THE TALES TEETH TELL:
USING DENTAL CALCULUS MICROSCOPY FOR ARCHAEOETHNOBOTANY & PALEODIETARY RECONSTRUCTION AT THE LIBBEN SITE IN NORTHWESTERN OHIO.
A thesis submitted To Kent State University in partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts
By:
Andrew G. Kramer
February, 2017 © Copyright All rights reserved Except for previously published materials
by Andrew Gerald Kramer May 2017
Thesis written by
Andrew Gerald Kramer
M.A., Kent State University, USA 2017
B.A., Cleveland State University, USA 2012
Approved by
Linda B Spurlock Ph.D., Advisor
Mary Ann Raghanti Ph.D., Chair, Department of Anthropology
James L. Blank Ph.D., Dean, College of Arts and Sciences
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………...…iii
LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………..viii
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………...... xi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………...xii
CHAPTERS
1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………………..1
Archaeobotanical Analysis in Paleodietary Studies………………………………1
Flotation Testing…………………………………………………………………..2
Pollen & Phytolith Analysis………………………………………………………4
Background on the Libben Site…………………………………………………..5
Site Location………………………………………………………………………5
Libben Demography………………………………………………………………6
Prehistoric Environmental Conditions…………………………………………….8
Pahtology: What is Dental Calculus………………………………………………9
Dental Calculus as an Investigatory Tool………………………………………....9
Dental Calculus at Libben………………………………………………………..12
Purpose of Investigation…………………………………………………………14
2. Methods & Materials………………………………………………………………….16
Sampling Methods……………………………………………………………….16
Cleaning………………………………………………………………………….17
Extraction………………………………………………………………………...17
Dissolving the Calculus………………………………………………………….17
Alternate Pollen Procedure………………………………………………………19
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Slide Preparation for Microscopy………………………………………………..20
Contamination Control Procedure……………………………………………….20
Libben Slide Preparation…………………………………………………………21
Calculus Microscopy…………………………………………………………….22
Plant Fibers………………………………………………………………………22
Phytoliths………………………………………………………………………...23
Pollen…………………………………………………………………………….23
Starch…………………………………………………………………………….24
Counting Method………………………………………………………………...25
Comparative plant fiber and phytolith database…………………………………26
Plant Sample Preservation……………………………………………………….27
Plant Sample Microscopy Procedure…………………………………………….27
Analysis…………………………………………………………………………..28
3. Results…………………………………………………………………………………29
Dietary and Non-Dietary Plant Species Identified……………………………….29
Black Oak (Quercus velutina)…………………………………………...29
Amaranth (Amaranthus tuberculatus)…………………………………...29
Blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides)………………………………30
Bracken Fern (Pteridium aquilinum)…………………………………….30
Chenopodium (Chenopodium album)……………………………………30
Maize (Zea mays)………………………………………………………...31
False Solomon’s Seal (Maianthemum racemosum)……………………...31
Foxtail Millet (Setaria)…………………………………………………..32
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Boxelder Maple (Acer negundo)…………………………………………32
May Apple (Podophyllum peltatum……………………………………...33
Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca)……………………………………………33
Oxalis (Oxalis stricta)……………………………………………………33
Raspberry (Rubus occidentalis)………………………………………….34
Sumpweed (Iva annua)…………………………………………………..34
Sunflower (Helianthus annus)…………………………………………...34
Wild Grape (Vitis spp.)…………………………………………………..35
Wild Rice (Zizania aquatica)……………………………………………35
Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis)………………………………………….36
Shell Bark Hickory (Carya laciniosa)…………………………………...36
Vermillion Pigment………………………………………………………………37
Comparison of Dietary Elements Based on Sex (male vs female)………………38
Comparison of Dietary Elements Based on Age Class (adult vs subadult)……...38
Midden Pit Pollen………………………………………………………………..39
4. Discussion……………………………………………………………………………..40
The Continuum of Cultivation…………………………………………………...41
Libben Resource Niche Construstion……………………………………………43
Timeline of Agriculture & Plant Domestication in the Ohio Region……………45
Late Archaic Cultigen Use (1500-800 BC)……………………………...46
Early Woodland Cultigen Use (800 – 100 BC)………………………….47
Middle Woodland Cultigen Use (100 BC – AD 500)…………………...49
Late Woodland Cultigen Use (AD 500 – 1200)…………………………50
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Late Prehistoric Cultigen Use (AD 1200 – 1650)………………………..53
Dietary Profile of the Libben People…………………………………………….55
Nutritional Availability Profile & Plant Utilization……………………………...55
Black Oak (Quercus velutina)…………………………………………...55
Amaranth (Amaranthus tuberculatus)…………………………………...57
Chenopodium (Chenopodium album)……………………………………58
Maize (Zea mays)...... 58
Foxtail Millet (Setaria)…………………………………………………..60
Boxelder Maple (Acer negundo)…………………………………………60
Black Raspberry (Rubus occidentalis)…………………………………...61
Sumpweed (Iva annua)…………………………………………………..63
Sunflower (Helianthus annus.)…………………………………………..63
Wild Grape (Vitis spp.)…………………………………………………..64
Wild Rice (Zizania aquatic)……………………………………………..64
Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis)………………………………………….65
Shell Bark Hickory Nuts (Carya laciniosa)……………………………...65
Non-dietary & Ritual Elements………………………………………………….66
Blue Cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides)……………………………...66
Bracken Fern (Pteridium aquilinum)…………………………………….66
Oxalis (Oxalis stricta)……………………………………………………67
False Solomon’s Seal (Maianthemum racemosum)……………………...67
May Apple (Podophyllum peltatum)…………………………………….68
Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca)……………………………………………68
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Vermillion Pigment………………………………………………………69
Libben Health Profile…………………………………………………………….70
5. Summary & Conclusion……………………………………………………………….74
Future Research………………………………………………………………….76
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………..79
APPENDIX A……………………………………………………………………………89
APPENDIX B……………………………………………………………………………96
APPENDIX C…………………………………………………………………………..126
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Acorn Fiber Frequency Graphs………………………………………………..97
Figure 2: Acorn Phytolith Frequency Graphs……………………………………………98
Figure 3: Corn/Maize Fiber Frequency Graphs………………………………………….99
Figure 4: Corn/Maize Phytolith Frequency Graphs…………………………………….100
Figure 5: Amaranth Fiber Frequency Graphs…………………………………………..101
Figure 6: Amaranth Phytolith Frequency Graphs………………………………………102
Figure 7: Blue Cohosh Fiber Frequency Graphs……………………………………….103
Figure 8: Blue Cohosh Phytolith Frequency Graphs…………………………………...104
Figure 9: Bracken Fern Fiber Frequency Graphs………………………………………105
Figure 10: Bracken Fern Phytolith Frequency Graphs…………………………………106
Figure 11: Chenopodium Fiber Frequency Graphs…………………………………….107
Figure 12: Chenopodium Phytolith Frequency Graphs………………………………...108
Figure 13: False Solomons Seal Fiber Frequency Graphs……………………………...109
Figure 14: Foxtail Millet Fiber Frequency Graphs……………………………………..110
Figure 15: Boxelder Maple Fiber Frequency Graphs…………………………………..111
Figure 16: Boxelder Maple Phytolith Frequency Graphs………………………………112
Figure 17: May Apple Fiber Frequency Graphs………………………………………..113
Figure 18: Milkweed Fiber Frequency Graphs ………………………………………..114
Figure 19: Oxalis Fibers Frequency Graphs……………………………………………115
Figure 20: Raspberry Fiber Frequency Graphs…………………………………………116
Figure 21: Raspberry Phytolith Frequency Graphs…………………………………….117
Figure 22: Sumpweed Fiber Frequency Graphs………………………………………..118
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Figure 23: Sumpweed Phytolith Frequency Graphs……………………………………119
Figure 24: Sunflower Phytolith Frequency Graphs…………………………………….120
Figure 25: Wild Grape Fiber Frequency Graphs……………………………………….121
Figure 26: Wild Grape Phytolith Frequency Graphs…………………………………...122
Figure 27: Wild Rice Phytolith Frequency Graphs……………………………………..123
Figure 28: Hackberry Fiber Frequency Graphs………………………………………...124
Figure 29: Hackberry Phytolith Frequency Graphs…………………………………….125
Figure 30: Black Oak Dietary Elements………………………………………………..127
Figure 31: Maize/Corn Dietary Elements………………………………………………127
Figure 32: Amaranth Dietary Elements………………………………………………...128
Figure 33: Blue Cohosh Dietary Elements……………………………………………..128
Figure 34: Bracken Fern Dietary Elements…………………………………………….129
Figure 35: Chenopodium Dietary Elements……………………………………………129
Figure 36: False Solomons Seal Dietary Elements…………………………………….130
Figure 37: Foxtail Millet Dietary Elements…………………………………………….130
Figure 38: Boxelder Maple Dietary Elements………………………………………….131
Figure 39: May Apple Dietary Elements……………………………………………….131
Figure 40: Milkweed Dietary Elements………………………………………………...132
Figure 41: Oxalis Dietary Elements…………………………………………………….132
Figure 42: Raspberry Dietary Elements………………………………………………...133
Figure 43: Sumpweed Dietary Elements……………………………………………….133
Figure 44: Sunflower Dietary Elements………………………………………………..134
Figure 45: Wild Grape Dietary Elements………………………………………………134
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Figure 46: Wild Rice Dietary Elements………………………………………………...135
Figure 47: Hackberry Dietary Elements………………………………………………..135
Figure 48: Shellbark Hickory Dietary Elements………………………………………..136
Figure 49: Vermillion Pigment…………………………………………………………136
Figure: 50: Parasite Egg………………………………………………………………..137
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Available Flora…………………………………………………………………90
Table 2: Libben Faunal Assemblage……………………………………………………..91
Table 3: Libben Avifauna Assemblage…………………………………………………..92
Table 4: Libben Fish Assemblage………………………………………………………..93
Table 5: Summary of Phytolith, Starch & Fiber Presence……………………………….94
Table 6: Pollen Grains Observed from Feature 53………………………………………95
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Acknowledgements
Linda Spurlock: Words are not adequate to express the level of gratitude I have for everything you have done to see this project through. I consider it a privilege and honor
to call myself your student, friend, and colleague. I will never forget the sacrifices you have made to ensure my success as a student. You will forever be in my thoughts and in
every academic endeavor I embark upon. From the bottom of my heart thank you.
Richard Meindl: This project would not have been possible without your help and steadfast patience with my statistical blunders. You may not realize it but you have helped me in every step of this project since its inception. I will always remember the advice you have given me in all of my research endeavors. Thank you.
Marilyn Norconk: I will always appreciate the time you took to ensure the success of my research. You have provided with me with resources, advice, and opportunity. You have imparted a wealth of knowledge to me that I will use for the rest of my life and hope to pass onto my students. I am proud to consider myself your colleague.
David Jarzen: In the short time we have known each other you have taught me more about botany and palynology than I garnered from the entirety of my literature review for this project. Thank you for your time, advice, and support. I hope we can collaborate on future projects. I am proud to be your colleague and friend.
Anthony Tosi: Thank you for always having an interest in this project and taking the time to offer me suggestions on how the project can be improved. I appreciate the advice and tutelage you have provided me. Your class embodied everything I could have ever
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hoped for or expected out of a graduate course. I will always remember the discussions
we have had. Thank you.
Mary Ann Raghanti: Thank you for all of the support, materials, lab space, and advice.
I would not have been able to write this document without your help. Your dedication to our department and to the success of your students is unmatched. I will never forget or fail to appreciate all the opportunities you have given me.
Michelle Bebber: You are the most dedicated archaeologist I know. Know that you are an inspiration to me and all those people whose lives you have touched although your admirable modesty will never let you see it. I am proud to call myself your friend and colleague.
Special thank you to Dexter Zirkle, Evgenia Fotiou (PhD), Crystal Reedy, Metin Erin
(PhD), Cody Ruiz, Emily Munger, Rick Feinberg (PhD), & Mark Seeman (PhD).
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Archaeobotanical Analysis in Paleodietary Studies.
Paleodietary studies have benefitted greatly from the use of botanical assemblages found in archaeological contexts. A botanical assemblage consists of two categories of materials, macro and micro. The macro category includes all the visible plant materials recovered from flotation testing or manual retrieval including seeds, pods, and charred organics (Wagner 1982). The micro category includes all the elements only visible with the use of microscopy techniques such as pollen grains, plant phytoliths, plant fibers, and microorganisms like freshwater diatoms (Wagner 1982). Botanical assemblages can provide information about the subsistence strategies and which types of natural plants were being exploited in a given archaeological context (Densmore 1976).
Archaeoethnobotanical studies in Ohio have been notably limited. Dee Anne
Wymer has reconstructed the botanical assemblages at several sites in Licking County noting that southern Ohio offers sites with the most complete botanical assemblages from prehistoric Ohio (Wymer 1997; 2003). This may be overstating the case since many of the assemblages in northern Ohio have languished in archaeological collections and still await analysis. Wymer’s work established a baseline assemblage for comparative studies in subsistence practices in the Midwest. Of particular importance, Wymer’s study focused on the Middle Woodland (200 BC – AD 500) sites Murphy, Murphy III, and
NUWAY and concluded that the paleoindiand diet consisted of a mixture of nuts, grass starches, and berry seeds. These foods indicate a considerable investment of time and
1 energy in horticultural practices in southern Ohio by the Middle Woodland period
(Wymer 1997; 2003). The Middle Woodland temporal and southern geographic focus allows for a comparison to the assemblage from Libben, a Late Woodland site (AD 800-
1100) in northwest Ohio. Temporal or geographic differences in subsistence activities or prehistoric resource management may be found.
To demonstrate the efficacy of ethnobotanical analysis in paleodietary reconstructions it is important to gather and interpret multiple lines of evidence. Lines of evidence presented here include macro analysis of botanical remains via flotation testing, plant specific microscopic phytolith and starch identification, plant fiber identification using polarized light, and pollen identification via Brightfield light microscopy.
Flotation Testing
Flotation testing consists of taking soil samples from various archaeological features including hearths, fire pits, and midden piles and “bubbling” water through the sample at different pressures (Renfrew & Bahn 2008; Wagner 1982). There is no standardized procedure for flotation testing. Flotation procedures vary from using a simple hand pump and slightly agitating soil samples within a plastic basin to using a large industrialized flotation table with adjustable water pressure like those sold by the
Flote-Tech company (Wagner 1982). The purpose of flotation testing is to separate all botanical elements such as seeds, charred wood, small stone artifacts, and bone from excavated soil. This allows archaeologists to determine which plant species a particular group of people may have been exploiting. Flotation testing can also uncover artifacts like microdebitage and small bone tools like fish hooks and needles (Renfrew & Bahn
2008).
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Flotation tests produce different kinds of organic and inorganic materials often referred to as “heavy” and “light” float. “Light” float contains the various seeds, seed pods, wood, and charred plant remains that float to the top of the soil and water mixture and can be subsequently skimmed off the top and separated for analysis. “Heavy” float contains stones, microdebitage (small flint flakes produced while knapping projectile points), and bone that sink to the bottom of the separation container (Renfrew & Bahn
2008). Although both float types produce different kinds of evidence, taken together they give a clear picture of the resource exploitation strategies of archaeological site in which this type of analysis is appropriate. The light float is the primary substance used for microscopy because it will contain all of the pollen within the soil sample. Pollen can be used to confirm seed identifications (Wymer 1997). The heavy float can be used to make inferences on fishing or hunting activities. In essence, worked stone confirms hunting and bone artifacts can confirm fishing (hooks), hide working (needles), and trade economy
(bone beads) (Renfrew & Bahn 2008).
At the Libben site in northwest Ohio, the flotation testing was conducted on materials recovered from middens and hearths throughout the site and analyzed by Mary
Lou Harrison as part of a master’s thesis in 1978. Her results indicated that the Libben site was occupied year round and relied primarily on the presence of wild food resources like acorns, hazelnuts, hackberries, goosefoot, and corn (in small amounts) (Harrison
1978). Freshwater river and lake fish were thought to constitute the primary source of protein with muskrat, waterfowl, and white tailed deer as secondary sources (Harrison
1978). While Harrison’s work sheds some light on the subsistence patterns of the Libben people her sample did not include the bulk of organic material collected during the
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original excavations such as soil samples or the materials which resulted from the on-site
flotation procedures. There exists many soil samples and unanalyzed flotation results that
could very well change the existing interpretation about subsistence patterns, particularly
the possible development of corn agriculture at the site. The subject of this research was
to examine the organic materials locked within the dental calculus and to confirm which
materials were used for food and which were used for other activities, e.g. those which
may have been linked to spiritual beliefs or trade.
