen. Anab. Xenophon, Anabasis Xen. Cyr. Xenophon, Cyropaedia Xen. Hell. Xenophon, Hellenica Xen. Lac. Pol. Xenophon, Respublica Lacedaemoniorum ps.-Xen. Const. Athen. Pseudo-Xenophon, Constitution of the Athe- nians

Contributors

Mary R. Bachvarova (PhD 2002, University of Chicago) is professor of classical studies at Willamette University, Oregon. She is the author ofFrom Hittite to Homer: The Anatolian Background of Ancient Greek Epic (Cambridge University Press, 2016). She has also co-edited two volumes, including The Fall of Cities in the Mediterranean: Commemoration in Literature, Folk-Song, and Liturgy (with Dorota M. Dutsch, and Ann Suter; Cambridge University Press, 2016). Her research focuses on cultural contact in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages in Anatolia and Greece.

Aaron Beck-Schachter received his doctorate at Rutgers University (under Timothy Power and Thomas Figueira). Currently Valergakis Post-Doctoral Fel- low at Rutgers, he has published an article on Lysander and his appropriation of the Samian Heraia in the edited volume Myth, Text and History at Sparta (2016). His interests include ancient Greek religion, Attic Drama, and cult statues and religious images. His current book project is on the dynamics of the ritual manipulation of cult images in archaic and classical Greece.

Sandra Blakely is associate professor of classics at Emory University, with research interests in Greek religion, historiography, digital approaches to antiquity, and the anthropology and ethnography of the ancient world. Her current research project, The Anthropology of an Island Cult, focuses on maritime ritual and the mystery cult of the Great Gods of Samothrace, using ArcGIS and network modeling to test the hypothesis of the cult’s effectiveness in creating safety for travelers at sea. Recent publications include “Maritime Risk and Ri- tual Responses: Sailing with the Gods in the Ancient Mediterranean,” in C. Buchet and P. de Souza, eds., Oceanides (Association Oceanides, 2016), and “Beyond Braudel: Network Models and a Samothracian Seascape,” in L. Ma- zurek and C. Concannon, eds., Across the Corrupting Sea (Routledge, 2016).

Amelia R. Brown is senior lecturer in Greek history and language in the classics and ancient history discipline of the School of Historical and Philosophical Inquiry at the University of Queensland, Australia. She received her PhD from U.C. Berkeley in ancient history and mediterranean archaeology, and published Corinth in Late Antiquity: A Greek, Roman, and Christian City (Bloomsbury xxiii xxiv Contributors

Academic, 2018). Her current book project is on the archaeological and literary evidence for the gods and rituals of ancient Greek seafarers, supported by a Discovery Early Career Research award from the Australian Research Council.

Billie Jean Collins (PhD 1989, Yale University) is director of Lockwood Press and adjunct instructor in the Department of Middle Eastern and South Asian Studies at Emory University. She is author of The Hittite and Their World (So- ciety of Biblical Literature, 2007) and the forthcoming volume Hittite Rituals from Luwian Lands (Society of Biblical Literature). In addition, she has edited and co-edited four volumes, including A History of the Animal World in the Ancient Near East (Brill, 2002), and has published numerous articles on Hittite religion, literature, and philology.

Kevin Dicus is assistant professor in the Department of Classics at the Uni- versity of Oregon, and a 2016–2017 Fellow at the American Academy in Rome. He received his PhD at the Interdepartmental Program of Classical Art and Archaeology at the University of Michigan. He has co-supervised the Pom- peii Archaeological Research Project: Porta Stabia since 2006, for which he is co-authoring the first volume of the final excavation report. Other research interests include material culture theory and the archaeology of waste and waste management in ancient urban settings, which is the topic of a monograph in progress.

Christopher Faraone is the Frank Curtis Springer and Gertrude Melcher Springer Professor in the Humanities, and professor in the Department of Clas- sics at the University of Chicago. His most recent book is The Transformation of Greek Amulets in Roman Imperial Times (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018). His current book project is title Hymn, Oracle, Incantation and Lament: Short Hexametrical Genres from Homer to Theocritus. He has published extensively on ancient Greek poetry, religion and magic, which are his areas of special interest.

