Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-2, Issue-5, 2016 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

Emergence and Growth of Kisii Town, Beatrice Nyabonyi Munge, Prof. Mildred Ndeda & Dr. Samuel O. Okuro Jaramogi Oginga, Odinga University of Science and Technology, Kenya

Abstract: The paper attempts to examine the uniform manner and this makes each town to development of Kisii town by the end of First have a unique manner in which it evolves World War. Previously, studies have been done (Ochieng’ and Maxon, 1992). However, the to understand the urban phenomenon and process of urban development is better historians have not been left out in this field. understood by considering the location, roles The major aim in this paper is to understand and functions performed by these centers how far Kisii town had developed by the end of (Murunga, 1998). In order to understand how First World War. This will help to provide the current towns or cities emerged, it is important historiography of Kisii town in the past, in to investigate the early histories of towns to order to be able to understand the effects of give them more relevance. urban environment currently witnessed in this urban center. The study adopted historical The growing urban population in most African research design technique and used purposive areas has led to the demand of more resources sampling and snowball techniques respectively. to be able to meet the basic needs for man. This The choice of the sample size was primarily however has attracted several infrastructures based on age and experience of colonial rule. within the residential areas. This implies that Colonial city theory by Anthony King was resources have to be set aside by governments applied to help analyze data on the development to enable provision of such important of Kisii town in this period. The findings infrastructure such as houses, health facilities, revealed that Kisii town evolved from a roads, schools, and services such as security traditional background and transformed among others. Despite the provision of essential remarkably due to the colonial influence. The services, the growing population has led to presence of colonial administration in Nyanza increased demand of natural and man-made and finally Gusiiland laid a foundation upon resources. This situation further has created which Kisii town developed by the end of First competition in social, political and economic World War. opportunities in these areas (Potts, 2013). As asserted by Oucho (1996) towns are areas of Key words: urban, town, emergence enormous political, social, economic and cultural importance to the areas where they are 1.0 INTRODUCTION located hence they deserve to be approached and studied using empirical information. In this paper, the development of Kisii town was discussed. The main areas addressed A number of factors determined the emergence included the Early Days of Kisii Town in which and growth of towns all over the World. the Location of Kisii town, naming of the town, According to some global studies most towns in establishment and formal operation of colonial Europe emerged as a result of the Industrial rule in the town; building of the town, the Gusii Revolution that led to the movement of people resistance and the Military expeditions in Gusii to the towns in search of jobs (Tetty, 2005, land were discussed. The impact of Mumbo Macharia, 2003). Among the oldest towns in religion in Kisii was also discussed. Europe is Athens that grew as a result of Trade and Commerce. In the , cities such 1.1 Background to the Problem as New York, Los Angeles and Chicago were The historical approach to the study of towns is the first to emerge due to a network of activities significant and deserves emphasis since history such as trade. London emerged as a result of has long been an important component of urban trading engagements, industrialization, studies (Harris and Smith, 2011). The growth transportation and the shipping activities at the and development of towns and cities is quite port of London. dynamic since the process does not occur in a

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-2, Issue-5, 2016 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

In Africa, the first towns emerged in fertile Towns throughout the world exhibit an regions where the ecology favored farming and incredible diversity of characteristics, economic raising of crops (Philips, 1989). Cairo, the structures, levels of infrastructure, historic capital city of Egypt for instance, emerged origins, patterns of growth and degrees of along the River Nile due to the fertile soils formal planning (Cohen, 2006). along the Nile valley that provided good atmosphere for agricultural activities. Trade According to Murunga (1998) a number of also enhanced the development of towns factors operate to give rise to an urban center. especially along trade routes (Backer and Each town therefore has certain reasons that Morrison, 1965). Kilwa is another oldest town triggered its existence and growth over time. As that emerged along the East African coast due argued by Satterthwaite (2005), the most to the Persian influence. Its strategic position important cause of urbanization was the and trade greatly influenced its growth. movement of people from rural to urban areas in response to new investment and economic According to Obudho (1988) in Kenya the first opportunities that pulled them to those centers. towns emerged along the coast influenced by Towns have unique reasons for their emergence the Arab settlements. However, most Kenyan and growth all over the world. Pirenne (1925) towns emerged in core areas where agricultural noted that Medieval European cities developed activities and trade were carried out. As because of trade. In Africa, development Ochieng ’and Maxon (1992) state, Kenya has patterns of African cities were interrupted with one of the highest rates of urbanization in the Berlin conference of 1884/85 and its Eastern Africa caused by natural increase and instrument of colonialism and imperialism. rural urban migration. African cities and emerging urban centers were apportioned among the European powers. The 1.2 Research Objective European powers created urban centers either in This study was guided by the following the existing African centers or at a completely objective; new site (Ozden, 2012). (i) To examine the emergence of Kisii town by 1919. In Kenya, the European occupation in different parts of the country led to the growth of towns 1.3 The Research Question. and this is evident in the manner in which most The study attempted to answer the following towns emerged and grew. European political, research question: economic and social-cultural activities (i) What influenced the emergence of Kisii influenced the growth of most towns in Kenya. town by 1919? Be it as it may, the growth of towns in Kenya is quite overwhelming and this has and continues to attract scholarly attention. Indeed, Otiso and Owusu (2008), confirms that Kenya is rapidly 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW urbanizing. Some scholars in Kenya have The issues that come forth as a result of the demonstrated that urban development has been agglomeration of population in a central place a cause of natural increase and rural urban have driven many scholars to investigate and migration. The concentration of people in a give answers to the problems. In this paper, given place attracts social-economic and literature from various scholars in different political factors and all these lead to the growth disciplines was used to draw the understanding of a given town. However, urban scholars have of the emergence and growth of towns. The given an appraisal to European imperialism to study of urban centers is one of the expanding have greatly determined the existence of urban fields of research in various disciplines such as centers in the country (Obudho, 1981, 1983, geography, sociology, environment, urban Macharia, 2003 Ochieng 1972, Maxon, 1989) planning and many more. Scholars here have among others. studied towns and cities and given varying findings on the areas studied Tetty,2005 ,Otiso 2.1 Urbanization in Pre-colonial Period and Owusu, 2008, Olima 2001,Ochieng’1992, According to Hull (1976), towns existed even Cohen,2006, Obudho1981) among others. In a during the pre-colonial period. Similar studies study by Kasarda and Creshaw (1991), it is on origin of urbanization indicate that there was indicated that Third World countries are pre-colonial urbanism in the region (Owour , experiencing high rate of urban development. 2006). In this study, the location of the site for However, they are challenged with a high rate Kisii town was investigated and further the of urban settlement as argued by (Cohen, 2006). spatial relevance of the site was also considered.