Pollen & Phytolith Analysis
The presence of pollen and phytoliths in the context of living sites provide information on both dietary patterns and climatic conditions. Shane (1994) demonstrated that plant pollen proliferation can be tracked temporally by taking samples from lake sediment cores that are firmly dated with carbon or isotope dating techniques and analyzed with a light microscope. Shane used a pollen typology to identify various plant pollens and reconstruct the paleo-environment of prehistoric Ohio. Shane showed the
changes in plant populations as the climate changed in prehistory.
Phytoliths are microscopic structures in plants that are comprised primarily of
silica (Blatt 2007; Puech, P.F. et al. 2001). There is some debate in the scientific
community regarding how phytoliths form. Two competing hypotheses suggest 1) that silica is drawn up from the soil and deposited “intact” within the plant structures or 2) they are formed by the plants themselves, in essence coagulating silicate particles into a geometric form (Mulholland & Rapp 1992; Puech et al. 2001; Blatt 2007). The shapes of
phytoliths are specific to plant families and can be classified based on their morphology
(i.e. certain shapes are present only in certain plants) (Piperno et al. 2011). Phytoliths, as
4
well as pollen and plant fibers, become locked in dental calculus and can be readily
identified (Blatt 2007; Piperno et al. 2011). Since calculus is mineralized plaque, it can be safely inferred that any phytoliths and pollen particles embedded in calculus were ingested with the diet or during other activities that involved using the teeth. By examining the Libben population’s dentition and subsequently the calculus we can confirm which of the plant materials first identified from the flotation tests were included in the Libben population’s diet and propose new dietary or other uses of plants, e.g., medicinal components.
Background on the Libben Site
Libben presents a unique opportunity to study paleodietary subsistence patterns
from the Middle to Late Woodland of the Western Basin Tradition of southern Michigan
present in northwest Ohio. The cultural affiliation assigned to Libben may represent the
Western Basin Tradition but the artifact assemblage is distinctive enough to constitute an
independent Libben Tradition (Harrison 1978 via communication with Olaf Prufer).
Radiocarbon dates for the Libben site place occupation between AD 800-1100 (Lovejoy
et al. 1977). Excavations at Libben were conducted by archaeologists and volunteers
under the direction of Olaf Prufer on the behalf of Kent State University during the field
seasons of 1967 and 1968. During these excavations roughly 30,000ft² of the site was
uncovered. This area is estimated to be 85- 95% of the total area utilized aboriginally
(Harrison 1978; Lovejoy et al. 1977). A skeletal population of 1327 individuals were
excavated, all of which were articulated and in fair preservation (Harrison 1978).
Site Location
The Libben site is located at 83.1°W and 41°N latitude in the 33rd section of Erie
5
Township, Ottawa County, Ohio. The site is situated on a low knoll on the north bank of
the Portage River and is roughly a half mile from the confluence of the Portage and Little
Portage Rivers (Lovejoy et al. 1977, Harrison 1978). It is roughly four miles south of
Lake Erie and five miles northwest of the modern border to the marshlands of the
Sandusky Bay (Lovejoy et al. 1977; Harrison 1978). Of particular importance, the site is situated on the northeastern corner of the “Great Black Swamp” which has, since the time
of the Libben people, been drained for agricultural purposes (Kaatz 1953; Harrison
1978). The topography and natural resource availability of the Black Swamp likely
played a role of particular importance to the people of Libben (Harrison 1978). An
intimate knowledge of the rich and diverse swamp lands and how the flora and fauna
could be utilized would have been paramount to survival (appendix A: tables 1 & 2).
The Black Swamp is broken up by elevated knolls that contained hickory, beech,
and oak tree savannahs. These knolls would have likely been of importance to the Libben
people as they provide exploitable food resources (nuts); Harrison’s work showed a
particular fondness for Hickory nuts among the indigenous people (Harrison 1978;
Lovejoy et al. 1977). The Black Swamp would have also served as a mating ground for
several species of exploited water fowl including mallards, wood ducks, blue-winged
teals, and ring necked ducks (Harrison 1978) (Table 3). Freshwater fish species like gar,
drum, and channel catfish were also abundant in the riverine area surrounding the Libben
site (Table 4).
Libben Demography
Demographic study of the Libben population found that the 1327 skeletons
included individuals an age range of 16 weeks to 70 years (Lovejoy et al. 1977; 2008).
6
The study divided the skeletal population into age classes. The age of infants and children
(16 weeks to 12 years of age) were determined by the measurements of dental maturity
(research conducted by Thomas Pryzbeck) and compared to published standards for
modern anthropological groups (Lovejoy et al. 1977; 2008). For specimens without dentition, a combination of long bone, metaphyseal breadth, and cranial base measurements were used to age specimens. The subadult or adolescent (12-18 years of
age) group was determined by measuring the closure and development of the epiphyses.
Adults were aged based on a seven criteria system which included (i) functional dental
age (i.e. dental wear), (ii & iii) trabecular involution of the proximal femur and distal
radius, (iv) metamorphosis of the pubic symphyseal face, (v) metamorphosis of the
auricular surface, (vi) cranial suture closure, and (vii) vertebral osteophytosis (Lovejoy et
al. 1977; 2008).
Overall the demography of Libben indicates a type I survivorship curve which
supports the notion that the Libben people were a robust and successful population
(Lovejoy et al. 1977; 2008). The average family size when adjusted for by the archetypal
fertility curve was about 3.8 children and a generation length of approximately 36.6 years
(Lovejoy et al. 1977; 2008). The young age at death for men can be attributed to the
endemic violence that was evident by the preponderance of “trophy” skulls found along
with other evidence of violent death (Lovejoy et al. 1977). The presence of violent death
among the Libben population has been attributed to the Algonquin practice of private
hunting grounds (this is assuming that the Libben people were a proto-Algonquin group).
Hunting grounds among Algonquin groups were guarded under penalty of death to any trespassers even those from their own cultural group or village (Lovejoy et al. 1977).
7
Overall the work done by Lovejoy has concluded that the Libben population was a robust
and successful group due in part to the abundance of resources presented by the local ecology. This is indicated by the unusually large amounts of small mammalian, aquatic, and waterfowl skeletal materials present in the midden pits (Lovejoy et al. 1977; 2008).
The Libben site offers a large sample population to study diet via calculus extraction. Since the demographic work has already been done, samples can be drawn from varying demographic age and sex categories thus obtaining a range of data across the population (Richard Meindl personal communication). This will allow for a comparative approach to analyzing the calculus. It can be determined if certain foods were given to children as opposed to adults, or if certain foods were preferred by certain age classes or sex. The Libben population is considered to be fairly complete, although
Harrison concluded that roughly 36 skeletons may have been lost due to erosion by the
Portage River. Thus, conclusions from an appropriately selected sample of existing remains would likely be representative of the entire population.
Prehistoric Environmental Conditions
The prehistoric environmental conditions of the Libben site correspond to what has been termed the Neo-Atlantic Climatic Episode (NAC) (Harrison 1978). This episode is marked by warmer than usual temperatures than were present for the time preceding and following the Libben site occupation and subsequent transformation into a cemetery.
The NAC almost directly dates to the occupation period for Libben (AD 800-1200).
Following AD 1200 the Black Swamp area had cooler, drier climatic conditions which lasted well into the 1800s (Cleland 1966). Maize is a climate sensitive cultigen so this warmer period at the Libben site may have been conducive to some experimentation with
8
maize agriculture (Harrison 1978). This warming period is also supported archaeologically by the presence of prairie vole remains at Libben (Harrison 1978).
Prairie voles, like maize, are a temperature sensitive species and would not have been present at Libben without the environment being significantly warmer than other regions
along the Great Lakes (Harrison 1978).
The warming period was followed by a climatic deterioration, of which the effects are not clear at Libben. In other areas like Wisconsin, we see a marked decline in maize agricultural sites in the Oneota Complex and the abandonment of previously strong agricultural sites in Michigan like the Mikado Mound site (Harrison 1978; Densmore
1976). The climatic conditions during the occupation at Libben would have been conducive for maize agriculture, yet maize was not the primary cultigen at Libben. In fact, many components of the Eastern Agricultural Complex (EAC) like chenopodium and sunflower were also recovered. Maize was present in very small amounts (16 kernels total) and there was no presence of traditional cultigens such as legumes or squash within the Libben middens (Harrison 1978). Possibly, the warmer temperatures during occupation allowed for such abundance in natural flora and fauna in the Black Swamp area that any type of intensive agriculture was likely not “required” and not worth the investment to the people living at the Libben site.
Pathology: What is Dental Calculus?
Calculus is dental plaque that has mineralized into a crystalline structure. The inclusion of phytoliths, starch grains, plant fibers, and other organic debris in the calculus matrix is direct evidence of the dietary habits of the individual prior to death. This is due to the fact the calculus can only form in the presence of saliva and thus the deposition of
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organic materials into calculus is not the result of postmortem remodeling (MacPhee &
Cowley 1975; Kidd 2003). Calculus generally takes 30 days to completely mineralize,
but the mineralization process will begin as early as 10 days after initial formation of
dental plaque (Hillson 1979). Dental calculus is comprised of both organic and inorganic
materials. The organic materials comprise roughly 15-20% of the “dry” weight of the
calculus (Hillson 1996). The inorganic materials can be categorized into 4 main crystal
structures of calcium phosphates (Hillson 1996):
1. Brushite or dicalciun phosphate dehydrate (DCPD)
2. Octacalcium phosphate (OCP)
3. Whitelocke containing magnesium and beta-tricalcium phosphate (WHT)
4. Carbonates containing hydroxyapatite (HAP)
Calculus within the oral cavity can be broken down into two categories: subgingival and supragingival. Subgingival calculus (i.e., calculus below the gumline) can be found in the greatest amount on the labial surfaces of the mandibular anterior teeth and buccal (cheek) surfaces maxillary molars (Corbett & Dawes 1998; Friskopp 1983;
Hillson 1979). Subgingival calculus is more mineralized implying that it is comprised of older calculus formations. It often appears as a dark amber color under light microscopy
(Gonzales & Sognnaes 1960). The location of subgingival calculus is in the gingiva pocket on the surfaces of the root cementum of the teeth. Supragingival calculus can be found in greatest amounts on the lingual (tongue) surface of the mandibular incisors and on the buccal surfaces of the maxillary first molars close to the salivary ducts (Corbett &
Dawes 1998; Hillson 1979; Friskopp 1983). Supragingival calculus is less mineralized than subgingival and contains a more heterogenous distribution of inorganic materials
10
like magnesium and iron (Roberts-Harry et al. 2000). It has been noted that the variability in oral bacteria and fluid environment (i.e., oral pH) is what causes the varying rates of plaque deposition in modern populations and it can be safely inferred that the same
processes would have occurred in ancient populations (Jin & Yip 2000).
Dental Calculus as an Investigatory Tool
Dental calculus can be a valuable tool for reconstructing the diet of past people.
Calculus can be used for carbon or nitrogen isotope testing, strontium and other trace
element analysis, mtDNA analysis and phytolith/pollen identification (Piperno et al.
2011; Rizzo 1962; Kumagai 1971; Scott 2012; Black et al. 2011; Alt 1998; Grupe 1998).
Calculus also contains trace elements of plant fibers and mineralized bacteria (Blatt 2007;
Kumagai 1971). Unfortunately there is no typology for the identification of fossilized
bacteria. To create one would be a daunting task for two reasons 1) the sheer multitude
and diversity of bacterial organisms within the mouth, 2) that calculus by nature of its
composition resists the full preservation of bacterial bodies (Hillson 1979; Kumagai
1971). It is important to note that there has been an attempt to identify the Mycoplasma
bacterium in dental calculus but identification on a species level completed thus far
constitutes less than 1% of mouth bacteria (Kumagai 1971; Scott 2012).
Reviewing the location of calculus formation on human dentition, its composition,
and how it contributes to cariogenesis is key in understanding the contribution calculus
research can contribute to archaeological interpretations. The efficacy of dental calculus microscopy has already been proven in studies conducted by Piperno et al. (2011). They examined the calculus of Neanderthal dentitions from Iraq and Belgium and were able to classify (using phytolith, fiber, and pollen identification) several botanical elements in
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their diet (Piperno et al. 2011). The groundbreaking results of Piperno’s study proved that
Neanderthals were consuming gelatinized starches (a kind of unclassified proto-wheat species). The gelatinized nature of the grains indicates they were cooking their foods and presumably had an intimate understanding of edible plants in their environment (Piperno et al. 2011).
Blatt (2007) analyzed calculus from remains recovered at the Late
Woodland/Early Prehistoric (AD 800-1300) Wegerzyn and Danbury sites in northwestern
Ohio. The Wegerzyn site is located in Montgomery County and Danbury is located in
Ottawa County. It is important to mention that the Danbury site is less than 10 miles from the Libben site. This closeness in time and space would have allowed contact between the
Libben and Danbury populations. A total of 25 calculus specimens was collected from 10 individuals (8 from Danbury and 2 from Wegerzyn) and subjected to scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Blatt (2007) was able to identify, based on phytolith, fiber, and pollen classification, several grasses, legumes, and maize indicating they were present in the diet of the populations at each of these sites (Blatt 2007). She also found the presence of native cotton fibers locked within the calculus of the Danbury specimens. The nearest confirmed source of native cotton to the Danbury site is Spiro Mound in Leflore County,
Oklahoma (King and Gardener 1981). Whether the fibers were deposited from dietary activities or economic activities like weaving is unclear. The weaving hypothesis is much less likely due to the lack of confirming dental wear (i.e. worn grooves in the first mandibular molars from anchoring) at either site (Blatt 2007; Alt 1998). Blatt’s study is a perfect example of the efficacy of dental calculus in paleodietary reconstructions.
Dental Calculus at Libben
12
Since the Libben population used a variety of seeds, grains rich in carbohydrates,
and fish/mammalian protein as food sources, I expected to find the presence of both
dental calculus and dental caries. The protein from aquatic sources is deduced by the
great amount of fish scales found during excavation, and later confirmed by carbon
isotope analysis showing high levels of nitrogen associated with fish remains (Harrison
1987; Seeman & Nealis 2015). The high consumption of fish proteins provides the
perfect oral environment for the development of both supra and sub gingival calculus.
Since Harrison (1978) identified dietary subsistence patterns at Libben based on the
botanical and taphonomic assemblages, an analysis of dental calculus could provide
information that would confirm and extend her findings and provide a clear picture of what was being incorporated as part of the Libben diet and medicinal practices.
Botanical elements contained within the dental calculus could have been ingested
from activities other than subsistence; it is possible that economic activities such as
weaving (the act of spinning while anchoring the bast fibers in the teeth) or the ingestion
of plant materials for religious or ritual purposes left traces within the calculus (Piperno
2011). While these possibilities exist, prior studies on Libben dentition by Duray (1981)
and Pryzbeck (1979) did not find any wear patterns indicative of such economic or non-
subsistence activities. The study conducted by Blatt did not find any dental wear patterns
that would support the notion of “teeth as tools” at Danbury or Wegerzyn sites (Blatt
2007; Redmond 2006).
This analysis will elaborate on the procedures and techniques used to (1) extract
calculus from the dentition of the Libben population, (2) examine the calculus for dietary
and medicinal elements, and (3) reconstruct the Libben population’s subsistence patterns
13
based on the types and quantity of botanical elements contained within the calculus. This
study will work to prove that dental calculus can act as a dietary proxy in instances where
either provenience of the site has been disturbed or no midden pits are available for
flotation analysis. The Libben site provides an excellent opportunity to examine a pre- intensive agricultural group for variances in subsistence strategies. The Libben population can offer a glimpse into the way indigenous Native Americans used, manipulated, and exploited their environment. It can also provide clues as to the variance in available food resources in Ohio prior to European invasion and occupation of the
Americas.
Purpose of Investigation
I will address several questions using an analysis of dental calculus to reconstruct
the subsistence patterns at the Libben site. (1) Among the variety of abundant plant and
animal resources found at Libben via flotation testing and fine screen sieving, which ones
were being ingested as staple foods? (2) Is the diet at Libben differentiated along lines of
age or sex? (3) What do the dietary patterns at Libben indicate about subsistence
practices in northwestern Ohio as a whole during the Late Woodland period?