Amir Gilan is senior lecturer in Hittite and Anatolian Studies in the Faculty of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Civilizations at Tel Aviv University, Israel. He has published widely on Hittite history, historiography literature, and religion. His book Formen und Inhalte althethitischer historischer Literatur (Texte der Hethiter 29) was published in 2015. His current research includes a study of Hittite kingship and its interlocking with religion and investigations of Hittite rituals. His current research project, “The Hittites and Their Past: Forms of Historical Consciousness in Hittite Anatolia,” is funded by the Israel Science Foundation. Contributors xxv

Rosella Giglio is a classical archaeologist working on Sicily. Since 2009, she has been involved with the excavations in the province of Trapani on Sicily’s west coast and since July 2007 has served as head of the Archeology Unit (Unità Operativa VIII per i Beni Archeologici) in the regional Soprintendenza per i Beni Culturali Ambientali (Soprintendenza BB.CC.AA.) for the Province of Trapani. In this capacity, she also supervises the archaeological sites on the island of Mozia, owned by the Fondazione Giuseppe Whitaker in Palermo.

Susanne Görke received her PhD from Mainz University in 2006 while she was working on Hittite royal ideology perceptible in Hittite festival texts, within the Sonderforschungsbereich 295. Afterwards, she was part of the DFG project “Hethitische mythologische Texte,” under the direction of E. Rieken at Marburg University, as well as the DFG project “Hethitische Beschwörungs- rituale” supervised by D. Prechel at Mainz University, both in charge of pu- blishing Hittite texts online (see www.hethiter.net). Since 2016 she is part of the project “Hethitische Festrituale (HFR)” based at the Mainz Academy of Sciences and Literature where she currently focuses on an edition of the Palaic and Luwian Festival texts (partly with D. Sasseville) and the interpretation of Hittite religious texts in matters of the consolidation of a religious system in Anatolia, especially in old Hittite times. She is co-author of a forthcoming monograph on Hittite Royal Rituals together with Doris Prechel and Giulia Torri.

Virginia R. Herrmann is a Junior Research Group Leader in the Institute for Ancient Near Eastern Studies at the University of Tübingen (Tübingen, Ger- many) and co-director of the Chicago-Tübingen excavations at Zincirli, Tur- key. She is the author of numerous publications on urbanism, Neo-Assyrian imperialism, and mortuary cult in the Iron Age Levant and Anatolia and the co-editor of In Remembrance of Me: Feasting with the Dead in the Ancient Middle East (The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2014) and mperialI Peripheries in the Neo-Assyrian Period (University of Colorado Press, 2018).

Margaret M. Miles is an archaeologist and architectural historian, and professor of art history and classics at the University of California, Irvine. She served a six-year term as the Andrew W. Mellon Professor of Classical Studies at the American School of Classical Studies in Athens (2008–2014). Her publications include a study of the Temple of Nemesis at Rhamnous (Hesperia, 1989), Agora Excavations XXXI: The City Eleusinion (Princeton, 1998), Art as Plunder: the Ancient Origins of Debate about Cultural Property (Cambridge, 2008), and three edited volumes: Cleopatra: A Sphinx Revisited (Berkeley, 2011), Autopsy in Athens: Recent Archaeological Research in Athens and Attica (Oxbow, 2015), and A Companion to Greek Architecture (Blackwell, 2016). xxvi Contributors

Sarah Morris is Steinmetz Professor of Classical Archaeology and Material Culture in the Department of Classics and the Cotsen Institute of Archaeolo- gy at UCLA. Her research involves the interaction of Greece with its eastern neighbors, in art, literature, religion, and culture. Her chief book on the subject, Daidalos and the Origins of Greek Art (Princeton, 1992) won the James Wiseman Book Award from the Archaeological Institute of America for 1993. She has also edited (with Jane Carter) a volume of essays, The Ages of Homer (Texas, 1995), on the archaeological, literary, and artistic background and responses to Greek epic poetry. A practicing field archaeologist, she has worked in Israel, Turkey, Greece, and Albania, and has recently begun a new project at Methone in northern Greece.

Lorenzo Nigro (PhD 1967, Rome) is professor of Near Eastern and Phoeni- cian Punic archaeology in the Faculty of Letters, Dept. of Oriental Studies at Sapienza University of Rome. He is an archaeologist with twenty-five years of experience in the field in the Near East and the Mediterranean. Since 2002 he is the Director of Sapienza University Expedition to Motya, a Phoenician colony in western Sicily, and of the Expedition to Palestine and Jordan (2004– 2019) carrying on projects at the sites of Tell es-Sultan (ancient Jericho), Tell Abu Zarad (ancient Tappuah), and Bethlehem in Palestine, and Khirbet al-Ba- trawy and Rujum al-Jamous in Jordan. He has coordinated several programs for Cultural Heritage protection in Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Jordan. His studies address preclassical societies in the Levant and the Mediterranean, with a major focus on contextual archaeology, as well as on historical and cultural synchronization and conceptualization of Levantine and Mediterranean civilizations as part of human cultural heritage.