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These were specific centers that were used for telegram lines (Wekwete, 1992). Maxon (1980) various reasons. According to Africa’s pre- confirms that the construction of roads and the colonial history, towns and cities were used as railway line in Nyanza led to the emergence of centers for economic activities (Anderson, towns. As argued by Cecelia (1985), the 1957). Further, these centers were identified to construction of the railway line facilitated have been used as administrative units (Memon, transportation of natural resources for export. 1973, Ogot, 1967 and Obudho, 1981). In However, Kisii is not directly linked with the Kenya, past studies indicate that there was pre- railway line but its proximity in the rich colonial urbanism (Obudho, 1981, Ochieng’, highlands became vital in transporting 1992). Along the coast, trading centers existed agricultural produce that were highly a but the opening up of the country by dependant factor from the interior parts of commercial activities, missionaries and the Gusiiland. This further enhanced the imposition of the colonial administration led to development of the road network in the entire the complete transformation of existing centers Nyanza region. The paper therefore sought to into new towns (Gugler, 1970). The study was establish how the railway line to Nyanza also intended to explore how commercial influenced the development of the town and the activities and the Missionary input enhanced the fact that the town is situated in the fertile growth of Kisii town. Pre-colonial urban highlands of Gusiiland. centers were areas that were associated with a series of functions. The choice of these centers 2.3 Theoretical Framework was determined by the geographical locality, Economists and some sociologists have Kinship organization hence the family and tribal examined third World urbanization from the structure, religious, political and economic standpoint of modernization theory (Bradshaw, institutions were reflected in the design of 1987). Modernization theory whose key buildings, and the final territorial extent of proponent is Walter Rostow was developed in th towns (Ochieng’, 1990). The significance of the the mid 20 century. The theory refers to the site in pre-colonial time was discussed in the transition from the traditional society of the past light of roles performed in important centers. to modern society as found in the west.

2.2 Colonial Urbanization According to this theory, modern methods of production such as the use of advanced The paper sought to establish the social- technology for industries in under- developed economic and political roles by the colonial countries will boost their economies and this government and the related infrastructure will lead to development (Tetty, 2003). developments that spurred the growth of Kisii According to the school, modernization of states town. Therefore the literature materials for the through Economic development encourages study relates to the colonial activities and their other forms of development like social and impacts to the growth of towns. political developments. As indicated by Berliner (1977), there cannot be urbanization without The growth of many urban centers can be traced industrialization hence the more industrialized a to the pre-independence period when they were society is the more urbanized it is. Therefore, it used as centers of administrative and political is worth to note that technology and control by the colonial authorities (UNCHS, industrialization-based economic growth 1985). Therefore administration and the general becomes engines of growth of urban centers as political function by the colonial authorities pointed out by (Karsada and Creshaw, 1991). influenced growth of many towns. These administrative centers became the main focus In this paper, the colonial city theory by upon arrival of Europeans and traditional set up Anthony King was applied in an attempt to of African political, economic became a basis understand the genesis of cities and towns. As upon which colonial administration was argued by King (2004), all cities are described achieved. as colonially linked. The theory further suggests that cities were first created by the exercise of Indeed, colonial government provided the power by some groups over others. The theory pattern of towns throughout the country as was relevant in relating the presence of argued by (Blacker, 1965 and Obudho, 1983). Europeans in Africa and subsequent They set up administrative structures and involvement in the social- economic centers and developed supportive infrastructure development, political activities, influence of such as urban centers and communication European culture and advancement in linkages in form of railway lines, roads and technology to urbanization in Africa. The