Samples of calculus will be extracted from mandibular teeth chosen from
individuals that vary across the demographic age and sex classes represented in the
Libben skeletal population. Calculus will be extracted from the enamel surface of teeth,
subjected to dissolution via acids, and examined using light microscopy at varying
magnification. Varying the magnification allows for the identification of plant and animal
materials like phytoliths, seeds, muscle fibers, plant fibers, and pollen all of which vary
dramatically in size. Each clearly identifiable specimen (whether it is a pollen, phytolith,
14
or plant fiber) will be photographed and classified based on established taxonomic
sequences already in publication (Puech P.F. 2001; Piperno 2006; Bozarth 1992, David &
Pailthorpe 1999; Vaughn Bryant 2007; McAndrews 1988; Zhang et al. 2012; Kapp 1969;
Pearsall 2015). The total amount of constituent dietary parts will be tallied and summarized for the entire sample and inferences about the paleodietary and subsistence patterns of the Libben population will be made based on what is found “in common” among various demographic classes. This study will also seek to confirm dietary statements about the Libben population already proposed by Stephen Duray and Thomas
Pryzbeck in their study on the enamel hypoplasias present in the dentition of the Libben population.
15
Chapter 2: Methods & Materials
Sampling methods
Two factors affected the sampling method used in this research: past conservation
practices and availability of the dental calculus itself. Some remains which offered
calculus deposits on the teeth were rendered useless by the practice of coating the human
bone with laquer, resin, or epoxy (exact substance unknown). Due to the mysterious
nature of the coating, any remains which contained teeth which had calculus deposits but
were coated were automatically excluded from this research. The availability of calculus
was minimal due to the fact that a large portion of the Libben skeletal population is
classified as juveniles or infants. A possible explanation as to why juveniles and infants
lack calculus deposition is they may not have been alive long enough for detectable
(visually) calculus deposits to form.
1,327 remains were visually inspected first for the presence of teeth, then for
calculus deposition. The visual inspection process included first establishing the presence
of complete (unbroken) teeth within in the set of remains and then inspecting any teeth
present for amber colored masses protruding from the tooth enamel. For this research the sampling of calculus was restricted to the collection of supragingival calculus or calculus that is above the cementoenamel junction. Although subgingival deposits do exist within
the Libben population they do not occur enough in frequency or amount to warrant
inclusion. Of the 1,327 remains inspected, 63 individuals (adults and juveniles) were
selected as appropriate for inclusion. Thus the initial sample chosen for this project
16
constitutes 5% of the Libben population. Once the presence of calculus was established
each set of teeth (3 to 5 teeth) from each burial selected was separated from the rest of the
remains and stored in 25 mL air-tight plastic bottles and marked with the burial number.
Cleaning
Each tooth required cleaning before any calculus could be extracted. Cleaning
removed any remaining dirt or dust which may have been coating the calculus deposit.
Each tooth was gently scrubbed using a soft bristled Oral-B toothbrush and distilled
water. Once the tooth was cleaned it was placed back into the open plastic container. The
containers were then placed under lab trays measuring (12” wide x 22” long x 3” deep)
and allowed to dry for three hours. During the cleaning process, calculus of several specimens dissolved or they may have been merely hardened soil cemented to the tooth
that washed away. This cleaning process is a standard procedure which has been used in a
number of studies that sought to examine the contents of dental calculus (Black et al.
2011; Henry et al. 2011; Scott & Poulson 2012). Thus those specimens were excluded
from the study. The resulting sample size is comprised of calculus from 56 individuals.
Extraction
Once the 56 specimens were dry each tooth was placed on sterile absorbent lab
paper. The absorbent lab paper was necessary to remove any remaining water from the
cleaning process which had not evaporated. A standard Oral-B dental pick was used to
pry and in some cases scrape the dental calculus from each tooth into 2 milliliter glass
test tubes which were immediately covered with Parafilm™ paper. Once the calculus of
each individual was collected it was then weighed using a standard postal scale. A simple
calculation was required to determine how much calculus (in grams) each burial rendered
17 for analysis;
“Weight of Test Tube with Calculus – The weight of an empty test tube = weight of calculus.”
Since there was large variation in the amount of calculus present in each burial, a standard calculus weight of one gram was chosen. In other words, calculus was removed from each test tube until only one gram of calculus remained. Any additional calculus was stored in a glass vial for future study.
Dissolving the calculus
Dissolving the carbonates and inorganic minerals from dental calculus is required to unlock dietary elements. Several viable methods exist for dissolving calculus (Piperno
2006; Pearsall 2015). Some dissolving procedures are destructive and only unlock certain dietary elements. This is due in part to the nature of the acids used and the particular interests of the researchers. In some procedure the acid would dissolve the inorganic calcium carbonate as well as the silicate phytoliths and starch grains. In other instances, every dietary element apart from the starch grains can be destroyed or not broken away from the calculus enough to become visible upon microscopic examination. For example, a study by Henry et al. (2012) used ionized water (slightly acidic pH) to dissolve calculus yet leave the starch grains untouched. Another study by Piperno et al. (2006) on silicate grass bodies of tropical food bearing plants found in dental calculus used concentrated acetic acid for its ability to dissolve starch and plant fibers but leave the phytoliths untouched.
The dissolving method chosen here is designed to dissolve the carbonates contained within the dental calculus while leaving dietary elements intact (or intact enough to identify using visual identification and published typologies). For the Libben study, a diluted hydrochloric acid (HCL 5%) solution was chosen for carbonate
18 dissolving. This method provided a way of unlocking dietary elements and minimizing damage to those elements. Here, 55 samples were subjected to the HCl dissolving process. One sample was separated for an alternative procedure designed to unlock plant pollen from the dental calculus.
Once each sample had been cleaned, dried, and placed in the test tube, 1 mL of the diluted HCl (5%) solution was added to each test tube. Then a Parafilm™ covering was placed over the test tube to ensure no contamination from the surrounding atmosphere. The test tubes containing the calculus-HCl solution were then placed in an undisturbed area for a period of 48 hours with a 5 minute manual agitation every 12 hours. Once the agitation was finished, the test tubes were left undisturbed for another 12 hours. The purpose of agitation was to ensure that all surfaces of the dental calculus became exposed to the acid solution.
Alternate pollen procedure
One sample (calculus from an adult male aged 36) was separated and targeted for a non-destructive calculus dissolving process. This process resulted from personal communications with Mark Shapley from the National Lacustrine Core Facility (Lac
Core) of the University of Minnesota. The Lac Core facility processes core samples taken from lake beds and riverine environments. Mr. Shapley’s advice was to obtain filtered water with a reading of 8 on the pH scale and allow the calculus to sit in the filtered water for the same 48 hour period as the samples receiving the “HCl” dissolving process.
“Tap” water from the Kent State University’s Archaeology lab sink faucet was filtered using a Brita brand water filter and tested using Hydrion™ litmus paper. The
Brita™ filter was chosen because it removes any metals such as copper or lead from the
19
water. The calculus from burial # 2243 was placed into a 2 mL glass test tube. 1mL of filtered faucet water was added to the test tube and a Parafilm™ covering was placed over the test tube.
After consultation with David M Jarzen PhD, a palynologist from the Cleveland
Museum of Natural History, an alternate procedure was used to provide another line of evidence for dietary practices at Libben. 50 grams of screened soil was obtained from
Feature 53, a midden pit, and sent to Geolabs Incorporated in Medicine Hat, Canada for pollen extraction. The method they use is proprietary but involved dissolving the inorganic elements with hydrofluoric acid. Geolabs Incorporated shipped 8 prepared slides containing stained (safarin) pollen grains and phytoliths. Those slides were then examined using the procedure outlined below and pollen grains were identified.
Slide preparation for microscopy
Few studies using dental calculus outline contamination control procedures although it is a standard practice in labs that analyze dental calculus from archaeological contexts (Technical Report of the Paleo Research Incorporated 2015). The following procedure was used to develop a comparative database of air contaminants within the
KSU archaeology lab. This database was necessary in order to exclude any contaminants within the samples.
Contamination control procedure
In order to identify and therefore exclude any contamination within the Kent
State University archaeology lab, twenty microscope slides were laid out onto the
laboratory countertops within in the archaeology lab. Two milliliters of distilled water
were dispensed via plastic pipette onto the microscope slides. The microscope slides were
20 left out for a period of 48 hours giving the distilled water time to evaporate. Once the 48- hour period had passed the slides were covered with coverslips and examined using light microscopy at 40x magnification. Fibers, hairs, mold and fungal spores which were present on the slides were visually noted and photographed. A reference database of photos was compiled and used during the examination of the calculus slides from Libben to rule out any potential contaminants.
Libben slide preparation
After the 48-hour dissolving period was complete the following procedure was conducted on each of the 55 samples.
Test tube was removed from rack and the Parafilm™ covering removed.
1. One mL of distilled water was added to the calculus-acid solution. The distilled
water was necessary in order to prevent hydrochloric acid crystals from forming
during the evaporation process.
2. The acid-calculus solution was dispensed onto the same type of slides used for the
control procedure. Each of the 55 samples rendered between 20 and 25
microscope slides for examination.
3. After each sample was dropped onto slides, a clean lab try was placed over the
slides to minimize the possibility of contamination.
4. The evidence of contamination among the roughly 1,200 slides examined for this
study was low with only 20 slides being removed due to contamination.
Each set of slides sat covered for a period of 48 hours. This period was necessary to ensure that the calculus-acid solution had completely evaporated. After the evaporation stage each slide was covered with glass microscope slide coverslips. The
21 coverslips are made of borosilicate glass (used for their uniformity in light transmission when used in light microscopy). Each borosilicate glass coverslip was secured using a clear acrylic epoxy.
Calculus microscopy
Each microscope slide was examined under Brightfield illumination and polarizing/cross polarizing light (polarizing light filters), on Olympus brand BH2 closed system microscope. Each slide was examined three times under three separate magnifications, 10x, 20x, and 40x. Each magnification level was necessary due to the variation in size between different dietary elements. Phytoliths tend to be much smaller than plant fibers and starch grains are yet even smaller than phytoliths.
Plant fibers
Plant fibers are the largest dietary element in terms of size. Slides were placed onto the microscope slide stage and examined under 10x and 20x magnification. Plant fibers were identified using morphological criteria such as shape and whether the fiber is twisting. Plant fibers were examined under standard Brightfield illumination and fibers were photographed. Plant fiber morphology is a diagnostic feature and in some cases can be specific to the plant species (Jakes 2001; Emens 2009). Once the morphology of a plant fiber obtained clear focus within the microscope optic, a 2 megapixel “tube” camera was placed over the microscope optic and photographs were taken. Each fiber was then examined using a polarizing and then cross polarizing light filters. The goal was to determine the color the fiber luminesces under polarized light. Like morphology, the color which a fiber luminesces under polarized light can be diagnostic (Jakes 2001; Jakes
22 personal communication; Emens 2009). All of the plant fiber photographs were then visually compared to existing plant fiber databases within publication. Fibers were also compared to a comparative database that was compiled as part of this research (Appendix
C).
Phytoliths
Plant phytoliths become visible at 40x magnification (Piperno et al. 2006; Lu &
Lui 2003; Bozarth 1990). Phytolith morphology, like plant fibers, is a diagnostic feature which can help identify from which plant family or species the phytolith originated. For a discussion on phytolith formation, see the introduction of this document. Each Libben calculus slide was examined at 40x magnification using Brightfield illumination
(appendix C). The phytoliths present were identified using publications featuring phytoliths from established Native American dietary plant sources (see Piperno et al.
2011; 2006; Lu & Lui 2003; Bozarth 1990; Renard 2007; Scott 1983; Jakes 2001).
Polarizing light microscopy was not used when examining calculus samples for phytoliths. Under polarized light phytoliths either disappear from view entirely or all display the same pattern of rainbow coloring. A comparative database of phytoliths for locally available indigenous food sources was compiled as part of this research. Once each phytolith had been identified it was photographed and counted (appendix C).
Pollen
Libben calculus slides from the alternate pollen procedure were examined for evidence of pollen grains at 20x and again at 40x magnification. The separate magnifications were necessary first to see the spread of pollen grains and then to examine the individual morphologies of observed grains. Once a pollen grain had been identified
23 as such, it was photographed, compared to two online pollen databases (National
Climatic Studies Center and The Neotoma Paleoecology Database) and identified using standard morphological analysis outlined in ethnobotanical and ecological publications
(Bryant 2007; Bryant 1975; Bryant & Hall 1993; Dobney 2014; Puech P.F. et al. 2001;
Kapp 1969; Faegri et al. 1989; McAndrews et al. 1973). Polarizing light microscopy was not used when looking for pollen within the Libben calculus samples. In the initial stages of this research it was observed that under polarized light most pollen grains tend to disappear due to their being almost transparent. Pollen grains were examined and counted using standard Brightfield illumination microscopy (appendix C for photographs).
Starch
The examination procedure for starch grains was identical to that of pollen. Since pollen grains are slightly larger on average than starch grains; a 40x magnification will allow for the researcher view the “spread” of starch grains rather than focusing on a particular grain. Each Libben calculus slide was examined under polarized light and the starch grains were counted and photographed (appendix C). Unlike pollen, starch grains have a distinctive shading pattern when observed under polarized light (Jane et al. 1992;
Emens 2009; Piperno et al. 2011). For example, maize starch grains display an illuminated (white in color) flattened cross shape with wide blades that come converge in the center of the grain (Pearsall 2015). Rice starch grains are similar to corn in that they display the cross shaped pattern on the grain. Wild rice starch grains vary from corn in that they are ovate in shape and smaller (Pearsall 2015).
There exists a wide variety of plants which produce starchy root bulbs (Hutchins
1969; Peterson 1999). A vast collection of starch bearing plants could be assembled as
24 part of any dietary research but for the purposes here, collection of starch bearing plants was restricted to only what would have been locally available during the Late Woodland period in northwest Ohio. Starch bearing plants available to the people of Libben were maize, wild rice, false Solomon’s seal, may apple, & blue cohosh. Seeds from the same types of starchy plants were found within the midden pits at the Libben site (Harrison
1978).
Counting Method
The counting method used here was simple in conception yet extremely time consuming. Each calculus slide was examined 4 times at varying magnifications depending on the specific dietary element being examined. Counting was conducted by first aligning each slide so that when looking into the microscope optic the top left edge of the calculus sample was visible. A calibrated microscope optic was used in this research. The optic had a crosshairs printed onto the lens. The optic displayed a “tic” mark every 10 degrees in all four directions. This allowed a controlled movement of the slide as well as a way to segment the slide to aid in counting process and minimize the possibility of error in counting.
The counting was done in several stages. The first stage used the magnification required to see plant fibers. Due to their larger size plant fibers are more easily examined and counted using varying magnifications up to 20x. Due to the nature of the interaction between the carbonates in the calculus and the hydrochloric acid some dietary elements were partially degraded. Thus, the counts presented here are of the amounts of whole starch grains, phytoliths and pollen grains contained within the Libben calculus. The third and fourth stages consisted of tabulating the pollen and starch grains according to the
25 same procedures as the plant fibers and phytoliths but at a higher magnification (40x).
Comparative plant fiber and phytolith database
As part of this research a comparative plant fiber, and phytolith database was compiled. This was a necessary step due to the lack of comparative databases on non- agricultural subsistence and medicinal plants species exploited by indigenous people in prehistory. Until now the primary focus of dental calculus based dietary reconstructions was on determining the presence of maize, wild rice, bottle gourds, beans, or squash and thus inferring agricultural practices. The research presented here is meant to bring to light the dietary preferences of the people contained within the Libben cemetery. It will add to the typological knowledge base for phytoliths, starch morphologies, and fibers that originate from indigenous wild food and medicinal plants.
The plants used in the comparative database were gathered from the Towner’s
Woods park in Kent, Ohio. Towner’s Woods was chosen because of the park’s proximity to Kent State University (less than 5 miles away). The second reason is that the Park contained environments which produced all of the plant species found in the Libben midden pits with exception of wild rice and maize (Linda Spurlock personal communication). Four trips were made to Towner’s Woods during the summer of 2016.
During each trip plants were identified using the diagnostic criteria outlined in the
Peterson’s Field Guide to Edible Plants of Eastern North America and Indian Herbology of North America. Once a plant was identified as possibly dietary related a sample of the plant was taken. Entire plants were extracted including the roots, leaves, flowers, and stems whether the entire plant is edible or not. Once a plant had been extracted using a standard mason’s trowel it was placed into an acid free, zip-lock plastic bag. The bag was
26 then labeled with the common name for the plant contained within.
Plant sample preservation
Once the plant samples arrived at the KSU archaeology lab they were immediately removed from the plastic bags and cleaned using distilled water and a toothbrush. Once the specimens had dried they were placed in between newsprint pages and pressed under lab trays. The plant samples were allowed to dry for a period of 72 hours. Once the specimens were dry but still pliable, microscopy slides were prepared so that each plant species could be examined for the presence and type of phytoliths as well as the specific morphology of fibers and their appearance under polarized light.