Francesca Oliveri is an archaeologist at the Soprintendenza del Mare, Pa- lermo (Sicilian Maritime Heritage Department), dealing with the marine and coastal area between Trapani and Sciacca (including the Egadi Islands Survey Project) since 2005. She graduated in Classics at the Università degli Studi of Palermo, and then attended the Università degli Studi “La Sapienza” of Rome with a specialization in Punic antiquities and the section of Near Eastern Ar- chaeology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Israel), with a grant of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Her publications focus on Punic ceramics, Motya and the Stagnone Lagoon, Aegadian Islands archaeology and finds (na- val rams, amphorae), and Latin epigraphy.

Adriano Orsingher is a postdoctoral researcher and teaching Fellow at the University of Tübingen. His main research interests include Mediterranean archaeology and religion, ritual practice, ancient masks, cultural contact, and mi- Contributors xxvii gration, with a special focus on Sicily and Cyprus. Recent publications include “The Chapelle Cintas Revisited and the Tophet of Carthage between Ancestors and new Identities”, in BABESCH: Annual Papers on Mediterranean Archaeology 93 (2018): 49–74, and “Ritualized Faces: The Masks of the Phoenicians,” in An- gelika Berlejung and Judith E. Filitz eds., The Physicality of the Other. Masks as a Means of Encounter (Tübingen, 2018).

Annick Payne (PhD 2013, Freie Universität, Berlin) is a lecturer and director of the Ambizione-Projekt “Early History of Alphabetic Writing in Anatolia,” at the Institut für Archäologische Wissenschaften, University of Bern. She is author of Hieroglyphic Luwian Texts in Translation (Writings from the Ancient World 29; Society of Biblical Literature, 2012), Hieroglyphic Luwian: An Introduction with Original Texts, 3rd rev. ed. (SILO 2; Harrassowitz, 2014), Schrift und Schriftlich- keit: Die anatolische Hieroglyphenschrift (Harrassowitz, 2015), and Lords of Asia Minor: An Introduction to the Lydians (with J. Wintjes, Philippika 93, Harras- sowitz, 2016). She currently serves on the board of the International Association for Assyriology.

Irene Polinskaya (PhD 2001, Stanford) is senior lecturer in Greek history at King’s College, London. She taught ancient Greek and Roman history, as well as ancient Greek and Latin, at Bowdoin College, USA before joining King’s in 2007. Her research areas are ancient Greek religion (methods and approaches ); Aigina and the Saronic Gulf (history, epigraphy, archaeology); identity formation (ancient to modern Greece); Greek epigraphy (Aigina, Attica, Northern Black Sea); and digital epigraphy. Her current projects include IOSPE: Ancient Inscriptions from the Northern Black Sea; Religion and War From Antiquity to Early Moder- nity; The Language of Greek Religion; The Saronic Gulf Regional Project. She is author of Local History of Greek Polytheism: Gods, People and the Land of Aigina, 800-400 BCE (Brill, 2013).

José Miguel Puebla Morón is a PhD graduate of the Universidad Com- plutense de Madrid with the thesis “Iconografía de la moneda griega de Sicilia (Siglos VI a.C. – III a.C.)” [Iconography of the Greek coinage of Sicily (Sixth– Third Centuries BC)]. He has a Bachelor’s degree in history from Universidad Autónoma de Madrid and a Masters in history and ancient sciences from Uni- versidades Complutense y Autónoma de Madrid. He has taken part in international congresses, seminars, and conferences organized by universities like Oxford, Bristol, Emory, London, Johannes Gutenberg, La Sorbonne, or Messina, and has written over twenty different publications related to Greek numismat- ics and iconography. xxviii Contributors

Elisabeth Rieken (PhD 1996, Ruhr-Universität Bochum) is professor of Com- parative Indo-European Linguistics at the University of Marburg. Her research focuses on the Anatolian language family and includes both synchronic and diachronic studies. More recently, she has published several articles on Hittite prayers, their structure, and compositional techniques. She is author of Unter- suchungen zur nominalen Stammbildung des Hethitischen (Harrassowitz, 1999) and together with Alexandra Daues, has published a monograph on the prag- matics of the genre of Hittite prayers: Das persönliche Gebet bei den Hethitern: Eine textlinguistische Untersuchung (Harrassowitz, 2018). She is also co-director of the project Das Corpus der hethitischen Festrituale: Staatliche Verwaltung des Kultwesens im spätbronzezeitlichen Anatolien.