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Industrial Revolution in Europe caused publications and diaries. The other source of urbanization in the African continent, due to the primary data was acquired through oral economic growth brought by Europeans to interviews targeting key informants through an Africa. Towns and cities in Africa are largely interview guide. The researcher successfully associated with the influence of colonial interviewed 20 informants. This helped the government as presented by King. researcher to obtain information in greater depth without being limited. Among those targeted 3.0 Research Methodology were ex-soldiers, messengers who worked in colonial administration office, elites especially 3.1 The Study Research Design teachers, prominent people pastors, traders, A research design is a technique of making former workers in the Nyanchwa missionary choices, organizing and developing the research and retired Chiefs. in search a way that the requisite data can be 3.3.2 Collection of Secondary Data gathered with easy and analyzed to arrive at a solution (Sekaran, 2009). This helps the Collection of secondary data involved written researcher to collect and analyze data sources such as books, magazines, published conveniently. Historical research design journal articles and reports, seminar papers, technique was adopted because it is deemed to theses and periodicals that have relevant be the most suitable and convenient for this information in the area of study. The researcher study (Koul, 1993). Historical research design is accessed library materials from the British the exploration, explanation and understanding Institute of East Africa Library at Kileleshwa, of past phenomenon from data already Universities and most important e-library available. It helps the researcher to arrive at resources were appropriately utilized. conclusions about causes, trends and effects of past phenomenon in order to explain the 3.4 Data Analysis and Processing present, predict and control the future (Oso and Onen, 2008). Two analytical frames were used to analyze data, these included documentary review and 3.2 Target Population. content analysis. Documentary review and Target population refers to the total number of content analysis entailed corroborating both the subjects of interest to the researcher (Oso and documented data and oral data. Through this, a Onen, 2008). A population of 30 key informants detailed account of the genesis of Kisii town was targeted and this aimed at reaching at those was arrived at. Data was analyzed thematically who had Knowledge and experience on colonial to obtain relevance to the paper. The colonial activities in Kisii. However, due to a number of city theory helped in the analysis of data challenges, a total of 20 key informants were concerning the genesis of towns or cities. Based successively interviewed. The study was on literature review the theory presented a city conducted in Kisii town targeting residents of as an instrument of colonialism. This formed a Gusiiland who were elderly or who might have basis under which data was analyzed to arrive at had an experience with the colonial the genesis of Kisii town that is rapidly growing administration. The target population consisted in terms of population and the challenges it of the identified key informants from either attracts. gender who were perceived to have knowledge or was informed of the changes that took place 4. 0 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION in the growth of this particular town within the colonial period. Above all age was a crucial 4.1 The Early Days of Kisii Town factor in trying to identify the targeted population. Based on this, informants aged 70 The town owes its history back in pre-colonial years and above were targeted owing to the fact period when a prominent prophet named that they could have knowledge and experience Sakawa had a vision on the town. Sakawa was of what had happened during the study period. one of the greatest diviner in the Gusii community and was highly respected for his 3.3 Data Collection prophesies. As it was in other communities 3.3.1 Collection of Primary Data through their diviners that ‘Strangers’ would Archival sources remained to be the main visit their country so did the Gusii through their source of primary data. Some of the main famous prophet. He identified the site for the documents that were sourced from the Kenya town as a significant place. (O.I.Gichana, 2014, National Archives included Provincial and O.I. Onyoni, 2014, O.I. Ondieki, 2015). District Annual Reports, colonial Government

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Sakawa often assembled his admirers at the site This made the British administration to look for of the present day Kisii town and would tell a suitable area that could be conducive for them. where the police lines, the hospital, the The only place in Ugaya district that was good administrative offices and churches would later for them was Gusii country. Northcorte and be erected. Indeed all his prophecies were R.W Hemsted who had been appointed District believed to have come true (Ochieng’, 1973). Commissioner of Ugaya District within which According to him, someday strangers were to Gusiiland was to be included, visited the Gusii come and settle there and only a few people highlands and chose a site in an area known to would benefit as a result of their settlement the Gusii as Getembe (current Kisii town). The (egetembe eke abanto nga bateme amandegere, area lay very close to the borders of the lands ore na momura nateme amoba). Meaning, one inhabited by the Abanyaribari, the Abanchari who had sons will benefit in reference to and the Abagetutu. The area was also centrally education ( O.I Omwoyo,2015, Ondieki,2015 located in the Gusii highlands as a whole Gichana, 2014 and Nyoriro 2014). (Nyanza Report, 1905-06, PC/NZA/1/1).

He further prophesied the use of a new By 1907, the British Administration in the transport means. The use of vehicles and horses district had become convinced that to bring the were likened to this prophecy-‘egento ngeche whole of South Nyanza under control, the something that looks like a cow that a person administrative Boma would have to be removed will get into it and it moves. Most important, from Karungu to Getembe. Northcorte named it Sakawa had strongly warned against any ‘Kisii Boma’ (DC/KSI/1/1). hostility to the strangers to come what was evident with the reasons behind the military For the government to keep close watch over expeditions to Gusiiland as it shall be seen in the Gusii people, the establishment of the this paper (O.I. Gichana, 2014). colonial office there was necessary. Given its proximity, the site became convenient for the According to Sir Donald, Gusiiland was a government to easily access the entire Ugaya potential area for European settlement as the district for administration purpose. The site they region had ideal ecological conditions (cool chose was known lay close to the boarders of temperatures and fertile soils). Stewart referred the lands inhibited by Nyaribari, Wanjare and the area inhabited by the Gusii as potential for Kitutu (O.I Onyoni, 2014). European settlement. Following the 1905 expedition, he wrote to the colonial office As indicated by O.I. Gichana (2014) and O.I. stating that; ‘it is important to open this part of Onyoni (2014), what later came to be called as the protectorate which is well adapted for Kisii town was initially known as Getembe or European settlement, some of the Kisii are Bogendi because the British had chased the friendly and want us to establish Government Germans from that place. The area was post in their country, but a large portion of this centrally located in the Gusii highlands as a tribe is likely to give trouble. I have however whole. It was well supplied with water by two great hopes that the punishment of the Sotik streams. The two streams formed the entry and will bring them to reason’ (Stewart to Lyttleton, exit points to the town from the North and 8th June 1905). South respectively. Gradually, these points acquired the names “daraja moja” and “daraja In a move to identify a suitable site for mbili” respectively (O.I. Omwoyo 2015). Later, administrative purposes, Mr. Northcorte and the the name of this place changed to Getembe Kia District Commissioner then went for a Gasuku when a Luo man from Suba called preliminary tour through the Kisii country in Gasuku brought the Whiteman to the place (O.I. April and May 1907. The main objective was to Onyoni, 2014). establish a station in Kisii since operating from Karungu was seen to be difficult for the district According to (O.I. Gichana, 2014), the man commissioner to give attention to the Kisii from Suba was a translator between the Gusii country. Besides Karungu was a very busy people and the white man. His mother having district situated in a malaria and permanently come from Gusii enabled him to understand famine stricken area (Ochieng’, 1974). It was Ekegusii. Having witnessed how the whites said that by the end of 1906, two European killed people, the center was named by the employees had died of malaria. According to indigenous as ‘Bosongo’ meaning a place where Northcorte, Karungu became ‘a white man’s the whites resided (O.I. Nyoriro, 2014, Onyoni, grave” hence not suitable for European 2014). settlement (K.N.A DC/KSI/1/1.