Plant sample microscopy procedure
Phytolith deposition is not uniform within any plant (Piperno et al. 2011; Bozarth
1990) and plant fibers and hairs can vary in appearance and morphology depending on what part of the plant is being examined (Emens 2009; Jakes 2001). For example, wild grape plant stem fibers are bright green under polarized light whereas the leaf fibers appear light yellow. Due to the variation in phytolith deposition and fiber properties, multiple microscopy slides were made for each constituent part of the plant: root fibers, stems, leaves, flowers (if present), and fruits (if present). A broad-spectrum approach was required in order to minimize overlooking a phytolith type or a variance in fibers appearance/morphology within a single plant. Once pressed and dried each plant sample was dissected and placed onto microscope slides and labeled with the common name for the plant. Each prepared plant slide was examined following the same magnification criteria as the procedures for the Libben calculus slides. Photographs were taken of each phytolith found as well as the specific morphology and appearance under polarized light
27 of plant fibers from varying parts of each plant specimen slide.
Analysis
Plant fibers, phytoliths, starch grains and pollen grains found in the calculus of the dentition of the 56 individuals were counted and summary statistics obtained (Table 5 appendix A). Two by two contingency tables were used to compare the relative presence and absence of dietary and medicinal plant species across categories of age and sex. The data acquired from the counts of starch grains and pollen was excluded from the group comparisons. The starch grains were excluded because the large of variation in the amount of grains found between individuals would inflate the dietary averages for each of the 4 starch bearing plant species that have been identified as being utilized at Libben.
The pollen was excluded due to the data being acquired from midden pits and is representative of the local flora at the time of occupation and not necessarily indicative of the dietary or subsistence practices.
28
Chapter 3: Results
Dietary and non-dietary plant species identified
Black Oak (Quercus velutina)
Total of 148 acorn fibers and 145 oak phytoliths were identified (see Table 5).
Black oak fibers were found in 57% and phytoliths in 35% of individuals. Black oak pollen was also discovered within the midden pit soil that was tested. No studies have been done on identification of starch grains from black oak acorns via polarized light microscopy and thus were not included in the counts of dietary starch. Acorn fibers were identified by their appearance under polarized light. The cambium fibers from the inner section of acorns shine bright white with rainbow edges under polarized light. Acorn fibers can also be identified via morphology; they appear flat under magnification. Oak phytoliths have an irregularly shaped appearance and do not conform to any specific geometric shape, much like shard of broken glass.
Amaranth (Amaranthus tuberculatus)
Amaranth appeared at a low frequency within the Libben calculus. A total of 60 plant fibers and 33 amaranth phytoliths were observed. Phytoliths were found in 10% of individuals and fibers in 34%. Amaranth fibers uniformly appear flat and black under polarized light. It is difficult to determine the location of the plant from which the fibers originated due the fiber’s appearance under polarized light. It is likely the plant fiber originated from the amaranth grain itself or its associated seed coat but it is possible that
29 the fibers originated from the plant stems. Amaranth phytoliths have a cube shaped appearance and are difficult to see based on their size.
Blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides)
Several dietary elements were observed to originate from blue cohosh: plant fibers, phytoliths, and starch grains. A total of 23 phytoliths, 38 root fibers, and 457 starch grains were observed. Blue Cohosh dietary elements were found in a moderate frequency at Libben. This is not surprising due to the medicinal nature of the plant. Blue cohosh fibers were present in 27%, phytoliths in 16%, and starch in 30% of individuals.
Blue cohosh root fibers appear flat and brown with bright white borders under polarized light. Blue cohosh phytoliths are angular and have a serrated appearance much like the many of phytolith types found in plant species within the Poaceae family. Blue cohosh starch grains appear dark with a single white glowing spot under polarized light.
Bracken Fern (Pteridium aquilinum)
Bracken fern phytoliths appear hexagonal under illumination. Bracken fern fibers appear round and brown with a light yellow outline along the lateral edges of the fiber.
Bracken fern fibers appear at a low frequency within the Libben calculus. A total of 26 fibers and 1 phytolith was observed. Bracken Fern phytoliths occur in 1% of individuals and root fibers in 21%. Due to the specific and non-dietary nature of Bracken Fern a large disparity of occurrence exists across age groups. This disparity will be explained in further detail within the discussion section of this document.
Chenopodium (Chenopodium album)
Chenopodium seed coat fibers appear round and are a dark brown color with darkened edges under polarized light. Chenopodium phytoliths are comprised of calcium
30
oxalate and generally present as druses. Druses are clustered calcium oxalate crystals and
are diagnostic in the identification of chenopodium phytoliths due to their snowflake like
appearance (Zhang 2014). A total of 105 fibers and 123 phytoliths was observed.
Chenopodium fibers were observed in 55% and phytoliths in 37% of the sample.
Chenopodium serves particular importance being a plant which would have easily grown
in the Black Swamp and is still found growing wild throughout Ohio today.
Chenopodium also regularly grows in areas which have been disturbed by human
activities (Zhang 2014). Chenopodium acts as a responder species to magnesium levels in
the soil (Zhang 2014). The rate and quality of chenopodium propagation can be indicative
the overall quality of the soil (Gremillion 1993; Zhang 2014).
Corn (Zea mays)
A total of 335 corn silk fibers, 403 phytoliths, and 1,419 starch grains was
observed. Dietary elements from corn appeared in very high frequencies in over 70% of
the sample. In most instances corn phytoliths will contain a small carbon grain which can
be extracted and used for carbon dating (Piperno 2006). Corn starch grains are very
distinctive in appearance when viewed under polarized light. Corn starch grains have a
bright white cross shape that spans the across entire grain (Piperno et al. 2011; 2006).
The fibers observed are classified as tetile fibers and are generally referred to as “corn
silk”. This type of fiber can be observed on modern corn species at the distal ends of the
ears of corn prior to harvesting. Corn silk fibers appear very light yellow and rounded
under polarized light. Under normal Brightfield illumination corn silk fibers appear clear.
False Solomon’s Seal (Maianthemum racemosum)
False Solomon’s seal (FSS) plant fibers come from the semipermeable root
31
coating and appear light brown and flat under polarized light. A total of 15 FSS root
fibers and 0 phytoliths was observed. It is possible that FSS does produce phytoliths but
none were observed in the dental calculus or in the plant sample acquired. FSS is a very
minor dietary component with less than 1 fiber found per individual and occurring in only
21% of the population. FSS is a starch bearing plant but no starch grains were observed.
Foxtail Millet (Setaria)
Foxtail millet, like FSS, was observed at very low frequencies, occurring in only
28% of the sample. Foxtail Millet fibers within the calculus originate from the grain
coating which contains the edible grains. Foxtail Millet fibers appear flat and a light blue
color under polarized light. Foxtail Millet phytoliths appear flat on one side with a
concave indentation on the opposite side. Phytoliths found in Foxtail Millet are very
similar to that of corn differing only in that corn phytoliths contain carbon and Foxtail
Millet phytoliths do not (Zhang 2009 et al.). There were a total of 27 fibers and 0
phytoliths observed the Libben calculus.
Boxelder Maple (Acer negundo)
Boxelder Maple fibers are found in multiple parts of the plant. The fibers
observed are identical to fiber acquired from the woody portion of the tree (i.e. stems,
twigs, branches, etc.). Maple fibers appear flat and white with no coloration on the edges.
Maple phytoliths are cube shaped with a distinctive line that runs down the center of the
structure (Yost et al. 2012). A total of 238 maple fibers and 216 phytoliths were
observed. Maple fibers and phytoliths were observed at high frequencies in the Libben
population. Maple fibers occur in 84% of the sample and phytoliths in 48%. Maple starch grains were not observed in the Libben calculus.
32
May Apple (Podophyllum peltatum)
May Apple fibers and starch grains were observed in the Libben calculus samples.
The fibers originate from the flower of the plant which is located on the terminal end of
the fruit. The fibers from the flower have a clustered appearance and are a deep gold
color under polarized light. May Apple starch grains appear globular and white under
polarized light. They may appear as single grains and may be compounded (several
grains stuck together). No May Apple phytoliths were observed in the calculus samples
or the plant sample acquired. A total of 49 May Apple fibers and 75 starch grains was
identified. May Apple fibers were found in 48% and starch grains in 23% of the sample.
Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca)
Common Milkweed is a non-dietary plant due to its toxicity if eaten in moderate quantities. Although it can be eaten in very small quantities it is generally reserved for medicinal use (Key et al. 2008). Milkweed fibers originate from the mature seed pod.
Milkweed fibers appear clear with a crisscross rainbow-colored pattern transecting the
entire fiber. A total of 64 milkweed fibers was observed in the Libben calculus samples;
36% of the sample. No milkweed phytoliths or starch grains were observed in any of the
Libben calculus.
Oxalis (Oxalis stricta)
Oxalis stem fibers were observed in the dental calculus from Libben. Oxalis fibers
appear white with a pale green outline under polarized light. Oxalis phytoliths are
composed of calcium oxalate and do not have a uniform shape or size (Madella 2007). In
essence they appear as amorphous blobs under normal light microscopy. No oxalis
phytoliths were observed in the dental calculus from the Libben Site. The presence of
33 oxalis fibers was minimal.
Raspberry (Rubus occidentalis)
Total of 156 raspberry stem fibers and 97 phytoliths was identified. Raspberry stem fibers appear flat and dark red under polarized light (appendix C). Raspberry phytoliths appear as rectangular rods under normal light microscopy. The size of raspberry phytoliths varies from 10 to 20 microns in length. Raspberry fibers were observed in 78% and phytoliths in 41% of the sample. No raspberry seed fragments or plant hairs from the fruit was observed.
Sumpweed (Iva annua)
Sumpweed seed coat fibers and phytoliths were identified. Sumpweed seed coat fibers appear round and bright orange in color under polarized light. The phytoliths observed are rectangular in shape and taper to a point on one end. Total of 68 fibers and
22 phytoliths were identified. Sumpweed fibers were observed in 41% and phytoliths in
19% of the sample. Sumpweed appears to be only a minor part of the diet of the Libben population which is surprising because, like chenopodium, it is nutritious and would have easily grown in the Black Swamp area.
Sunflower (Helianthus annus.)
The Libben calculus samples were examined for evidence of indigenous sunflower. No sunflower fibers and 123 phytoliths were identified (Table 5). Sunflower phytoliths were present in 44% of the sample. Sunflower phytoliths are dumbbell shaped with a psilate surface structure. A sample of indigenous sunflower was not available for this study but the morphology of sunflower phytoliths has been well documented
(Pearsall 2015).
34
Wild Grape (Vitis spp.)
Wild grape fibers and phytoliths were identified. Grape terminal stem fibers appear flat and bright yellow with no associated edge color. Wild grape phytoliths appear in two forms, druses (slightly rounded calcium oxalate crystals) and raphids (clusters of druses with jagged crystal like edges) (Rapp et al. 1992). Both phytolith shapes can be found in all parts of the wild grape plant. Thus, phytoliths for wild grape are not diagnostic for the anatomical part of the plant from which they originate (Rapp et al.
1992). A total of 110 wild grape fibers and 24 phytoliths were observed. Wild grape fibers were observed in 62% and phytoliths in 17% of the sample.
Wild Rice (Zizania aquatica)
Wild rice, second to corn, is represented by the highest number of dietary elements at Libben. Wild rice was observed in 51% of individuals. The percentage of occurrence displayed here is based solely on of the inclusion of phytoliths. The high frequency of wild rice phytoliths found in the dental calculus is striking, although no plant fibers were present. Wild rice phytoliths appear flat with a broad edge in the shape of a fan. Both sides of the phytolith taper to a point on the side opposing the fan edge
(appendix C). A total of 478 wild rice phytoliths was observed. The average phytolith count per person is 8.54.
Wild Rice also provides starch grains for analysis. Wild Rice starch grains appear in a quatrefoil shape with two dark lines intersecting across the length and width of the grain (Piperno et al. 2006; Pearsall 2015). In essence the entire grain will glow bright white under polarized light with a dark cross shaped pattern crossing over the grain. Total of 1,930 wild rice starch grains was counted. There is an average of 34.5 wild rice starch
35
grains per person. Wild rice starch was observed in 44% of the sample.
Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis)
Hackberry leaf fibers and phytoliths were identified and counted. Hackberry leaf
fibers appear dark green and flat under polarized light. Hackberry phytoliths are square in
shape and are composed of calcium oxalate. Total of 14 hackberry leaf fibers and 63
phytoliths was identified. Hackberry appears to be only a minor component of the Libben
diet likely due to the seasonal nature of the edible portions of the plant. Hackberry tree
fruit begins to ripen in September and the berries will continue to becomes sweeter in taste throughout the winter months (Moerman 2009). Hackberry fibers were found in
18% and phytoliths in 17% of the sample.
Shell Bark Hickory (Carya laciniosa)
Hickory nutshell fragments were observed in the dental calculus from Libben
population. A total of 453 nutshell fragments were observed. Hickory nut shell fragments
was found in 52% of individuals. It is important to note that although these shell
fragments have been identified as shell bark hickory this is due more to assumption rather
than a positive identification. All species of hickory nuts have a similar appearance under
normal light microscopy. Shell bark hickory is the most common type of hickory tree
found in the Black Swamp area.
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Table 5: Fiber, Phytolith. & Starch Percentage of Presence Fibers Presence Phytoliths Presence in Starch Presence Plant Species Found in Sample Found Sample Found in Sample Acorn 148 57% 145 35% 0 0% Amaranth 60 34% 33 10% 0 0% Blue Cohosh 38 27% 0 16% 457 30% Bracken Fern 26 21% 1 1% 0 0% Chenopodium 105 55% 123 38% 0 0% Corn 335 80% 403 55% 1419 81% False Solomon’s Seal 15 21% 0 0% 0 0% Foxtail Millet 27 28% 0 0% 0 0% Hackberry 15 17% 63 18% 0 0% Hickory 453 48% 0 0% 0 0% Maple 238 84% 216 48% 0 0% May Apple 49 48% 0 0% 75 23% Milkweed 64 35% 0 0% 0 0% Oxalis 13 14% 0 0% 0 0% Raspberry 156 78% 97 41% 0 0% Sumpweed 68 41% 22 20% 0 0% Sunflower 0 0% 123 47% 0 0% Wild Grape 110 62% 24 18% 0 0% Wild Rice 0 0% 478 52% 1930 45%
Vermillion Pigment
Vermillion pigment was observed in the dental calculus of several burials from
Libben. Vermillion is a bright red pigment used in ritual settings and may have been included in parts of the Libben burial program. A comparative sample of vermillion was acquired from the Enderle Site archaeological materials held at Kent State University. A total of 10 Libben burials (17% of the sample) contained vermillion pigment in the teeth.
Vermillion is a non-dietary mineral used for paints and dyes. Each individual from whom vermillion pigment was found was over the age of 35. The lack of vermilion pigment in the burials of younger individuals may indicate differential burial practices based on age.
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Comparison of dietary elements based on sex (male vs female)
There is little evidence of any distinct differences in diet based on sex. None of the contingency table comparisons of fibers and phytoliths from males and females achieved significance (alpha set at .05). In other words males and females were generally consuming the same dietary plant species. Although the amount of fibers and phytoliths vary per individual, the contingency tables reveal a remarkable uniformity in presence versus absence of dietary plant species across sex within the entire sample (appendix B).
These findings are consistent with the subsistence strategies employed by prehistoric egalitarian hunter gatherer groups (Piperno 2006).
Comparison of dietary elements based on age class (Adult vs Subadult)
Contingency Tables (appendix B) were used to determine if there exists a
significant difference in the presence or absence of plant fibers and phytoliths (alpha =
.05). Significant differences exist in dietary elements between adults and non- adults.
Since the entire sample was aged using skeletal and dental markers, the comparison
allows for stronger inferences. There is a significant difference in the occurrence of
maple (.001sig) and wild grape phytoliths (.005 sig). The non-adults displayed a
considerably a higher frequency of maple and wild grape phytoliths compared to the
adults. This disparity could be due to the particular part of the plant consumed.
Comparison of the presence of plant fibers provides more significant dietary differences
between age classes. Adults displayed a higher presence of maple (.02 sig), hackberry
(.04 sig), and bracken fern fibers (.02 sig) than non-adults. The consumption of corn was relatively uniform across both age categories, very few non-adults lacked evidence of corn in the calculus.
38
Differences in the presence between fibers and phytoliths of a single plant species may be explained by a difference in the consumption of specific plant parts. Maple fibers, for example, have a higher presence in adults than non-adults; whereas non-adults have a higher phytoliths presence for maple. Although this may appear contradictory, the differences are easily explained by differential exploitation. In other words, non-adults may have been consuming more maple sap or syrup, which has a higher phytolith count, than adults did. The adults may have been (along with consuming maple sap or syrup) using maple twigs as dental cleaning implements which explains the higher occurrence of fibers in their teeth.