J. B. Rives is Kenan Eminent Professor and Chair of the Department of Clas- sics at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. His previous publications include Religion and Authority in Roman Carthage from Augustus to Constantine (1995), a commentary on Tacitus’s Germania (1999), and Religion in the Roman Empire (2007), as well as articles on magic and law in the Roman world and other aspects of ancient Mediterranean religion. His current major project is a study of the cultural significance of animal sacrifice in the context of religious change during the Roman imperial period.

Louis A. Ruprecht Jr. is the inaugural holder of the William M. Suttles Chair in Religious Studies as well as Director of the Center for Hellenic Studies. His work may best be characterized as an historical study of the appropriation of Greek themes in a number of subsequent historical periods, especially the Early Modern period. He interrogates this classical legacy in areas ranging from ethics and politics, to psychology and sexuality, to drama and film. For the past ten years he has been a Research Fellow at the Vatican Library and the Vatican Secret Archives, where he has extended these research interests to the emergence of the Early Modern conception of Art, and the privileging of classical art as embodied in that preeminent institution, the Vatican Museums. His recent books include: Winckelmann and the Vatican’s First Profane Museum (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), Policing the State: Democratic Reflections on Police Power Gone Awry, in Memory of Kathryn Johnston (Wipf and Stock, 2013) and Classics at the Dawn of the Museum Era: The Life and Times of Antoine Chrysostome Quatremere de Quincy (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).

Ian Rutherford is professor of Greek at the University of Reading. My university education was at Oxford, and my first teaching job was at Harvard. I have held research positions at the Center for Hellenic Studies in Washington DC and the University of Cincinnati. I have published three books, and over 40 ar- Contributors xxix

ticles. Research interests: early Greek poetry, ancient pilgrimage, ancient Ana- tolia and the Greek world. He has most recently authored State Pilgrims and Sacred Observers in Ancient Greece: A Study of Theōriā and Theōroi (Cambridge, 2014, and edited Greek Lyric (Oxford, 2019) and Luwian Identities: Culture, Lan- guage and Religion Between Anatolia and the Aegean (with Alice Mouton and Ilya Yakubovich; Brill, 2013)

Rebecca Smith received her MPhil in Classics from the University of Queens- land, Australia, with a thesis on amphitheaters in Roman Italy. She is currently working at the R.D. Milns Antiquities Museum at the University of Queensland.

Federica Spagnoli (Frascati, RM, 1977) is an archaeologist and a member of the Rome “La Sapienza” Archaeological Expedition to Motya. Her research ac- tivities are focused on Phoenician and Punic archaeology, especially religious traditions and cult contexts, and Phoenician material culture. She published her PhD thesis (Cooking Pots as an Indicator of Cultural Relations between Le- vantine Peoples in Late Bronze and Iron Ages, QAFP 4; Rome 2010), a monograph (Alle sorgenti del Kothon. Il rito a Mozia nell’Area sacra di Baal ‘Addir - Poseidon. Lo scavo dei pozzi sacri nel Settore C Sud-Ovest, 2006-2011, QAFP/CM-02; Rome 2012; with L. Nigro); a study on the early Phoenician settlement at Motya Lan-( ding on Motya: The Earliest Phoenician Settlement in the Excavations of Sapienza University of Rome: 2012–2016, Rome, 2017); The So-Called “Kothon” at Motya: Stratigraphy, Architecture, and Finds, QAFP/CM-04; Rome 2017, with L. Nigro), and several scientific articles. She has a post-doctoral position at Sapienza Uni- versity of Rome, Italian Institute of Oriental Studies.

†Sebastiano Tusa was councilor for Cultural Heritage for the Sicilian Region of Italy from 11 April 2018 until his death on 10 March 2019. Tusa also served as a professor of paleontology at the Suor Orsola Benincasa University of Naples. In 2004 he was appointed as the first Superintendent of the Sea by the Depart- ment of Cultural Heritage of the Sicilian Region. He organized archaeological missions in Italy, Pakistan, Iran and Iraq. In January 2010, he was named hono- rary member of the National Archaeologists Association. In 2012 he returned to head the Superintendence of the Sea of the Region, until his appointment in 2018 as councilor for Cultural Heritage. His publications include Sicilia preisto- rica (Dario Flaccovio, 1994), and the coedited volume Mirabilia Maris: Tesori dai mari di Sicilia (Regione Siciliana, 2016).

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