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The Place was centrally located in the highlands The railway line made it easy for other races to .It was considered to be at a more strategic conveniently penetrate into the interior parts of position within the District hence, it was to Kenya. Amongst these groups included the increase efficiency and at the same time be Europeans who came as adventurers, more economical in running the administrative missionaries, traders and settlers (O.I. Onyoni, affairs of the district (Maxon, 1989 and 2014). Incidentally, many of them entered into Ochieng, 1974). uncontrolled districts. This therefore suggests the possibility of other British settlers and This was pointed out in the District traders who found themselves in Gusii in Commissioner’s report to the Provincial pursuit of their interests (Ogot, 1968). Commissioner, the DC who stated that ‘the choice for the administrative offices to be Having identified the location of the centered at Kisii would increase efficiency and administrative office in Gusii as early was more economical since the whole country established, colonial objective to establish an of Kisii is perfectly quiet and with limited crime office in Gusii country had been achieved and to theft principally amongst Kisii’. According to immediate administration began. Plans for the DC statement on health, there were no cases building the town to accommodate the colonial of sickness among the Europeans or clerical government strategies in Gusiiland commenced staff and Kisii was regarded as a health station and immediately it became a center of interest (DC/KSI/1/1 31st December, 1909). within the colony (O.I. Gichana, 2014). What had appeared as mere prophecy as predicted by 4.2 Colonial Administration Sakawa a local diviner finally became true (O.I. Gichana and Onyoni, 2014). There was a strong relationship by Kings Theory on colonial city and the emerging cities In order to start formal operation, there was or towns in Africa. Availability of certain need for infrastructure development to serve the infrastructure on areas where Europeans settled Europeans and their staff. A scheme of work established the centers to towns as it was was laid by the government on how Kisii was to revealed in this paper. After the establishment be set up (SKD DC/KSI/ 1/1). Owing to the fact of the Imperial capitalism which started the that European officials were few in number, the development of towns in East Africa and need to incorporate the natives in administration Kenya, Imperialists needed protection and have was paramount and this called for appointment their influence of power felt by the new of chiefs. conquered natives. This led to the establishment of colonial administration in the interior parts Having established the colonial administration thereby developing urban centers throughout the office, Northcote appointed seven chiefs among colony (Kinuthia, 2003). the seven clans of the Gusii people to help in administering the Gusii people who seemed to According to Kowino (1962), Kavirondo be hostile towards the colonial government (O.I. remained part of protectorate up to Omwoyo, 2015,Gichana, 2014). These chiefs 1902 when all the territory East of Victoria were; Oyugi of Wanjare, Angwenyi of Kitutu, Nyanza was transferred to the East African Chore of Bassi, Nyamosi of Machoge, Ndubi of protectorate. Permanent administration in North Mugirango and Sotik, Nyamwamu of Nyanza was set up in 1894 with Mr C.W. Nyaribari, Okech of South Mugirango while Hobley as the first Provincial Commissioner. Ombati became the chief of Muksero (Ochieng’ However, due to financial constraints, the 1973,O.I. Gichana, 2014). company withdrew and the British Government assumed a protectorate over the country on 8th Upon the appointment of chiefs and elders the July, 1895. collection of hut tax was started and intensified gradually. The appointment of chiefs was When the British took over the administration, significant to the colonial administration since their first priority was to construct the Uganda chiefs started mobilizing natives to assist in the Railway. was selected as the railhead building of the town. They worked closely with and Provincial capital. The railway reached the colonial administrators (O.I. Oigara 2015, Kisumu in 1901 and the presence of this Omwoyo, 2015). important means of communication in Nyanza then greatly facilitated the efficiency of the Northcorte, the Assistant District Commissioner colonial administration (Backer, 1975). in charge began to construct temporary buildings in February, 1907. He constructed the

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town buildings on a permanent basis in an began to construct the station buildings in elevated area between two streams. It is said February although temporarily until May in the that by July in the same year, an assistant same year when permanent buildings were District Commissioner’s house and office, elected. Therefore, he initiated the construction dwelling place for the porters and police had of an administrative station. All the buildings been constructed. Northcorte elected the flag were constructed with mud walls due to scarcity pole and laid out a market and parade ground of timber. The station acquired the name Kisii, (Maxon, 1989). which has existed up to the present times (ibid).

The choice of the site as the administrative Having established the administrative post in office for the entire South Kavirondo District Getembe, the Gusii men were employed by the was a great impetus towards the establishment British to assist in cutting down the trees of this vibrant town. Hence, its administrative “emetembe” that were dominant on the site so functions being the head office of the district as to build the town as early foretold by that comprised of four communities that is Luo, Sakawa. His words became true in that the Kuria, Abagusii and Abasuba, enhanced the natives benefited with the coming of the growth of the town remarkably (Ochieng’, colonial administration. It was the Gusii 1974). custom that sons were highly valued and as for the girls they were to be married and bring in According to (O.I ,Oigara, 2015), upon wealth in terms of dowry as it were with the establishment of the administrative office, it Gusii culture (O.I. Gichana, 2014). called for the establishment of roads in and out of the boma for easy communication in The building of the town called for a large executing the colonial obligations in this end of number of porters and this created a good Nyanza region. It called for more infrastructure market for Gusii grain. Salt or cattle were traded development within the new station and this to the Gusii in exchange. Cattle auctions were further attracted people to the boma. even held at the new station; payment was made in grain. By the time of Dr. Handerson’s visit, 4.3 Building of the town two Indian shopkeepers had opened stores in Kisii (History of Kisii District, DC/KSI/4/1). Until 1907, Kisii had a government station that was to serve as the headquarters for the entire At the break of the First World War, the town region of Ugaya District. Among the first had realized minimal growth. There existed buildings to be constructed were the Assistant three government houses and four dukas. District Commissioner’s house, his office, According to the Provincial Commissioner porters’ houses, houses for the police, and a flag report during inspection of the station, it is pole was elected. Therefore the station had been indicated that there was no hospital except a built and the former Karungu sub-station was very old looking store with a native in charge. closed down, Ugaya and Kisii were merged to There was no European who owned ‘dukas’ form one District called South Kavirondo with (D.C/KSI/3/4). its headquarters at Kisii town (Kowino, 1962). Later a medical officer’s house was started and The new headquarters of the district were preparation for building the hospital began. A moved to Kisii in March 1908. It became the strong room was built and a registration office center of administration of a district which was put up .A house for a 3rd A.D.C and a new comprised of the Kisii, Kuria, Luo and Suba house for the head interpreter was constructed. until almost the end of the colonial period. By A headquarter camp and Baraza Hall was built September1909, the new district was named at Kisii in 1921 (S.K.D Annual Reports South Kavirondo, Commenting on annual report DC/KSI/2/3). 1908- 09, the District Commissioner confirmed “The Kisii who in the past were hostile and A local Native council office was built in 1927 troublesome, settled down in surprising manner and a Forester’s house, the following year an and give promise to become available asset to Agriculture Officer’s banda, police huts were the country” (SKD, DC/KSI/1/11908-09). put up at the station. Before the onset of World War 11, the following offices had been Northcorte became the first District established. District Commissioner, Senior Commissioner and he continued to establish the Assistant District Commissioner, Junior administrative offices for the South Kavirondo Assistant District Commissioner, Clerk’s house, district, he named the station as Kisii Boma. He Hospital and Dispensary, District