Midden Pit Pollen
A total of 50 grams of soil was sent to Geolabs Incorporated in Medicine Hat,
Canada. The lab extracted pollen and phytoliths from the soil and returned 8 prepared microscope slides for examination (table 6). Several genera of pollen bearing plant species were identified on the microscope slides. Most of the pollen identified is considered typical for the local ecology surrounding Libben site. The vegetation around
Libben consisted primarily of deciduous trees and grasses. A single corn phytolith and
Carya (Hickory) pollen grain represent the only dietary plant species found in the Libben midden pit. It is possible that more dietary elements may be uncovered and identified given a larger sample of soil is subjected to the extraction process.
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Chapter 4: Discussion
In summary, dental calculus microscopy is an effective proxy for the dietary reconstructions of prehistoric populations. Dental calculus can provide evidence which can confirm the inclusion of organic materials from midden pits in the diet of an individual. The results here show that calculus microscopy can also uncover dietary plant species not found within midden pits. Contingency tables allow for differences in diet between age groups and sex to be determined and elaborated upon. Lastly, cultural practices can be determined and inferred based on non-dietary plants and minerals found in the dental calculus. In essence, this study has shown both the validity of a dietary reconstruction based on dental calculus and the ability to demonstrate that dietary reconstructions become stronger with the inclusion of evidence from multiple sources like plant fibers, phytoliths, pollen, and midden pit contents.
Nevertheless, the results presented here provide only a glimpse of the complex and diverse ecosystem in which the people of Libben lived. The Great Black Swamp provided a multitude of flora and faunal resources from nut trees to wild rice, and lake fish to waterfowl. Of primary concern here is whether or not the people of Libben can be considered an agricultural or horticultural group.
Nealis and Seeman (2015) argued based on C13 to C14 carbon isotope ratio tests on the long bones of seven individuals found in situ with diagnostic ceramic vessels, that the people of Libben were fully invested in the practice of intensive maize agriculture with
40
similar ratio levels as that of later Mississippian groups. The results presented here support a slightly different interpretation. The people of Libben were indeed ingesting maize, as evidenced by the maize phytoliths, starch grains, and corn silk fibers discovered in the dental calculus, but evidence suggests they were not as fully invested in maize agriculture as were the later Mississippian period peoples (Garbarino & Sasso
1994; Emerson et al. 2005).
This argument is supported by the sheer variety of food bearing plant species found in the calculus at Libben and by the fact that the location of the maize fields was never uncovered, even though attempts had been made by Olaf Prufer and others. The sample size provided by Seeman & Nealis that was used in their carbon isotope tests may have been too small to characterize the incidence of maize representative of the diet of the population as a whole. Seeman and Nealis do provide evidence for incipient maize agriculture during the Late Woodland period in Ohio.
An important confounding factor which sheds doubt on the assertion that the people of Libben were intensive maize agriculturalists is the use of C4 plant pathways signatures in carbon isotope ratio tests to identify the evidence of maize itself. The
Amaranthus plant lineage also uses a C4 photosynthetic pathway similar to maize (Sag et al. 2011). It is possible that the C13 to C14 carbon isotope ratio test is identifying plant pathways for both maize and amaranth, which undoubtedly would skew the ratio.
The Continuum of Cultivation
Subsistence practices have classically been divided into two categories, horticulture and agriculture (Hawkes 1969; Struever & Vickery 1973). Horticultural groups generally show little organized planting of food bearing plants, instead choosing
41
to promote certain wild species over others by the practice of in situ weed removal (Ford
1985). Horticulturalists show less investment, in terms of time and energy, in molding the local environment to maximize plant yields (Hawkes 1969; Ford 1985; Struever &
Vickery 1973). Horticultural groups will invest more in acquiring intimate geographic knowledge which provides a mental map of all the available food sources in a given area.
This invaluable information can be passed from generation to generation.
Chomko and Crawford (1978) argue that there is a distinct trade-off in investment that takes place when a group becomes agriculturalist. In essence, horticulturists invest in mapping the geographic locations of food sources and the temporal markers used to determine when each food source is ready to be exploited. By contrast, agriculturalists invest in fewer plant species and develop the best planting practices which will produce higher yields (Crawford & Chomko 1978; Yarnell 1964). Hawkes (1969) notes that determining the differences between horticulturalists and agriculturalists can be ascertained quite easily given the fact that agriculturalists invariably alter the local environment making their settlement patterns more easily noticeable than that of their horticultural counterparts.
It is argued here that the Libben people can neither be classified as solely horticultural or agricultural in terms of subsistence practices. The people of Libben sat at the intersection of natural resource exploitation, wild plant promotion, and the purposeful planting of several early cultigens. In essence, the people who buried their dead at Libben invested some time in agricultural practices but supplemented their diets using many wild food sources. Overall the Libben population can be classified as an incipient or proto agricultural group which still relied primarily on the promotion and gathering of wild
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food resources. This statement is consistent with archaeobotanical findings at
contemporary and geographically similar sites across the Eastern Woodlands.
Another line of evidence which may push some to consider Libben an agricultural
group is the high number of sacred objects buried with the infants (inscribed shell
pendants and jewelry). Generally, archaeologists interpret the inclusion of sacred objects
with infant (or young child) burials as evidence of cultural complexity, ascribed status,
and stratification (Renfrew & Bahn 2016). The presence of burial artifacts has even been
used to argue that a particular group was agricultural although no archaeobotanical
remains were recovered from the site (Renfrew and Bahn 2016). The advantage of
Libben is that the dental calculus examined provides ample evidence to refute an essentialist classification system based solely on burial goods.
Libben Resource Niche Construction
When the subsistence practices of Libben are examined in terms of cultural
ecology a clearer picture of prehistoric pre-agricultural resource exploitation begins to
develop. It is likely that the people at Libben were not solely agricultural or horticultural
but instead, based on the archaeobotanical evidence collected, display a complex mixture
of practices from both categories including the promotion of wild plant species via
removal of competitor or non-dietary plant species, small scale single home/single garden
cultivation of a staple cultigen (maize), and possible landscape modification to increase
prey abundance. Cultural ecology achieves an accurate depiction of past subsistence
practices without making any assertions about a group’s level of cultural complexity or
sedentism based on agriculture.
In the past, cultural ecologists have relied on, among other methodologies,
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examining morphological changes in seed size and changes in plant genetics as indicators
of agriculture (see: Cappelletti & Poldini 1984; Hewitt 1998; Chomko & Crawford
1978). Today, seed morphology studies have largely been abandoned in lieu of
constructing genetic profiles for agricultural plant species (Smith 2011a, 2011b). Smith
(2011 a or b?) notes that seed sizes may not change over time in plant species which are
promoted in the wild rather than purposefully planted. Alternately, natural competition
(i.e. natural selection) between wild plant species (in a given area) may produce larger
seed sizes over time without any human intervention at all (Gremillion 1992; Smith
2011b). Smith (2011b) has supported the idea that natural competition between plant
species can cause dramatic changes in seed morphology. In essence seed size fluctuation
is not direct evidence of human interaction with the plant and may instead represent the
level of natural competition over time.
The subsistence practices at Libben follow the same general trends of
domestication that can be observed in most sedentary proto-agricultural groups. Instead
of purposefully sowing large-scale community fields, the people of Libben were likely
practicing what Smith refers to as in-place promotion and small scale private gardening strategies. In-place promotion refers to encouraging the propagation wild plant species in situ by removing any competitors within the area of the desired plant. This allows for a higher yield from the wild plants without transplanting the plant to another locale or altering the natural life cycle of the plant (Smith 2011a, 2011b). This limited form of interaction allows for the manipulation of plant yields without the intensive time investment that agriculture entails. This limited interaction is supported by the high amount of wild plant versus non-wild species found within the dental calculus. In
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essence, every single plant species ingested by the people at Libben was indigenous to
the local environment except for Maize.
The assertion that the people of Libben were pre-agricultural is supported by other
studies of contemporary groups set within similar environments (niches). An example of
an ethnographically similar group set within a similar environment as that of Libben is
the Ojibwa of Wisconsin and Michigan. Although the Objiwa are a modern/historic
period indigenous tribe, they trace their lineage in the area back into prehistoric times
(Densmore 1976). Prehistoric Ojibwa settlements were clustered around riverine and
swampy resource rich areas (Smith 2011a, 2011b). Ojibwa groups exploited wild rice,
chenopodium, maize, and oak savannahs without investing in actual agriculture until the
historic period (maize was grown on a small scale in private home gardens). In other
words, wild rice and acorns were so plentiful that there was no need to conduct planned
agricultural manipulation of any plant species until much later in history (closer to the
time of European conquest of the Americas). Wild rice was abundant to a point that may
have promoted the cultural practice of private ownership of wild rice patches (Smith
2011; Densmore 1976). Ojibwa families each had a specific way in which they would tie
their rice bundles before harvest. Each family knew exactly which patch of wild rice was
theirs to exploit (Densmore 1976). The Ojibwa serve as a perfect example for
ethnographic comparison based on ecological similarities between the habitation areas.
Timeline of Agriculture & Plant Domestication in the Ohio Region
Although plant domestication and agriculture are said to have fully developed
towards the end of the Late Woodland period (AD 600-1200), agricultural practices and cultigen exploitation may have occurred much earlier. Evidence for the use of cultigens
45 as food sources dates as far back the Late Archaic period (3000-1000 BC). Early cultigens include chenopodium, maygrass, sumpweed, and sunflower, all of which are members of the Eastern Agricultural Complex, a group of select species that were independently manipulated by humans from wild to domesticate.
Evidence of cultigen use in the Late Archaic period supports several points. First, that the practice of manipulating cultigens in the Eastern Woodlands of North America is much older than previously thought. Second, agriculture and plant domestication occurred independently in North America free of any long reaching or direct connection with Mesoamerican cultures. Lastly, that the development of agriculture is a long and complex process which spans many generations and is not always a complete shift away from prior horticultural practices as evidenced by the people at Libben and the aforementioned Ojibwa groups. Careful examination of the type of resource exploitation and energy investments made over time in the Ohio region will support the notion that agriculture develops independently of time constraints and cultural complexity.
Environment, resource availability, and population size all play important roles in the developmental trajectory of any deme.
Late Archaic Cultigen Use (1500-800 BC)
The Asmus No. 3 site is located in Wood County, Ohio and carbon dating places the occupation of the site within the Late Archaic period (1500-1350 BC). The site contained several midden pits (Stothers 1975). The midden pit soils were subjected to flotation testing and the resulting materials were examined for evidence of cultigens and wild food plants. The researchers uncovered sunflower seed shells and chenopodium seeds (Stothers 1975). Although there were no house structures (or as Stothers notes one
46 potential house structure) the two food sources that were uncovered were likely grown within close proximity of the site (Stothers 1975). Although seed size alone is not a good indicator of the level of plant’s domestication, the sunflower seeds uncovered at the
Asmus No. 3 Site were within the same morphological range (length, width, and thickness) as those from cultivated sunflowers recovered from later sites (Stothers 1975).
Another Archaic period site which shows the exploitation of cultigen species in the Ohio region is the Salts Cave site from northwestern Kentucky. Salt Cave’s occupation ranged from 1100-710 BC (Chomko & Crawford 1978; Struever & Vickery
1973). Five human fecal samples were uncovered and examined. They contained seeds and grains from chenopodium, amaranth, bottle gourd, and sunflower. The researchers note that the only species found which are indigenous to the local environment were chenopodium and sunflower (Struever & Vickery 1973). The Salts Cave site shows that cultigen species were being exploited and transported in the Ohio region during the Late
Archaic period without any evidence of large scale agricultural projects and changes in settlement patterns.
Early Woodland Cultigen Use (800 – 100 BC)
Cultigen use and exploitation varied greatly during the Early Woodland period.
William Dancey examined the contents of several midden pits from Daines Mound in southern Ohio which dated to the Early Woodland period. Contained within the midden pits were several burnt maize cobs (Dancey 1997). Dancey notes that no settlements were found around the Daines Mound Site and even postulates that perhaps the corn deposited
(in otherwise clean midden pits) may indicate a meal that was eaten by those responsible for interring the dead buried within the mound (Dancey 1997).
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An Early Woodland Adena site in southeastern Ohio has yielded evidence of
indigenous cultigen use but no maize (Wymer 2003). The Boudinot No. 4 Site, an Adena
hamlet with several house structures, defined gardening fields, and midden pits, yielded
seeds from sunflower, chenopodium, and sumpweed. The evidence suggests that the
Adena people from Boudinot No. 4 site were likely growing EAC cultigens such as
sunflower and sumpweed while simultaneously promoting the chenopodium by removing
competing plants from the local area (Wymer 2003).
The Kettle Hill Cave site is a hunting camp in Fairfield County with multiple
occupations throughout prehistory (Struever & Vickery 1973; Shetrone 1928). During the
Early Woodland period Kettle Hill Cave was occupied intensively, resulting in several
contemporaneous midden pits. In each midden pit archaeologists uncovered large
amounts of burnt maize cobs, sunflower seeds, pumpkin rinds, and chenopodium seeds
(Shetrone 1928).
The aforementioned sites show that cultigen use was variable during the Early
Woodland period. Some populations were investing more into maize agriculture while
others were concentrating on the use of indigenous food sources or continuing to grow
established EAC cultigens. It is important to note that in every instance of maize found in sites dating from the Late Archaic to the Early Woodland period the maize was much smaller than the maize cultivated during the historic period (Struever & Vickery 1973).
The average corn cob size found during the Late Archaic to Early Woodland periods was
3-5 inches and contained a maximum of six rows (Struever & Vickery 1973). This small- sized variety of corn has limited nutritional value (more limited than modern maize varieties) and was likely used as a supplement to other food sources or for cultural
48
purposes like the sacred corn beers seen in prehistoric Mexico and Central America.
Middle Woodland Cultigen Use (100 BC – AD 500)
The McGraw site is a single component site from Ross County, Ohio. The site
was excavated in 1963-1964 by Olaf Prufer and a team of researchers from the Cleveland
Museum of Natural History. Several midden pits were fully excavated, subjected to
flotation testing, and analyzed for organic plant materials (Prufer 1966). The flotation
testing uncovered several corn cobs (6) and kernels. Prufer notes that the corn cobs do not
resemble earlier maize types but rather an intermediate form somewhere between the
smaller prehistoric varieties and the modern maize we see today (Prufer 1966). Based on
cob size and kernel morphology the researchers determined there were two separate
varieties of maize present at the McGraw site (Prufer 1966).
More importantly, the McGraw site offers a glimpse into indigenous land use
directly prior to the intensification of agriculture in southern Ohio. The McGraw site is a
small hamlet which contained no more than 45-60 people (Prufer 1966). Based on evidence from several midden pits as well as diagnostic ceramic vessel types, Prufer notes that the site was most likely a conglomerate of several families living together.
Planting fields were dispersed and extremely small. It is likely that any agricultural investment at McGraw was on a family level, rather than communal. In other words, like
Libben, the people at the McGraw site were practicing small scale single family garden
agriculture. Yarnell (1966 report to Prufer) asserts that the single midden pit in the center
of the site was most likely a communal garbage pit used by all the members of the
community and that procurement of wild foods and hunting was likely communal as well
(Yarnell 1966). Any shortfall in the acquisition of wild foods from communal efforts was
49 likely supplemented by individual family gardens.
Dee Anne Wymer has extensively studied indigenous plant exploitation during the Middle Woodland period in Licking County, Ohio. Wymer analyzed archaeobotanical remains from the Murphy III site. The Murphy III site layout is similar to that of the
McGraw site. In essence, the Murphy III site was several small structures situated around a communal garbage pit (Wymer 1997; 2003). Excavations of the midden pit at Murphy
III yielded roughly 20 plant seeds per liter of soil. The seeds were identified as being from sunflowers, sumpweed, maygrass, and chenopodium (Wymer 1997; 2003). There was also an abundance of squash rinds discovered within the midden pit.
The Murphy III site, like McGraw, shows that the indigenous population of Ohio was investing in small scale agriculture based on locally available cultigens during the
Middle Woodland period. The interesting part about the Murphy III site is the lack of evidence for maize. The absence of maize supports what Rose Fionnuala (2008) refers to as a bi-modal investment in maize agriculture. In other words, some indigenous groups were investing in the use of maize as a cultigen and others were not. As evidenced by the comparison of the McGraw and Murphy III sites the introduction of maize as a cultigen did not drastically change settlement patterns until much later in time.