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Commissioner’s office, police office, cells and which were Nandi proper, South Kavirondo, store, camp, Chief’s and Local Native Council and Ugaya (Woodward, 1902). members rest house, Tribal police men’s houses in burnt brick and thatch was completed (S.K.D As pointed out by both Omwoyo (2008), and Handing Over Reports, 1941). Akama and Maxon (2008) by 1903, an administrative post had been established at 4.4 The Gusii Under Colonial Rule Karungu on the shores of Lake Victoria, with an acting District Commissioner in charge. Some Regarding the view that European power in representatives of the East Africa syndicate Africa enhanced the emergence of towns as held were already prospecting for gold. Despite that by the colonial city theory, there was a strong Karungu was to act as a base from which to link on the presence of colonial administration bring the entire South Nyanza which included in Gusii and the establishment of Kisii town. Gusiiland under firm control (Ochieng’, 1973). Similar argument emerged considering the fact However, it was during the period that initial that the presence of European power in the contact between the British and Gusii was country led to emergence of towns as indicated made. According to the officer C.W. Hobley he below. described the ‘Kisii’ as Bantu and listed 21 divisions of Gusiiland with their headmen Kenya became a Consular District in July, 1895 (Hobley, 1902). answerable to the British Government as per the Anglo German treaty of 1890; as per the According to Ombati, the leader of the smaller agreement, the country therefore fell under the Abagisero clan the ruler of Abagetutu, British sphere of influence. This lasted for a Nyakundi attempted to over-run the people of period of ten years, ending in April, 1905 (Ogot, Bogisero and on realizing that their position was 1968). being threatened, Ombati had no option but to seek support from the British administration at On July, 1895, the British government formally Kisumu, (ibid). took over the administration from the Imperial British East Africa Company foreign office According to (Ochieng’ 1974), it was Ombati assumed responsibility for its administration. who initiated contacts with the British in The territory formally known as Imperial East Kisumu rather than the Europeans seeking Africa Company was now called the East contacts in Gusiiland. This enhanced the closer African Protectorate Administrative (Fearn, move of the colonial administration to the 1961). Gusii. Having established an administrative post among the Luo at Karungu on the Lake shore, As a result of the British involvement in the British officials were in a better position to Uganda and Zanzibar, the region between visit Gusiiland and come to closer contact with Mombasa and Rift Valley in Kenya became of the Gusii (Akama and Maxon, 2006). much interest to the . By 1894, permanent administration was set up Omwoyo (2008) argues that Gusiiland which in Nyanza with Mr C.W Hobly as the first was then independent was finally subdued in Provincial Commissioner (ibid). 1905 punitive expedition thereafter an administrative post established in the present According to Woodward ( 1902), the day Kisii town. British were first reported to declaration of a protectorate over Uganda in have reached Gusii in 1904, when Kenya was July 1984, the area east of Lake Victoria as far transforming itself from a Consular District to a as Naivasha was formally brought under the British colony. At this time, the Headquarters of control of the British .This was meant to access the Protectorate was being moved from the Coastal regions from Uganda which was Mombasa to , which was perceived to be their main interest hence, the significance of more central. bringing the area under their control. Having achieved this, the British gradually entered into The establishment of the colonial office here the interior parts of Kenya. was a challenge to the colonial government not only in Gusii country but also in Nandi country. So far Gusiiland had little been known to the This was agitated by the fact that the locals had British but was included in the eastern province never accepted the British rule in their local of Uganda protectorate. This province was territories. The administration in turn organized formally divided into four districts; Mau, a number of military expeditions, with that in Baringo, Suk and Nandi. Gusii highlands fell within Nandi District, the three divisions of

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Gusii carried out in 1905 and 1908 (Maxon, who resisted and others collaborated with the 1971). British. The British had come to rely on punitive measures as the surest means of As indicated above, the first contacts between bringing natives under their control. Between British and Gusii were the result of appeals by 1895 and1907, such expeditions were sent to some prominent elders of the Mugusero one of Kikuyu, the Wakamba, the Marakwet and many the seven Gusii tribes for aid. Mogusero at this others (Singh, 1970). The British administration time were the smallest clan and occupied the was involved in armed conflict with various tenuous position between the Nilotic speaking sections of the Gusii people in 1905, 1908 and Luo who inhabited the lowlands closer to the 1914 (Maxon, 1971). Lake and the largest most powerful Gusii tribe, the Getutu (Ochieng’, 1974). As pointed out by Were (1986), not all Abagusii resisted the British. The first attempt by the In Hobley’s words, the Getutu attacks on the British officials to enter Gusiiland and make Mogusero became increasingly severe. Their contacts with the Gusii was met with numbers reduced and scattered for protection. widespread Gusii resistance (O.I. Onyoni, The Mogusero became quite desperate hence 2014). For instance, an attempt by F.W. Isaac, they sought to seek for aid. They sent envoys the colonial administrator in charge of Karungu under the leadership of a prominent elder, in South Nyanza to enter Gusiiland in early Ombati, to Kisumu to ask for the assistance of 1905 was impossible by the resistance from the the British in 1900 (ibid). people (Partington, 1905).

Through this, both the British and Mogusero The initial resistance of 1905 was as a result of made an alliance for the future. Ombati proved the colonial intention to obtain compensation most useful when the British later established for Gusii thefts of 28 livestock belonging to Luo themselves in Gusiiland, serving as a guide and and the killing of a Luo person under British interpreter to the British and keeping his people protection (Intelligence Report, 1905). friendly towards the British until after colonial Following the unfriendly relations that seemed rule had been established. Alliance with the to dominate then as reported by G.A.S. British seemed to be the only chance of survival Northcote, Assistant Collector later District for Mogusero (O.I., Masese, 2014). As a result Officer) in charge of Karungu 1904-1906 ‘the of their favor and aid, the small tribe was able to Gusii were daily raiding the Kavirondo (Luo) maintain an independent existence (Hobley, along their borders and had terrorized their 1902). western neighbors’ (Kisero clan of the Kitutu) that was under Ombati (Maxon, 2003 and The transfer of Uganda’s Eastern province O.I.Gichana, 2014). within which Gusiiland lay to the East Africa protectorate in 1902 did not result in the This according to the colonial government was beginning of British rule over the Gusii. enough to attack the Gusii country. However, However, their neighbors to the east, Kipsigis, the main objective was to conquer and subdue and to the west, the Luo were already been the Gusii hence the first military expedition was brought under British rule with the aimed at selecting a suitable site to establish a establishment of administrative stations in 1902 colonial administrative post in Gusii country and 1903 respectively (History of the District (Intelligence Report, 1905). DC/KIS/3/4). From this perspective, the British were able to make contact with the Gusii 4.6 Military Expedition country and the actual British administration in Gusiiland was being formatted. Colonial city theory was linked to the power to conquer and administer territories in African 4.5 The Gusii Resistance areas by European officials. Following the foregoing discussion, once the European power Despite the resistance witnessed by the locals to administer a given place was guaranteed, a against the British, the administrative officials central position was identified and established exploited the divisions and differences amongst for administration purposes. As illustrated the African communities to further their below, the established military posts in most interests. The following discussion presents the parts in Kenya later developed to towns. Gusii response to the British. Early colonial military expeditions were sent The Africans had two ways in which they out to subdue different African tribes and bring responded towards the British: There are those

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them under colonial rule. As a result of this, a Kavirondo tribesmen had been murdered by the number of military posts were established that Kisii (Maxon,1989). later became District headquarters which formed the nuclei for the diffusion of trading According to Northcote, the Gusii were raiding centers in the African areas of the country. The the Kavirondo (Luo) on a daily basis and had result of the expedition was reflected in the terrorized their neighbors. On the same not establishment of military posts such as Fort Ombati leader of Mogusero had early brought Hall, Nyeri, Embu, Meru, Kitui, Kisii among complains and sought for the British aid. As a others (Working paper No.78, Memon, 1973). result, the British could not ignore attacks on people who were under their administration and Before the choice of Kisii as an administrative control. Thus the government dispatched a center, the colonial attempts to enter Gusiiland punitive force against Gusiiland. This as were met by resistances. Real colonial indicated by (Mungeam, 1966), was the main administration was not possible due to these poison on the relationship between the Gusii challenges until 1907. According to the and the British administration throughout the Intelligence Report (1905) the first military colonial period. patrol was dispatched to Kisii in order to compensate for the stolen cattle and the Killing The second phase of the resistance took place of a Luo person who was under the British after the establishment of colonial rule in protection. The patrol was first reported in January, 1908. This as indicated by Maxon Gusiiland on September 20, 1905, it took six (1971), marked the highest level of hostility days collecting fines for purported Gusii attacks among the Gusii against the British. In this in Luo land (Jenkins, 1905). incident, the Assistant Commissioner had begun tax collection in Gusiiland in December The severity of the expedition in the entire 1907.This necessitated the Gusii men to sell Gusii people was enough to teach the people a cattle, goats and Sheep to obtain rupees with lesson and ensure acceptance of British rule. At which to pay tax. Hence, Swahili and Somali the end of the military activity, Angwenyi, who cattle traders had come to the District to trade. had not taken up arms against the colonial In the course money was stolen from the government, was made chief of Getutu. With Swahili traders by a man named Otenyo. On the appointment of a single chief for every reporting the matter to Northcote, he decided to Gusii tribe, the British settled down to begin a investigate the incident. On this occasion, the systematic form of administration in all parts of British official Northcorte was speared (Foran, Gusiiland. Wiper puts it that with the punitive 1968). expedition clear in the memory of both Getutu and non-Getutu there was no open challenge to With the assumption that he was dead; the Gusii the colonial authorities (Wiper, 1966:384). rejoiced and further took arms to attack and destroy the town, a move that was however The colonial military expeditions facilitated the short lived. Indeed it is reported that the quick establishment of their territories Nyaribari, Wanjare and Kitutu broke into open compared to the friendly methods that never revolt in which two Indians and one Luo in the worked especially in Kenya. The first instance Boma were killed (Maxon, 1971). of armed conflict between the Gusii and the British was significant in the manner in which Upon reporting this incident to the British later Kisii town emerged. The punitive official security was intensified with more expedition led to the fulfillment of the official personnel being sent to Kisii, Report by John ambition to establish administration over the Ainsworth, P.C. to H.E. the Governor March Gusii (ibid). 1908, (C.O.533/42). It is this aftermath that saw the Gusii defeated through the loss of lives and This was agitated by the wish by both Sir property (Ochieng’, 1974). Although the Gusii Charles Eliot (1966) and his successor Sir had earlier been heavily punished, in another Donald Stewart who wished to see the Gusii occasion, September 1914 when the Germans brought under control. The first military invaded the station, many Gusii showed their expedition took place in 1905 and this led to a hostility towards the colonial domination strong resistance to the British rule. It was as a (Maxon, 1989). result of attempts by some Gusii men to stop British penetration to their homeland and seizure of their herds following news that some 4.7 The Mumbo Religion