Late Woodland Cultigen Use (AD 500 – 1200)
It was once thought that maize agriculture disappeared for approximately 300 years after the end of the Middle Woodland period and reappeared alongside the development of social stratification during the Proto-Historic period (Struever & Vickery
1973). This statement no longer holds true. Several Late Woodland sites including Ash
Cave, the Zencor site, Porteus site, and many others have yielded evidence of long
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established EAC cultigens such as chenopodium, may grass, and sunflower and considerable amounts of maize (Fionnuala 2008).
The Late Woodland period sat at an intersection between the exploitation of
indigenous plant cultigens such as chenopodium and sunflower and the development of
intensive in maize agriculture. Rose Fionnuala (2008) examined several sites from west central Illinois and determined that carbon isotope levels between populations increase as much as 30% by the end of the Late Woodland but that increase is not uniform, thus indicating variation in levels of agricultural investment during that time period.
Fionnuala (2008) also notes that significant climatic changes occurred during the Late
Woodland in western Illinois making it more conducive for maize agriculture and less conducive for the growth cycles of some wild food sources like shrub fruits (raspberries and blackberries) and wild rice. In essence, maize agriculture did increase throughout the
Eastern Woodlands but may have been in response to localized climatic changes and was not uniformly distributed. Furthermore the introduction of maize agriculture did not initially change the indigenous “agricultural” repertoire. Some groups like those in western Illinois invested more during the Late Woodland whereas some groups in southern Ohio were still using native cultigens as their primary set of crops (Hornum &
Burks 2011; Fionnuala 2008).
The Krieger site in southern Ontario exemplifies an indigenous group that had invested in maize agriculture without changing settlement patterns. Of particular importance, the Krieger site is part of the Western Basin tradition into which Libben is also incorporated. The Krieger site provides a contemporaneous example of a population living in similar ecological conditions as the people of Libben. Carbon isotope ratios
51 were obtained from 13 individuals and the results show that maize was consumed but did not dominate the diet of adults (Watts et al. 2011). Instead the results show that the adolescents and children displayed a disproportionate amount of maize consumption when compared to the adults.
The Indian Island and Gard Island sites provide in interesting view of the adoption of maize as a cultigen during the Late Woodland. Both sites were occupied contemporaneously (AD 500-700). Evidence of maize exists on both islands (cobs and kernels); no evidence has been uncovered to support the cultivation of maize at either site. Of particular importance is that the Indian Island maize kernels found (85 total) were of a significant size and morphology to indicate a modern variety of maize (Yarnell
1975). The kernels discovered at Gard Island are within the same morphological range as earlier varieties of maize. Although evidence for maize at each site is minimal (no cobs were uncovered at Gard Island) the results presented by Richard Yarnell are consistent with other Late Woodland maize varieties found in Illinois (large kernel) and Ohio (small kernel) during the early Late Woodland period (Yarnell 1975).
The amount of investment in maize agriculture varies greatly during the Late
Woodland period; intensification does not necessarily indicate rises in population size or level of sedentism as was previously thought. Maize agriculture did not initially change small scale settlement patterns or greatly increase fertility rates for indigenous groups. In essence, maize was a cultigen whose adoption was likely bolstered by climatic changes during a time in which the availability of wild food sources may have been dwindling.
There is no formula or set of criteria to predict when a given population or community may have adopted maize agriculture in Ohio. The adoption of maize was
52 likely due to a mixture of factors including climate, territory size, and cultural interactions with adjacent groups. There are only two general patterns in maize agriculture throughout the antiquity of the Eastern Woodlands. First, that maize agriculture did intensify after the Late Woodland period but investment/adoption before then was highly variable. Second, maize agriculture spread via river systems, being first adopted in riverine areas and initially played a very minor role when compared to other native EAC cultigens such as chenopodium, may grass, or sunflower (Struever & Vickery
1973).
Late Prehistoric Cultigen Use (AD 1200 – 1650)
During the Late Prehistoric period, people in Ohio were living in large villages surrounded by protective stockades (Lepper 2005). A cultural group which archaeologists have termed the Sandusky Complex occupied the Black Swamp area (Garbarino & Sasso
1994). During the late prehistoric period maize, beans, and squash became the predominant cultigens utilized by the indigenous people in Ohio (Lepper 2005; Garbarino
& Sasso 1994). Maize agriculture continued to intensify across southern Ohio culminating in the Fort Ancient cultures whose populations displayed Mississippian level carbon isotope ratios (Garbarino & Sasso 1994).
The Late Prehistoric period contrasts with earlier periods in that the aforementioned cultigens dominated the earlier indigenous agricultural repertoire, while
Late Prehistoric indigenous groups were fully invested in intensive maize, squash, and legume agriculture the effects of which can be seen in village organization (Sculli 2002,
Struever & Vikery 1973). Ritual practices such as the “Green Corn” ceremony observed among the Iroquois and other Woodland tribes may have developed during this period
53
(Wallace 1970). In essence the Late Prehistoric period saw a complete investment in
maize agriculture among the indigenous people of Ohio.
The Sunwatch Village site in southern Ohio displays intensive agricultural
practices. Investigations at the site have uncovered evidence of large organized planting
fields, ritual practices revolving around the growth cycles of maize, beans, and squash,
and little evidence of traditional EAC cultigens except or sunflowers (Lepper 2005).
Midden pits have yielded maize cobs and kernels, sunflowers seeds, squash rinds and
seeds, and legume seeds. The types of agricultural practices employed at Sunwatch
Village are typical of Late Prehistoric sites across southern Ohio (Garbarino & Sasso
1994).
Research is currently being conducted to address the agricultural practices in northern Ohio during the Late Prehistoric period. French explorer La Salle (1684) noted in his journal that upon sailing the coastline of northern Ohio there was hardly any divisions between the Indian growing fields. In other words, first-hand accounts support the assertion that intensive agriculture was practiced during the Late Prehistoric period in northern Ohio. In 1690 Jesuit missionaries living among the Erie people of northeastern
Ohio noted the abundance of maize and the ritual ceremonies that revolved around growth cycles of maize, squash, and beans (Smith 1987). The Erie people also had ceremonies revolving around the growth cycles of wild strawberries. This indicates that even during the Late Prehistoric period the indigenous people were still utilizing wild plant species for food (Smith 1987). It is likely that as more Late Prehistoric sites in northern Ohio are uncovered and excavated, more evidence of the use of EAC and modern period cultigens will be discovered.
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Dietary Profile of the Libben People
In the following section, I will elaborate on the dietary plant species found within the dental calculus at Libben. There is no statistical or laboratory test that can indicate the specific amount of a given dietary plant an individual consumed but frequency of occurrence in the calculus can be used for inference. The goal here is to provide a basic understanding of what type of nutrition the ecology of the Great Black Swamp provided to the people at Libben.
Nutritional values presented here are based on an individual serving size of 100 grams. This number serves as a standardized measure and will provide an adequate idea of the types of nutritional elements which could be obtained from wild food sources in northwestern Ohio. This section will also address medicinal components of each food source. Although some of the dietary elements presented here were consumed as food, many of them have documented medicinal uses as well which may have been of value to the people at Libben (Moerman 2009; Peterson 1999).
Nutritional Availability Profile & Plant Utilization
Black Oak (Quercus velutina)
Acorns contain tannic acid which is toxic if consumed. High levels of tannic acid can damage kidney function and impair ability to absorb iron (Paladino et al. 2006).
Acorns require processing before they are edible (Vanderwarker & Idol 2008). Acorn exploitation and processing by indigenous people in North America is well documented
(Bainbridge 1985; Wholgemuth 1996; Haney 1992; Hann 1986; Vandewarker & Idol
2008; Kroeber 2012). Acorn processing by indigenous people of Ohio has not received
55 much attention from the archaeological community beyond simply noting the presence of acorns within a site’s assemblage. It is possible that the indigenous people at Libben processed acorns into flour in a similar manner to that documented in the ethnographic accounts recorded by Alfred Kroeber.
Kroeber (2012) has documented a specific acorn processing technique employed by the Modoc people of Northern California. After acorns were gathered they were shelled using a mano and metate. Once the hard outer shell was removed the acorn meat was roughly ground to loosen the inner cambium skin (Kroeber 2012). The roughly ground acorn pieces would then be gathered into a ceramic dish or flat basket. Using the basket or dish the acorn meat would be tossed into the air several times. During this step the inedible inner cambium of the acorn nut separates from the meat and is carried off in the wind (Kroeber 2012). In the next processing phase the acorn meat is wrapped in cloth, woven grass patches, leaves, or another permeable material. The bundle is placed into running water (collected water in large basins has also been documented) and after several hours the tannic acid is leached out of the acorn meat (Kroeber 2012). The acorn meat is then ground into a fine powder and laid out onto a flat dish or bowl in the sun to dry. Once the meat is dry it can be stored or made into a bread or gruel (Kroeber 2012).
At Libben both adults and non-adults consumed acorns, but acorns appear to comprise a smaller portion of the total diet in adults than non-adults as evidenced by its presence in almost all of the non-adults (appendix B figure 1, 2). A possible interpretation for the large amount of evidence for acorns in non-adults is the use of acorn mash as a staple food for children. Acorns are rich in carbohydrates, fats, and protein.
Black oak bark has several medicinal properties. There are ethnohistoric accounts
56 of Delaware tribes using an infusion black oak bark as a cold remedy. The infusion would be gargled and spit out and was purported to relieve a sore throat (Moerman 2009;
Huchtens 1973). The Menominee tribe used a concoction of the inner bark, water, and wood ash to relieve eye sores (Moerman 2009).
Amaranth (Amaranthus tuberculatus)
Amaranth is rich in iron with 100 grams providing almost half of the daily requirement and has moderate protein content. Dry uncooked amaranth can be stored in a ceramic vessel for up to six months before the nutrient content is negatively affected
(Waszkiewicz 2007). Several species of amaranth across the world are exploited as a food source by various cultures. There are even documented instances of amaranth plants being used in syncretic religious contexts in Ecuador in antiquity and modern times
(Heiser 1964). The Iroquois of New York used amaranth in a ritual meant to protect against witchcraft (Moerman 2009; Morgan 1860). During the Late Woodland period there is evidence that several species of amaranth were being cultivated in varying degrees across the North America. The La Canopas site (AD 1020), a Hohokam settlement on the Salt River in Phoenix Arizona, yielded several pounds of amaranth grains some of which appeared to be roasted (Fritz et al. 2009). Small scale amaranth cultivation has been documented among historic period Wyandot and Seneca tribes
(Chamberlain 1901). Amaranth has also been used as a dye among the Pueblo people of
New Mexico and a coloring for alcoholic drinks among the indigenous of Northern
Argentina (Sauer 1950).
The climate at the time of occupation and the swampy local environment around the Libben site would have been conducive for the growth of wild amaranth plants. Thus
57
amaranth may not have been a cultigen due to its availability as a wild food source. If the
people at Libben manipulated wild amaranth stands, it was likely to have been minimal
and have involved the removal of competitor plant species to promote its growth. Of
greater importance, the amaranth found in the calculus at Libben is the only documented
instance of the use of amaranth by indigenous people in Ohio.
Chenopodium (Chenopodium album)
The exploitation and cultivation of chenopodium is widely documented all across
the Eastern Woodlands (Wymer 2003; Gemillion 1993; Heiser 1979). The seeds of the
plant were collected and eaten raw or cooked. Chenopodium starch grains gelatinize at a
much lower temperature than other pseudocereals (Zoliol 1991). Chenopodium contains
the essential fatty acids, linoleic and r-linoleic acids, accounting for 55- 63% of lipid content (Zoliol 1991). Chenopodium is also rich in carbohydrates and has moderate iron content (USDA 1975).
Stands of chenopodium plants tend to grow well in riverine environments and disturbed soils, thus it is possible that people living around Libben may have been growing small amounts or propagating already existing stands. Chenopodium stands would likely have been abundant in the Black Swamp during the occupation and use of the Libben Site. It has by hypothesized that this is why it may have been one of the earliest exploited plant species in the Eastern Woodlands (Struever & Vickery 1973).
Maize (Zea mays)
One of the most prevalent dietary plants observed was maize. The high frequency
indicates that corn was likely used as a staple food source all year round. Corn provides
phytoliths, starch grains, and plant fibers for observation. Corn phytoliths are very
58 distinctive and come in two shapes; a saddle shaped or a cross shaped structure (Piperno et al. 2006). The morphology of the corn phytoliths indicates the particular part of the plant from which the phytoliths originated. Cross shaped phytoliths originate from the plant leaves while the saddle shaped phytoliths form in the cob of the fruit (Piperno et al.
2006). As has already been stated maize agriculture at Libben was probably quite limited and was consumed across both age classes and sex (Appendix B, figures 3, 4). The non- adults displayed a lower frequency of absence of corn fibers and phytoliths than the adults. Differential maize consumption has been noted at other contemporaneous Western
Basin Tradition sites (Watts et al. 2011). There are several possible interpretations for differences in maize consumption. Maize could have been used as a staple gruel given to the children. Alternatively, corn and acorn mash could have been reserved for those individuals who stayed closer to the village and may not have had access to wild food supplies.
Stothers and Abel (2002) have noted that the Late Woodland period saw a slow but steady increase in the exploitation and cultivation of maize in riverine sites in northwestern Ohio. The same researchers have postulated that a possible explanation for the increase in maize production in southeastern Michigan and northwestern Ohio is the development of competitive feasting. In essence groups were competing with surrounding peer groups by hosting elaborate feasts like those documented in aboriginal groups for northwestern Unites States and the Huron tribe’s “Feast of the Dead” celebrations (Stothers and Abel 2002; Wallace 1970).
The nutritional value in maize is limited. The calorie, iron, and vitamin content in maize are low (USDA 1975). It is important to note that the nutrients within corn,
59
particularly niacin, have to be unlocked by processing the raw corn by soaking it in wood
ash or an alkali substance (Carpenter 1983). In essence the nutrients in maize are locked
within a glue like substance called hemicellulose, the most digestible of the three
fractions of dietary fiber (cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin). The soaking process
breaks down the hemicellulose thus allowing it be absorbed by the digestive tract
(Carpenter 1983).
Foxtail Millet (Setaria)
The absence of Foxtail Millet phytoliths may be attributed to the part of the plant
utilized as a food source. Foxtail Millet grains do not contain any phytolith deposits
(Zhang et al. 2009). Any phytoliths as well as the bulk of plant fibers may have been lost
due to the level of processing Foxtail Millet requires in order to be utilized as a food
source. There is no documented evidence of the cultivation or exploitation of Foxtail
Millet in prehistoric Ohio. It is likely that the miniscule amounts of Foxtail Millet found
within the dental calculus at Libben is perhaps accidental inclusion and may have been
picked up while harvesting another riverside food source. Alternatively, the Foxtail
Millet may have become included within the calculus while consuming waterfowl. Most
of the species that frequented the Black Swamp would have ingested the indigenous
Foxtail Millet (Newlon et al. 1964).
Boxelder Maple (Acer negundo)
Wood fibers from boxelder maple trees were found within the calculus at Libben.
Lewis Henry Morgan (1860) noted a fondness for maple syrup among the Seneca and
Onondaga tribes of the Iroquois. The same tribes have been documented taking maple
syrup and mixing it with popcorn, allowing it to dry, and essentially eating the world’s
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first version of Cracker Jacks (Wallace 1970; Morgan 1860). Maple wood fibers were
found at relatively high frequencies within the Libben population.
It is possible that, like the Iroquois, the people around Libben were tapping
boxelder maple trees for the sweet sap and using twigs as toothbrushes. The use of
various species of woody plants as toothbrushes or tooth picks has been widely
documented among dozens of historic period tribes (Densmore 1973; Moerman 2009).
More recent investigations have uncovered the use of tree twigs as toothbrushes in
humans up to a million years ago (Hardy 2016). Hardy examined the calculus from a
human mandible from an archaeological site in northern Spain. She discovered fragments
from an inedible species of tree.
As part of this research several boxedler maple twigs were frayed using a hammerstone. The hammerstone was used because it is the closest approximation to the
same type of tool which would have been available to the people of Libben. The maple
twigs were pounded and then used as toothbrushes. I conducted this experiment myself
and noticed maple toothbrushes were moderately effective in the removal of dental
plaque. Although this experiment was very cursory and cannot estimate how truly
effective a wooden toothbrush may be, it did demonstrate that teeth can be cleaned to
some degree using maple tree twigs.
Black Raspberry (Rubus occidentalis)
The exploitation of wild raspberry bushes is well documented in the Eastern
Woodlands. Ojibwe tribes in Michigan and Wisconsin have folklore and myths that refer
to the antiquity of raspberry exploitation (Norrgard 2009). The relatively equal distribution of raspberry dietary elements at Libben indicates that this plant species was
61 utilized by all members of the group. It is likely that raspberry bushes were not cultivated but their growth may have been supported by the indigenous people of the area. The recognition and gentle manipulation of wild food sources such a raspberries is a hallmark of all primates regardless of cultural or evolutionary circumstance (Smith 2011).
It is likely that the people living around Libben had intimate knowledge regarding the location of wild berry patches and how to promote those patches with the minimal amount of effort or time expended. Black Raspberries have documented medicinal uses across the Eastern Woodlands. The Cherokee would use a strong infusion of water and black raspberry leaves to relieve contraction pains during childbirth (Moerman 2009).
The Chippewa, Ojibwe, and Iroquois would chew the roots for pain relief and use the thorny branches to “scratch away” rheumatism (Moerman 2009). Lewis Henry Morgan
(1860) noted the effectiveness of black raspberry root in curing his toothache. The
Menominee people used black raspberry roots and leaves in cases of severe diarrhea
(Moerman 2009, Hutchens 1973).
Sumpweed (Iva annua)
The domestication and cultivation of sumpweed has been well documented in the
Eastern Woodlands (Yarnell 1972; Wymer 2003, 2008). Sumpweed is one of the earliest cultigens in the Eastern Woodlands being found at Late Archaic and Early Woodland sites in Kentucky (Gremillion 2004). Sumpweed is a hardy carbohydrate rich plant.
While the fiber, minerals, lipids, and proteins found in the shell would be indigestible without some milling process, the kernels are a good source of food energy because of their high fat and low moisture content (Wymer 2008). They provide fewer calories than most hard mast resources, similar amounts to other oily seeds like sunflower, but much
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more than starchy seeds like chenopods and maygrass (Moerman 2009).
Sumpweed has no medicinal value that has been documented. Yarnell (1972) has
noted that since the cultivated species of sumpweed is now extinct in North America, it is
difficult to determine the extent to which the plant was cultivated. Experiments have
shown that modern species of sumpweed provide 746 pounds of oil rich seeds per acre
(Asch & Asch 1978). This would make sumpweed a more valuable field crop rather than
a garden crop. Although these findings support field cultivation, the larger seed size
associated with the extinct domesticated species would make garden cultivation just as
viable (Yarnell 1972).
Sunflower (Helianthus annus.)
Sunflower cultivation and exploitation started during the Late Archaic period in
Tennessee (Crites 1993). Sunflower consumption has been documented in Ohio as early
as the Early Woodland period (Wymer 2003). There is no documented evidence of
sunflower being exploited in the Western Basin tradition area before the Historic Period.
Since the evidence for sunflower consumption at Libben comes from the inclusion of phytoliths, it cannot be determined what specific role sunflower played in the Libben diet. Sunflower phytoliths can be found in the flower and stem of the plant but not within the seeds (Piperno 2006). 100 grams of shelled sunflower seeds is very high in fats and carbohydrates (USDA 1975). Although sunflower is a nutritious food source, based on this sample it did not comprise a very large part of the Libben diet. It is possible that the reason for the low sunflower consumption is the amount of energy required for its cultivation. Sunflowers require considerable attention when the seeds are close to “ripe” (Heiser 1955). A degree of vigilance is required in order to prevent birds
63 from consuming the entire crop. The amount of investment required and the low frequency in the Libben diet support the idea that sunflower was probably gathered in the wild.
Wild Grape (Vitis spp.)
Wild grape exploitation has been documented all across North America (Crane
1982; Dering 2008; Black 1933). Little research mentions the exploitation of wild grapes in northern Ohio although the plant is plentiful. Wild grapes, like sunflowers, were a minor component of the Libben diet and likely gathered in the wild and consumed when available. There was no significant difference among age or sex in the consumption of wild grapes.
Wild grapes provide potassium and carbohydrates (USDA 1975). The vitamin C content is minimal. A large quantity of Wild Grapes (approximately 100 grapes) would need to be eaten to obtain the daily recommended value of vitamin C intake. Wild grape did not constitute a large part of the Libben diet.
Wild Rice (Zizania aquatic)
The evidence for wild rice consumption at Libben is significant with a large quantity of phytoliths and starch grains found. If evidence of large scale agriculture existed at Libben it is likely found in the cultivation of wild rice. It would be difficult, based on the sheer quantity of wild rice observed growing wild in the Great Lakes region, to determine if wild rice was being grown as a cultigen. Wild rice was a prevalent wild food source throughout the western Great Lakes (Densmore 1976; Arzigian 2000). The exploitation of wild rice has been dated as far back as the Middle Woodland period
(Arizgian 2000).
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Wild rice has no medicinal purpose and provides limited nutrition other than carbohydrates. The people of Libben would be able to use rice (and corn) as a staple dietary item if it was supplemented with more nutritious foods such as acorns, berries, and hickory nuts. An adequate protein source like waterfowl, fish, or white tail deer would also be required for a nutritiously adequate diet. It is likely that due to the long shelf life of dried wild rice, the people of Libben exploited the abundant local wild rice stands and consumed it all year round when other foods may not have been available.
Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis)
Hackberry was a very minor part of the Libben diet. This is probably due in part to the seasonal nature of the edible portion of the plant. The nutrition that hackberries provide is minimal. The inclusion of hackberry in the diet may validate the notion that the indigenous people occupied or visited the Libben site all year round. Edible hackberries do not become sweet until late January to mid-March (Bright et al. 1994).
Shell Bark Hickory Nuts (Carya laciniosa)
Hickory nuts were observed at a high frequency across the whole Libben sample.
There is an average of 8.08 nutshell fragments per individual. The amount of hickory nuts found within the calculus is not surprising since hickory nuts are one of the most common dietary elements found in archaeological sites across the Eastern Woodlands
(Struever and Vickery 1973). The exploitation of hickory nuts by Woodland people can be traced back to the Archaic period and hickory trees are one of the longest exploited plants species in the East of the Mississippi River (Struever & Vickery 1973). Hickory nuts provide a fair amount of nutrition. Hickory nuts would act as a good supplement to wild rice or corn. The rich amounts of fats, proteins and carbohydrates in hickory nuts
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support the evidence of it being a nutritious food source and may explain the pattern of
preference among prehistoric Woodland populations.
Non-dietary & Ritual Elements
Blue Cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides)
Blue cohosh use has been documented in several tribes in the Eastern Woodlands.
The Onondaga of New York called blue cohosh “Ookahta” which translates to “drying
root” (Beauchamp 1889). The Onondaga, Delaware, Cherokee, and Menominee all used
blue cohosh as way to stop extreme menstrual bleeding and intestinal discomfort
(Beauchamp 1889; Moerman 2009; Hutchens 1973; Fackelmann 1998). Beauchamp
(1889) noted the Mohawk people used a bath infused with blue cohosh leaves and sliced
roots to treat rheumatism (Moerman 2009). Although blue cohosh can be eaten it
provides no nutrition and is toxic at high levels of consumption (Moerman 2009). It is
likely that the people living around Libben would have used blue cohosh in a similar
manner as their eastern neighbors, as a medicine used to stop bleeding and treat
inflammation.
Bracken Fern (Pteridium aquilinum)
Bracken Fern is a medicinal plant that can be used as an antiseptic, pain reliever and antiparasitic (Moerman 2009). The root can be stewed and the liquid used as an antiseptic. A very weak tea made from the poisonous leaf fronds will cause intestinal contractions and purging (Moermen 2009). The use of bracken fern tea has been noted among the Ojibwa, Menominee, and Iroquois. The Iroquois also used young bracken fern shoots as a treatment for stomach cancers (Moerman 2009). Although the medical benefits of bracken fern remain untested, it is important to note that the people of
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Libben may have been using bracken fern as an intestinal purgative. This is supported by bracken fern dietary elements being found only in older adults and the large amount
of muskrat bones found within midden pit (Appendix A, Table 2). The muskrat species
which frequent the Black Swamp area can carry an intestinal parasite (Giardia
intestinalis) which can be transmitted to humans (Moermen 2009).
Oxalis (Oxalis stricta)
Although Oxalis is a dietary plant species it was not found at a frequency that
would indicate its exploitation as a food source. It is possible that the paucity of evidence
attributed to Oxalis is due to either lack of preservation in the dental calculus or the plant
was not a large part of the diet. Oxalis can be used as a pain reliever, to treat intestinal
discomfort, and applied to the skin to relieve swelling (Moerman 2009, Gilmore 1913,
Herrick 1977). The Omaha used a poultice of wood ash and crushed oxalis leaves to
relieve joint swelling. The Iroquois used oxalis in “Blood Medicine” to treat a variety of
ailments related to digestion (Herrick 1977). The Kiowa would chew oxalis leaves on
long walks to relieve the symptoms of thirst (Moerman 2009). The frequency of oxalis in
the Libben calculus is very low with only a few fibers and phytoliths found. Oxalis may
also be consumed as food and contains a high amount of vitamin C (59 mg per 100 grams
or 149% daily value) (Moerman 2009). It is possible that Oxalis may have been an
important source of Vitamin C during the months of early Spring.
False Solomon’s Seal (Maianthemum racemosum)
False Solomon’s Seal (FSS) can be used as an intestinal purgative. There are documented instances of the historic period Delaware tribes in Ohio using FSS roots to
“stimulate the stomach” and “cleanse the blood” (Tantaquidgeon 1928; Moerman 2009).
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Like oxalis, FSS was found in very low frequency in the Libben calculus. The inclusion
of FSS root fibers in the calculus (although in very low numbers) provides support to the
notion that the people of Libben utilized this medicinal resource. Since the medicinal
component lies in the roots FSS can be found and harvested year round (Moerman 2009).
May Apple (Podophyllum peltatum)
May Apple was found in low frequency in the Libben calculus. At this point it is not clear whether or not the May Apple consumed was for dietary or medicinal purposes.
The sweet starch rich fruit may be eaten without any side effects. The leaves and roots of the plant are toxic (Moerman 2009, Hutchens 1973, Herrick 1977). Iroquois, Delware, and Omaha tribes have all been documented using May Apple root tea as a laxative/purgative (Herrick 1977; Moerman 2009). Herrick (1977) observed that among the Iroquois May Apple teas were reserved for those suffering from debilitating intestinal pain and discomfort. The Ojibwa use May Apple fruit and leaves in a salve used to treat skin cancers and lesions with noted success (Moerman 2009).
Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca)
Milkweed is a non-dietary plant that may utilized for medicinal or technological
purposes (Jakes 2012). Kathryn Jakes (2012) has noted that the sap of the milkweed plant can be used as a white dye or paint when mixed with bear fat. As part of the same research Jakes determined that the bast fibers in milkweed pods can be worked into fabric like wool. There are historic accounts of indigenous people in Michigan using milkweed fibers to create fishing weir floats (Timmons 1946). The medicinal properties of the common milkweed plant are limited. There is documented evidence of Plains tribes, mainly the Sioux, using the sap of milkweed pods to treat skin lesions, mouth sores, and
68 warts (Moerman 2009; Palmer 1878). The efficacy of this practice has never been medically verified. Overall, milkweed may have more technological use to indigenous groups than medicinal or dietary. The people at Libben lack the associated dental wear that would indicate the spinning of plant fibers into fabric. It is likely that the milkweed components were probably included into the calculus as a method to treat ailments of the mouth.
Vermillion Pigment
Vermillion is a bright red pigment used in dyes and paints. The pigment comes from a crushed mineral called cinnabar (Web 1945; Gettens 1972). Ten adults from
Libben had vermillion pigment in their teeth. This is peculiar because cinnabar is not naturally occurring in Ohio. The use of vermillion as a ritual pigment dates back far back in antiquity and archaeological investigations have uncovered its use in the burial of
Neanderthals in Europe. Roebroeks et al. (2012) excavated several Neanderthal sites in the Netherlands and discovered burials which contained vermillion pigment painted on the faces of the deceased. The pigment likely became included in the dental calculus as the facial flesh decomposed.
The evidence for vermillion use is prevalent in the Old World but little evidence for the use of vermillion in North America before the historic period (Mark F. Seeman personal communication). Vermillion pigment has been found in royal tombs scattered throughout Mesoamerica (Sharer & Traxler 2006). The morphology and color of the vermillion contained within the Libben calculus was compared to the vermillion found in burials from the Enderle site, a late Historic Period Native American village (1650-
1790AD). The color and morphology were identical between the samples from the two
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sites.
The presence of true vermillion pigment at Libben is significant in that it pushes
back the earliest evidence of true vermillion in Ohio by 600 years. Vermillion could
possibly be an exotic trade item introduced during the times of the great Hopewell
Interaction Sphere of the Middle Woodland period. The existence of prehistoric trade
networks has been well documented in Ohio (Brose 1993). The closest source for
vermillion to Ohio is Vermillion County, Illinois. It is possible that the people living
around Libben engaged in direct or down the line trade with people living in Illinois.
It is possible that the vermillion identified in the Libben calculus is red ochre (iron
oxide pigment). The use of red ochre in ritual settings is prevalent across North America
during the Woodland Period (Tankerseley et al. 1995; Torbenson 1996; Krakker 2012). It
is impossible to determine the difference between a brightly colored red ochre and vermillion pigment under light microscopy. Red ochre tends to appear dull under
Brightfield illumination unlike vermilion but without spectrographic analysis it is
impossible to confirm the finding as true vermillion pigment or vividly pigmented red
ochre.
Libben Health Profile
The Libben health profile matches what has been observed of Late Woodland
hunter gatherer groups or incipient agriculturalists (Larsen 1987; Taylor 2012; Meindl et
al. 2008). There is minor evidence of violent death, and several episodes of population-
wide infectious disease as evidenced by multiple burials. Healed fractures and chronic osteomyelitic infection are common. Although the initial investigations into the Libben population revealed a healthy stable group of incipient maize growers, there is evidence
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of cribra ortbitalia and other skeletal markers of iron deficiency anemia in the children
(Mensforth et al. 1977). Cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, and rickets are all skeletal markers indicative of malnutrition or diet “mismanagement” (Huss-Ashmore et al. 1982;
Holick 2015; White et al. 2012). Cribra orbitalia, rickets and other skeletal pathologies in the children and infants at Libben may be explained by the unusually high amounts of corn, acorn, and rice that were consumed by that age group. The nutrition provided by staple food crops like corn, acorn, and wild rice alone cannot support a healthy diet without the inclusion of significant protein like fish or wild game to provide iron. Each of those staple crops would need to be supplemented with more nutritional wild food stuffs such as hickory nuts, amaranth, and wild game or fish. An alternative or perhaps complimentary hypothesis is that the presence of nutritional deficiency markers in children could be due to the use of the aforementioned staple foods in feeding children without supplementation from other protein sources such as fish or wild game. The pathological markers seen at in the children at Libben resemble those found at contemporary Western Basin Tradition sites which have analyzed the health effects of a limited diet in children (Watts et al. 2011).
It is possible that since children and infants are more restricted in their ability to acquire food they relied more heavily on the available staple foods that were stored within the village. Disparities in health conditions between the young and old have been well documented in both agricultural and pre-agricultural Eastern Woodland populations
(Sculli 2012; Taylor & Creel 2012). An alternative hypothesis for the deteriorated health profile among early agriculturalists in Ohio posits the use of maize agriculture and the consumption of foods high in phosphorous. High phosphorous levels can impair an
71 individual’s the inability to absorb dietary iron. (Mensforth et al. 1977; Meindl et al.
2008; Watts et al. 2011). This hypothesis could apply to the Libben population due to their high consumption of fish and uniform consumption of maize across the population.
Many freshwater fish species have high phosphorous content (Hoyer et al. 1991).
The health profile of the Libben people also provides evidence of year round occupation of the area around the Black Swamp. There were few instances of true immobility but one elderly individual showed extreme atrophy of the lower limbs (spastic paraplegia). This health condition would have required intensive care and food would have to be provided for this individual all year (Meindl et al. 2008).
The dental health of the Libben people was poor at best. There is a high incidence of enamel hypoplasias, dental wear, and dental caries (over 70% of the adults), but there is a noted absence of enamel hypoplasias in some portions of the population (Pryzbeck
1978). The variation in the occurrence of enamel hypoplasias is consistent with what has been observed in other prehistoric populations. Variation in the occurrence of enamel hypoplasias indicates fluctuating levels of nutrition throughout time (Sculli 2012). It is important to note that the incidence of diet related health deterioration increases exponentially with the introduction of intensive maize agriculture after the Late
Woodland period (Sculli 2012).
Overall the Libben people were a robust incipient agricultural group whose subsistence practices reflect the varying degrees of resource availability during the time.
More research is needed to elucidate those subtle nuances that diet contributed to the overall health profile of the Libben population. It is time to move beyond simply noting the presence and occurrence of a disease pathology and work towards group comparisons
72 that will illuminate possible dietary differences that contribute the overall health of the deme.