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Upon the arrival of missionaries in the country The outbreak of the war between Britain and and the start of their activities, they were German in1914 was realized in Kisii when the opposed by Africans who felt that they had the German’s attempted to advance through Kisii to right to choose to accept the new faith in their Kisumu in order to gain control of the railway own terms. Remarkably, as part of the Gusii and cut communication between the British East resistance, the Mumbo cult is reported to have Africa and Uganda. The Germans occupied the agitated the locals against the establishment of Kisii Government station briefly on 12th the British rule. The teachings of the cult September, 1914. Two companies of the fourth emphasized that the Europeans would leave Battalion, Kings African Riffles, commanded Gusiiland at one time. Actually, the Gusii by Major Thorncraft were sent to Kisii and remained suspicious of the European intention found the station occupied by the Germans (DC after the 1905 and 1908 military expeditions KSI/1/2). especially with the spread of from Luo Nyanza to Gusiiland (Wiper, 1966). Indeed, the outbreak of the First World War brought a set back to the town following the The Mumbo cult was implicated with attempt to occupy the station by both the British responsibility for the looting of the station in and German in 12th September 1914 and in an 1914 when the first war broke out. In a letter by attempt to safeguard it, the two groups fought Father Scheffer of the Roman Catholic mission and it is said that a British commander was at Asumbi to the District Commissioner in 1918 killed during this raid. As a result of this both he said that, ‘‘Mumbo people were responsible sides withdrew leaving the station unoccupied for the looting of September1914’’ until14th September, 1914 when normal (DC/KSI/3/1). administration formally resumed (DC/KSI/1/2).

Later, it was revealed that the cult had little to The aftermath of the War had serious do with the looting of the station following a repercussions to the community that had long letter of the District Commissioner in 1918. resisted and refused to accept the colonial rule. During the year 1914-15, a new religion Following the evacuation of the British officials “Mumbo’’ made its appearance in this district, from the town, a group of Gusii men influenced having its chief attraction of the doctrine that all by a religious cult called Mumbo looted the White men would leave the protectorate. Indeed town rejoicing that the long awaited time for the it was documented accordingly. “Recently the British to depart from the town as taught in their religion made its appearance among the Kisii religion had come( DC/KSI/1/2). and a number of teachers began instructing the people” (DC/KSI/3/2). According to Maxon (1989), punitive measures were taken against the areas of Wanjare, Kitutu, However the adoption of the teachings and and Nyaribari. Instead, more men were ordered doctrines of this cult were out-rightly anti- to work in town as a punishment. However by European and were deemed to have boosted the 23rd September, the British had re-established Gusii resistance against the British. Their the station. The colonial government continued relationship continued to be bad however the to intensify its activities to regain (O.I. Onyoni, Gusii people had started to appreciate the 2014). There was demand for more introduction of cash economy and were willing infrastructures in the station in the various to cultivate more and even purchase from the departments. Indian shops in town (O.I. Onyoni, 2014). This called for the Gusii resources both human Despite the efforts put by the British and material. Hut tax was raised and Kisii government in laying firm administration, the alone, the hut tax in 1914 amounted to twenty onset of the War disrupted the input and led to thousand rupees in cash. Importantly, the town almost a complete destruction of the few had fully established by the end of the First infrastructures that had been put up. The World War. The town served as the office for German are said to have occupied the Kisii the entire District (S.K Administration and boma on12th of September, 1914. The British Political Annual Report, 31.3.1915). fought with the German and the later suffered heavy causalities. Some Gusii men are said to Africans took active role in the war since it was have participated in the War armed with spears reported that large numbers of Nyanza and shields as the other people watched on the tribesmen were recruited both as soldiers and as Hills adjacent to the town (Maxon, 1989). porters. As indicated by Mr. Ainsworth, P.C Nyanza from 1907-17, and then military

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Commissioner for labor in charge of labor succeeded in obtaining about 170 recruits estimated that a total of 162,000 men served the (Gethin, 1953). Employment continued to army and that a large proportion of them were recruit gourds in Kisii Township who served as Nyanza men. Among them were Kisii tribesmen escort officers (SKD Annual reports, and as argued by (O.I. Ombasa, 2014). He 31.3.18).This intensified security situation in further pointed out that Kisii town was their the town and administration of the entire district base. was improved.

The African’s collective experience during the The aftermath of this incident led to a firm 1914 to 1918 war was significant. A number of foundation of the British administration on the Africans were enrolled in the regular military entire Gusiiland that had proved difficult in units. About 165, 000, were employed as relenting to the demands of the colonial rule. porters in the carrier corps (Ogot, 1968).The The hut tax in Kisii alone in 1914 is said to have government in Kisii carried out usual patrols risen as it amounted to twenty thousand rupees and towards the end of August 1914, a company in cash (Barker, 1975). All tax collected were of K.A.R. arrived with a lieutenant in command. brought to the District Commissioner’s office Kisii was used as a security base during the that had earlier been established in Kisii town. world War. It was indicated by Gethin, in the Battle of Kisii that many troops passed through The study established that the emergence of Kisii on the way to the border and Karungu in Kisii town was achieved partly as a result of the 1925. presence of the railway in Kisumu. This important infrastructure enhanced movement of Security was improved following what had new races into the entire region. The presence happened previously. It is indicated that the of Europeans in Nyanza enhanced the town had no police officer who was stationed emergence of Kisii town as an administration there. The unit is said to have been in charge head office for Ugaya District. under an Africa and Grade sergeant under the District Commissioner who carried out Having established their office in Kisii as surveillance and township patrols outpost duty already discussed, it called for construction of at trading centers and escorts. offices and important infrastructures such as roads which in the end facilitated movement of In some occasions, police would be sent into the people and goods in and out of the town. The native Reserve to investigate into offences and construction of residential houses, offices for make arrests with the assistance of the chiefs. the government remained a pull factor towards Prison is said to have had a staff of 7 warders. the settlement of new migrants and finally the This was a small number compared to the progressive growth of Kisii town. number of prisoners. The daily average number of prisoners was 50 that strained the resources. Despite the many challenges faced by the The number of criminal cases tried in Kisii British administration, the town was founded by continued to increase since 329 persons were the end of World War 1 and formal persecuted and 208 convicted. A special prison administration by the government was in place. was put up on Kisii Farmers Training Center Hence, the colonial city theory that was applied land to take care of long-term prisoners (Annual indeed was relevant in analyzing how the reports, 31-3-1914). presence of European power in Gusiiland particularly enhanced the emergence and The insecurity conditions which had earlier growth of Kisii town. prevailed owing to the activities of Mumbo were calmed. Because there was inadequate Indeed the town served as the headquarter for police force, it called for employment of the South Kavirondo country and given the officers. A large number of people were diverse roles that it performed, its growth employed on a daily basis to effect arrests and during the inter-War period was an achievement serving summonses (DC/KSI/3/). to the colonial government and the locals since more social and economic developments were The number of police at the station increased by realized as it shall be seen in the next chapter. 1915, there was a large force of about 250 who were stationed at Kisii after the re-occupation 5.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION by the British. The number of police officers increased gradually and by the end of 1917, 5.1 Summary Captain Gethin started recruiting for K.A.R and

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The paper aimed at establishing the emergence A Vanishing Cultural heritage. The Edwin of Kisii town in the early days of colonial Mullen Press, USA. occupation. The paper, therefore attempted to 2. Anderson and Richard, R. (1957), Africa’s answer the question ‘what influenced the Urban Past. James Currey Oxford emergence of Kisii town by 1919?’A strong link Heinemann New Hampshire. to the colonial city theory was attributed to in (htt://www.jstor.org/stable/41107848. explaining the emergence of Kisii town. Indeed Retrieval date: 26/09/2013. the paper shows that Kisii town owes its history 3. Anderson D.M (1991), Policing, Prosecution to pre-colonial time when a Gusii prophet and the Law in Colonial Kenya C.1905- Sakawa prophesied on the existence of the 1939. town. The initial name for the town was 4. Bennett.G.(1963),Kenya; A Political Getembe because of the many trees that were History; The Colonial Period London; present. The presence of British administration Oxford university press pp.89-98. in Nyanza enhanced the emergence of Kisii 5. Carl D.A. (1975), Nyeri Townsmen Kenya, town. East African Literature Bureau Nairobi. 6. Cohen, B. (2006). Urbanization in 5.2 Conclusion Developing Countries: Current Trends, Future Projections and Key Challenges for The paper was aimed at investigating the sustainability. Technology in Society No. emergence of Kisii town. The paper revealed 28: 63-80. that Kisii town had spatial relevance in pre- 7. Cheng.J.(2003), Modeling spatial and colonial time. The site had relevance to the Temporal Urban growth. Facility of communities that surrounded it. As Geographical sciences. Utrecht University. demonstrated by the colonial city theory, the 8. Foran, W.R. (1936). A Cuckoo in Kenya. social- cultural, economic, political, London: Hutchinson. technological advancement that were put in 9. Fearn, H. (1961), An African Economy. A place by the colonial administration explained study of the Economic Development of the the emergence of Kisii town. of Kenya, 1903-1953 oxford university press, London. Key among the factors that influenced growth 10. Ghaiden, U,(1975), Lamu ;A Study of the of Kisii town included administration, Swahili Town. Nairobi, East African agriculture, infrastructure, role of Native Literature Bureau. councils, security, availability of food, increase 11. Kanogo,T(1987), Squatters and the Roots of in population, the role of missionaries in the Mau Mau 1905-1963. London, James education, the emergence of elites and trade. It Curay Ltd. was established that Political, Social and 12. King D.A.(2004), Spaces of Global Economic organizations of the Gusii people lay Cultures, Arctecture urbanism Identity a foundation upon which colonial rule was Routldge New York. achieved in Gusiiland and the eventual genesis 13. Kitching, G. (1980). Class and Economic of Kisii town. Change in Kenya.New Haven, Yale University Press. 5.3 Recommendations for further Research 14. Kitching G.(1980). The Making of an Based on the summary and conclusion given African Petite-Bourgeoisie 1905-1970, New above, the following areas were identified for Haven and London Yale university press. further research; 15. Koul, L. (1993). Methodology Educational Research. New Delhi. Vikas Publishing (i) Considering the emergence of Kisii town House PVT Ltd. in pre-independence, further study can be done 16. Macharia, K. (2003). Migration in Kenya on social-economic transformations among the and its Impact on the Labor Market.A paper Gusii. Prepared on African Migration in (ii) In addition to further research area Comparative Perspective, Johannesburg, identified above, it will be ideal to conduct a South Africa. research on 17. Maxon, R.M. (1989). Conflict and the history of administration among the Gusii. Accommodation in Western Kenya, the REFERENCES Gusii and the British, 1905-1963. London: 1. Akama, S.U. and Maxon, R. (2006). Associated Universities Press. Ethnography of the Gusii of Western Kenya: 18. Mayer, Philip.(1951).Two Studies in Applied Anthropology in Kenya. London; His Majesty’s stationary office.

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