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Chapter 5: Summary & Conclusion
This thesis hopes to illustrate that the classificatory subsistence categories (such as horticulture versus agriculture) assigned to prehistoric populations are far too generalized and are not mutually exclusive. Prehistoric groups had variable rates of investment in agricultural practices. Holding the development of agriculture to a simple set of distinct criteria ignores important aspects of culture change over time. As Timothy
Pauketautt (2014) stated, “Clinging to old paradigms is like walking into a dark room and refusing to turn on the lights”. It is time that archaeologists re-examine how we determine what constitutes agriculture versus horticulture. Alternatively, in the opinion of this author, perhaps it is time to abandon the notion that agriculture brings sedentism, stratification, and complexity to human groups, asserting instead that exploitation of natural resources and cultural complexity need to be examined independently of one another. For example, the people of Libben may be classified as agricultural due to the discovery of known cultigens although the high number of food bearing plant species found in their diet is not considered “agricultural” in nature.
The dietary reconstruction here is based on analysis of the largest sample of dental calculus acquired to date. It incorporates the calculus of 56 individuals from a
Native American village and cemetery site in northwestern Ohio. Samples of calculus were dissolved and analyzed using polarized light microscopy for dietary elements including starch grains, plant fibers, pollen, and phytoliths. The intended goal of this project was to illuminate the sheer variety of food stuffs that the Libben people consumed
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and confirm the results of the midden pit analysis conducted by Mary Lou Harrison in
1978. This research has adequately fulfilled these goals. This research also provided
evidence that supports the efficacy of the use of dental calculus as a proxy for dietary
reconstruction of prehistoric North American populations.
Several conclusions about the Libben diet can be drawn from the data presented
here. First, that the people of Libben were growing and consuming maize but not at the
levels that are indicated by the carbon isotope ratios tests conducted by Mark Seeman and
Stuart Nealis. It is more likely that the carbon isotope results were skewed by the
inclusion of amaranth in the Libben diet. As previously noted, amaranth is a C4
photosynthetic pathway plant similar to that of corn. Second, that the people of Libben
were using staple food sources such as maize and wild rice which may be linked to the
skeletal markers of nutritional deficiency noted by Robert P. Mensforth in the Libben
children. It is possible that the children and infants at Libben were being fed a staple diet of nuts and carbohydrate rich foods like maize and wild rice without much variation or the inclusion of iron rich proteins sources.
Several conclusions about Libben cultural traits can be drawn from this research,
and complements what is known from the osteological analyses of the skeletons, and the
archaeological evidence of the burial program. The people of Libben had an intimate
knowledge of the local ecology and how to exploit available medicinal plant species. This
is evidenced by the presence of Blue Cohosh, Bracken Fern and other medicinal plant
species in the dental calculus. The Libben people existed in a culturally stable
environment without cultural pressures from surrounding groups. This is evidenced by
the low number of violent deaths at Libben. It is likely that the people of Libben were
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either living in a relatively isolated area of the Black Swamp or that they had close
familial or cultural ties with surrounding Western Basin groups.
Overall more research is needed to adequately determine how the people at
Libben utilized their local environment. Although this study incorporated a large amount
of dental calculus, the total sample size still constitutes only a small percentage of the
total population. This research has offered a glimpse into prehistoric resource
exploitation, medicinal practices, and subsistence patterns in northwestern Ohio during
the Late Woodland period but by no means does it offer a complete picture. Future
research on the Libben skeletal population will need to take into account multiple factors
including diet, skeletal pathology, burial program, subsistence, and medicinal practices
etc. The Libben skeletal population functions as the perfect time capsule which can be
used to illuminate the multitude of cultural and ecological changes which occurred during
the Late Woodland period in Ohio.
Future Research
The Libben skeletal population provides material for a variety of research topics
including skeletal morphometrics, cultural subsistence, and religious practices of
indigenous people. More research is needed to provide links between skeletal pathology
and diet, particularly in the children from the site. A full dietary reconstruction of the
Libben site would need to include data from dental calculus studies, dental mineral analysis, skeletal pathology, burial practices, and ecological reconstructions. This research incorporated only two of the aforementioned components: dental calculus data
and skeletal pathology.
Dental mineral analysis could help mitigate the apparent contradiction between
76 the carbon isotope ratio results presented by Seeman and Nealis and the actual archaeological evidence from surrounding Western Basin sites. Those researchers have stated that the isotope levels at Libben indicate “Mississippian like maize consumption”
(Seeman & Nealis 2015). In other words, they propose that the people around Libben were consuming as much maize as groups 400 years later when intensive agriculture had been thoroughly rooted throughout most of western and southern Ohio. Dental fluoride analysis has been proven to be a more accurate method of obtaining the levels of C3 to
C4 photosynthetic pathway plant consumption (Fionnuala 2008). The multitude of teeth contained within the Libben collection would provide a large sample size for fluoride analysis and thus provide stronger statistical inferences than those based on a sample size of 7.
Approximately 10 grams of dental calculus from Libben remains unprocessed.
This calculus could be used to run an mtDNA analysis on the Libben population.
Analysis of mtDNA has the potential to illuminate migration patterns and possible familial social organization. If used in concert with other DNA extraction methodologies like those outlined by Black et al. (2011) it is possible to trace the genetic links between
Libben and surrounding prehistoric populations.
To strengthen the overall interpretation of the Libben material, a reconstruction of the ecological environment needs to be conducted. This can be achieved by visiting the
Libben cemetery site and taking several soil core samples from the river adjacent to the site. Pollen analysis of the core materials would provide a profile of the local vegetation at the time of occupation. An environmental reconstruction of Late Woodland Ottawa
County would help provide evidence to support or refute hypothesis about intensive
77 maize agriculture and the acquisition of maize via trade. This research could also provide evidence which could help determine the extent to which the people at Libben utilized
Eastern Agricultural Complex cultigens.
78
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Appendix A:
Tables
89
Table 1: Available Flora Common Name Part Utilized Common Part Utilized Black Sugar Sap/Wood Marsh Seeds Maple Vetchling Box Elder Sap Wild Rice Seeds Wild Onion Bulbs Crab Apple Fruit Great Bulrush Tuber/Stems PawPaw Fruit/Inner Yellow Pond Tuber Chestnut Nuts Lily Spring Tuber Hog Peanut Beans Beauty Bracken Sprouts Creamy Rhizome Fern Vetchling Red Elm Bark Solomon's Seal Rhizome Large Toothed Cambium Wapato Tuber Red Ash Cambium/Wood Virginia Cambium Basswood Buds/Bark/Sap Climbing Cambium Scouring Rush Tuber White Pine Wood/Pitch Toothwort Tuber Carrion Berries Groundnut Tuber Staghorn Leaves/Berries Jack-in-the-Pulpit Tuber Water Parsnip Roots Spikenard Shoots/Roots Marsh Marigold Leaves Butterfly Weed Shoots Cow Parsnip Leaves/Roots Virginia Waterleaf Leaves Quaking Aspen Sap Large Leafed Aster Leaves Wild Strawberry Fruit Sow-Teat Fruit Swamp Milkweed Fibers Fragrant Waterlily Flower buds Juneberry Berries Prickly Gooseberry Berries May Apple Fruit Black Cherry Fruit Wild Plum Fruit Hazelnut Nuts False Spikenard Berries Harrison 1978
90
Table 2: Libben Faunal Assemblage
Minimum Species Number of Number of Opposum (Didelphimorphia) 7 1 Beaver (Castor canadensis) 239 6 Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) 3150 117 Cottontail Rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus) 95 5 Black Squirrel (Sciurus) 296 20 Marmot (Marmota camtschatica) 67 5 Raccoon (Procyon lotor) 551 34 Striped Skunk (Mephitis mephitis) 154 5 Grey Fox (Urocyon) 27 3 Mink (Neovison vison) 45 5 Long Tailed Weasel (Mustela) 2 1 Mustelid (unidentifiable species) 1 1 Martin 4 1 River Otter (Lontra canadensis) 3 2 Lynx (Lynx canadensis) 89 4 Black Bear (Ursus americanus) 7 2 Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) 1 1 White Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) 2306 35 Elk (Cervus canadensis) 11 1 Domestic Dog (Canis lupus) 896 5 Canid (Canis lupus familiaris) 17 5 Flying Squirrel (Glaucomys) 1 1 Eastern Chipmunk (Tamias) 134 16 Deer Mouse (Peromyscus) 64 6 Meadow Vole (Microtus) 196 12 Total: Mammal Bones 45,792 Total Identified Mammal Bones 8,863 Total Unidentified Mammal 36,929 Harrison 1978
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Table 3: Libben Avifauna Assemblage Minimum Number Avifauna Species Number of Bones of Individuals Turkey (Meleagris) 92 9 Blue Winged Teal (Anas discors) 11 4 Green Winged Teal (Anas) 31 7 Pintail Duck (Anas acuta) 11 3 Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) 49 6 Baldpate (Anas americana) 8 3 Shoveller Duck (Anas clypeata) 5 1 Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) 8 3 Duck (unidentifiable) 293 20 Red Head (Aythya americana) 9 2 Ring Necked Duck (Aythya collaris) 24 4 Lesser Scaup (Aythya affinis) 9 3 Golden Eye (Bucephala clangula) 1 1 Glaucionetta (unidentifiable) 13 4 Buffle Head (Bucephala albeola) 3 1 Diving Duck (Aythyinae) 14 3 American Merganser (Mergus americanus) 14 4 Hooded Merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus) 2 1 American Bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus) 1 1 Whistling Swan (Cygnus) 2 1 Canadian Goose (Branta canadensis) 47 5 Snow Goose (Chen caerulescens) 19 3 Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura) 2 1 Sharp Shinned Hawk (Accipiter striatus) 1 1 Red Shouldered Hawk (Buteo) 1 1 Lake Gull (Laridae larus) 2 1 Barred Owl (Strix varia) 1 1 Short Eared Owl (Asio flammeus) 2 1
Total Avifauna Bones: 5,711 Total Identified Avifauna Bones: 675 Total Unidentified Avifauna Bones: 5,036
92
Table 4: Libben Fish Assemblage Minimum Number Species Number of of Individuals Shortnose Gar (Lepisosteus) 20 20 Bowfin (Amia calva) 2280 170 Northern Pike (Esox lucius) 1130 250 Walleye (Sander vitreus) 210 130 Spotted Sucker (Minytrema) 1360 340 River Redhorse (Moxostoma) 250 130 Catfish/Bullhead (Ameiurus) 2310 540 Channel Catfish (Ictalurus) 590 130 Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides) 1540 310 Freshwater Drum (Aplodinotus grunniens) 3080 720
Totals: Estimated 250,000 Indentified 5.1% Unidentified 94.9% Harrison 1978
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Table 5: Summary of Phytolith & Fiber Presence Fiber Presenc Phytolith Presenc Starc Presenc Plant Name s e in s Found e in h e in Acorn 148 57% 145 35% 0 0%
Amaranth 60 34% 33 10% 0 0% Blue Cohosh 38 27% 0 16% 457 30% Bracken 26 21% 1 1% 0 0% Chenopodiu 105 55% 123 38% 0 0% Corn 335 80% 403 55% 1419 81% False Solomon’s 15 21% 0 0% 0 0% Foxtail Millet 27 28% 0 0% 0 0% Hackberry 15 17% 63 18% 0 0% Hickory 453 48% 0 0% 0 0% Maple 238 84% 216 48% 0 0% May Apple 49 48% 0 0% 75 23% Milkweed 64 35% 0 0% 0 0% Oxalis 13 14% 0 0% 0 0% Raspberry 156 78% 97 41% 0 0% Sumpweed 68 41% 22 20% 0 0% Sunflower 0 0% 123 47% 0 0% Wild Grape 110 62% 24 18% 0 0% Wild Rice 0 0% 478 52% 1930 45%
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Table 6: Pollen Grains Observed from Feature 53 Plants Grain Shape Size (µm) Acer sp. Prolate spheroidal 25 Algal cysts Spheroidal 9-120 Carex cp. Trilete 60 Carya cp. Spheroidal 30 Cornus cp. Subprolate 20 Fossil Spheroidal 28-80 Fungal Fraxinus sp. Suboblate 22 Helianthus Spherical 25 Juglans sp. check apertures 30 Larix sp. Spheroidal 60 Lycopodium TrileteSubprolate 30-35 sp Pinus sp. Spheroidal Bisaccate 45 Podophyllum Trilete 23 Polypdiaceae Trilete 80 Quercus sp. Subprolate/apertures? 30 Salix sp. Subprolate/tricolpate 30 Graminaceae Spheroidal/monoporate 26
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Appendix B:
Fiber & Phytolith Frequency Graphs
96
Figure 1: Acorn Fiber Frequency Graphs
97
Figure 2: Acorn Phytolith Frequency Graphs
98
Figure 3: Corn/Maize Fiber Frequency Graphs
99
Figure 4: Corn/Maize Phytolith Frequency Graphs
100
Figure 5: Amaranth Fiber Frequency Graphs
101
Figure 6: Amaranth Phytolith Frequency Graphs
102
Figure 7: Blue Cohosh Fiber Frequency Graphs
103
Figure 8: Blue Cohosh Phytolith Frequency Graphs
104
Figure 9: Bracken Fern Fiber Frequency Graphs
105
Figure 10: Bracken Fern Phytolith Frequency Graphs
106
Figure 11: Chenopodium Fiber Frequency Graphs
107
Figure 12: Chenopodium Phytolith Frequency Graphs
108
Figure 13: False Solomons Seal Fiber Frequency Graphs
109
Figure 14: Foxtail Millet Fiber Frequency Graphs
110
Figure 15: Boxelder Maple Fiber Frequency Graphs
111
Figure 16: Boxelder Maple Phytolith Frequency Graphs
112
Figure 17: May Apple Fiber Frequency Graphs
113
Figure 18: Milkweed Fiber Frequency Graphs
114
Figure 19: Oxalis Fibers Frequency Graphs
115
Figure 20: Raspberry Fiber Frequency Graphs
116
Figure 21: Raspberry Phytolith Frequency Graphs
117
Figure 22: Sumpweed Fiber Frequency Graphs
118
Figure 23: Sumpweed Phytolith Frequency Graphs
119
Figure 24: Sunflower Phytolith Frequency Graphs
120
Figure 25: Wild Grape Fiber Frequency Graphs
121
Figure 26: Wild Grape Phytolith Frequency Graphs
122
Figure 27: Wild Rice Phytolith Frequency Graphs
123
Figure 28: Hackberry Fiber Frequency Graphs
124
Figure 29: Hackberry Phytolith Frequency Graphs
125
Appendix C:
Fiber, Phytolith, Starch, and Pollen Photos
126
Figure 30: Black Oak Dietary Elements
a) Acorn Fiber b) Acorn Phytolith
Figure 31: Maize/Corn Dietary Elements
a) maize silk fiber b) maize phytolith c) maize starch grains
127
Figure 32: Amaranth Dietary Elements
a) amaranth fiber b) amaranth phytoliths
Figure 33: Blue Cohosh Dietary Elements
a) blue cohosh fiber b) blue cohosh phytolith c) blue cohosh starch grains
128
Figure 34: Bracken Fern Dietary Elements
a) bracken fern fiber b) bracken fern phytolith
Figure 35: Chenopodium Dietary Elements
a) chenopodium fiber b) chenopodium phytoliths
129
Figure 36: False Solomons Seal Dietary Elements
a) false solomons seal root fiber
Figure 37: Foxtail Millet Dietary Elements
a) foxtail millet fiber b) foxtail millet phytolith
130
Figure 38: Boxelder Maple Dietary Elements
a) boxelder maple fiber b) boxelder maple phytolith
Figure 39: May Apple Dietary Elements
a) may apple fibers c) may apple starch
131
Figure 40: Milkweed Dietary Elements
a) milkweed seed pod fiber
Figure 41: Oxalis Dietary Elements
a) oxalis fiber b) oxalis phytolith
132
Figure 42: Raspberry Dietary Elements
a) raspberry fiber b) raspberry phytoliths
Figure 43: Sumpweed Dietary Elements
a) sumpweed root fiber b) sumpweed phytolith
133
Figure 44: Sunflower Dietary Elements
a) sunflower phytolith
Figure 45: Wild Grape Dietary Elements
a) wild grape fiber b) wild grape phytoliths
134
Figure 46: Wild Rice Dietary Elements
b) wild rice phytolith c) wild rice starch grains
Figure 47: Hackberry Dietary Elements
a) hackberry fiber b) hackberry phytolith
135
Figure 48: Shellbark Hickory Dietary Elements
left: hickory nutshell right: hickory pollen grain
Figure 49: Vermillion Pigment
136
Figure: 50: Parasite Egg
137